Functions
Limits and Continuity
Aim
To demonstrate how to calculate the limit of a function.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this section you will be able to:
• Understand what the limit of a function is,
• Tell if a given function is continuous at a given point,
• Calculate the limit of a given function.
The limit of a function f (x) as x approaches c is the value that f (x) approaches as
x approaches the number c. Mathematically this is written as
lim f (x).
x→c
A limit looks at the behaviour of f (x) as x gets closer and closer to c. Note that
we’ve only been talking about what happens to f (x) as x approaches c, and not about
what happens when x equals c. The truth is that when we’re looking for limits, we’re
not interested in what happens to f (x) when x actually equals c - we’re only concerned
with its behaviour as x gets closer and closer to c. For example:
Example 1
Consider the following function
½
x2 + 2, when x 6= 2,
f (x) =
9 when x = 2.
What happens as x → 2.
Note that this function looks just like the function f (x) = x2 +2, except that f (2) = 9
here instead of 6. It can be seen from the graph on the next page that as x approaches 2,
from both the positive and the negative side, the function f (x) approaches 6. Therefore
the limit of f (x) as x approaches 2 is clearly 6 even though at x = 2 the function is
clearly 9.
1
Functions
Left and Right Hand Limits
The previous example is an example of a two-sided limit. It is considered two-sided
because we get the same value for the limit whether we let x approach c “from the
negative side” (left-hand limit) i.e. from values of x less than c or “from the positive
side” (right-hand limit) i.e. from values of x greater than c. However, not all functions
behave like this. Some functions approach different values depending on whether we let
x approach c from the negative or the positive side. In general,
lim f (x) exists only if lim− f (x) = lim+ f (x) = L.
x→c x→c x→c
In other words, the two-sided limit exists only if the left-hand and right-hand limits both
exist and are equal.
Continuity
A function f (x) is continuous if and only if
lim f (x) exists and lim f (x) = f (c).
x→c x→c
Evaluating the Limit of a Function
In general,
lim f (x) = f (c)
x→c
if f (x) is a polynomial function. Using this rule it is now possible to solve for “most”
polynomial functions.
2
Functions
Example 2
Find lim x2 − 2x + 3.
x→2
The rule on the previous page states that lim f (x) = f (c). Therefore substitute c in
x→c
for x in the function f (x). Here f (x) = x2 − 2x + 3 and c = 2. Therefore,
f (2) = 22 − 2(2) + 3,
f (2) = 3.
Therefore lim x2 − 2x + 3 = 3.
x→2
Example 3
x2 − 4
Evaluate lim .
x→2 x − 2
0
If we substitute 2 for x in the above equation the result is which is undefined. In
0
examples such as these we simplify the expression by factorising where possible.
x2 − 4 (x + 2)(x − 2)
lim = lim
x→2 x − 2 x→2 x−2
= lim (x + 2) = 4.
x→2
Limits at Infinity
The symbols ∞ and −∞ are not regarded as real numbers. They are symbols to indicate
that a number increases or decreases indefinitely. When the limit of a function is ∞ or
−∞ no limit exists; the symbol is used for convenience only.
Example 4
4x + 1
Evaluate lim .
x→∞ 2x + 3
∞
If we substitute ∞ for x in the quotient above the result is which is undefined. In
∞
examples of this type, first divide the numerator and denominator by the highest power
k
of x in the expression and then use the fact that lim = 0 where k ∈ Z to evaluate
x→∞ x
the limit of the function.
4x + 1 4 + x1
lim = lim
x→∞ 2x + 3 x→∞ 2 + 3
x
4+0
= = 2.
2+0
3
Functions
General Rules
When evaluating the limit of a function
• Note carefully the value that x “tends to”, e.g. x → 0, x → ∞.
• Reduce the function to its simplest terms (look for common factors).
• In a quotient divide the numerator and the denominator by the highest power of
x present when evaluating lim .
x→∞
1 1
• Remember that lim = ∞ (no limit exists) and lim = 0.
x→0 x x→∞ x
Related Reading
Steward, J. 1999. Calculus. 4th Edition. Brooks/Cole Pub. Co.
Morris, O.D., P. Cooke 1992. Text & Tests 4. The Celtic Press.
