ABSTRACT

Evaporators are of great importance to the food and beverage industry as it is used to
concentrate solutions – coffee extracts, tomato juice, sugar solutions etc. Heat and mass
balances were done on an evaporator by using double effect, feed forward evaporator to
concentrate a sugar solution of measured initial concentration by running the unit for one
hour at steady state conditions. Pressure of steam into the first effect, temperatures in the
effects, flow rate of condensate from the effects and cooling condenser water were
measured during the experiment to carry out required balances. The evaporator was
effective as concentrations of consecutive effects were increasingly greater and hence
greater than the feed concentration; and the steam economy was calculated to be 1.0524.
However, calculated and measured flows were inconsistent due to the errors in assumptions
made in calculations and more so in faulty equipment. It was recommended that a
continuous feed stream be used and any leaks in unit be repaired to improve the accuracy
of calculations and the efficiency of the evaporator.

OBJECTIVES

To carry out heat and mass balances over a double effect evaporator.

APPARATUS/PROCEDURE
1
Diagram 1 above shows general layout of the double effect evaporator. See appendix for
flow schematic.

Other apparatus used to make measurements include: a bucket, weight balance, gloves,
stopwatch, meter rule, measuring cylinder, beaker and hydrometer.

The following steps were done in conducting this experiment.

1. The feed tank was filled with a dilute sugar solution.

2. The initial height of the sugar solution in the feed tank was measured using a meter
rule, and the measurement recorded. The concentration of sugar in the solution was
measured, using the hydrometer, and recorded.

3. The feed was allowed to fill the two effects until the level was a few inches above the
steam chest.

4. The vacuum pump was started.

5. Cooling water was applied to the condenser.

6. Steam was allowed into the calandria of the first effect until a pressure of 20 psi was
recorded.

7. The unit was allowed to run for 1 hour at steady state; during which measurements
appropriate readings for doing a heat balance were recorded.

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 8. The unit was then shutdown in the following manner:

o Steam supply to calandria was shut off.

o The feed stream solution was shut off.

o Vacuum pump was shut off.

o All readings essential for making a mass balance were measured and recorded.

o The two effects were emptied by pumping solution back into the feed tank.

THEORY

Evaporators are used to remove a volatile solvent, usually water, from a solution; with the
main purpose being to concentrate the solution [1]. This is accomplished by applying heat to
the solution, mainly latent heat of vaporisation, for the volatile solvent to gain sufficient
energy to vaporise at its boiling point [2]. There are different types of evaporators, but any
evaporator would consist of three main parts:

 The heat exchanger or calandria for supplying heat to the solution

 The evaporating section where the liquid boils

 The separator where the liquid is taken off and condensed [3].

Industrial applications of evaporators depend on the physical properties of the solution

being evaporated. Evaporation may result in precipitation of solutes, in the form of crystals,
on concentrating the solution [1]. The precipitates can then be separated from solution by
use of cyclones, filters, centrifuges, etc. Examples include sodium chloride, and sodium
carbonate. Evaporators are also primarily used for the recovery of the solvent, example in
desalination plants for the recovery of potable water.

The design of an evaporator also depends on the physical properties of the solution being
evaporated. The forced circulation evaporator is useful for concentrating solutions in which
precipitates are formed; some applications include citric acid, urea, diaphragm cell caustic
soda, etc. Long tube vertical rising film evaporators are suited to non-salting solutions; some
applications include sulphuric acid, tomato juice, coffee extract, glue, etc. [1]

The main factors affecting the evaporation process are: [3]

 The rate at which heat can be transferred to the liquid; Q = UAΔT, where U is the
overall heat transfer coefficient, A is the heat transfer surface and ΔT is the
difference in temperatures between the two streams [2].

3
  The quantity of heat required to evaporate 1kg of liquid; the latent heat of
vaporisation.

 The maximum allowable temperature of the liquid; the temperature before solutes in
the solution begin to decompose.

 The operating pressure; determines the boiling point temperature.

 Physical changes in material during evaporation such as the formation of crystal

precipitate.

In many industrial applications, water is the volatile solvent being evaporated, and steam is
used as the heating medium to supply the latent heat of vaporisation. For 100% efficiency
1kg of water would be evaporated for 1kg of steam condensed. Multiple effect evaporators
are used to improve steam economy. This is where the steam produced in one effect is fed
into the following effect. The steam economy is the mass of steam produced per mass of
steam used. The only major drawback to using multiple effects is that each subsequent
effect requires its operating pressure to be lower than the previous. Vacuum pumps are
used to create these lower pressures. [2]

The material and energy balances around a double effect evaporator assuming no boiling
point elevation, and no solids leaving the evaporator in the evaporated steam stream are:

Double Effect Evaporator

4
Nomenclature:

C1 – condensed steam flow rate from first effect.

C2 – condensed steam flow rate from second effect.

C3 – condensed steam flow rate produced in the second effect.

D0 – steam flow rate entering first effect.

D1 – flow rate of steam produced in effect 1, exiting effect 1.

D2 – flow rate of steam produced in effect 2, exiting effect 2.

F – mass feed flow rate

F1 – mass flow rate of sugar solution from first effect.

F2 – mass flow rate of sugar solution from second effect.

T1 – temperature in first effect.

T2 – temperature in second effect.

TF – temperature of feed solution.

W – water flow rate through the condenser.

XF – mass fraction of sugar in feed stream.

XF1 – mass fraction of sugar in sugar solution from effect 1.

XF2 – mass fraction of sugar in sugar solution from effect 2.

λ0 – latent heat of vaporisation of steam into first effect.

λ1 – latent heat of vaporisation of steam from first effect.

λ2 – latent heat of vaporisation of steam from second effect.

Overall mass balance:

F = D1 + F1

F1 = D2 + F2

F = D1 + D2 + F2

Solute balance: xF F = xF 1F1 = xF 2 F2

5
Heat Balance

D0 λ0 = FC P ( T1 − TF ) + D1λ1
1st EFFECT:
D0 λ0 = U1 A1 ( T0 − T1 )

D1λ1 = F1C P ( T2 − T1 ) + D2 λ2
2ND EFFECT:
D1λ1 = U 2 A2 ( T1 − T2 )

D1 + D2
STEAM ECONOMY =
D0

[3]

RESULTS/CALCULATIONS

Table 1 shows all experiment measurements taken as well as all essential apparatus
descriptions necessary for mass and energy balances for the double effect evaporator.

Feed
Initial height above brim (cm) 55
Height after filling effects (cm) 37.5
Final Height above brim (cm) 19.5
Concentration (brix) 8.3

Dimensions
Diameter of feed tank, DF (cm) 86
Circumference of feed tank (cm) 270
Circumference of collecting tanks, CC
162
(cm)
Mass of empty bucket (lb) 0.5

6
 Condenser Cooling Water
Inlet Temperature (°C) 25
Outlet Temperature (°F) 92
Mass of bucket + water (lb) 18.5
11.1
Time to collect water (s)
5

Condensate from 1st and 2nd effect

Mass of water + bucket (lb) 2
67.6
Time to collect water (s)
3
Temperature (°F) 87
Height in tank (cm) 27

Table 2 shows initial and final concentrations and temperature of sugar solution in first and
second effects.

1st Effect
Time (mins) Temperature (°F) Final Concentration (brix)
Initial 0 - 8.5
Final 60 210 11.7
2nd Effect
Time (mins) Temperature (°F) Final Concentration (brix)
Initial 0 - 8.5
Final 60 175 15

7
Diagram 2 above shows a simple schematic of the double effect evaporator.

Table 3 shows important physical data obtained from internet sources [4], [5] and [6], and
steam tables [7].

Important Physical Data

Density of sucrose crystal (kg/m^3) 1586.20

Density of water at 33°C (kg/m^3) 994.74

Specific Heat Capacity of Sugar (kJ/kg K) 1.55

Specific Heat Capacity of Water (kJ/kg K) 4.18

λ at 239.2 kPa (kJ/kg) 2184.90

λ at 98.89°C (kJ/kg) 2259.80

λ at 79.44°C (kJ/kg) 2312.00

Calculating mass fractions of sugar, XF, XF1, and XF2

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Feed had a concentration of 8.5 °Brix.

Therefore concentration of feed stream = (8.5 g of sugar) / (100 g of water)

8.5
Hence, XF = = 0.078341
100 + 8.5
Sugar solution leaving 1st effect had a concentration of 11.7 °Brix.

11.7
Hence, X F1 = = 0.104745
100 + 11.7
Sugar solution leaving 1st effect had a concentration of 15 °Brix.

15
Hence, XF2 = = 0.130435
100 + 15

Calculating F, mass flow rate of feed stream

2
 86 
π 
Cross-sectional area of feed tank, AF = π ( D ) 2
= 
100 
F
= 0.5809m2
4 4
Volumetric flow of feed = (initial height above brim – final height above brim) * (AF)/time

  55   19.5  
−   × 0.5809
Volumetric flow of feed =   100   100  
= 5.7281 × 10−5 m3 s −1
3600
Using a basis of 1kg feed.

Volume of feed = volume of sucrose + volume of water

XF 1 − X F 0.078341 1 − 0.078341
Volume of feed = + = + = 0.000976m3
ρ sucrose ρwater 1586.2 994.74

1kg
Density of feed = 3
= 1024.6724 kg m-3.
0.000976m
Hence F= density of feed × volumetric flow of feed

F= 1024.6724 × 5.7282 × 10-5 = 0.058695 kg/s

Calculating F1, mass flow rate of sugar solution out of 1st effect
9
From a sugar mass balance:

F × X F = F1 × X F 1

F × X F 0.058695 × 0.078341
F1 = = = 0.043899kg / s
X F1 0.104745

Calculating F2, mass flow rate of sugar solution out of 2nd effect

From a sugar mass balance:

F × X F = F2 × X F 2

F × X F 0.058695 × 0.078341
F2 = = = 0.035253kg / s
XF2 0.130435

Calculating D1 and D2, mass flow rates of steam produced in 1st and 2nd effects

From a mass balance around the 1st and 2nd effects:

F = D1 + F1
D1 = F − F1 = 0.058695 − 0.043899 = 0.0148kg / s

F1 = D2 + F2
D2 = F1 − F2 = 0.043899 − 0.035253 = 0.008646kg / s

Calculating Specific Heat Capacities for Feed and solution flows exiting the 1st and
2nd effects

Specific heat capacity for a mixture = ∑c p x , where x is the mass fraction of a component.

10
 c p , F = 1.55 ( 0.078341) + 4.18 ( 1 − 0.078341) = 3.973963kJ / kgK

c p , F1 = 1.55 ( 0.104745 ) + 4.18 ( 1 − 0.104745 ) = 3.904521kJ / kgK

c p , F2 = 1.55 ( 0.130435 ) + 4.18 ( 1 − 0.130435 ) = 3.836957kJ / kgK

For determining the sensible heat in the 1st effect an average specific heat capacity is used-
taking the average of cp,F and cp,F1.

Hence, cp1 = (3.973963 + 3.904521)/2 = 3.9392 kJ/ (kg K)

Similarly, cp2 = (3.904521 + 3.836957)/2 = 3.8707 kJ/ (kg K)

Converting Temperatures

T(°C) = [T(°F) – 32]/1.8 and T(K) = 273 + T(°C)

TF = 273 + 33°C = 306 K

T1 = [210°F – 32]/1.8 = 98.89°C= 371.89 K.

T2 = [175°F -32]/1.8 = 79.44°C = 352.44 K.

Pressure

Steam enters at 20psig = 20 × 6.895 kN/m2

Steam enters at 20psi absolute = (20 × 6.895) + 101.3 = 239.2 kPa.

Using the converted temperatures and pressure to correlate with physical data presented in
table 3, the following calculations were carried out.

Calculating D0 the mass flow rate of steam entering the 1st effect

D0 can be calculated from an energy balance over the first effect.

D0 λ0 = Fc p1 ( T1 − TF ) + D1 λ1
0.058695 × 3.9392 × 103 ( 371.89 − 306 ) + 0.0148 × 2259.8 × 103
D0 = = 0.0223kg / s
2184.9 × 103

Calculating the Steam Economy

Steam economy = (steam produced)/(steam used)

= (D1 +D2)/D0

= (0.0148 + 0.0086) / 0.0223

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 = 1.0493

Calculating C1 the mass flow rate of condensed steam leaving the 1st effect

C1 = (mass of water collected)/ (time taken for collecting)

= [(mass of water + bucket) – (mass of bucket)] / (time)

= [(2 - 0.5) lb × 0.454 kg/lb] / 67.63 s

= 0.0101 kg/s.

Calculating C2 the condensed steam flow rate from the 2nd effect.

C2 = [(height in tank) × (tank cross-sectional area) × density of water] / time

2
27  162  π
×  × × 994.74
100  π 100  4
=
3600
= 0.0156kg / s

Calculating W, the mass flow rate of water through the condenser

W = (mass of water collected)/ (time taken for collecting)

= [(mass of water + bucket) – (mass of bucket)] / (time)

= [(18.5 - 0.5) lb × 0.454 kg/lb] / 11.15 s

= 0.7329 kg/s.

Energy Balance on Condenser; Calculating D2

Assuming a total condenser;

Heat lost by steam produced in 2nd effect = Heat gained by condenser cooling water.

D2λ2 = Wcp,wΔT

Heat gained by condenser cooling water= Wcp,wΔT

Wcp,wΔT = 0.7329 × 4.18 × 103 × (33.33 – 25) = 25427.75 J

Therefore, D2λ2 = 25427.75 J

D2 = 25427.75 / (2312 × 103) = 0.0110 kg/s.

However, from mass balances the value of D2 was calculated to be 0.008646 kg/s.
12
Now, theoretically, the steam used to heat the sugar solution does not mix with the sugar
solution itself. Hence, the mass flow of steam into an evaporator should be the same as the
mass flow of condensed steam leaving the evaporator under steady state operating
conditions. Therefore, D0 = C1 and D1 = C2.

Table 4 shows a comparison of calculated flows and measured flows and the corresponding
steam economies.

Calculated Measured

D0 = C1 (kg/s) 0.022275 0.010069

D1 = C2 (kg/s) 0.014796 0.015581

D2 (kg/s) 0.008646 0.010998

steam 1.052358 2.639557

economy

DISCUSSION

 ASSUMPTIONS

The objective of this experiment is to carry out heat and mass balances over the
evaporators. In determining these balances, a number of assumptions were made for
simplification of calculations:

♦ The specific heat capacities of water and sugar solution are independent of
temperature.

♦ The density of the sugar solution is constant throughout the entire experiment.

♦ The unit operated at steady state for the entire hour checked.

♦ There is no boiling point rise (BPR) occurring in the evaporators.

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 ♦ Only water was evaporated in the effects, that is, no sugar solutes were evaporated.

♦ All streams were saturated.

♦ The condenser is a total condenser.

 ANALYSIS/ERRORS

The main purpose of an evaporator is to concentrate a solution. This was achieved in this
experiment as the concentration of the sugar solution increased from 8.5 °Brix to 11.7 °Brix
in the 1st effect to 15 °Brix in the 2nd effect. Another indication of a successful evaporation
was the steam economy being greater than one, which is expected in the case of multiple
effect evaporators, according to the theory.

However, there were discrepancies between the measured flow rates of streams and those
calculated. Under steady state conditions, the rate of flows in is the same as the rate of
flows out for a given substance. It is expected then, that the rate of input steam to the first
effect would be the same as the rate of condensate exiting the first effect; that is, D0 = C1.
However, as can be seen from the calculations and the summary presented in table 4, D0 ≠
C1. The reason for this discrepancy is due to assumptions made in the heat balance used to
determine D0, and the presence of leaks in the calandria. The assumptions made to do the
heat balance, however, were not too inaccurate. According to the theory, the boiling point
elevation would have been small [8], the changes of the specific heat capacities of water
and sugar solution with temperature for the temperature range considered (33°C to 100°C)
were small- approximately 0.04 kJ/kg K for water and 0.35 kJ/kg K for sugar solution [6]. The
presence of leaks in the calandria allows steam to escape into the sugar solution. This
reduces the efficiency of the evaporator making the sugar solution in the first effect be less
concentrated than the evaporator could actually achieve, for a given period, given no
calandria leaks. The steam flow rate into the second effect is approximately the same as the
condensate flow out of the second effect. This suggests that there were no leaks in the
calandria of the second effect. Now because in practice the cooling water would not absorb
all the heat of the condensing steam and not all steam being condensed, the determination
of the rate of flow of steam produced in the second effect using the energy balance, heat
lost by steam = heat gained by condenser cooling water, is a bit inaccurate. Hence, the
small difference (-0.0024) between the calculated (0.0086) and measured (0.0110) flow rate
of steam exiting the second effect, D2.

All calculations done assumed a steady state process. This was not the case since while the
steam input to the first effect was continuous the sugar solution feed to the effects were
batch with feed being added at times to keep the level above the steam chest.

 PRECAUTIONS

Safety attire, such as hard hats and safety glasses were worn while conducting the
experiment. Insulation gloves were worn to turn steam valves to prevent getting burnt.

 RECOMMENDATIONS

1. A constant feed stream to the effects should be used so that a steady state
process may actually be achieved after a period of time.

14
 2. More than one set of measurements should be made in measuring condensate
and cooling water flows for greater accuracy. An orifice meter may be used to
measure these flows instead.

3. Repair leaking calandria, and replace and pipes with leaks.

CONCLUSION

The heat and mass balances were fairly accurate when compared with other measured
values, with the only two major discrepancies being the measured value of steam flow rate
into the first effect and the solution feed to the effect being calculated as continuous.
Inconsistency between other measured and calculated values were due to assumptions
made in calculations. However the errors in the assumptions were small and negligible.
Overall, the double effect evaporator used did not operate as one from an industry should.

The calculated steam economy was found to be 1.0524.

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 REFERENCES

[1] http://www.whiting-equip.com/media/swenson_evaporators.pdf

[2] Coulson, J. M. and Richardson, J. F. (2002). Chemical Engineering Volume 2 (5th ed.).
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford.

[3] Professor Mellows Notes. Transport Phenomena 2 (heat and mass). Course Notes for
CHNG 2000, University of the West Indies.

[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucrose

[5] http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-thermal-properties-d_162.html

[6] http://www.sugartech.co.za/heatcapacity/index.php

[7] Haywood, R. W. (1990). Thermodynamic Tables in SI (metric) Units (3rd ed.). University
Press, Cambridge.

[8] http://chestofbooks.com/food/science/Experimental-Cookery/The-Boiling-Point-Of-Water-
And-Solutions.html

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