4

i-I I
Wood Handbook
Wood as an Engineering Material
The use oftrade or firm namesis for information only and does not imply
endorsement by the U.S. Department ofAgriculture or the ForestProducts
Society of any product or service. This publication reportsresearch
involvingpesticides.It does not containrecommendations for their use, nor
does it implythat the uses discussed herehave beenregistered. All uses of
pesticides must be registered by appropriate Stateand/orFederal agencies
beforethey can be recommended.

Reprintedfrom ForestProductsLaboratory General Technical

ReportFPL-GTR-1 13 with the consentof the USDAForestService,
ForestProductsLaboratory.

Printedin 1999 by the ForestProductsSociety.

ISBN 1-892529-02-5
Printedin the UnitedStatesofAmerica
FPS catalogueno. 7269
99045000

Cover photo courtesy of the Southern Forest ProductsAssociation.

Conteiits
Preface v 5 Commercial Lumber
HardwoodLumber 5—1
Acknowledgments vii SoftwoodLumber 5—7
Purchase ofLumber 5—12
Contributors xi
CommonlyUsed LumberAbbreviations 5—18
References 5—20
Characteristicsand Availability of
Commercially ImportantWood
Timber Resourcesand Uses 1—2
6 Lumber StressGrades and Design Properties
SpeciesDescriptions 1—3 Responsibilities and Standards for Stress
Grading 6—2
U.S. Wood Species 1—3
Imported Woods 1—17 VisuallyGradedStructural Lumber 6—3
References 1—34 Machine-Graded Structural Lumber 6—'7
AdjustmentofProperties for DesignUs 6—il
References 6—14
2 Structure ofWood
Bark, Wood, Branches,and Cambium 2—1
7 Fastenings
Sapwoodand Heartwood 2—2 Nails 7—2
Growth Rings 2—2
Wood Cells 2—3 Spikes 7—8
Staples 7—8
ChemicalComposition 2—3 Drift Bolts 7—9
SpeciesIdentification 2-4 WoodScrews 7—9
References 2—4
Lag Screws 7—il
Bolts 7—14
3 Physical Properties and Moisture Relations Connector Joints 7—18
of Wood
Multiple-Fastener Joints 7—24
Appearance 3—1 Metal Plate Connectors 7—25
MoistureContent 3—5 Fastener Head Embedment 7—26
Shrinkage 3—7 References 7—27
Weight,Density,and SpecificGravity 3—11
WorkingQualities 3—15 8 Structural AnalysisEquations
DecayResistance 3—15
Thennal Properties 3—15 Deformation Equations 8—i
ElectricalProperties 3—21 Stress Equations 8—4
CoefficientofFriction 3—22 Stability Equations 8—8
NuclearRadiation 3—23 References 8—11

References 3—23
9 Adhesive Bonding ofWood Materials
4 Mechanical Properties of Wood Adhesionto Wood 9—1
OrthotropicNatureofWood 4—1 Surface Properties ofWoodAdherends 9—2
Elastic Properties 4—2 Physical Properties ofWoodAdherend 9—6
Strength Properties 4—3 Adhesives 9—9
VibrationProperties 4—25 BondingProcess 9—15
Mechanical Properties ofClearStraight-Grained Bonded Joints 9—18
Wood 4—26 Testingand Performance 9—20
Natural Characteristics Affecting Mechanical References 9—23
Properties 4—27
Effects ofManufacturing and Service
Environments 4—34
References 4—44

111
 10 Wood-Based Composites and Panel Products 15 Finishing of Wood
Scope 10—2 FactorsAffecting Finish Performance 15—1
Types ofConventional Composite Control ofWater or Moisturein Wood 5--9
Materials 10—3 Types ofExteriorWood Finishes 15—14
AdhesiveConsiderations 10—3 Application ofWood Finishes 15—19
Additives 10—4 Finish Failure or Discoloration 15—24
GeneralManufacturing Issues 10—4 Finishingof InteriorWood 15—30
Standards for Wood—BasedPanels 10—4 Finishesfor Items Used for Food 15—32
Plywood 10—6 Wood Cleaners and Brighteners 15—33
Particle and Fiber Composites 10—13 Paint Strippers 15—33
Wood—NonwoodComposites 10—24 Lead-BasedPaint 15—35
References 10—30 References 15—36

11 Glued Structural Members 16 Use of Wood In Building and Bridges

StructuralCompositeLumber 11—1 Light-Frame Buildings 16—1
Glulam 11—3 Post-Frameand Pole Buildings 16-4
Glued MembersWith Lumberand Log Buildings 16-6
Panels 11—12 Heavy Timber Buildings 16-6
Structural Sandwich Construction 11—16 TimberBridges 16—9
References 11—21 Considerations for Wood Buildings 16—10
References 16—14
12 Drying and Controlof Moisture Content
and Dimensional Changes 17 Fire Safety
DeterminationofMoisture Content• 12—1 FireSafetyDesignandEvaluation 17—1
RecommendedMoistureContent 12—3 FirePerformance Characteristics ofWood 17—6
Drying ofWood 12—5 Flame-Retardant Treatments 17—12
Moisture ControlDuring Transit and References 17—13
Storage 12—14
DimensionalChangesin Wood 12—15 18 Round Timbersand Ties
DesignFactorsAffectingDimensional Standards and Specifications 18—1
Change 12—18 MaterialRequirements 18—1
Wood Careand InstallationDuring
Construction 12—18 Availability 18—2
References 12—20 Form 18—3
Weight and Volume 18—5

1.3 Biodeteriorationof Wood Durability 18-6

Strength Properties 18—7
Fungus Damageand Control 13—1 References 18—8
Bacteria 13—8
Insect Damageand Control 13—8 19
MarineBorerDamage and Control 13—13 Specialty Treatments
References 13—15 Plasticizing Wood 19—1
Modified Woods 19-4
Paper-Based PlasticLaminates 19—12
14 Wood Preservation References 19—14
Wood Preservatives 14—2
Preservative Effectiveness 14—12 Glossary G—1
Effect ofSpecieson Penetration 14—12
Preparationof Timberfor Treatment 14—17 Index 1—1
Applicationof Preservatives 14—19
Handlingand SeasoningofTimberAfter
Treatment 14—24
Quality Assurancefor TreatedWood 14—25
References 14—26

iv
 Preface
Efficientuseofour nation's timberresourceis a vital concern. Becausea majoruse ofwood in the UnitedStates is in
construction, particularlyhousingconstruction, good practicein this endeavor can have a profound impact on the resource.This
handbook is intendedas an aid to more efficientuse ofwood as a construction material. It providesengineers, architects, and
otherswith a source ofinformation on the physicalandmechanical properties ofwood andhow these properties are affected by
variations in the wood itself.Continuingresearchandevaluation techniques hold promisefor wider and more efficientutilization
ofwood and for more advanced industrial, structural, and decorative uses.
This handbookwas preparedby the Forest Products Laboratory (FPL),a unit ofthe researchorganizationofthe Forest Service,
U.S. Department ofAgriculture.The Laboratory, established in 1910, is maintainedat Madison, Wisconsin, in cooperation
with the UniversityofWisconsin.It was the first institution in the world to conductgeneralresearchon wood and its
utilization.The accumulation of infonnationthat has resultedfrom its engineering and allied investigations ofwood and
wood products over nine decades—along with knowledge ofeveryday construction practicesand problems—is the chiefbasis
forthis handbook.
The Wood Handbookwas first issued in 1935, and sI[ightly revised in 1939, as an unnumberedpublication.Further revisions
in 1955, 1974, and 1987were publishedby theU.S. Department ofAgricultureas AgricultureHandbook No. 72. This current
work is a complete revisionofthe 1987 edition. This revisionwas necessaryto reflectmore recentresearchaccomplishments
and technological changes.

The audienceforthe WoodHandbookis fairlybroad.Therefore, the coverage ofeach chapteris aimedat providing a general
discussion ofthe topic,with references included for additional information. Past versions ofthe WoodHandbooktended to report
only the findings and applications ofFPL research. Although the handbook is not intendedto be a state-of-the-art review,this
approach would now leave significantgaps in some important areas. The currentedition has broadenedthe sources of
information to provide bettercoverageofimportant topics.

The organizationofthis version ofthe Wood Handbookis similarto previousones,with some modifications:

• Plywood(chapter 11 in thepreviousversion), insulation board,hardboard, medium-density fiberboard (part of chapter21

in thepreviousversion),and wood-based particle panelmaterials (chapter 22 in thepreviousversion) are now included
in a new chapter on wood-basedcomposites and panelproducts.
• Structural sandwichconstruction (chapter 12 inthepreviousversion) is now includedin thechapteron glued structural
members.

• Moisture movementandthermal insulation in light-frame structures (chapter 20 in thepreviousversion) arenow part of

a new chapter on use ofwood in buildingsand bridges.
• Bentwood members(chapter 13 in the previousversion), modified woods, and paper-based laminates (chapter 23 in the
previousversion)are now includedin a chapteron specialtytreatments.
Consistentwith movementby many U.S. standards agenciesand industry associations towarduse ofmetric units and near-
universal implementation ofmetricusage in the international community, units ofmeasurement in this version ofthe hsndbook
areprovidedprimarilyin metricunits, with customary inch—pound equivalents as secondary units. All conversions in i;his
handbook to metricunits, including conversions ofempirically derived equations, are direct(or soft) conversions from
previouslyderivedinch—pound values. At some futuretime, metricexpressions may needto be derived from a reevaluation
oforiginal research.

V
Page blank
in original
 cktww1égments
We gratefully acknowledgethe extraordinary effortofthe following individuals in theirreview ofthe final draftofthis
entirevolume.Theireffort has substantially enhancedthe clarity, consistency, and coverage ofthe Wood Handbook.

Donald Bender Thomas McLain

WoodMaterials & Engineering Laboratory Department ofForest Products
Washington StateUniversity Oregon StateUniversity
Pullman,Washington Corvallis,Oregon

Arthur Brauner RussellMoody

Forest Products Society Madison, Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
Michael O'Halloran
Bradford Douglas APA—The Engineered Wood Association
American Forest & PaperAssociation Tacoma, Washington
Washington,DC
ErwinSchaffer
DavidGreen Sun City West, Arizona
USDAForest Service, Forest ProductsLaboratory
Madison, Wisconsin

MichaelHunt
Department ofForestryand NaturalResources
Purdue University
West Lafayette, Indiana

Contributors to the Wood Handbookare indebtedto the following individuals and organizations for their early
technical reviewofchapter manuscripts.

Terry Amburgey Richard Caster

Forest Products Laboratory Weyerhaeuser Company
MississippiState University Tacoma, Washington
Mississippi State, Mississippi
KevinCheung
Jon Arno WesternWoodProductsAssociation
Troy, Minnesota Portland, Oregon

B. Alan Bendtsen StephenClark

Madison, Wisconsin Northeastern LumberManufacturers Association
Cumberland Center, Maine
A. WilliamBoehner
Trus Joist MacMillan RichardCook
Boise, Idaho NationalCasein Company
Santa Ana,California
R. MichaelCaldwell
AmericanInstitute ofTimber Construction William Crossman
Englewood,Colorado AtlantaWoodIndustries
Savannah, Georgia
DonaldCarr
NAHB—National Research Center
UpperMarlboro, Maryland

vii
ThomasDaniels JohnKressbach
Energy Products ofIdaho Gillette, New Jersey
CoeurD'Alene, Idaho
RobertKundrot
DonaldDeVisser NestleResins Corporation
West Coast LumberInspectionBureau Springfield, Oregon
Portland,Oregon
Steven Lawser
Bradford Douglas WoodComponent Manufacturers Association
American Forest and PaperAssociation Marietta, Georgia
Washington,DC
Phillip Line
Stan Elberg American Forest & PaperAssociation
NationalOakFlooringManufacturers Association Washington,DC
Memphis,Tennessee
Joseph Loferski
Paul Foehlich Brooks ForestProductsCenter
SouthernCypress Manufacturers Association Blacksburg, Virginia
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania
MapleFlooring Manufacturers Association
BarryGoodell Northbrook, Illinois
Forest Products Laboratory
UniversityofMaine ThomasMcLain
Orono,Maine Department ofForest Products
OregonStateUniversity
KevinHaile Corvallis,Oregon
HP&VA
Reston, Virginia DavidMcLean
Civil Engineering Department
DanielHare Washington State University
The CompositePanel Association Pullman, Washington
Gaithersburg, Maryland
RodneyMcPhee
R. Bruce Hoadley Canadian Wood Council
ForestiyDepartment Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
UniversityofMassachusetts
Amherst,Massachusetts MichaelMilota
Oregon StateUniversity
DavidHon Corvallis, Oregon
Department ofForest Resources
ClemsonUniversity JeffreyMorrell
Clemson, South Carolina Department ofForest Products
Oregon State University
Robert Hunt Corvallis, Oregon
WesternWood ProductsAssociation
Portland,Oregon National Hardwood LumberAssociation
Memphis, Tennessee
LisaJohnson
SouthernPine InspectionBureau Darrel Nicholas
Pensacola, Florida ForestProductsLaboratory
MississippiStateUniversity
Tom Jones Mississippi State, Mississippi
SouthernPine Inspection Bureau
Pensacola, Florida Michael O'Halloran
APA—The Engineered WoodAssociation
CharlesJourdain Tacoma, Washington
CaliforniaRedwoodAssociation
Novato, California

VIII
Perry Peralta Ramsey Smith
Department ofWoodandPaper Science Louisiana Forest ProductsLaboratory
North CarolinaState University Baton Rouge,Louisiana
Raleigh,North Carolina
William Smith
DavidPlackett SUNY—ESF
ForintekCanadaCorporation WoodProductsEngineering
Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada Syracuse, New York

DavidPollock Edward Starostovic

CivilEngineeringDepartment PFS/TECOCorporations
Washington State University Madison, Wisconsin
Pullman, Washington
LouisWagner
RedwoodInspection Service American HardwoodAssociation
Mill Valley, California Palatine, Illinois

Alan Ross Eugene Wengert

Kop—CoatInc. Department ofForestry
Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania Universityof Wisconsin
Madison, Wisconsin
Thomas Searles
American LumberStandards Committee Michael Westfall
Germantown, Maryland RedCedar Shingle& Handsplit ShakeBureau
Bellevue, Washington
JamesShaw
Weyerhaeuser Company Borjen Yeh
Tacoma, Washington APA—The Engineered WoodAssociation
Tacoma, Washington
BradleyShelley
West CoastLumberInspectionBureau
Portland,Oregon

ix
Page blank
in original
 Coiitributors
The following staff ofthe Forest ProductsLaboratory contributed to the writing,revision, and compilationofinformation
contained inthe Wood Handbook.

MarkA. Dietenberger Roger M. Rowell

Research General Engineer Supervisory Research Chemist

David W. Green William T. Simpson

Supervisory Research General Engineer Research Forest Products Technologist

David E. Kretschmann Lawrence A. Soltis

Research GeneralEngineer Research General Engineer

RolandHernandez Anton TenWolde

Research GeneralEngineer Research Physicist

Terry L. Highley Ronald W. Wolfe

Supervisory ResearchPlant Pathologist(retired) Research General Engineer

Rebecca E. Ibach Charles B. Vick

Chemist Research Forest Products Technologist

Jen Y. Liu Robert H. White

Research General Engineer Supervisory WoodScientist

Kent A. McDonald R. Sam Williams

ResearchForest Products Technologist(retired) Supervisory ResearchChemist

Regis B. Miller Jerrold E. Winandy

Botanist Research Forest Products Technologist

Russell C. Moody John A. Youngquist

Supervisory Research GeneralEngineer(retired) Supervisory Research GeneralEngineer

xi
 I Chapter .1(
I
Characteristics and Availability of
Commercially Important Woods
Regis B. Miller

hroughouthistory, the unique characteristic; and

Contents comparative abundance ofwood havemade ita
naturalmaterial forhomesand other structures,
furniture,tools,vehicles,and decorative objects. Today, for
Timber Resourcesand Uses 1—2 the same reasons,wood is prized fora multitudeofues.
All wood is composed of cellulose, lignin,hemicelitloses,
Hardwoodsand Softwoods 1—2
andminor amounts (5% to 10%) ofextraneous matera1s
contained in a cellular structure. Variations in the characteris-
Commercial SourcesofWoodProducts 1—2
tics and volume ofthese components anddifferences in cellu-
Use Classes and Trends 1—3 lar structure makewoodsheavyor light, stiffor flexible, and
hard or soft. Thepropertiesofa singlespecies are relatively
constantwithinlimits;therefore, selectionofwood by spe-
SpeciesDescriptions 1—3 cies alonemay sometimes be adequate.However,to use
U.S. Wood Species 1—3 woodto itsbestadvantage and most effectively inengineer-
ing applications, specific characteristics orphysicalproperties
Hardwoods 1—3 must be considered.

Softwoods 1—10 Historically, somespeciesfilledmany purposes,whi [e other

less available or less desirable species servedonly one or two
needs. For example, becausewhite oak is tough, strong, and
ImportedWoods 1—17
durable,it was highly prized for shipbuilding, bridges,
Hardwoods 1—17 cooperage, barn timbers, farmimplements, railroadc:rossties,
fenceposts, and flooring. Woodssuch as black walnutand
Softwoods 1—33 cheriywere usedprimarily forfurniture and cabinets. Hickory
was manufactured into tough, hard, and resilientstriking-tool
References 1—34 handles, and blacklocustwas prized forbarn timbers.What
theearlybuilderor craftsman learned by trial and errorbe-
camethe basisfor deciding whichspecies were appropriate
a
for given use in terms oftheir characteristics. Itwas com-
monlyaccepted that wood from treesgrown in certain loca-
tions undercertainconditions was stronger,more durable,
more easily worked with tools, or fmergrainedthan 'vood
fromtrees in other locations. Modernresearchon wood has
substantiated that location and growth conditions do
significantly affectwoodproperties.
The gradualreductions in use ofold-growth forestsinthe
UnitedStateshas reducedthe supplyoflargeclear logs for
lumber andveneer. However, the importance ofhigh.•quality
logs has diminished as new concepts ofwood use have been
introduced. Second-growth wood,the remaining old-growth
forests, and importscontinueto fill theneeds for wood in the
qualityrequired. Wood is as valuablean engineering mate-
rial as ever,and in many cases,technological advances have
madeit evenmore useful.

1—1

I
The inherent factors that keepwood inthe forefrontofraw or sap in thetree. Typically,hardwoodsare plants with
materials are many and varied,but a chiefattribute is its broad leavesthat, with few exceptions inthe temperatere-
availabilityin many species, sizes, shapes, and conditions to gion, lose theirleaves in autumn orwinter. Most imported
suit almost every demand. Wood has a high ratio ofstrength tropicalwoods are hardwoods. Botanically, softwoods are
toweightand a remarkable recordfor durability andperform- Gymnosperms or conifers; the seedsare naked(not enclosed
ance as a structural material.Dry wood has good insulating in theovaryoftheflower). Anatomically, softwoods are
propertiesagainst heat, sound, and electricity. It tends to nonporousand do not containvessels. Softwoods are usually
absorb and dissipatevibrationsunder some conditions of cone-bearing plants withneedle-or scale-like evergreen
use, andyet it is an incomparable materialfor such musical leaves. Some softwoods, such as larches andbaldcypress,
instrumentsas the violin. The grain patternsand colors of losetheirneedles during autunm orwinter.
wood make it an estheticallypleasingmaterial,and its
appearancemay be easily enhanced by stains, varnishes, Majorresources ofsoftwood species are spreadacrossthe
lacquers, and other finishes.It is easily shaped with tools UnitedStates, except forthe Great Plains whereonly small
and fastenedwith adhesives, nails, screws,bolts,and dow- areas are forested. Softwood species are often loosely grouped
els. Damagedwood is easily repaired,andwood structures hi three generalregions,as shownin Table 1—1. Hardwoods
are easily remodeledor altered.In addition,wood resists also occur in all parts ofthe UnitedStates, although most
oxidation,acid, saltwater,and other corrosiveagents, has grow east ofthe Great Plains. Hardwoodspeciesare shown
high salvagevalue, has good shock resistance, can be treated by region in Table 1—2.
with preservatives and fire retardants, and can be combined
with almost any other materialfor both functional and Commercial Sources
estheticuses.
of Wood Products
Timber Resources and Uses Softwoodsare availabledirectlyfromthe sawmill, wholesale
and retail yards, or lumberbrokers.Softwoodlumberand
In theUnitedStates,more than 100 wood species areavail- plywood are used in construction for forms,scaffolding,
able to the prospectiveuser, but all are unlikely to be avail- framing, sheathing, flooring, moulding,paneling, cabinets,
able in any one locality.About 60 nativewoodsare ofmajor poles and piles, and many other buildingcomponents. Soft-
commercial importance. Another30 species are commonly woods may also appearinthe form ofshingles, sashes,
importedin the form oflogs, cants, lumber, and veneerfor doors, and other millwork,in addition to some rough prod-
industrialuses, the buildingtrade, and crafts. ucts such as timberand round posts.

A continuing programoftimberinventoryis in effect in the Hardwoods are used in construction for flooring, architectural
United Statesthroughthe cooperation ofFederaland State woodwork, interiorwoodwork, and paneling. These items
agencies, andnewinformation onwood resources is pub- areusuallyavailable from lumberyards andbuildingsupply
lished in State and Federalreports. Two ofthe most valuable dealers. Most hardwoodlumberand dimensionstock are
sourcebooksare AnAnalysisofthe Timber Situationin the remanufactured into furniture,flooring, pallets,containers,
UnitedStates 1989—2040 (USDA 1990) and The 1993 RPA dunnage,and blocking. Hardwoodlumberand dimension
TimberAssessment Update(Haynesand others 1995).
Current information on wood consumption, production, Table 1—1. Major resources of U.S. softwoodsaccording
imports,and supply and demandis publishedperiodically to region
by theForest Products Laboratory (Howard1997) andis Northern Southern
availablefrom the SuperintendentofDocuments, U.S. Western
GovernmentPrinting Office, Washington, DC. Incense-cedar Northern white-cedar Atlanticwhite-cedar
Port-Orlord-cedar Balsam fIr Baldcypress
Eastern hemlock Fraserfir
Hardwoods and Softwoods Douglas-fir
Whitefirs Fraserfir Southern Pine
Trees are dividedintotwo broad classes, usually referredto Western hemlock Jack pine Eastern redcedar
as hardwoods and softwoods. These names can be confusing Western larch Redpine
since some soitwoodsare actuallyharderthan somehard- Lodgepolepine Eastern white pine
woods, andconverselysomehardwoodsare softerthan some Ponderosapine Eastern redcedar
softwoods. For example,softwoods such as longleafpine and Eastern spruces
Sugar pine
Douglas-firare typicallyharderthanthe hardwoods basswood Western white pine Tamarack
and aspen. Botanically, hardwoodsare Angiosperms; the
Western redcedar
seedsare enclosedin the ovary ofthe flower. Anatomically,
hardwoodsare porous;that is, they containvesselelements. Redwood
A vessel elementis a wood cell with open ends;when vessel Engelmannspruce
elementsare set one above another,they form a continuous Sitkaspruce
tube (vessel),which servesas a conduitfortransporting water Yellow-cedar

1—2
Table 1—2. Major resources of U.S. hardwoods according
to region Species Descriptions
Northernand Inthis chapter, each species or groupofspecies is described
Southern Appalachia Western in terms ofits principallocation, characteristics, and uses.
Moredetailedinformation on the properties ofthese and
Ash Ash Redalder other species is given in various tables throughoutthis
Basswood Aspen Oregon ash handbook. Information onhistoricaland traditionaluses is
American beech Basswood Aspen
Butternut Black cottonwood providedfor some species. Commonandbotanicalnames
Buckeye follow the Checklist ofUnitedStates Trees (Little 1979).
Cottonwood Butternut Californiablackoak
Elm American beech Oregon white oak
Hackberry Birch Bigleaf maple U.S. Wood Species
Pecan hickory Black cherry Paperbirch
True hickory American chestnuta Tanoak Hardwoods
Honeylocust Cottonwood
Blacklocust Elm
Alder, Red
Magnolia Hackberry
Red alder(Alnus rubra)grows along the Pacific coastbe-
Soft maple True hickory tweenAlaskaand California. It is the principalhardwoodfor
Red oaks commercial manufacture ofwoodproductsin Oregon and
Honeylocust
Whiteoaks Black locust Washington and the most abundant commercial hardwood
Sassafras Hard maple species in these two states.
Sweetgum Soft maple
The wood ofred aldervaries from almostwhite to pale
American sycamore Red oaks
Tupelo Whiteoaks pinkishbrown, and there is no visibleboundarybetween
Black walnut American sycamore
heartwoodand sapwood. Red alder is moderatelylight in
Blackwillow Black walnut weightand intermediate inmost strengthpropertiesbut low
in shock resistance.It hasrelatively low shrinkage.
Yellow-poplar Yellow-poplar

chestnut isno longer harvested,but chestnut

a4A,.,.erican The principaluse ofred alderis for furniture, butit i also
lumber fromsalvaged timbers canstillbe found on the used for sashand door panel stockand other millwork.
market.
Ash (White Ash Group)
Importantspeciesofthe white ash group are American white
stockare available directlyfromthe manufacturer, through ash (Fraxinusamericana),green ash (F. pennsylvanica), blue
wholesalers andbrokers,and from someretail yards. ash (F. quadrangulata),and Oregon ash (F. latfo/ia).The
firstthree species grow in the eastern halfofthe United
Both softwoodand hardwoodproductsare distributed States. Oregon ash grows alongthe Pacific Coast.
throughoutthe United States. Localpreferencesandthe
availability ofcertainspecies may influence choice,but a The heartwoodofthe white ash group is brown, andthe
wide selectionofwoodsis generallyavailable forbuilding sapwoodis light-colored ornearly white. Second-growth
construction, industrialuses, remanufacturing, andhome use. treesare particularly soughtafter becauseofthe inherent
qualities ofthe wood from these trees: it is heavy, strong,
Use Classes and Trends hard, and stiff, and ithas high resistanceto shock. Oregon
ash has somewhat lowerstrengthpropertiesthan American
The productionand consumptionlevels ofsome ofthe many white ash, but it is used for similarpurposeson the West
use-classifications for wood are increasing withthe overall Coast.
nationaleconomy,and othersare holding aboutthe same.
The most vigorouslygrowingwood-basedindustries are American white ash is used principallyfor nonstriking tool
those that convertwood to thin slices (veneer), particles handles,oars, baseballbats, and other sporting and athletic
(chips, flakes),or fiberpuips andreassemble the elementsto goods. Forhandles ofthe bestgrade, somehandle specifica-
producevarioustypes ofengineered panelssuch as plywood, tions call for not less than 2 nor more than 7 growthrings
particleboard, strandboard, veneerlumber, paper,paperboard, per centimeter(notless than 5 normore than 17 growth
and fiberboardproducts. Another growingwood industry is rings perinch). The additional weightrequirementof
theproduction of laminated wood.Foranumber ofyears,the 690 kg/rn3(43 lbfft3) or more at 12% moisturecontent en-
lumberindustry has producedalmost the same volume of sures high qualitymaterial.Principaluses for the white ash
wood peryear.Modestincreases haveoccurred inthe produc- group are decorative veneer, cabinets, furniture,flooring,
tionofrailroadcrossties, cooperage, shingles, and shakes. millwork, and crates.

1—3

3
Ash (Black Ash Group) The heartwoodofbasswood is pale yellowishbrown with
The black ash group includesblack ash (F. nigra) and occasional darkerstreaks.Basswoodhas wide, creamywhite
pumpkinash (F. profunda). Black ash grows in the North- orpalebrownsapwoodthat mergesgraduallyinto heart-
east and Midwest, and pumpkinash in the South. wood. When dry, the wood is without odoror taste. It is
soft and light in weight,has fme, even texture,and is
The heartwoodofblack ash is a darkerbrownthan that of straightgrainedand easy to work with tools. Shrinkage in
American white ash; the sapwoodis light-colored or nearly width and thicknessduring diying is rated as high; however,
white. The wood ofthe black ash group is lighterin weight basswood seldom warps in use.
(basic specific gravity of0.45 to 0.48)than that ofthe white
ash group (>0.50). Pumpkinash, American white ash, and Basswood lumberis used mainly in venetianblinds, sashes
green ash that grow in southernriverbottoms, especiallyin and door frames, moulding, apiary supplies,woodenware,
areas frequentlyfloodedfor long periods, produce buttresses andboxes. Somebasswood is cut for veneer,cooperage,
that contain relativelylightweightand brash wood. excelsior, andpulpwood, and it is a favoriteofwood carvers.

Principaluses forthe black ash group are decorative veneer, Beech, American
cabinets,millwork,furniture,cooperage, and crates. Only one speciesofbeech,American beech (Fagus
grandfolia),is nativeto theUnited States. It grows in the
Aspen easternone-third ofthe UnitedStatesand adjacentCanadian
Aspen is a generallyrecognizednamethat is appliedto provinces. The greatestproduction ofbeech lumberis in the
bigtooth(Populusgrandidentata) and quaking Central and Middle AtlanticStates.
(P. tremuloides)aspen.Aspen does not includebalsam
poplar (P. balsamfera) and the other speciesofPopulus that In somebeechtrees, colorvaries from nearly white sapwood
areincludedin thecottonwoods.In lumberstatisticsofthe to reddish-brown heartwood. Sometimes there is no clear
U.S. Bureau ofthe Census, however, the term cottonwood line ofdemarcation betweenheartwoodand sapwood. Sap-
includesall the preceding species. Also, the lumberofaspen wood may be roughly7 to 13 cm (3 to 5 in.) wide. The
and cottonwoodmay be mixed in trade and sold as either wood has little figureand is ofclose, uniformtexture. It has
poppleor cottonwood. The name poppleshould not be no characteristic taste or odor.The wood ofbeech is classed
confusedwith yellow-poplar(Liriodendrontulipfera), also as heavy,hard, strong, high in resistanceto shock, and
knownin the trade as poplar. Aspen lumber is produced highlysuitablefor steam bending. Beech shrinks substan-
principally in the Northeasternand Lake States, with some tially and therefore requires careful drying.It machines
production in the RockyMountainStates. smoothly, is an excellentwood for turning, wears well, and
is rathereasily treatedwith preservatives.
The heartwoodofaspen is grayish white to light grayish
brown. The sapwoodis lightercoloredand generallymerges Most beech is used for flooring, furniture,brush blocks,
gradually into the heartwoodwithoutbeing clearly marked. handles, veneer, woodenware, containers, and cooperage.
Aspenwood is usually straightgrained with a fine, uniform Whentreatedwith preservative, beech is suitablefor
texture. It is easily worked.Well-dried aspen lumber does railway ties.
not impartodor or flavorto foodstuffs. Thewood ofaspenis
lightweight and soft. It is low in strength, moderatelystiff, Birch
andmoderatelylow in resistance to shock and has moder- The threemost important speciesare yellowbirch (Betula
ately high shrinkage. alleghaniensis),sweetbirch (B. lenta),and paper birch
(B. papyrjfera). Thesethree species are the sourceofmost
Aspen is cut for lumber,pallets, boxes and crating, pulp- birch lumberand veneer. Other birch species ofsome com-
wood, particleboard, strandpanels, excelsior, matches,ve- mercialimportance are riverbirch (B. nigra), gray birch
neer, and miscellaneousturnedarticles. Today, aspen is one (B. populfo1ia),and westernpaper birch (B. papyrfera var.
ofthepreferred species foruse in oriented strandboard, a commutata). Yellow,sweet,and paper birch grow principally
panel productthat is increasinglybeing usedas sheathing. in theNortheastand theLake States;yellow and sweet birch
alsogrow along the Appalachian Mountainsto northern
Basswood
Georgia.
Americanbasswood(Tilia americana)is the most important
ofthe native basswood species;next in importance is white Yellow birch has white sapwoodand light reddish-brown
basswood (T. heterophylla),and no attemptis made to heartwood. Sweetbirch has light-colored sapwoodand dark
distinguish between these species in lumberform.In com- brown heartwoodtinged with red. For both yellow and sweet
mercialusage, "whitebasswood"is used to specify the white birch, the wood is heavy, hard, and strong, and it has good
wood or sapwoodofeither species.Basswoodgrowsin the shock-resisting ability. The wood is fine and uniform in
eastern halfofthe UnitedStatesfrom the Canadian provinces texture.Paper birch is lowerinweight, softer, and lower in
southward. Most basswoodlumbercomesfrom the Lake, strength than yellowand sweetbirch. Birch shrinks consid-
Middle Atlantic, and Central States. erablyduringdrying.

1-4
[4.
Yellowand sweetbirch lumberis usedprimarilyfor the The heartwoodofblackcherryvariesfrom light to dark
manufacture offurniture, boxes, baskets, crates, woodenware, reddishbrown and has a distinctive luster. The nearly white
cooperage, interiorwoodwork,and doors; veneerplywoodis sapwoodis narrowin old-growth trees and widerin second-
used for flushdoors, furniture, paneling, cabinets, aircraft, growthtrees. The wood has a fairlyuniformtexture and very
and other specialtyuses. Paperbirch is used for toothpicks, good machiningproperties. It is moderatelyheavy,strong,
tonguedepressors, ice creamsticks,and turnedproducts, stiff, and moderately hard; it has high shockresistance and
including spools, bobbins, smallhandles, and toys. moderately high shrinkage. Black cherryis very dimension-
ally stable after drying.
Buckeye Black cheny is usedprincipally for furniture, fme veneer
Buckeyeconsistsoftwo species,yellowbuckeye(Aesculus panels,and architectural woodwork. Otheruses include
octandra) and Ohiobuckeye (A. glabra). These species burial caskets, woodenware, novelties, patterns, and
range from the Appalachians ofPennsylvania, Virginia, and paneling.
North Carolinawestwardto Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas.
Buckeye is not customarily separated from other species
whenmanufactured into lumberand can be used forthe same Chestnut, American
Americanchestnut(Castanea dentata) is also known as
purposes as aspen(Populus),basswood(Tilia), and sapwood
ofyellow-poplar(Lfriodendrontu1ipfera). sweetchestnut. Before this species was attackedby ablight
inthe I920s, it grewin commercial quantities from New
The white sapwoodofbuckeyemerges gradually into the Englandto northernGeorgia. Practically all standingchest-
creamyor yellowishwhite heartwood. The wood is uniform nut has beenkilled by blight, and most suppliesofIhe
in texture, generallystraight grained, light in weight,weak lumbercomefrom salvaged timbers.Because ofthe species'
whenused as a beam, soft, and low in shock resistance. It is naturalresistance to decay, standing deadtrees in the Appa-
rated low on machinability such as shaping,mortising, lachian Mountains continued to provide substantial luanti-
boring, and turning. ties oflumberfor several decadesafter the blight,butthis
source is now exhausted.
Buckeyeis suitablefor pulping for paper; in lumberform,it
has been usedprincipallyfor furniture, boxes and crates, The heartwoodofchestnutis grayishbrownorbrown and
food containers, woodenware, novelties, andplaningmill darkenswith age. The sapwoodis very narrowand almost
products. white. The wood is coarse in texture;growth rings are made
conspicuous by severalrows of large, distinctpores st the
Butternut beginningofeach year's growth. Chestnutwood is inoder-
Also calledwhitewalnut,butternut(.Juglans cinerea) grows ately lightin weight,moderatelyhard, moderatelylow in
from southernNew Brunswick and Mainewest to Minne- strength, moderately low in resistance to shock, and low in
sota. Its southernrange extendsinto northeastern Arkansas stiffness. It dries well and is easy to work with tools.
and eastwardto westernNorth Carolina. Chestnutwas onceused for poles,railroadcrossties, furni-
The narrow sapwoodis nearly white and heartwoodis light
panels.At present,it appearsmost frequently as wotmy
r
ture, caskets, boxes, shingles, crates,and corestock f veneer
brown,frequentlymodifiedbypinkish tonesordarkerbrown chestnutfor paneling, interiorwoodwork, and pictureframes.
streaks. The wood is moderatelylight in weight (aboutthe
same as easternwhite pine), rather coarse textured,moder-
ately weak in bendingand endwise compression, relatively Cottonwood
low in stiffhess, moderatelysoft, and moderately high in Cottonwoodincludesseveralspecies ofthe genus Populus.
shock resistance. Butternut machineseasily and finishes Most important are easterncottonwood (P. deltoide"and
well.In many ways, butternutresemblesblack walnutespe- varieties), alsoknownas Carolinapoplarand whitewood;
cially when stained, but it does not have the same strength swamp cottonwood (P. heterophylla), alsoknown a;
or hardness. cottonwood, river cottonwood, and swamppoplar; black
cottonwood (P. trichocarpa);and balsampoplar
Principal uses are forlumberand veneer, whichare further (P. ba1samfera).Easternand swamp cottonwood giow
manufactured into furniture, cabinets,paneling, interior throughoutthe easternhalf ofthe UnitedStates. Greatest
woodwork, andmiscellaneousrough items. productionoflumberis in the SouthernandCentral States.
Black cottonwood grows on the West Coast and in western
Cherry, Black Montana, northern Idaho,and westernNevada.Balsam
Black cherry (Prunus serotina) is sometimes knownas poplargrowsfrom AlaskaacrossCanadaand in thenorthern
cherry,wild black cherry, and wild cherry. It is the only Great Lakes States.
nativespecies ofthegenus Prunus ofcommercial importance
for lumberproduction. Black cherryis foundfrom southeast- The heartwoodofcottonwood is grayish white to light
ern Canadathroughoutthe easternhalfoftheUnited States. brown.The sapwoodis whitish and mergesgraduallywith
Productionis centered chieflyin the MiddleAtlanticStates. theheartwood. The wood is comparatively uniformintex-
ture andgenerallystraightgrained.It is odorlesswhen well
dried. Easterncottonwood is moderatelylow in bending and

1—5

5
compressive strength, moderatelystiff, moderately soft, and Most hackberryis cut into lumber; small amounts are used
moderatelylow in ability to resist shock. Most strength for furniture parts,dimension stock, and veneer.
propertiesofblack cottonwood are slightly lowerthan those
ofeasterncottonwood. Both easternand blackcottonwood Hickory (Pecan Group)
have moderatelyhigh shrinkage. Some cottonwood is
difficultto work with tools becauseofits fuzzy surface, which Species ofthe pecan hickory group include bittemut hickory
is mainly theresult oftensionwood (see discussion ofReac- (Carya cordformis), pecan (C. illinoen.sis), water hickory
tion Wood in Ch. 4). (C. aquatica), and nutmeghickory (C. myristicjformis).
Bittemuthickorygrows throughoutthe eastern half ofthe
Cottonwood is used principallyfor lumber, veneer, pulp- UnitedStates; pecanhickory,from centralTexas and
Louisiana to Missouriand Indiana; water hickory,from
wood,excelsior, andfuel. Lumberand veneerare used Texas to SouthCarolina;and nutmeg hickory, in Texas
primarilyfor boxes, crates,baskets,and pallets. and Louisiana.
Elm The sapwoodofthis group is white ornearly white and
Six speciesofelm grow in the easternUnitedStates: relatively wide. The heartwoodis somewhatdarker. The
American (Ulmusamericana),slippery (U rubra), rock wood is heavy and sometimes has very high shrinkage.
(U thomasii),winged (U alata), cedar (U crassfo1ia),and
September(U serotina) elm. American elm is alsoknown Heavy pecan hickory is usedfortool and implementhandles
as white, water, and gray elm; slipperyelm as red elm; rock and flooring. The lowergrades are usedforpallets. Many
elm as cork and hickory elm; wingedelm as wahoo;cedar highergrade logs are sliced toprovide veneerfor furniture
elm as red and basket elm; and Septemberelm as red elm. anddecorative paneling.
Americanelm is threatenedby two diseases, DutchElm
disease and phloemnecrosis,whichhave killedhundreds of Hickory (True Group)
thousandsoftrees. Truehickories are foundthroughoutthe easternhalfofthe
United States. The species most importantcommercially are
Sapwood of elm is nearly white and heartwoodlight brown,
often tinged with red. Elm may be dividedinto two general shagbark (Carya ovata), pignut(C. glabra), shelibark
(C. laciniosa), andmockernut(C. tomentosa).The greatest
classes,soft and hard, based onthe weight and strength of commercial production ofthetrue hickories for all uses is in
thewood. Soft elm includesAmericanand slippery elm. It is theMiddleAtlantic and Central States,with the Southern
moderatelyheavy, has high shockresistance,and is moder- and South Atlantic Statesrapidly expanding to handle nearly
ately hard and stiff. Hard elm includesrock, winged, cedar, halfofall hickorylumber.
and Septemberelm. These species are somewhat heavierthan
soft elm. Elm has excellentbending qualities. The sapwoodofthe true hickory group is white and usually
quite wide, exceptin old, slow-growing trees. The heart-
Historically, elm lumberwas used forboxes, baskets, crates, wood is reddish. The wood is exceptionally tough, heavy,
and slack cooperage; furniture; agricultural supplies and
hard, and strong, and shrinks considerably in drying. For
implements; casketsand burial boxes; and wood components some purposes, both ringsper centimeter(or inch) and
in vehicles. Today,elm lumberand veneer are used mostly
for furniture and decorative panels. Hardelm is preferred for weightare limitingfactorswhere strength is important.
uses that require strength. The major use for high qualityhickory is for tool handles,
whichrequirehigh shock resistance. It is alsousedfor ladder
Hackberry rungs, athleticgoods, agriculturalimplements, dowels,
Hackberry(Celtisoccidentalis)and sugarberiy(C. laevigata) gymnasium apparatuses, poles, and furniture. Lowergrade
supplythe lumberknown in the trade as hackberry. Hack- hickory is not suitablefor the special uses ofhigh quality
berrygrowseastofthe Great Plainsfrom Alabama, Georgia, hickorybecauseofknottiness or othergrowth features and
Arkansas, and Oklahoma northward, exceptalong the Cana- low density.However, the lowergrade is useful for pallets
dianboundary.Sugarberry overlapsthe southern part ofthe and similar items. Hickory sawdust, chips, and some solid
hackberryrange and growsthroughoutthe Southernand wood are usedto flavor meat by smoking.
SouthAtlantic States.
Honeylocust
Sapwoodofboth speciesvariesfrom pale yellowto greenish The wood ofhoneylocust (Gleditsiatriacanthos) has many
or grayishyellow. The heartwoodis commonly darker. The desirable qualities,such as attractive figureand color, hard-
woodresembleselm in structure.Hackberrylumberis mod- ness, and strength, but it is little usedbecauseof its scarcity.
erately heavy. It is moderatelystrong in bending, moderately
weak in compressionparallelto grain, moderatelyhard to Although the naturalrange ofhoneylocust has been extended
by planting,this species is foundmost commonlyin the
very hard, and high in shock resistance,but low in stiffliess. easternUnitedStates, exceptforNew Englandand the South
Hackberryhas high shrinkagebut keeps its shapewell during Atlanticand GulfCoastalPlains.
drying.

1-6
Sapwoodis generallywide and yellowish, in contrastto the Magnolia lumberis usedprincipally in the manufacture of
light red to reddish-brown heartwood.The wood is very furniture,boxes, pallets, venetian blinds, sashes, doors,
heavy,very hard, strong in bending,stiff, resistantto shock, veneer,and miliwork.
and durable when in contact with the ground.
Maple, Hard
Whenavailable, honeylocust is primarilyused locally for
Hard mapleincludessugarmaple (Acer saccharum)and
fenceposts and generalconstruction. It is occasionally used
with other species in lumberforpallets and crating. black maple(A. nigrum). Sugarmaple is also known as hard
androck maple, and blackmaple as black sugarmaple.
Locust, Black Maplelumberis manufactured principally in theMiddle
Atlanticand Great Lake States, whichtogether accountfor
Black locust(Robiniapseudoacacia) is sometimes called about two-thirds ofproduction.
yellow orpost locust.This species grows from Pennsylvania
along the Appalachian Mountainsto northernGeorgia and The heartwoodis usuallylightreddish brown but sometimes
Alabama. It is also nativeto westernArkansasand southern considerably darker. The sapwoodis commonlywhite with a
Missouri.The greatestproduction ofblack locust timberis slight reddish-brown tinge. It is roughly 7 to 13 cm ormore
in Tennessee,Kentucky, West Virginia,and Virginia. (3 to 5 in. or more)wide. Hardmaplehas a fine,uniform
texture. It is heavy,strong, stiff, hard, and resistantto shock
Locusthas narrow, creamywhite sapwood. The heartwood, and has high shrinkage. The grain ofsugarmaple is gener-
when freshlycut, varies from greenish yellow to darkbrown. ally straight,but birdseye,curly, or fiddlebackgrain is often
Black locustis very heavy, very hard, very resistant to selectedforfurniture or novelty items.
shock, and very strong and stiff. It has moderately low
shrinkage. The heartwoodhas high decayresistance. Hardmaple is used principally for lumberand veneer. A
largeproportionis manufactured intoflooring, furniture,
Black locust is used for round, hewed,or splitmine timbers cabinets,cuttingboards and blocks,pianos, billiard :ues,
as well as fenceposts, poles, railroadcrossties, stakes, and handles,novelties, bowlingalleys, dance and gymnasium
fuel. Otheruses are for rough construction, crating, andmine floors, spools,and bobbins.
equipment. Historically,blacklocust was importantfor the
manufactureofinsulator pins andwoodenpegs used in the Maple, Soft
construction ofships, for whichthe woodwaswell adapted
Soft mapleincludes silver maple(Acersaccharinumj., red
becauseofits strength, decayresistance, andmoderate
shrinkageand swelling. maple(A. rubrum),boxelder(A. negundo),andbigleaf maple
(A. macrophyllum). Silvermaple is also knownas hite,
river, water,and swamp maple;redmaple as soft, water,
Magnolia scarlet,white,and swamp maple;boxelderas ash-leaved,
Commercialmagnoliaconsistsofthree species:southern three-leaved, and cut-leaved maple;andbigleafmapleas
magnolia(Magnoliagrand/1ora), sweetbay (M virginiana), Oregon maple. Soft mapleis found in the easternUnited
and cucumbertree (M acuminata).Othernamesfor southern Statesexcept for bigleafmaple, which comes from th
magnoliaare evergreenmagnolia,big laurel, bull bay, and PacificCoast.
laurelbay. Sweetbay is sometimes called swamp magnolia.
The lumberproducedby all three speciesis simplycalled Heartwood and sapwoodare similarin appearance to hard
magnolia.The natural range ofsweetbay extendsalongthe maple: heartwoodofsoft mapleis somewhatlighterincolor
Atlanticand GulfCoastsfrom Long Islandto Texas, and and the sapwood, somewhat wider.The wood ofsoft maple,
that ofsouthernmagnoliaextends fromNorth Carolina to primarily silver and red maple, resemblesthat ofhard maple
Texas. Cucumbertree growsfrom the Appalachians to the but is not as heavy,hard, and strong.
Ozarksnorthwardto Ohio. Louisiana leads in the production
ofmagnolialumber. Soft mapleis used forrailroadcrossties, boxes,pallets,
crates,furniture, veneer, woodenware, andnovelties,
Sapwoodofsouthernmagnoliais yellowishwhite, and
heartwoodis light to dark brown with a tinge ofyellow or Oak (Red Oak Group)
green.The wood, which has close, uniform textureand is Most red oak comesfrom the EasternStates.The principal
generallystraightgrained,closelyresembles yellow-poplar species are northern red(Quercusrubra), scarlet (Q. oc-
(Lfriodendrontulip([era). It is moderately heavy, moderately cinea), Shumard (Q. shumardil),pin (Q. palustris), Nuttall
low in shrinkage, moderatelylow in bendingand compres-
sive strength, moderatelyhard and stiff, and moderately high (Q. nuttallii),black (Q. velutina), southernred (Q.jzlcata),
in shockresistance.Sweetbay is much like southern rnagno- chenybark(Q.falcata var.pagodaefolia),water (Q. nigra),
laurel (Q. laur(folia),and willow(Q. phellos) oak.
ha. The wood of cucumbertree is similarto that ofyellow-
poplar (L. tulipjfera); cucumbertree that growsin the yellow- The sapwoodis nearly white and roughly2 to 5 cm
poplarrange is notseparatedfrom that species on the market. (1 to 2 in.) wide. The heartwoodis brown with a tinge of
red. Sawn lumberofthe red oak group cannotbe separated
by species on the basis ofwood characteristics alone.

1—7
Red oak lumbercan be separatedfrom white oak by the size characteristic odor of sassafras. The wood is moderately
and arrangementofporesin latewood and becauseit gener- heavy, moderately hard, moderatelyweak in bendingarid
ally lacks tyloses in the pores. The open pores ofred oak endwise compression, quite high in shock resistance,anI
makethis species group unsuitablefortightcooperage, resistantto decay.
unlessthe barrels are lined with sealer or plastic.Quarter-
sawn lumberofthe oaks is distinguished by the broad and Sassafras was highlyprizedby the Indiansfor dugoutcanoes,
conspicuous rays. Wood ofthe red oaks is heavy. Rapidly and some sassafraslumberis still used for smallboats.
grownsecond-growth wood is generallyharderandtougher Locally, sassafras is used for fence posts and rails and for
than fmertexturedold-growth wood.The redoaks havefairly generalmillwork.
high shrinkagein drying.
Sweetgum
The red oaks areprimarilycut into lumber, railroadcros- Sweetgum (Liquidambar styracflua) grows from southwest-
sties, mine timbers,fence posts, veneer, pulpwood, and ern Connecticut westwardinto Missouriand southward o
fuelwood.Ties,mine timbers,and fenceposts requirepre- the GulfCoast. Almost all lumberis produced in the South-
servative treatmentfor satisfactory service. Redoak lumberis ern and South Atlantic States.
remanufactured into flooring, furniture, general millwork,
boxes, palletsand crates, agriculturalimplements, caskets, The lumberfrom sweetgum is usuallymarkedas sap gum
woodenware, and handles. It is alsousedin railroadcars (the light-colored sapwood) or redgum (the reddish-brown
and boats. heartwood). Sweetgum oftenhas a form ofcross grain caFled
interlockedgrain, and it must be dried slowly. When quar-
Oak (White Oak Group) tersawn, interlocked grain producesa ribbon-type stripe that
White oak lumbercomes chiefly from the South, South is desirable for interiorwoodworkand furniture.The wood is
moderately heavy andhard. It is moderately strong,moder-
Atlantic, and Central States, including the southernAppala-
chianarea. Principal species are white (Quercus alba), chest- ately stiff, and moderately high in shockresistance.
nut (Q. prinus), post (Q. stellata), overcup (Q. lyrata),
Sweetgum is used principally for lumber, veneer,plywood,
swampchestnut (Q. michauxii),bur (Q. macrocarpa), slack cooperage, railroad crossties, fuel,pulpwood, boxes
chinkapin (Q. muehlenbergii), swampwhite (Q. bicolor), and crates, furniture, interiormoulding,and millwork.
and live (Q. virginiana) oak.
The sapwoodofthe white oaks is nearly white and roughly Sycamore, American
2 to 5 cm or more (1 to 2 in. or more) wide. The heartwood Americansycamore(Platanusoccidentalis) is knownas
is generallygrayishbrown.Heartwoodporesareusually sycamoreand sometimes as buttonwood, buttonball-tree, and
pluggedwith tyloses, whichtend to make the wood impene- in theUnited Kingdom,planetree.Sycamoregrows from
trable by liquids.Consequently,most white oaks are suit- Maineto Nebraska,southwardto Texas, and eastwardto
able for tight cooperage. Many heartwoodporesofchestnut Florida.
oak lack tyloses. The wood ofwhite oak is heavy, averaging
somewhat greater in weightthanred oak wood. Theheart- The heartwoodofsycamore is reddishbrown;the sapwcod is
wood has gooddecay resistance. lighterin color and from 4 to 8 cm (1-1/2 to 3 in.) wide.
The woodhas a fine texture and interlockedgrain. It has
Whiteoaks are usuallycut into lumber, railroadcrossties, high shrinkagein drying; is moderatelyheavy, moderately
cooperage, mine timbers,fenceposts, veneer, fuelwood, and hard, moderately stiff, and moderately strong;and has good
many other products. High-quality white oak is especially resistance to shock.
sought for tight cooperage. Live oak is considerably heavier
and strongerthan the other oaks, and it was formerly used Sycamore is used principally for lumber, veneer,railroad
extensivelyforship timbers.An important use ofwhite oak crossties, slack cooperage, fenceposts, and fuel. The lumber
is for plankingand bent parts ofships andboats; heartwood is used for furniture, boxesarticular1ysmallfood contain-
is often specified becauseofits decay resistance. Whiteoak is ers), pallets,flooring, handles, and butcherblocks.Veneeris
also used for furniture,flooring, pallets, agricultural imple- used for fruitandvegetablebaskets and somedecorative
ments,railroadcars, truck floors,furniture,doors, and panels and door skins.
millwork.
Tanoak
Sassafras Tanoak(Lithocarpusdensflorus) has recentlygained some
Sassafras(Sassafras albidum)ranges throughmost ofthe commercial value, primarilyin Californiaand Oregon.It is
easternhalfofthe UnitedStates,from southeastern Iowaand alsoknownas tanbark—oak becausehigh-grade tanninwas
easternTexaseastward. once obtainedfrom the bark in commercial quantities. This
speciesis found in southwestern Oregonand south to
Sassafras is easily confusedwith blackash, whichit resem- Southern California,mostlynear the coast but also in the
bles in color, grain, and texture. Sapwoodis light yellow, Sierra Nevadas.
and heartwoodvaries from dull grayishbrownto dark brown,
sometimes with a reddishtinge. Freshly cut surfaces havethe

1—8
Sapwood oftanoak is light reddishbrownwhenfirst cut and heavy, hard, strong, and stiff, andhas goodresistancto
turns darkerwith age to becomealmost indistinguishable shock.Black walnutis well suitedfor naturalfinishes.
from heartwood,whichalso ages to dark reddishbrown. The
wood is heavyand hard; exceptfor compression perpendicu- Because of its goodpropertiesand interestinggrain pattern,
lar to grain,the wood has roughlythe same strength proper- blackwalnut is much valuedfor furniture, architectural
ties as those ofeasternwhite oak. Tanoakhas highershrink- woodwork, anddecorative panels. Otherimportantuses are
age duringchying than does white oak, and it has a tendency gunstocks, cabinets,and interiorwoodwork.
to collapse during drying. Tanoak is quite susceptible to
decay, but the sapwoodtakes preservativeseasily. Tanoak Willow, Black
has straightgrain, machinesand glues well, and takes stains Black willow (Salixnigra) is the most importantof the
readily. many willowsthat grow in the United States. It is the only
willow marketedunder its own name. Most black wllow
Becauseofits hardness and abrasion resistance, tanoakis comes from the Mississippi Valley, from Louisiana 1:0 south-
excellent for flooring inhomesorcommercial buildings. ern Missouriand Illinois.
It is alsosuitable for industrialapplications such as truck
flooring. Tanoaktreatedwith preservative has beenused for The heartwoodofblack willow is grayishbrown or ight
railroad crossties. The wood has beenmanufactured into reddishbrownand frequently containsdarkerstreaks. The
baseball bats with good results, and it is also suitablefor sapwoodis whitish to creamy yellow.The wood is miform
veneer, both decorative and industrial, and for high quality in texture,with somewhat interlockedgrain, and light in
furniture. weight.It has exceedingly low strength as a beam or post, is
moderately soft, and is moderatelyhigh in shock res:Lstance.
Tupelo It has moderatelyhigh shrinkage.
The tupelo group includes water (Nyssaaquatica),black Black willow is principally cut into lumber. Small iLmounts
(N. sylvatica), swamp(N. sylvaticavar. bWora), and are used for slack cooperage, veneer, excelsior, charcoal,
Ogeechee(N. ogeche)tupelo. Watertupelo is also knownas pulpwood, artificial limbs,and fenceposts. The lumberis
tupelo gum, swamptupelo, and sourgum; black tupelo, as remanufactured principally into boxes,pallets,crates cas-
blackgumand sourgum; swamp tupelo, as swampblackgum, kets, and furniture.
blackgum,and sourgum;and Ogeecheetupelo, as sourtu-
pelo, gopherplum, and Ogeecheeplum. All exceptblack Yellow-Poplar
tupelo grow principally in the southeasternUnitedStates.
Black tupelo grows in the easternUnitedStatesfrom Maine Yellow-poplar (Liriodendron tulipfera) is alsoknownas
to Texas and Missouri.About two-thirdsoftheproduction poplar,tulip-poplar, and tulipwood. Sapwoodfrom yellow-
oftupelo lumberis from Southern States. poplar is sometimes calledwhite poplar or whitewood.
Yellow-poplar grows from Connecticut and New York
Woodofthe differenttupelo species is quite similarin southward to Florida and westwardto Missouri.Th greatest
appearance and properties. The heartwoodis light brownish commercial production ofyellow-poplar lumberis in the
South and Southeast.
gray and merges gradually into the lighter-colored sapwood,
whichis generally many centimeterswide. The wood has
fine,uniformtexture and interlocked grain. Tupelowood is Yellow-poplar sapwood is white and frequently seveialcen-
timeterswide. The heartwoodis yellowishbrown, some-
moderately heavy,moderatelystrong, moderately hard and times streaked with purple, green,black, blue, or red. These
stiff, and moderatelyhigh in shock resistance. Buttressesof colorations do not affectthe physicalproperties of th wood.
treesgrowing in swampsor floodedareas contain wood that
is much lighterin weightthan that from upper portions of The wood is generally straight grainedand comparatively
thesame trees. Becauseofinterlockedgrain, tupelo lumber uniformin texture. Slow-grown wood is moderately light in
requirescare in drying. weightand moderatelylow in bendingstrength, moderately
soft, andmoderatelylow in shock resistance.The wood has
Tupelo is cut principally for lumber, veneer, pulpwood, and moderately high shrinkage when driedfrom a green condi-
somerailroadcrossties and slack cooperage. Lumbergoes tion, but it is not difficultto dry and is stable after drying.
into boxes, pallets, crates,baskets,and furniture. Much ofthe second-growth wood is heavier, harder,and
stronger than that ofoldertrees that have grownmore
Walnut, Black slowly.
Black walnut(Juglans nigra), alsoknown as American black The lumberis used primarilyfor furniture,interior mould-
walnut,rangesfrom Vermontto the Great Plainsand south- ing, siding, cabinets,musical instruments, and structural
ward into Louisiana and Texas. Aboutthree-quarters of components. Boxes,pallets,and crates are made from lower-
walnut wood is grown in the Central States. grade stock. Yellow-poplar is also madeinto plywoodfor
The heartwoodofblackwalnutvaries from lightto dark paneling, furniture,piano cases, and variousother special
products.
brown;the sapwoodis nearly white and up to 8 cm (3 in.)
wide in open-grown trees. Black walnut is normallystraight
grained,easily workedwith tools, and stable in use. It is

l—9
 and cooling towers. Second-growth wood is used for siding
and millwork, including interiorwoodworkand paneling.
Peckycypress is used forpanelingin restaurants,stores, and
other buildings.

Douglas-Fir
Douglas-fir(Pseudotsugamenziesii) is also knownlocallyas
red-fir, Douglas-spruce, andyellow-fir. Itsrange extendsfrom
the RockyMountains tothe PacificCoast and from Mexico
to central British Columbia.
Sapwood ofDouglas-fir is narrowin old-growth treesbut
maybe as much as 7 cm (3 in.) wide in second-growthtrees
ofcommercial size.Youngtrees ofmoderate to rapid growth
havereddishheartwood and are calledred-fir. Verynarrow-
ringedheartwoodofold-growth trees may be yellowish
brownand is knownonthe market as yellow-fir.The wood
ofDouglas-firvarieswidelyin weightand strength. When
lumberofhigh strengthis neededfor structural uses, selec-
Figure 1—1. Cypress-tupelo swamp near New Orleans, tioncan be improvedby selectingwood with higherdensity.
LA. Species includebaldcypress (Taxodium distichum)),
tupelo(Nyssa), ash (Fraxinus), willow (Salix), and elm Douglas-firis used mostlyforbuildingand construction
(Ulmus). Swollenbuttressesand "knees" are typically purposes in the form of lumber, marine fendering(Fig. 1-2),
present in cypress. piles, andplywood. Considerable quantitiesare used for
railroad crossties, cooperagestock,mine timbers,poles, and
fencing. Douglas-fir lumberis used in the manufactureof
Softwoods variousproducts, including sashes, doors, laminated beams,
generalmillwork,railroad-carconstruction, boxes,pallets,
Baldcypress and crates. Small amounts are used forflooring, furniture,
Baldcypress or cypress(Taxodium distichum) is also known ship and boat construction, and tanks. Douglas-firplywood
as southern-cypress, red-cypress, yellow-cypress, andwhite- has found application inconstruction, furniture,cabinets,
cypress.Commercially, the terms tidewaterred-cypress, gulf- marineuse, and other products.
cypress,red-cypress (coasttype),and yellow-cypress (inland
type) are frequently used.Abouthalf ofthe cypress lumber Firs, True (Eastern Species)
comesfrom the SouthernStates and about a fourthfrom the Balsam fir (Abies balsamea)growsprincipally in New Eng-
SouthAtlantic States (Fig. 1—1). Old-growth biddcypress is land,New York,Pennsylvania, and the Great Lake States.
no longerreadily available, but second-growth wood is Fraserfir (A. fraseri)growsin the Appalachian Mountainsof
available. Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee.
Sapwoodofbaldcypress is narrow andnearly white.The The wood ofthe easterntrue firs, as well as the westerntrue
color ofheartwoodvarieswidely,rangingfrom lightyel- firs, is creamy white to pale brown. The heartwoodand
lowish brownto dark brownishred, brown,or chocolate. sapwoodare generallyindistinguishable. The similarityof
The wood is moderatelyheavy,moderatelystrong, and wood structure in the true firs makes it impossibleto distin-
moderatelyhard. The heartwoodofold-growth baldcypress guishthe species by examinationofthe wood alone. Balsam
is one ofthemost decay resistantofU.S. species, but sec- and Fraserfirs are lightweight, have low bendingand com-
ond-growthwood is only moderatelyresistantto decay. pressive strength, aremoderatelylow in stiffness, are soft,
Shrinkage is moderatelylow but somewhat higherthan that and have low resistance to shock.
ofthecedars and lower thanthat ofSouthernPine. The wood
ofcertainbaldcypress treesfrequently containspocketsor The easternfirs are used mainly for pulpwood, although
localized areas that havebeenattackedby afungus. Such some lumberis producedforstructuralproducts, especially
wood is knownas pecky cypress.The decay causedby this in New Englandand the Great Lake States.
fungus is stoppedwhen the wood is cut into lumberand
dried.Peckycypress isthereforedurable and useful where Firs, True (Western Species)
water tightnessis unnecessary, appearance isnot important, Six commercial species makeupthe westerntrue firs: subal-
or a novel effectis desired. pine fir (Abies lasiocarpa),California redfir(A. magnIca),
When old-growth wood was available, baldcypress was used grand fir(A. grandis),noble fir (A. procera), Pacific silver fir
(A. amabilis),and white fir (A. concolor).The westerntrue
principally for buildingconstruction, especially whereresis- firs are cut for lumberprimarilyin Washington,Oregon,
tance to decay was required. It was alsoused for caskets,
California. western Montana, and northernIdaho, and they
sashes, doors, blinds, tanks, vats, ship and boat building, aremarketedas white firthroughouttheUnitedStates.

1—10

10
I
Figure 1—2.Woodis favored forwaterfrontstructures,particularly fendering, because of its shock-absorbing qualities.
Thefendering on thisdock in Key West, FL, is made of creosote-treatedDouglas-fir (Pseudotsugamenziesii). Some
tropical species are resistant to attackby decay fungi and marine borers and are used for marine construction
without preservative treatment.

The wood ofthe westerntrue firs is similarto that ofthe Hemlock, Eastern
easterntrue firs, whichmakes it impossible to distinguish Eastern hemlock(Tsugacanadensis)growsfrom NewEng-
thetrue fir speciesby examination ofthe wood alone. West- landto northernAlabamaand Georgia, and inthe Great Lake
ern true firs are light in weightbut,with theexceptionof States. Othernames are Canadian hemlockandhemlock—
subalpine fir, have somewhat higher strength properties than spruce. The production ofhemlocklumberis divided,fairly
does balsam fir. Shrinkage ofthe wood is low to moderately evenlyamongthe NewEngland States, MiddleAtlantic
high. States,and GreatLake States.
Lumberofthe westerntrue firs is primarilyused forbuilding The heartwoodofeastern hemlockispale brownwith a
construction, boxes and crates,planing-millproducts, reddishhue. The sapwoodis not distinctlyseparated from
sashes,doors, and generalmillwork.In house constru.ction, the heartwoodbut may be lighterin color. The wood is
thelumberis used for framing, subflooring, and sheathing. coarseand uneven in texture(old treestend to have consider-
Some westerntrue fir lumberis manufactured into boxes and able shake); it is moderatelylightweight,moderatelyhard,
crates.High-grade lumberfrom noble fir is used mainlyfor moderately low in strength, moderately stiff, and moderately
interiorwoodwork, moulding, siding, and sash and door low in shock resistance.
stock. Some ofthe highestquality material is suitablefor
aircraft construction. Otherspecialuses ofnoble firare vene- Easternhemlockisusedprincipally for lumberandpulp-
tian blinds and ladder rails. wood. The lumberis usedprimarilyin buildingconstruction
i
(framing,sheathing, subflooring, and roofboards) an in the
manufacture ofboxes,pallets,and crates.

1—11
Hemlock, Western and Mountain Larch, Western
Westernhemlock(Tsugaheterophylla) is also knownas Western larch (Larix occidentalis) growsin western Mon-
West Coast hemlock, Pacific hemlock, British Columbia tana, northern Idaho,northeastern Oregon,and on the eastern
hemlock,hemlock—spruce,and westernhemlock—fir. Itgrows slope ofthe Cascade Mountains in Washington.About two-
along the Pacific coast ofOregonand Washington and in the thirds ofthe lumberofthis species is producedin Idaho and
northernRocky Mountains north to Canada and Alaska.A Montanaand one-thirdin Oregonand Washington.
relativeofwesternhemlock,mountainhemlock(T. merten-
The heartwood ofwesternlarch is yellowishbrown and the
siana) growsin mountainous countryfrom central California
to Alaska.It is treated as a separatespecies in assigning sapwood, yellowishwhite. The sapwoodis generallynot
lumberproperties. more than 2.5 cm (1 in.) wide. The wood is stiff, moderately
strong and hard, moderately high in shock resistance, ancl
The heartwoodand sapwoodofwesternhemlockare almost moderately heavy. It has moderatelyhigh shrinkage. The
white with a purplishtinge. The sapwood,which is some- wood is usually straightgrained,splits easily, and is subject
times lighterin color than the heartwood, is generallynot to ring shake. Knotsarecommonbut generallysmallarid
more than 2.5 cm (1 in.) wide. The wood often contains tight.
small, sound,black knots that are usually tight and dimen-
Western larchis used mainly for rough dimensionwood in
sionallystable.Dark streaks are often found in the lumber;
these are causedby hemlockbark maggotsand generally do buildingconstruction, small timbers,planks and boards,and
not reduce strength. Westernhemlockis moderately light in railroadcrosstiesandmine timbers.It is used also for piles,
weight and moderatein strength. It is alsomoderatein poles, and posts. Some high-grade material is manufactured
hardness,stiffness, and shockresistance. Shrinkage ofwest- into interiorwoodwork, flooring, sashes, and doors. The
ern hemlockis moderatelyhigh, aboutthe same as that of properties ofwestern larch are similarto those ofDouglas-fir
Douglas-fir(Pseudotsugamenziesii). Greenhemlocklumber (Pseudotsugamenziesii), and these species are sometimes
contains considerably more water than does Douglas-firand sold mixed.
requires longer kiln-dryingtime. Mountain hemlockhas
approximately the same density as that ofwesternhemlock Pine, Eastern White
but is somewhat lower in bendingstrengthand stiffness. Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) growsfrom Maineto
northern Georgiaand in the Great Lake States.It is also
Westernhemlockand mountainhemlockare used principally known as white pine,northernwhite pine, Weymouth pine,
for pulpwood, lumber, and plywood. The lumber is used and soft pine.About one-halfthe production ofeasternwhite
primarilyforbuildingmaterial,such as sheathing, siding, pine lumber occursin New England, about one-thirdin the
subflooring,joists,studding, planking, and rafters, as well as Great Lake States, and most oftheremainder in the Middle
inthemanufactureofboxes,pallets,crates,flooring, furni- Atlantic and South Atlantic States.
ture, and ladders.
Theheartwoodofeastern white pine is lightbrown, often
Incense-Cedar with a reddish tinge.It turns darker on exposureto air. The
Incense-cedar (Calocedrusdecurrens(synonym Libocedrus wood has comparatively uniformtexture and is straight
decurrens))growsin California, southwesternOregon, and grained.It is easily kiln dried, has low shrinkage,and ranks
extreme westernNevada.Most incense-cedar lumber comes high in stability. It is also easy to work and can be reacily
from the northern halfofCalifornia. glued.Easternwhite pine is lightweight,moderatelysoft,
moderately low in strength,low in shock resistance,and low
Sapwoodofincense-cedar is white or cream colored,and in stiffness.
heartwoodis lightbrown,often tinged with red. The wood
has a fme,uniformtexture and a spicyodor.Incense-cedar is Practicallyall easternwhite pine is converted into lumber,
which is used in a great varietyofways. A large proportion,
light in weight,moderatelylow in strength, soft, low in
shock resistance,and low in stiffness. It has low shrinkage mostly second-growth knottywood or lower grades, is used
and is easy to dry, with little checkingor warping. for structural lumber. High-grade lumberis used for patterns
for castings. Otherimportantuses are sashes,doors, furni-
Incense-cedar is used principally for lumberandfenceposts. ture, interiorwoodwork, knottypaneling, caskets, shadeand
Nearly all the high-grade lumber isusedforpencils and map rollers, andtoys.
venetianblinds; some is used for chests and toys.Much
incense-cedar wood is more or less pecky; that is, it contains Pine, Jack
pocketsor areas ofdisintegratedwood causedby advanced Jack pine (Pinus banksiana),sometimesknown as scrub,
stagesoflocalizeddecay in the livingtree. There is no fur- gray, and blackpine in the United States, grows naturallyin
ther developmentofdecay once the lumberis dried. This the GreatLake Statesand in a few scatteredareas inNew
low-quality lumberis usedlocally for rough construction Englandand northern NewYork. Jack pine lumber is some-
where low cost and decayresistanceare important. Because timesnot separated from the other pines with which it
of its resistance to decay,incense-cedar is well suitedfor grows, including red pine (Pinus resinosa) and easternwhite
fenceposts. Other uses are railroadcrossties, poles, and split pine (Pinus strobus).
shingles.

1—12
Sapwoodofjackpine is nearly white; heartwoodis light
brownto orange.Sapwoodmay constitute one-halformore
ofthe volume ofa tree. The wood hasa rathercoarsetexture
and is somewhatresinous.It is moderatelylightweight,
moderatelylow in bendingstrengthand compressive
strength, moderatelylow in shock resistance,and low in
stiffness. It alsohas moderatelylow shrinkage. Lumberfrom
jackpine is generallyknotty.
Jack pine is used for pulpwood, box lumber, andpallets.
Less important uses includerailroadcrossties, minetimber,
slack cooperage,poles,posts, and fuel.

Pine, Jeffrey (see Pine, Ponderosa)

Pine, Lodgepole
Lodgepolepine (Pinus contorta), also knownas knotty,
black, and sprucepine, growsin the RockyMountainand
Pacific Coastregionsas far northward as Alaska. Wood for Figure 1—3.Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) growing
in an open or park-like habitat.
lumberand other productsis producedprimarilyin the
centralRockyMountainStates;other producingregions are
Idaho, Montana,Oregon,and Washington.
Pond pine is usedfor general construction, railwaycrossties,
The heartwoodoflodgepole pine varies from lightyellowto posts,and poles. The lumberofthis speciesis also graded
lightyellow-brown.The sapwoodis yellowor nearly white. as aminor species in gradingrules forthe Southern Pine
Thewood is generallystraight grainedwith narrow growth species group.
rings. The wood is moderatelylightweight,is fairlyeasy to
work, and has moderatelyhigh shrinkage. It is moderately Pine, Ponderosa
low in strength,moderatelysoft, moderatelystiff, and mod- Ponderosa pine (Pinusponderosa)is also knownas Donder-
erately low in shock resistance. osa, westernsoft, westernyellow,bull, andblackjackpine.
Lodgepole pine is used for lumber, mine timbers, railroad Jeffreypine(P.jeffieyi),whichgrowsin close association
crossties, and poles. Less important uses includeposts and with ponderosapine in Californiaand Oregon, is usually
fuel.Lodgepolepine is being used increasingly for framing, marketedwith ponderosapine and sold underthat nme.
siding, millwork,flooring, and cabin logs. Majorponderosa pine producing areas are in Oregon. Wash-
ington, and California (Fig. 1—3). Other importantproducing
Pine, Pitch areas are in Idaho and Montana; lesseramounts come from
thesouthernRockyMountainregion, the Black T4ili:; of
Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) grows from Mainealong the moun- South Dakota, and Wyoming.
tainsto easternTennessee and northernGeorgia.
The heartwoodis brownishred and resinous;the sapwoodis The heartwoodofponderosapine is light reddishbrown,and
wide and light yellow.The wood ofpitch pine is moderately thewide sapwoodis nearly white to pale yellow.The wood
heavyto heavy,moderatelystrong,stiff, and hard, and
oftheouterportions ofponderosapine ofsawtimber size is
moderately high in shock resistance. Shrinkage ranges from generallymoderatelylight in weight,moderatelylow in
strength, moderately soft, moderately stiff, and mode:ately
moderatelylow to moderatelyhigh. low in shock resistance. It is generally straightgrainedand
Pitch pine is usedfor lumber, fuel, and pulpwood. The has moderatelylow shrinkage. It is quite uniform in texture
lumber is classified as a minor species in gradingrules for and has little tendency to warp and twist.
the Southern Pine speciesgroup.
a
Ponderosa pine is used mainly for lumberand to lesser
Pine, Pond extentfor piles, poles, posts, mine timbers,veneer, and
Pondpine (Pinus serotina) grows in the coastalregionfrom railroadcrossties. The clear wood is used for sashes, doors,
New Jerseyto Florida. It occursin smallgroups or singly, blinds, moulding,paneling, interior woodwork, and built-in
casesand cabinets. Low-grade lumber is used forboxes and
mixed with other pines on low flats. crates. Much intermediate- orlow-grade lumberis usd for
Sapwoodofpondpine is wide and pale yellow;heartwoodis sheathing, subflooring, and roofboards. Knottyponderosa
dark orange.The wood is heavy,coarsegrained,andresin- pine is used for interior woodwork.
ous. Shrinkage is moderatelyhigh. The wood is moderately
strong,stiff, moderatelyhard, and moderatelyhigh in shock
resistance.

1—13
Pine, Red shrinkage but are dimensionallystable whenproperly dried.
Red pine (Pinus resinosa)is frequently calledNorwaypine To obtain heavy,strong wood ofthe southernpines for
and occasionallyknownas hard pine and pitch pine. This structural purposes,a densityrule has been writtenthat
specifies a certain percentage oflatewood and growth ratesfor
species growsin New England,New York, Pennsylvania,
and the Great Lake States. structural timbers.

The heartwoodofred pine varies from pale redto reddish The denserandhigher strength southernpines are exten-
brown. The sapwoodis nearly white with a yellowishtinge sivelyused in the form of stringers in construction offacto-
and is generallyfrom 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 in.) wide. The ries, warehouses, bridges,trestles, and docks, and also for
wood resemblesthe lighterweightwood ofthe Southern rooftrusses,beams,posts,joists, and piles. Lumberoflower
Pine speciesgroup. Latewoodis distinct in the growthrings. densityand strengthis also used for buildingmaterial,such
Red pine is moderatelyheavy,moderatelystrong and stiff, as interiorwoodwork, sheathing, and subflooring, as well as
moderatelysoft, and moderatelyhigh in shock resistance. It boxes, pallets,and crates. SouthernPine is usedalso for
is generallystraightgrained,not as uniformin texture as tight and slack cooperage. Whenusedfor railroadcrossties,
easternwhite pine (Pinus strobus), and somewhat resinous. piles, poles,mine timbers, and exterior decking, it is usually
The wood has moderatelyhigh shrinkage, but it is not treatedwith preservatives. The manufacture ofstructural-
difficultto dry and is dimensionallystable when dried. grade plywoodfrom SouthernPine is a major wood-using
industry, as is the production ofpreservative-treated lum ber.
Redpine is used principallyfor lumber, cabinlogs, and
pulpwood,and to a lesser extent for piles, poles, posts, and Pine, Spruce
fuel.The lumberis usedfor many ofthe same purposesas for Spruce pine (Pinus glabra), also known as cedar, poor,
easternwhite pine (Pinus strobus). Red pine lumberis used Walter,and bottom white pine, is classifiedas a minor
primarilyforbuildingconstruction, includingtreated lumber species in the Southern Pine speciesgroup. Spruce pine
for decking, siding, flooring, sashes, doors,generalmill- growsmost commonly on low moist lands ofthe coastal
work, and boxes, pallets, and crates. regionsofsoutheastern SouthCarolina,Georgia, Alabama,
Mississippi, and Louisiana, and northernandnorthwestern
Pine, Southern Florida.
A numberofspecies are includedin the group marketedas The heartwoodofsprucepine is light brown, and the wide
SouthernPine lumber. The four major SouthernPine species
andtheirgrowthrangesare as follows: (a) longleafpine sapwoodis nearly white. Sprucepine wood is lower in most
(Pinuspalustris), easternNorth Carolinasouthwardinto strengthvaluesthan the wood ofthe major SouthernPine
Floridaandwestwardinto easternTexas; (b) shortleafpine species group. Spruce pine comparesfavorablywith the
westerntrue firs in important bendingproperties,crushing
(P. echinata),southeasternNew York and NewJersey strength (perpendicular and parallelto grain),and hardness.
southwardto northernFloridaand westwardinto eastern It is similarto denserspeciessuch as coast Douglas-fir
Texas and Oklahoma;(c) loblollypine (P. taeda), Maryland
southwardthrough the Atlantic CoastalPlain and Piedmont (Pseudotsugamenziesii) and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda
in shearparallelto grain.
Plateau into Floridaandwestwardinto easternTexas; (d)
slashpine (P. elliottii), Floridaand southernSouth Caro- In the past, spruce pine was principally used locally for
lina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi,and Louisiana east of lumber, pulpwood, and fuelwood. The lumberreportedly
the Mississippi River. Lumberfrom these fourspecies is was usedforsashes, doors,and interiorwoodworkbecause
classified as SouthernPine by the grading standards ofthe ofits low specific gravityand similarityofearlywoodand
industry. Thesestandardsalso classifylumberproducedfrom latewood. In recentyears,sprucepinehas been used for
the longleafand slash pine species as longleafpine ifthe plywood.
lumberconforms tothe growth-ring and latewood require-
ments ofsuch standards.SouthernPine lumberis produced Pine, Sugar
principallyin the Southernand SouthAtlantic States. Geor- Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana),the world's largest species
gia, Alabama, North Carolina, Arkansas, andLouisianalead ofpine, is sometimes called Californiasugarpine. Most
in SouthernPine lumberproduction. sugarpine lumbergrows in Californiaand southwestern
Oregon.
The wood ofthese southernpines is quitesimilar in appear-
ance. Sapwoodis yellowishwhite andheartwood, reddish The heartwoodofsugarpine is buffor lightbrown, some-
brown. The sapwoodis usuallywide in second-growth timestinged with red. The sapwoodis creamy white. The
stands. The heartwoodbeginsto form whenthe tree is about wood is straight grained,fairly uniform in texture, and easy
20 years old. In old, slow-growth trees, sapwoodmay be to work with tools. It has very low shrinkage, is readily
only 2 to 5 cm (ito 2 in.) wide. dried withoutwarpingor checking, and is dimensionally
stable. Sugar pine is lightweight,moderatelylow in
Longleafand slashpine are classified as heavy,strong, stiff, strength, moderatelysoft, low in shock resistance,and low
hard, and moderatelyhigh in shock resistance. Shortleafand in stiffness.
loblollypine are usually somewhat lighter in weightthan is
longleaf.Allthe southernpines have moderately high

1—14
Sugar pine is used almost exclusively for lumberproducts. weight,stiff, moderately strong and hard, and moderately
The largestvolumeis usedfor boxes and crates, sashes, resistantto shock.Port-Orford-cedar heartwoodis highly
doors, frames,blinds, generalmillwork,buildingconstruc- resistantto decay. The wood shrinksmoderately, has little
tion, and foundrypatterns. Like easternwhitepine (Pinus tendencyto warp,and is stable after drying.
strobus), sugarpine is suitable foruse in nearlyevery part
ofa housebecauseofthe easewith whichit can be cut, its Some high-grade Port-Orford-cedar was onceused iu the
dimensionalstability, and its good nailing properties. manufacture ofstorage batteryseparators, matchsticks, and
specialtymillwork. Today,other uses are archery supplies,
Pine, Virginia sash and door construction, stadiumseats, flooring, interior
woodwork, furniture,andboats.
Virginiapine (Pinus virginiana),also known as Jerseyand
scrubpine, growsfrom New Jerseyand Virginiathroughout
theAppalachianregion to Georgia and theOhio Valley. Redcedar, Eastern
It is classifiedas a minorspeciesin thegradingrules for Eastern redcedar(Juniperusvirginiana)grows throughoutthe
the SouthernPine species group. easternhalfofthe UnitedStates,exceptin Maine, Florida,
and anarrow strip along the GulfCoast, and atthe higher
The heartwoodis orange,and the sapwoodis nearlywhite elevations in the Appalachian MountainRange. Commercial
andrelativelywide. The wood is moderately heavy,moder- production is principally in the southernAppalachianand
ately strong, moderatelyhard, andmoderatelystiffandhas Cumberland Mountain regions. Anotherspecies,southern
moderatelyhigh shrinkageandhigh shock resistance. redcedar(.1 silicicola),growsover a limited areain the
South Atlanticand GulfCoastal Plains.
Virginiapine is used for lumber, railroadcrossties, mine
timbers,and pulpwood. The heartwoodofredcedaris bright or dull red, andthe
narrowsapwoodis nearly white.The wood ismoderately
Pine, Western White heavy, moderately low in strength, hard, and high ia shock
Westernwhite pine (Pinus monticola) is alsoknown as resistance, but low in stiffness. It has very low shriiikage and
Idahowhite pine or white pine. About four-fifths ofthewood is dimensionally stable after drying. The texture is fine and
for lumberfromthis species is from Idahoand Washington; uniform, and the wood commonly has numeroussmall
knots. Eastern redcedarheartwoodis very resistantto decay.
smallamountsare cut inMontanaand Oregon.
The greatest quantity ofeasternredcedaris used for fence
The heartwoodofwesternwhite pine is creamcolored to
light reddishbrown and darkenson exposureto air. The posts. Lumberis manufactured into chests, wardrobes, and
closet lining. Otheruses include flooring, novelties pencils,
sapwoodis yellowishwhite and generallyfrom 2 to 8 cm scientific instruments, and smallboats. Southernredcedar
(ito 3 in.) wide. The wood is straightgrained,easy to is used forthesame purposes. Eastern redcedaris reDuted
work, easily kiln-dried, and stable afterdiying. This species to repel moths, but this claim has not been supported by
is moderatelylightweight,moderatelylow in strength, research.
moderatelysoft, moderatelystiff, andmoderatelylow in
shock resistance and has moderately high shrinkage.
Redcedar,Western
Practically all western white pine is sawn into lumber, which Western redcedar(Thujaplicata)grows in the Pacific
is used mainly for buildingconstruction, matches,boxes, Northwestand along the PacificCoast to Alaska. It is also
patterns, and miliworkproducts,such as sashes and door calledcanoe-cedar, giantarborvitae, shinglewood, and Pacific
frames.In buildingconstruction, lower-grade boards are used redcedar. Western redcedarlumberis producedprincipally in
for sheathing, knottypaneling, and subflooring. High-grade Washington, followed by Oregon,Idaho, and Montana.
material is made into siding ofvarious kinds, exteriorand
interiorwoodwork, and millwork.Westernwhite pine has The heartwood ofwestern redcedaris reddishor pinkish
practicallythe same uses as easternwhitepine (Pinus brownto dull brown, and the sapwoodis nearly white. The
sfrobus)and sugarpine (Pinus lambertiana). sapwoodis narrow, often not more than 2.5 cm (1 ia.) wide.
The wood is generallystraightgrained andhas a unform but
Port-Orford-Cedar rather coarsetexture. It has very low shrinkage. This species
Port-Orford-cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana)is sometimes is lightweight, moderatelysoft, low in strength whenused as
knownas Lawson-cypress, Oregon-cedar, and white-cedar. It a beam orposts, and low in shockresistance. The heartwood
is very resistantto decay.
growsalong the Pacific Coast from Coos Bay, Oregon,
southward to California.It does not extendmore than Westernredcedaris usedprincipally for shingles, lumber,
64 km (40 mi) inland.
poles, posts,and piles. The lumberis usedfor exterior
The heartwoodofPort-Orford-cedar is light yellow to pale siding, decking, interiorwoodwork, greenhouse construc-
brown.The sapwoodis narrowand hard to distinguishfrom tion, ship and boat building, boxes and crates, sashes,
theheartwood. The wood has fme texture, generally straight and doors.
grain, and a pleasantspicy odor. It is moderately light-

1—15
Redwood The heartwoodofEngelmann spruce is nearly white,with a
Redwood(Sequoiasempervirens) growson the coast of slight tinge ofred. The sapwoodvaries from 2 to 5 cm
California and sometrees are amongthe tallest in the world. (3/4to 2 in.) in width and is often difficultto distinguish
from the heartwood. The wood has mediumto fine texture
A closely related species, giant sequoia(Sequoiadendron
and is withoutcharacteristic odor.Engelmannspruceis rated
giganteum),is volumetrically larger and grows in a limited as lightweight, and it is low in strengthas a beam or post. It
area in the SierraNevadasofCalifornia, but its wood is used
in very limitedquantities. Othernames for redwoodare coast is also soft and low in stiffhess, shock resistance,and shrink-
redwood,Californiaredwood,and sequoia. Productionof age. The lumbertypicallycontains many smallknots.
redwoodlumber is limitedto California, but the market is
Engelmann spruceis usedprincipally for lumberand for
nationwide. minetimbers,railroadcrossties, and poles. It is usedalso in
The heartwoodofredwoodvariesfrom light "cherry"red to buildingconstruction in the form ofdimensionlumber,
dark mahogany.The narrow sapwoodis almost white. Typi- flooring, and sheathing. Ithas excellent propertiesforpulp
cal old-growth redwoodis moderatelylightweight, moder- andpapermaking.
ately strong and stiff, and moderatelyhard. The wood is easy
to work, generallystraightgrained,and shrinks and swells Spruce, Sitka
Sitka spruce(Picea sitchensis)is a large tree that grows
comparatively little. The heartwoodfrom old-growth trees
has high decayresistance;heartwoodfrom second-growth along the northwestern coast ofNorth Americafrom Cali for-
trees generally has low to moderatedecay resistance. niato Alaska. It is also known as yellow,tideland,western,
silver, and west coast spruce.Much Sitka spruce timber is
Most redwood lumberis used forbuilding. It isremanufac- grownin Alaska, but most logs are sawn into cants for
tured extensivelyinto siding, sashes, doors, blinds, mill- exportto PacificRim countries. Materialfor U.S. consurnp-
work, casket stock, and containers. Becauseofits durability, tion is producedprimarilyin Washingtonand Oregon.
redwood is useful for coolingtowers,decking,tanks, silos,
wood-stavepipe,and outdoorfurniture.It is used in agricul- The heartwoodofSitka spruce is a light pinkish brown. The
turefor buildingsand equipment. Its use as timbers and large sapwoodis creamy white and shadesgraduallyinto the
dimension in bridges and trestlesis relatively minor. Red- heartwood;the sapwoodmay be 7 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in.) wide
wood splits readily and plays an important role in the oreven widerin young trees. The wood has a comparatively
manufacture ofsplitproducts,such as posts and fence fme,uniformtexture, generally straightgrain, andno distinct
material.Some redwoodveneeris producedfor decorative taste or odor. It is moderately lightweight,moderatelylow
plywood. in bendingand compressivestrength, moderatelystiff, mod-
erately soft, and moderatelylow in resistance to shock. Ithas
Spruce, Eastern moderatelylow shrinkage. On the basis ofweight,Sitka
spruce rates high in strengthproperties and can be obtained
The term easternspruce includes three species: red (Picea in long, clear, straight-grained pieces.
rubens),white (P. glauca), andblack (P. mariana). White
and blacksprucegrow principally in the Great LakeStates Sitka spruceis used principally for lumber, pulpwood, and
andNew England, andred sprucegrowsin New England cooperage. Boxes and crates account for a considerable
and the AppalachianMountains. amount ofthe remanufactured lumber. Other important uses
are furniture,planing-mill products, sashes,doors, blinds,
The wood is light in color, and there is little difference miliwork, and boats. Sitka spruce has been by farthe most
betweenheartwoodand sapwood. All threespecies have important wood for aircraft construction. Other specialty uses
about the same properties, and they are not distinguished are ladderrails and sounding boards for pianos.
from each other incommerce.The wood dries easily andis
stable after drying, is moderatelylightweight and easily Tamarack
worked,has moderateshrinkage, and is moderatelystrong,
Tamarack(Larixlaricina), also knownas eastern larchand
stiff, tough, and hard.
locally as hackmatack, is a small to mediumtree with a
The greatest use ofeasternspruceis for pulpwood. Eastern straight, round, slightlytaperedtrunk. It grows from Maine
spruce lumberis used for framingmaterial,generalmiliwork, to Minnesota, with thebulk ofthe stand in theGreat Lake
boxes and crates,andpiano sounding boards. States.

The heartwoodoftamarackis yellowishbrownto russet

Spruce, Engelmann brown. The sapwoodis whitish, generallyless than 2.5 cm
Engehnann spruce (Picea engelmannii) growsathigh eleva- (I in.) wide. The wood is coarsein texture, withoutodor or
tions in the Rocky Mountainregion ofthe United States. taste, and the transitionfrom earlywoodto latewoodis
This speciesis also known as white spruce, mountain
abrupt. The wood is intermediate in weight and in most
spruce,Arizona spruce, silverspruce, and balsam. About mechanical properties.
two-thirdsofthe lumberis producedin the southernRocky
MountainStatesand most ofthe remainderin the northern Tamarackis used principally for pulpwood, lumber, railroad
RockyMountainStates and Oregon. crossties, mine timbers,fuel, fence posts, and poles. Lumber

1—16
is used for framingmaterial, tank construction, and boxes, may be obtained ofa particular wood.The references at the
pallets,and crates. Theproductionoftamarack lumberhas end ofthis chaptercontaininformation on many species not
declined in recentyears. describedin this section.

White-Cedar, Northern and Atlantic Hardwoods

Two speciesofwhite-cedargrow in the eastern part ofthe Afara (see Limba)
UnitedStates: northern white-cedar(Thuja occidentalis) and
Atlantic white-cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides). Northern Afrormosia
white-cedar is also knownas arborvitae or simply as cedar. Afrormosia or kokrodua (Pericopsiselata), a largeWest
Atlantic white-cedaris alsoknownas southern white-cedar, Africantree, is sometimes used as a substitute forteak
swamp-cedar, and boat-cedar. Northern white-cedar grows (Tectonagrandis).
from Mainealong the Appalachians and westwardthrough
the northernpart ofthe Great LakeStates.Atlantic white- The heartwoodis fme textured,with straightto interlocked
cedargrows nearthe AtlanticCoast from Maineto northern grain. The wood is brownishyellowwith darkerstreaks and
Floridaand westwardalong the GulfCoastto Louisiana. It moderately hard and heavy,weighingabout 700 kg/m3
is strictlya swamptree. Productionofnorthernwhite-cedar (43 lb/ft3) at 15% moisture content. The wood strorLgly
lumberis greatest in Maineandthe Great Lake States.Pro- resembles teak inappearancebut tacks its oily nature and has
duction ofAtlanticwhite-cedar centers inNorth Carolinaand a differenttexture. The wooddries readily with littk degrade
along the GulfCoast. and has good dimensionalstability. It is somewhatheavier
and strongerthan teak. The heartwoodis highly resistantto
The heartwoodofwhite-cedaris light brown,and the sap- decay fungiandtermiteattackand is extremely durable under
wood is white or nearly so. The sapwoodis usually narrow. adverseconditions.
The wood is lightweight,rather soft, and low in strength and
shock resistance.It shrinkslittle in drying. It is easily Afrormosia is often used forthe same purposesas tek, such
workedand holds paint well, and the heartwoodis highly as boat construction, joinery, flooring, furniture, interior
resistantto decay.Northernand Atlantic white-cedar are used woodwork, and decorative veneer.
for similar purposes, primarilyfor poles,cabin logs, railroad
crossties, lumber, posts, and decorative fencing.White-cedar Albarco
lumberis used principally wherea high degreeofdurability Albarco, orjequitiba as it is known in Brazil, is the com-
is needed,as in tanks andboats, and for woodenware. mon nameapplied to species in the genus Cariniara. The
10 species are distributed from eastern Peru and northern
Yellow-Cedar BoliviathroughcentralBrazilto Venezuelaand Colombia.
Yellow-cedar(Chamaecyparisnootkatensis) growsin the
PacificCoastregionofNorth Americafrom southeastern The heartwoodis reddishor purplish brownand sometimes
Alaska southwardthroughWashington to southernOregon. has dark streaks.It isusuallynot sharplydemarcatedfrom
thepale brownsapwood. The texture is mediumand the
Theheartwoodofyellow-cedaris bright,clear yellow.The grain straight to interlocked. Albarcocan be workedsatisfac-
sapwoodis narrow,white to yellowish,and hardly distin- torily with only slight bluntingoftoolcutting edgesbecause
guishable from theheartwood.The wood is fine textured and ofthe presence ofsilica. Veneer canbe cut withoutdifficulty.
generallystraightgrained.It is moderatelyheavy, moderately The wood is rather strong and moderatelyheavy,weighing
strong and stiff, moderatelyhard, and moderatelyhigh in about 560 kg/rn3(35 lb/ft3)at 12% moisture content. In
shock resistance.Yellow-cedar shrinks little in drying and is general, the wood has about the same strengthas that ofU.S.
stable afterdrying, and the heartwoodis very resistantto oaks (Quercusspp.). The heartwoodis durable, particularly
decay. The wood has a mild, distinctive odor. thedeeply colored material. It has goodresistanceto dry-
woodtermiteattack.
Yellow-cedar is usedfor interiorwoodwork, furniture, small
boats, cabinetwork, and novelties. Albarcois primarily used for general construction and carpen-
try wood, but it can alsobe used forfurniturecomponents,
Imported Woods shipbuilding, flooring, veneerforplywood, and turnery.

This sectiondoes not purport to describeall the woodsthat Amaranth (see Purpleheart)
havebeen at one time or anotherimportedinto the United
States. It includesonly those species that at presentare Anani (see Manni)
considered to be commercially important. The same species Anaura (see Marishballi)
may be marketedin the UnitedStatesunder other common
names. Because ofthe variationin commonnames,many Andiroba
cross-references are included. Text information is necessarily Because ofthe widespread distribution ofandiroba (Carapa
brief, but when used in conjunction with the shrinkage and guianensis)in tropicalAmerica,the wood is knownundera
strengthdata tables (Ch. 3 and 4), areasonably goodpicture varietyofnames,including cedro macho,carapa, crabwood,

1—17
and tangare. Thesenames are also appliedto the related whereit forms fairly densebut localizedand discontinuous
species Carapanicaraguensis,whosepropertiesare gener- timberstands.
ally inferiorto those of C. guianensis.
The wood is creamto pale yellow with high natural luster; it
The heartwoodvaries from mediumto darkreddishbrown. eventually darkensto a goldenyellow. The grain is some-
The texture is like that oftrue mahogany(Swietenia macro- timesstraight but more often wavyorirregularlyinterlocked,
phylla), and andirobais sometimes substituted for true ma- whichproducesan unusual and attractivemottledfigure
hogany.The grain is usually interlockedbut is rated easy to whensliced or cut on the quarter. Althoughavodire weighs
work, paint, and glue. The wood is rated as durableto very less than northernred oak (Quercusrubra), it has almost
durable with respectto decay and insects.Andirobais heav- identicalstrengthproperties exceptthat it is lowerin shock
ier than true mahoganyand accordingly is markedly superior resistance and shear. The wood worksfairlyeasily with hand
in all static bendingproperties,compression parallelto andmachinetools and finishes well in most operations.
grain, hardness,shear,and durability.
Figured material is usuallyconverted into veneerforuse in
Onthebasis of its properties,andirobaappearsto be suited decorative work,and it is this kind ofmaterial that is chiefly
for suchuses as flooring, frame construction inthe tropics, imported into the United States. Otheruses includefurniture,
furniture and cabinetwork, millwork, utilityand decorative fine joinery, cabinetwork, and paneling.
veneer,andplywood.
Azobe (Ekki)
Angelin (see Sucupira) Azobe or ekki (Lophiraalata) is found in West Africaand
Angelique extends into the Congobasin.
comesfromFrench
Angelique(Dicoryniaguianensis) The heartwoodis dark red, chocolate-brown, or purple--
Guiana and Suriname. brown with conspicuous white deposits in the pores
Becauseofthe variability inheartwoodcolorbetweendiffer- (vessels).The texture is coarse, and the grain is usually
ent frees,two forms are commonly recognizedby producers. interlocked. The wood is strong, and its densityaverages
Theheartwoodthat isrusset-coloredwhenfreshlycut and about 1,120 kg/rn3 (70 lb/ft3) at 12% moisture content. It is
becomessuperficiallydull brownwith a purplish cast is very difficult to work with hand and machinetools, and tools
referredto as "gris." The heartwoodthat is more distinctly areseverelyblunted ifthewood is machinedwhen dry.
reddish and frequentlyshows widepurplishbands is called Azobecan be dressedto a smoothfinish, and gluingproper-
ties are usually good. Dryingis very difficultwithout exces-
"angeliquerouge." The texture ofthe wood is somewhat sive degrade. The heartwoodis rated as very durable against
coarserthan that ofblack walnut(Juglans nigra), and the
grain is generallystraightor slightlyinterlocked. In strength, decay but only moderatelyresistantto termiteattack.Azobe
is very resistantto acid and has good weatheringproperties.
angeliqueis superior to teak(Tectonagrandis) and white It is alsoresistantto teredo attack.Theheartwoodis
oak (Quercus alba), when green or air dry, in all properties
extremely resistantto preservative treatment.
excepttensionperpendicular to grain.Angelique is ratedas
highlyresistant to decay and resistantto marineborer attack. Azobe is excellent forheavy construction work, harborcon-
Machining properties vary andmaybe due to differences in struction, heavy-duty flooring, and railroadcrossties.
density, moisturecontent,and silica content. After the wood
is thoroughlyair or kiln dried, itcanbe workedeffectively
Bagtikan (see Seraya, White)
only with carbide-tippedtools.
Balata
The strength and durabilityofangelique make it especially
suitableforheavy construction, harborinstallations, bridges, Balataor bulletwood(Manilkarabidentata) is widelydis-
tributedthroughoutthe West Indies, Central America,and
heavyplankingforpierand platformdecking,andrailroad northern South America.
bridge ties. The wood is also suitable for ship decking,
planking, boat frames, industrial flooring, andparquetblocks The heartwoodofbalata is light to dark reddish brownand
and strips. not sharplydemarcatedfrom the pale brown sapwood. Tex-
ture is fine and uniform, and the grain is straightto occasion-
Apa (see Wallaba) ally wavyor interlocked. Balata is a strong and very heavy
Apamate (see Roble) wood; density ofair-driedwood is 1,060 kg/m3 (66 lb/tI3). It
is generallydifficultto air dry, with a tendencyto develop
Apitong (see Keruing) severe checkingand warp.The wood is moderatelyeasy to
Avodire work despite its high density, and it is rated good to excel-
Avodire(Turraeanthusafricanus)has a rather extensive lent in all machiningoperations. Balata is very resistant to
attackby decay fungi and highlyresistantto subterranean
range in Africa,from SierraLeonewestwardto the Congo termitesbut only moderatelyresistant to dry-woodtermites.
region and southward to Zaire and Angola.It is most com-
mon in the easternregion ofthe IvoryCoast and is scattered
elsewhere. Avodire is amedium-size tree ofthe rainforest

1—18

VA
Balatais suitable for heavy construction, textile and pulpmill generally mixed in the trade.The main commercial supplyof
equipment, furnitureparts, turnery, tool handles, flooring, cuangare comes from Colombia andEcuador. Banak and
boat framesand other bentwork,railroadcrossties, violin cuangare are common in swamp andmarshforestsandmay
bows, billiardcues, and other specialtyuses. occur in almostpure stands in someareas.
Balau The heartwoodofboth banak and cuangare is usually pinkish
Balau, red balau, and selanganbatu constitute a group of or grayishbrownand is generally not differentiated from the
species that are the heaviestofthe 200 Shorea species. About sapwood. The wood is straightgrainedand is ofa medium
45 species ofthis group grow from Sri Lankaand southern to coarsetexture.The various species arenonresistant to
India through southeastAsia to the Philippines. decay and insectattackbut can be readilytreatedwith pre-
servatives. Machining propertiesare very good,but when
The heartwoodis light to deep red or purple—brown,and it zones oftensionwoodare present,machiningmay result in
is fairly distinctfrom thelighterand yellowish-to reddish- surface fuzziness. The woodfinishesreadily and is easily
or purplish-brown sapwood. The textureis moderatelyfine glued. Strength properties ofbanakand cuangareare similar
to coarse,andthegrain is often interlocked. The wood to those ofyellow-poplar (Liriodendrontulip(fera).
weighsmore than 750 kg/rn3(47 lb/fl3) at 12% moisture
content. Balau is a heavy, hard, and strong timberthat dries Banakis considered a generalutilitywood for lumber, ve-
slowly with moderateto severeend checksand splits. The neer, and plywood. It is also used for moulding, mi [lwork,
heartwoodis durableto moderately durable and very resistant and furniture components.
to preservative treatments.
Benge (Ehie, Bubinga)
Balau is used forheavy construction, framesofboats,deck- Although benge (Guibourtiaarnoldiana), ehie or ovangkol
ing, flooring, and utility furniture. (Guibourtiaehie),andbubinga (Guibourtiaspp.)belong to
thesame West Africangenus, theydifferrathermarkedly in
Balau, Red (see Balau) color andsomewhat in texture.
Balsa The heartwoodofbenge is pale yellowishbrownto medium
Balsa(Ochroma pyramidale)is widelydistributedthrough- brownwith gray to almostblack stripes. Ehie heartwood
out tropicalAmericafrom southern Mexicoto southern tends to be more golden brown to dark brown with gray to
Brazil and Bolivia,butEcuadorhas been the principalsource almostblack stripes. Bubingaheartwoodis pink, vivid red,
ofsupplysince thewood gained commercial importance. It or red—brown with purplestreaks,and it becomes yellowor
is usuallyfoundat lower elevations,especiallyon bottom- medium brownwith a reddishtint upon exposureto air. The
land soils along streamsand in clearings and cutover forests. textureofehie is moderately coarse, whereas that ofbenge
Today, it is often cultivated in plantations. and bubingais fme tomoderatelyfine. All three wocds are
Several characteristics makebalsa suitable fora wide variety moderately hard and heavy,but they can be workedwell
with hand and machinetools. They are listed as moderately
ofuses.It is the lightestand softestof all woodson the durable and resistantto preservative treatment.Dryingmay
market. The lumber selectedfor use in the United States be difficult, butwith care,thewood dries well.
weighs, on the average,about 180 kg/rn3 (11 lb/fl3)when dry
and often as little as 100 kg/rn3 (6 Ib/ft3). The wood is read- Thesewoodsare used in turnexy, flooring, furniturecompo-
ily recognizedby its lightweight;nearly white oroatmeal nents, cabinetwork, and decorative veneers.
color, often with a yellowishor pinkishhue; and unique
velvety feel. Brown Silverbaul (see Kaneelhart)
Because ofits light weightand exceedingly porousccmposi- Bubinga (see Benge)
tion, balsa is highlyefficient in useswhere buoyancy, insula- Bulletwood (see Balata)
tionagainstheator cold, or low propagationofsound and
vibration are important. Principal uses are for life-saving Carapa (see Andiroba)
equipment, floats,rafts, corestock, insulation, cushioning,
soundmodifiers,models,and novelties. Cativo
Cativo(Prioriacopafera)is one ofthe few tropical Ameri-
Banak (Cuangare) can species that occur in abundance and often innear]ypure
Variousspeciesofbanak(Virola)occur intropicalAmerica, stands. Commercial stands are found in Nicaragua, Costa
fromBelize and Guatemala southward to Venezuela, the Rica, Panama, and Colombia.
Guianas, the Amazonregionofnorthern Brazil, and southern
Brazil, and onthe Pacific Coastto Peru and Bolivia.Most of Sapwoodmay be very palepink or distinctlyreddish, and it
is usuallywide. In trees up to 76 cm (30 in.) in diameter,
the woodknownas banak is V. koschnyi ofCentralAmerica heartwoodmay be only 18 cm (7 in.) in diameter.The grain
and V. surinamensisand V. sebfera ofnorthern South is straight andthetextureofthewood is uniform, compara-
America.Botanically, cuangare(Dialyanthera)is closely blewith that oftrue mahogany (Swietenia macrophy/la). On
relatedto banak,andthe woodsare so similarthat they are flat-sawn surfaces, the figureis rather subduedas a result of

- 1—19
exposureofthe narrow bands ofparenchymatissue.The sapwood, is salmonred to orange—brownwhen freshly cut
wood can be dried rapidly and easily with very little degrade. andbecomesrusset or reddishbrown whendried. The heart-
Dimensionalstability is very good—practically equalto that wood is often markedwith dark streaks.The texture is me-
oftrue mahogany. Cativo is classifiedas a nondurable wood dium to rather coarse, and the grain is mostly interlocked.
with respectto decay and insects.It may containappreciable The wood is hard and heavy (about 800 kg/rn3(50 lb/ft3)at
quantities ofgum. In wood that has been properlydried, 12% moisture content). The strengthpropertiesofcourbaril
however, the aromaticsin the gum are removedand there is arequitehigh andvery similarto those ofshagbarkhickory
no difficulty in finishing. (Carya ovata), a species oflowerspecificgravity. Courbaril
is rated as moderatelyto very resistantto attackby decay
Considerable quantitiesofcativoare used for interiorwood- fungi and dry-wood termites. The heartwoodis nottreatable,
work, and resin-stabilized veneer is an important pattern but the sapwoodis treatablewith preservatives. Courbarilis
material. Cativo is widelyusedfor furniture and cabinet moderately difficultto saw andmachinebecauseofits high
parts, lumber core forplywood, pictureframes,edgebanding density,but it canbe machinedto a smooth surface. Turn-
for doors,joinery, and millwork. ing, gluing, and finishingpropertiesare satisfactory. Planing,
however, is somewhat difficult becauseofthe interlocked
Cedro (see Spanish-Cedar) grain. Courbaril comparesfavorablywith white oak (Quercus
Cedro Macho (see Andiroba) alba) in steam bendingbehavior.
Cedro-Rana (see Tornhllo) Courbaril is used for tool handles and other applications that
requiregood shock resistance. It is also used for steam-bent
Ceiba parts, flooring, tumery, furniture and cabinetwork, veneerand
Ceiba(Ce/bapentandra)is a largetree, whichgrowsto plywood, railroadcrossties, and other specialtyitems.
66 m (200 ft) in height with a straight cylindrical bole 13 to
20 m (40 to 60 ft) long. Trunkdiametersof2 m (6 ft) or Crabwood (see Andiroba)
more are common. Ceiba growsin West Africa,fromthe
Cristobal (see Macawood)
IvoryCoast and SierraLeone to Liberia,Nigeria,and the
Congoregion.A related species is lupuna(Ceiba samauma) Cuangare (see Banak)
from SouthAmerica.
Degame
Sapwoodand heartwoodare not clearlydemarcated. The Degameor lemonwood (Calycophyllum candidissimum)
wood is whitish,palebrown, or pinkishbrown, often with growsin Cuba and ranges from southernMexicothrough
yellowishor grayish streaks. The texture is coarse, and the Central Americato Colombia and Venezuela. It may grcw in
grain is interlockedor occasionallyirregular. Ceiba is very pure stands and is common on shadedhillsidesand along
soft and light; density ofair-driedwood is 320 kg/rn3 waterways.
(20 lb/ft3). In strength,the wood is comparable with bass-
wood (Tilia americana). Ceiba dries rapidlywithout marked The heartwood ofdegame rangesfrom light brownto oat-
deterioration. It is difficult to saw cleanly and dress smoothly meal-colored and is sometimesgrayish. The sapwoodis
becauseofthe high percentage oftensionwood.Itprovides lighter in color and mergesgradually with the heartwood.
goodveneer and is easy to nail and glue. Ceiba is very The texture is fine and uniform. The grain is usually straight
susceptible to attack by decay fungi and insects.It requires or infrequently shows shallow interlocking, whichmay
rapid harvestand conversionto preventdeterioration. Treat- produce a narrowand indistinct stripe on quarteredfaces.In
ability, however, is rated as good. strength, degame is above the averagefor woodsofsimilar
density;density ofair-driedwood is 817 kg/rn3(51 lb/ft).
Ceiba is availablein large sizes,and its low density com- Tests show degame superior to persimmon(Diospyros
bined with arather high degreeofdimensionalstability make virginiana)in all respectsbut hardness.Natural durabilityis
it ideal forpattern and corestock.Otheruses includeblock- low whendegame is used under conditions favorableto
board,boxes and crates,joineiy, and furniturecomponents. stain, decay, and insect attack. However,degame is reported
to be highlyresistantto marineborers. Degameis moder-
Chewstick (see Manni) ately difficult to machine becauseof its densityand hardness,
althoughit does not dull cutting tools to any extent. Ma-
Courbaril (Jatoba) chinedsurfaces arevery smooth.
ThegenusHymenaea consistsofabout 25 species that occur
in theWest Indiesand from southernMexico through Cen- Degameis little usedin the United States,but its character-
tral Americainto the Amazonbasin ofSouthAmerica. The istics havemade it particularly adaptablefor shuttles,picker
best-knownand most importantspeciesis H. courbaril, sticks, and other textile industry items that requireresilience
whichoccursthroughoutthe range ofthe genus. Courbaril is and strength. 1)egame was onceprizedforthe manufacture of
often calledjatoba in Brazil. archery bows and fishingrods. It is also suitablefor tool
handlesand turnely.
Sapwood of courbarilis gray—whiteand usuallyquitewide.
The heartwood, whichis sharplydifferentiated from the

1—20
Determa mediumand uniform. The grain variesfrom straightto
Determa(Ocotea rubra)is native to the Guianas,Trinidad, interlockedand wavy.
and the lowerAmazonregion ofBrazil.
Goncaloalves turnsreadily,finishesvery smoothly, and
The heartwoodis light reddishbrown with agolden sheen takes a high natural polish. The heartwoodis highly resis-
and distinctfrom the dull gray or pale yellowish brown tant to moistureabsorption; pigmentedareas may present
sapwood. The texture is rather coarse, and the grain is inter- some difficulties in gluingbecauseoftheir high density. The
lockedto straight.Determais a moderatelystrong and heavy heartwoodis very durable and resistantto both white- and
wood (density ofair-driedwood is 640 to 720 kg/rn3(40 to brown-rotorganisms. The high density(1,010 kg/rn3
45 lb/ft3));this wood is moderatelydifficultto air dry. Itcan (63 lb/ft3)) ofthe air-dried wood is accompaniedby equally
be workedreadily with hand and machinetools with little high strengthvalues, which are considerably higher in most
dulling effect. It can be glued readily andpolishedfairlywell. respectsthan those ofany U.S. species. Despite its s'rength,
Theheartwoodis durable to very durable in resistance to however, goncaloalves is imported primarilyfor its beauty.
decay fungi and moderatelyresistantto dry-woodtermites. In theUnitedStates, goncaloalves has the greatest vahiefor
Weatheringcharacteristics are excellent, andthe wood is
highly resistant to moisture absorption. specialtyitemssuch as archery bows,billiardcue butts,
brushbacks, and cutleryhandles,and in turneryand carving
Uses for detennâincludefurniture,general construction, boat applications.
planking,tanks and cooperage, heavy marineconstruction,
turnery,andparquetflooring. Greenheart
Greenheart (Chiorocardium rodiei [ Ocotea rodiei]) is
Ehie (see Benge) essentiallya Guyanatree although small stands alsooccur in
Suriname.
Ekki (see Azobe)
Ekop The heartwoodvariesfrom light to dark olive green or nearly
black. The texture is fine and uniform, and the grain .s
Ekopor gola (Tetraberlinia tubmaniana)grows only in straightto wavy. Greenheart is stronger and stifferthanwhite
Liberia. oak (Quercusalba)and generally more difficultto work with
The heartwoodis light reddish brown and is distinct from tools becauseofits high density;densityofair-driedwood is
the lightercoloredsapwood,whichmaybe up to 5 cm more than 960 kg/rn3(60 lb/ft3). The heartwoodis ratd as
(2 in.) wide. The wood is mediumto coarsetextured,and very resistantto decay fungiandtermites.It is also very
thegrain is interlocked, with anarrow stripedpatternon resistantto marineborers in temperatewaters but much less
so in warmtropicalwaters.
quarteredsurfaces. The wood weighsabout 735 kg/rn3
(46 lb/ft3) at 12% moisturecontent.It dries fairlywell but Greenheart isused principally wherestrengthandresistance
with amarkedtendencyto end and surface checks.Ekop
to wear arerequired. Uses includeship and dock building,
workswell with hand and machinetools and is an excellent lock gates, wharves, piers,jetties, vats, piling, plank.ng,
wood forturnery. It also slices well into veneerand has good industrial flooring, bridges, and some specialtyitems
gluingproperties.The heartwoodis only moderatelydurable (fishingrods and billiard cue butts).
and is moderatelyresistant to impregnation with preservative
treatments.
Guatambu (see Pau Marfim)
Ekop is ageneral utility wood that is used for veneer, Guayacan (see Ipe)
plywood, and furniture components.
Hura
Encino (see Oak) Hura (Hura crepitans)growsthroughoutthe West Indies
Gola (see Ekop) from CentralAmericato northernBrazil andBolivia.
Goncalo Alves It is a large tree, commonly reachinga height of30 to 43 m
Mostimportsofgoncaloalves (Astronium graveolensand (90 to 130 ft), with clear boles of 12 to 23 m (40 to 75 fi).
A.fraxinjfolium)have beenfrom Brazil. These species range The diameteroftenreaches ito 1.5 m (3 to 5 ft) and occa-
from southern Mexico throughCentralAmericainto the sionallyto 3 m (9 ft).
Amazonbasin.
The pale yellowish-brown or pale olive-gray heartwocdis
Freshly cut heartwoodis russet brown, orange—brown, or indistinctfrom the yellowish-white sapwood. The texaire is
reddishbrown to red with narrowto wide, irregular, me- fine to medium and the grain straightto interlocked. Hurais
dium-to very-darkbrown stripes. After exposure to air, the a low-strength and low-density wood (densityofair-dried
heartwoodbecomesbrown,red, or dark reddishbrownwith wood is 240 to 448 kg/rn3(15 to 28 lb/ft3)); the wood is
nearly black stripes. The sapwoodis grayishwhite and moderately difficult to air dry. Warping is variableand some-
sharply demarcatedfrom the heartwood. The textureis fme to timessevere. The wood usuallymachineseasily, but green
material is somewhat difficult to work becauseoftension

1—21

ft
wood, whichresultsin a fuzzy surface. The woodfinishes Ipe is used almostexclusively for heavy-dutyand durable
well and is easy to glue and nail. Hura is variablein resis- construction. Becauseofits hardness and good dimensional
tance to attack by decay fungi,but it is highlysusceptible to stability, it is particularlywell suited forheavy-dutyflooring
blue stainandvery susceptibleto wood termites. However, intrucks and boxcars. It is also used for decks,railroad
thewood is easy to treat with preservative. crossties, turnely,tool handles,decorativeveneers,and some
specialty itemsin textile mills.
Hura is often used in generalcarpentry, boxes and crates,and
lowergrade furniture. Otherimportant uses are veneerand
Ipil (see Merbau)
plywood, fiberboard,and particleboard.
Iroko
Ilomba Irokoconsistsoftwo species(Miliciaexcelsa [= Chioro-
Ilomba (Pycnanthusangolensis)is atree ofthe rainforestand phora excelsa] and M. regia[ C. regia]). Miliciaexceisa
rangesfrom Guineaand SierraLeonethroughtropical West growsacross the entirewidthoftropicalAfricafrom the Ivory
AfricatoUganda and Angola. Commonnames include Coast southward to Angolaand eastwardto EastAfrica.
pycnanthus,walele, and otie. Miliciaregia, however, is limitedto extremeWest Africa
from Gambiato Ghana; it is less resistant to droughtthan is
The wood is grayish white to pinkish brown and, in some M excelsa.
trees, auniform light brown. There is generallyno distinc-
tion betweenheartwoodand sapwood. The texture is me- The heartwoodvariesfrom a pale yellowishbrownto dark
dium to coarse, and the grain is generallystraight. This chocolatebrownwith lightmarkingsoccurringmost con-
species is generallysimilarto banak (Virola) but has a spicuously on flat-sawnsurfaces;the sapwoodis yellowish
coarsertexture. Air-drydensityis about 512 kg/rn3 white. The texture is mediumto coarse,and the grain is
(31 lb/ft3), and thewood is about as strong as yellow-poplar typically interlocked. Iroko can be workedeasily with hand
(Liriodendrontulipjfera). Ilombadries rapidlybut is prone ormachinetools butwith some tearing ofinterlockedgrain.
to collapse,warp, and splits. It is easily sawn and can be Occasional deposits ofcalciumcarbonate severelydamage
workedwell with hand and machine tools. It is excellentfor cutting edges. The wood dries rapidly with little or no
veneerand has goodgluing and nailingcharacteristics. Green degrade. The strengthis similar to that ofred male
wood is subjectto insect and fungal attack. Logsrequire (Acer rubrum),andthe weight is about 688 kg/m (43 lb/ft3)
rapid extractionand conversionto avoid degrade. Both at 12% moisture content. The heartwoodis very resistantto
sapwood andheartwoodarepermeable and can be treated decay fungi and resistant totermite andmarine borer attack.
with preservatives.
Because ofits color anddurability, iroko has been suggested
In the United States, this species is used only in the form of as a substitutefor teak(Tectonagrandis). Its durability
plywood for generalutility purposes.However, ilombais makes it suitablefor boat building, piles, other marine work,
defmitelysuited for furniturecomponents, interiorjoinery, andrailroadcrossties. Otheruses includejoinery,flooring,
andgeneral utility purposes. furniture, veneer, and cabinetwork.

Jacaranda (see Rosewood, Brazilian)

Ipe
Ipe, the commonnameforthe lapachogroup ofthe genus Jarrah
Tabebuia, consistsofabout 20 species oftrees and occurs in Jarrah(Eucalyptusmarginata) is nativeto the coastalbelt of
practicallyevery Latin Americacountryexcept Chile. Other southwestern Australiaand is one ofthe principalspeciesfor
commonly usednames are guayacan and lapacho. that country's sawmillindustry.
Sapwoodis relativelywide, yellowishgray orgray—brown, The heartwoodis a uniform pink to dark red, often turning
and sharplydifferentiated from heartwood, whichis light to to deepbrownishred with age and exposureto air. The
dark olive brown. The texture is fme to medium.The grain sapwoodis pale and usually very narrow in old trees. The
is straight to very irregularand oftennarrowlyinterlocked. texture is evenandmoderatelycoarse,and the grain is fre-
The wood is very heavy and averages about 1,025 kg/rn3
quently interlockedor wavy. The wood weighs about
(64 lb/ft3)at 12% moisture content. Thoroughly air-dried 865 kg/rn3 (54 lb/fl3) at 12% moisture content.The common
heartwoodspecimensgenerallysink in water. Because ofits defects ofjarrah include gum veins orpockets,which in
high densityand hardness,ipe is moderatelydifficultto extreme instances, separatethe log into concentricshells.
machine,but glassy smooth surfaces can be produced. Ipe is Jarrah is a heavy, hard timberpossessingcorrespondingly
very strong; in the air-driedcondition,it is comparable with high strengthproperties. It is resistant to attack by termites
greenheart(Chlorocardiumrodiel).Hardnessis two tothree andrated as very durablewith respectto decay.The wood is
timesthat ofwhite oak(Quercus alba) orkeruing (Diptero- difficult to work with hand and machine tools becauseofits
carpus). The wood is highly resistant to decay and insects, high density and irregulargrain.
includingboth subterranean and dry-wood termites, but
susceptibleto marine borer attack.The heartwoodis imper- Jarrah is used for deckingand underframing ofpiers,jetties,
meable,but the sapwoodcan be readilytreatedwith and bridges, as well as pilesand fendersfor docks and
preservatives.

1—22
harbors.As flooring, jarrahhas high resistance to wear,but it 12% moisturecontent. Strength propertiesare simiIar to
is inclinedto splinterunderheavy traffic. Itis also used for those ofkeruingatcomparable specificgravity. The heart-
railroadcrossties and other heavyconstruction. wood is rated resistantto attack by decay fungi;it i:; reported
to be vulnerable to termites. Kapur is extremelyresistantto
Jatoba (see Courbaril) preservative treatment.The woodworks with moderateease
in most hand and machineoperations,but bluntingofcutters
Jelutong
may be severe becauseofsilicacontent, particularly whenthe
Jelutong(Dyeracostulata)is an important species in Malay- dry woodis machined. A goodsurfacecan be obtainedfrom
sia where it is bestknown for its latex production in the variousmachiningoperations, but there is atendencytoward
manufacture ofchewinggum ratherthan for itswood. raisedgrain ifdull cuttersare used.Kapur takes nail[s and
screws satisfactorily. The wood glueswell with ureaformal-
The wood iswhite or strawcolored,and there is no differen-
dehyde but not with phenolicadhesives.
tiationbetween heartwoodand sapwood. The texture is
moderatelyfine and even. The grain is straight,and luster is Kapurprovidesgood and very durable construction wood
low. The wood weighs about 465 kg/rn3 (28 lb/fl3) at 12% and is suitable for all purposesfor whichkeruing
moisture content. The wood is very easy to dry with little (Dipterocarpus)is used in the United States.In addition,
tendencyto split or warp,but stainingmay cause trouble. It kapur is extensively used in plywoodeitheralone or with
is easy to work in all operations,finisheswell, and glues species ofShorea (lauan—meranti).
satisfactorily. The wood is rated as nondurablebut readily
permeable to preservatives. Karri
Becauseofits low density and easeofworking, jelutong is Karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) is a very large tree limited to
well suited for sculptureand patternmaking,woodenshoes, southwestern Australia.
pictureframes,and drawing boards. Karriresembles jarrah (E. marginata)in structure ard general
appearance. It is usually paler in color and, on average,
Jequitiba (see Albarco) slightly heavier (913 kg/rn3(57 lb/fl3)) at 12% moisture
Kakaralli (see Manbarkiak) content. Karri is a heavyhardwoodwith mechanicalproper-
ties ofa correspondingly high order, evensomewhai higher
Kaneelhart thanthat ofjarrah. The heartwoodis rated as moderately
Kaneelhartor brownsilverballiare names appliedto the durable,though less so than that ofjarrah. It is extremely
genus Licaria. Species ofthis genus grow mostly in New difficulttotreat with preservatives. The wood is fairLy hard
GuineaandPapauNew Guinea and are found in association to machineand difficultto cut with hand tools. It is gener-
with greenheart(Chiorocardiumrodiei) on hilly terrain and ally more resistantto cutting than isjarrahand has a slightly
wallaba(Eperua)in forests. more dulling effecton tool edges.
The orangeor brownishyellowheartwooddarkensto yel- Karriis inferior tojarrah forunderground use and water-
lowishorcoffee brown on exposureto air. Thewood is works. However, where flexural strength is required, such as
sometimestinged with red or violet. The texture is fine to in bridges, floors, rafters, and beams, karri is an excellent
medium, and the grain is straightto slightly interlocked. wood. Karri is popularin heavy construction becauseofits
The wood has a fragrantodor, which is lost in drying. strengthand availabilityin large sizes and long lengths that
Kaneelhartis a very strong and very heavywood (densityof arefree ofdefects.
air-driedwood is 833 to 1,153 kg/rn3 (52 to 72 lb/fl3));the
wood is difficultto work. It cuts smoothlyand takes an Kauta (see Marishballi)
excellentfinishbut requfres care in gluing. Kaneelharthas
excellentresistance to both brown- andwhite-rotfungi andis Kempas
also rated very high in resistanceto dry-wood termites. Kempas (Koompassiamalaccensis)is distributedthroughout
the lowlandforestin rather swampyareas ofMalaysiaand
Uses ofkaneelhartinclude furniture, turnery,boat building, Indonesia.
heavy construction, andparquetflooring.
Whenexposed to air, the freshlycutbrick-redheartwood
Kapur darkens to an orange—red orred—brown with numerous yel-
low—brown streaks as aresult ofthe soft tissue(axialparen-
The genus Dryobalanopsconsistsofnine species distributed
over parts ofMalaysiaand Indonesia. For the exporttrade, chyma) associatedwith the pores. The texture is rather
thespecies arecombined under the namekapur. coarse, and the grain is typicallyinterlocked. Kempasis a
hard, heavy wood (densityofair-driedwood is 880 kg/rn3
The heartwoodis reddishbrownand clearly demarcatedfrom (55 lb/ft3));the wood is difficultto work with hand and
thepale sapwood.The wood is fairly coarsetextured but machine tools. The wood dries well, with some tendencyto
uniform. In general,the wood resembles keruing warp and check. The heartwoodis resistant to attack by
(Dipterocarpus),but on the whole, kapur is straighter decay fungibut vulnerable to termiteactivity.However, it
grainedand not quiteas coarse in texture. Densityofthe treatsreadilywith preservative retentionas high as
wood averages about 720 to 800 kglm3 (45 to 50 lb/fl3) at 320 kg/rn3 (20 lb/ft3).

1—23
Kempasis ideal for heavyconstruction work, railroad Lignumvitae is one ofthe heaviestand hardestwoodson the
crossties, and flooring. market. The wood is characterizedby its unique green color
and oily orwaxy feel. The wood has a fine uniformtexture
Keruing (Apitong) and closelyinterlockedgrain. Its resin contentmay consti-
Keruing or apitong(Dipterocarpus)is widely scattered tute upto one-fourth ofthe air-driedweightofthe heartwood.
throughoutthe Indo-Malaysian region.Most ofthe more
than 70 speciesin this genus are marketedunderthe name Lignumvitae wood is used chiefly for bearingor bushing
keruing.Other importantspeciesare marketedas apitong in blocks for ship propellershafts.The greatstrengthand tenac-
the PhilippineIslands and yang in Thailand. ity oflignumvitae, combined with self-lubricating properties
resulting from the high resin content,make it especially
The heartwoodvaries from light to dark red—brownor brown adaptable for underwater use. It is also used for such articles
to dark brown,sometimeswith apurple tint; theheartwood as mallets, pulley sheaves, caster wheels, stencil and chisel
is usually well defined from thegray orbuff-colored blocks, and turnedproducts.
sapwood. Similarto kapur (Dryobalanops),the texture of
keruing is moderatelycoarseand the grain is straight or Limba
shallowly interlocked. The wood is strong,hard, and heavy Limba (Terminaliasuperba), alsoreferredto as afara,is
(density ofair-driedwood is 720 to 800 kg/rn3 (45 to widely distributedfrom SierraLeone to Angolaand Zaire in
50 lbfft3));thiswood is characterized by the presenceofresin the rainforestandsavannaforest.Limbais alsofavored as a
ducts, whichoccur singlyor in short arcs as seen on end- plantation species in West Africa.
grain surfaces. This resinous condition andthe presence of
silicacan presenttroublesome problems.Sapwood and The heartwoodvariesfrom gray—whiteto creamyor yellow
heartwoodare moderatelyresistantto preservative treatments. brownandmay containdark streaksthat are nearly black,
However,the wood should be treatedwith preservatives producing an attractive figurethat is valuedfor decorative
when it is used in contactwith the ground. Durability varies veneer. The light color ofthe wood is consideredan impor-
with species,butthe wood is generallyclassified as moder- tant asset forthe manufacture ofblond furniture. The wood is
ately durable.Keruing generallytakes to sawingand machin- generally straight grained and ofuniformbut coarsetexture.
ing, particularlywhen green, but saws and cutters dull easily The wood is easy to dry and shrinkageis reported to be
as a result ofhigh silica content in thewood.Resin adheres rather low. Limbais not resistantto decay, insects,or ter-
to machineryand tools and may be troublesome. Also, resin mites. It is easy to work with all types oftools and is made
may cause gluingandfmishingdifficulties. into veneerwithoutdifficulty.

Keruing is used forgeneralconstruction work,framework for Principaluses includeplywood, furniture,interiorjoinery,

boats, flooring, pallets, chemicalprocessing equipment, and sliced decorative veneer.
veneerand plywood, railroadcrossties(iftreated), truck
floors,and boardwalks. Macacauba (see Macawood)
Macawood (Trebol)
Khaya (see Mahogany, African)
Macawood and trebol are common names appliedto species
Kokrodua(see Afrormosia) inthe genus Platymiscium. Other common names include
Korina(see Limba) cristobaland macacauba. This genus is distributedacross
continental tropicalAmericafrom southernMexicotothe
Krabak (see Mersawa) Brazilian Amazonregion and Trinidad.
KwiIa (see Merbau) The bright red to reddish or purplish brown heartwoodis
Lapacho (see Ipe) more or less striped.Darker specimenslook waxy, and the
sapwoodis sharplydemarcatedfrom the heartwood. The
Lapuna (see Ceiba) texture is mediumto fine, and the grain is straightto curly
Lauan (see Meranti Groups) or striped.The wood is not very difficultto work, and it
finishessmoothlyand takes on a high polish. Generally,
Lemonwood (see Degame) macawood air dries slowlywith a slight tendencyto warp
and check. Strength is quitehigh, and densityof air-dried
Lignumvitae wood rangesfrom 880 to 1,170kg/rn3 (55 to 73 lb/ft3). The
Formany years, the only speciesoflignumvitaeused on a heartwoodis reportedto be highly resistantto attack by
large scalewas Gualacumofficinale, whichis nativeto the decay fungi, insects, and dry-woodtermites. Althoughthe
West Indies, northernVenezuela,northernColombia, and
Panama. Withthe near exhaustion ofG. officinale, harvest- sapwoodabsorbspreservatives well,the heartwoodis resis-
tant to treatment.
ers turnedto G. sanctum,which is nowthe principalcom-
mercialspecies.Guaiacumsanctum occupies the same range Macawood is a fine furniture and cabinet wood. It is also
as G. officinalebut is more extensiveand includesthe used in decorative veneers, musical instruments, turnery,
Pacific side ofCentralAmericaas well as southern Mexico. joinery, and specialtyitems such as violin bows and
billiardcues.

1—24
Machinmango (see Manbarkiak) rotarycutsinto fme veneerwithout difficulty. It alsois easy
to finishandtakes an excellentpolish. The air-driedstrength
Mahogany ofAmerican mahogany is similarto that ofAmerican elm
The namemahoganyis presently applied to severaldistinct (Ulmus americana).Density ofair-driedwood varies from
kindsofcommercial wood. The original mahoganywood, 480 to 833 kg/rn3(30 to 52 lb/fl3).
producedbySwieteniamahagoni,camefromthe American
West Indies. This was the premierwood for fine furniture The principal uses formahogany are fine furniture and
cabinetwork and shipbuilding in Europeas earlyas the cabinets, interiorwoodwork, pattern woodwork, boat con-
1600s. Becausethe good reputationassociatedwith the name struction, fancy veneers, musicalinstruments, precision
mahoganyis based on this wood, American mahoganyis instruments, paneling, turnery,carving,and many other uses
sometimes referredto as truemahogany. A relatedAfrican that call for an attractive and dimensionallystable wood.
wood, ofthe genus Khaya, has long been marketedas
"Africanmahogany"and isusedformuch the same purposes Mahogany, Philippine (see MerantiGroups)
as American mahoganybecauseofits similarproperties and
overallappearance. A thirdkind ofwood calledmahogany, Manbarkiak
and the one most commonlyencounteredin the market,is Manbarklak is a commonnameappliedto species in the
"Philippinemahogany."This name is appliedto a group of genus Eschweilera. Othernamesincludekakarallimachin-
Asian woodsbelongingto the genus Shorea. In this chapter, mango,and mata—mata. About 80 species ofthis genus are
information on the "Philippinemahoganies"is given under distributed from easternBrazilthroughthe Amazonbasin,to
lauanand meranti groups. the Guianas,Trinidad,and Costa Rica.
Mahogany, African—Thebulk of"Africanmahogany" The heartwoodofmost species is light,grayish,reddish
shipped from west—central Africais Khayaivorensis, the brown,or brownish buff. The textureis fine and uniibrm, and
most widely distributedandplentiful species ofthe genus the grain is typically straight. Manbarklak is a very hard and
found in the coastalbelt ofthe so-called high forest. The heavywood (density ofair-driedwoodrangesfrom 768 to
closely allied species K anthothecahas amore restricted 1,185 kg/rn3 (48 to 74 lb/fl3))that is rated as fairlydifficultto
range and is found farther inlandinregionsoflowerrainfall dry. Most species are difficultto work becauseofthe high
but well withinthearea now being used fortheexporttrade. density and high silica content. Most speciesare highly
resistantto attackby decay fungi. Also, most specieshave
The heartwoodvariesfrom pale pink to dark reddish brown. gainedwide recognition for their high degreeofresisLanceto
The grain is frequentlyinterlocked, andthe texture is me- marineborer attack. Resistance to dry-woodtermite attack is
dium to coarse, comparablewith that ofAmerican mahogany variabledepending on species.
(Swieteniamacrophylla).The wood is easy to thy, but
machiningproperties are rather variable. Nailingand gluing Manbarklak is an ideal wood for marineand other hetvy
propertiesare good, and an excellentfinish is readilyob- construction uses. It is also used for industrial flooring, mill
tained. The wood is easy to slice and peel. In decay resis- equipment, railroad crossties, piles, and turnery.
tance, African mahogany is generally ratedas moderately
durable,whichis belowthe durabilityrating for American Manni
mahogany. Manni (Symphoniaglobul([era) is nativeto the West Indies,
Mexico, and Central, North, and South America. It lso
Principal usesforAfricanmahogany include furniture and occurs in tropicalWest Africa.Othernames include ossol
cabinetwork, interiorwoodwork, boat construction, and
veneer. (Gabon), anani (Brazil), waika(Africa), and chewstick
(Belize), anameacquiredbecauseofits use as aprimitive
Mahogany, American—True,American,or Honduras toothbrush and flossingtool.
mahogany(Swietenia macrophylla)rangesfrom southern The heartwoodis yellowish, grayish,orgreenishbrown and
Mexico through CentralAmericainto South Americaas far
southas Bolivia. Plantations have been established within is distinctfrom the whitish sapwood. The texture is coarse
its natural range and elsewherethroughoutthe tropics. andthe grain straightto irregular. The wood is very easy to
work with both hand andmachinetoots, but surfaces tend to
Theheartwoodvaries from palepink or salmon colored to roughenin planingand shaping.Manniair-driesrapidlywith
dark reddishbrown.The grain is generallystraighterthan only moderatewarpand checking. Its strengthis similarto
that ofAfricanmahogany(Khciyaivorensis); however, a wide that ofhickory(Carya),and the density ofair-driedwood is
varietyofgrain patternsare obtainedfrom American mahog- 704 kg/rn3 (44 lb/ft3). The heartwoodis durable in ground
any. The texture is rather fine to coarse. American mahogany contactbut only moderatelyresistantto dry-woodand sub-
is easily air orkilndried withoutappreciablewarp or checks, terraneantermites. The wood is rated as resistantto treat-
and it has excellentdimensional stability. It is rated as mentwith preservatives.
durablein resistance to decay fungiand moderately resistant
to dry-wood termites. Both heartwoodand sapwoodare Manniis a general purposewood that is used forrailroad
resistantto treatment with preservatives. The wood is very ties, general construction, cooperage, furniturecomponents,
easy to work with hand and machinetools, and it slices and flooring, and utility plywood.

1—25

is
Marishballi All merantishave axial resin ducts alignedin long, continu-
Marishballi is the commonname appliedto species ofthe ous, tangential linesas seen on the end surfaceofthe wood.
genus Licania. Othernames includekautaand anaura. Spe- These ducts sometimes containwhite depositsthat are visi-
cies ofLicania are widelydistributedin tropical Americabut bleto thenaked eye, butthe wood is notresinous like some
most abundant inthe Guianas andthe lowerAmazonregion keruing(Dipterocarpus)species that resemblemeranti. All
ofBrazil. themerantigroups are machinedeasilyexceptwhite meranti,
which dulls cuttersas a result ofhigh silica content in the
The heartwoodis generallya yellowishto dark brown, wood. The light red and white merantisdry easily without
sometimeswith areddish tinge. The texture is fme and degrade,but dark red and yellowmerantisdry more slowly
close, and the grain is usually straight. Marishballiis strong with atendencyto warp.The strengthand shrinkageproper-
and very heavy;densityofair-driedwood is 833 to ties ofthe merantigroupscompare favorably with that of
1,153 kg/rn3 (52 to 72 lb/ft3). The wood is rated as easy to northernred oak (Quercus rubra). The light red, white, and
moderatelydifficultto air dry. Becauseofits high density yellowmerantisare not durablein exposedconditions or in
and silica content, marishballiis difficultto work. The use of groundcontact, whereas darkred merantiis moderately
hardenedcutters is suggested to obtain smoothsurfaces. durable.Generally, heartwoodis extremelyresistantto mod-
Durabilityvaries with species,but marishballi is generally eratelyresistantto preservativetreatments.
consideredto have low to moderately low resistance to attack
by decayfungi. However,it is knownfor its high resistance Species ofmeranticonstitute a large percentage ofthe total
to attack bymarine borers. Permeability also varies, but the hardwoodplywoodimportedinto the UnitedStates. Other
heartwoodis generallymoderately responsiveto treatment. uses includejoinery,furnitureand cabinetwork, moulding
and millwork,flooring, andgeneral construction. Some dark
Marishballiis ideal for underwatermarine construction, red meranti is usedfor decking.
heavy construction above ground, andrailroadcrossties
(treated). Merbau
Merbau(Malaysia),ipil (Philippines), and kwila (New
Mata—Mata (see Manbarklak) Guinea)are names appliedto species ofthe genus Intsic,
most commonlyI. b/uga. Intsia is distributedthroughout
Mayflower (see Roble) the Indo—Malaysianregion,Indonesia,Philippines,and
Melapi (see Meranti Groups) many westernPacificislands,as well as Australia.
Meranti Groups Freshly cut yellowish to orange—brownheartwoodturns
Merantiis acommonname appliedcommercially to four brown or dark red—brown on exposureto air. Thetexture is
groupsofspecies ofShorea from southeast Asia,most com- rather coarse, and the grain is straight to interlockedor wavy.
monly Malaysia,Indonesia,and the Philippines. There are The strength ofair-driedmerbauis comparablewith that of
thousandsofcommonnames for the various species of hickory (Carva), but density is somewhatlower (800 kg/rn3
Shorea, but the names Philippinemahoganyand lauan are (50 lb/ft3) at 12% moisturecontent).The wood dries well
often substituted for meranti. The four groups ofmerantiare with little degradebut stainsblack in the presenceofiron
separated onthe basis ofheartwoodcolor and weight(Table andmoisture. Merbauis rather difficultto saw because it
1—3). About 70 species ofShorea belongto the light and sticksto saw teeth and dulls cutting edges.However,the
dark red meranti groups,22 speciesto the white meranti wood dresses smoothly in most operations and finisheswell.
group, and 33 speciesto the yellowmeranti group. Merbau has gooddurabilityand high resistanceto termite
attack. The heartwoodresists treatment,but the sapwoodcan
Merantispecies as awholehave a coarser texturethanthat of be treatedwith preservatives.
mahogany (Swieteniamacrophylla) and do nothave dark-
coloreddeposits in pores. The grain is usuallyinterlocked.

Table 1—3. Woods belonging to Shorea and Parashoreagenera

Name Color Density of air-dried wood
Dark red meranti (also called Dark brown; medium to deep red, some- 640+ kg/rn3 (40+ lbIft3)
tanguile and dark red seraya) times with a purplishtinge

Light red meranti (also called Variable—from almost white to pale pink, 400 to 640 kg/rn3, averaging 512 kg/rn3
red seraya) dark red, pale brown, ordeep brown (25 to 40 lb/fl3, averaging 32 lb/fl3)
White meranti (also called rnelapi) Whitishwhen freshly cut, becoming light 480 to 870 kg/rn3 (30 to 54 lb/ft3)
yellow-brownon exposureto air
Yellow meranti (also called yellow Light yelloworyellow-brown, sometimes with 480 to 640 kg/rn3 (30 to 40 lb/fl3)
seraya) a greenish tinge; darkens on exposure to air

1—26
Merbauis used in furniture,finejoinery,turnery,cabinets, Guatemala; the number diminishes southwardto Colombia,
flooring,musical instruments, and specialtyitems. whichhas two species. The usual Spanishname appliedto
the oaks is encino or roble,and both namesareused.inter-
Mersawa changeably irrespective ofspecies oruse ofthe wood.
Mersawais one ofthe common namesappliedto the genus In heartwoodcolor, texture, andgrain characteristics, tropical
Anisoptera,which has about 15 species distributedfromthe oaks are similarto the oaks in the UnitedStates, especially
PhilippineIslands and Malaysiato east Pakistan. Names live oak (Quercusvirginiana).In most cases,tropical oaks
appliedtothis wood vary with the source, and threenames are heavier(densityofair-driedwood is 704 to 993 kg/rn3
are generallyused inthe lumbertrade:krabak(Thailand),
mersawa(Malaysia), and palosapis(Philippines). (44 to 62 lb/fl3))than the U.S. species.Strengthdataare
available foronly four species, and the valuesfall between
Mersawa wood is light in color andhas amoderatelycoarse those ofwhite oak (Q. alba) and live oak(Q. virginana)or
texture. Freshlysawn heartwoodis pale yellowor yellowish are equaltothose oflive oak. Average specific gravilyfor the
brown and darkens on exposureto air. Somewoodmay tropical oaks is 0.72 basedon volumewhengreen and
show a pinkish cast or pink streaks, butthese eventually ovendry weight, with an observedmaximumaverage of0.86
for one species from Guatemala. Theheartwoodis rated as
disappearon exposure to air. The wood weighsbetween544
and 752 kg/rn3(34 and 47 lb/ft3) at 12% moisturecontent very resistantto decay fungianddifficultto treat with
and about 945 kg/rn3 (59 lb/ft3)when green.The sapwoodis preservatives.
susceptible to attack bypowderpostbeetles,and the heart- Utilizationofthe tropical oaks is very limitedat present
wood is not resistant to termites. The heartwoodis ratedas becauseofdifficulties encountered in the drying ofthe wood.
moderatelyresistantto fiurgal decay and shouldnot be used Themajorvolumeis used in theform ofcharcoal,bit the
under conditions that favor decay.The heartwooddoes not wood is used for flooring, railroadcrossties, mine timbers,
absorb preservativesolutionsreadily. The wood machines tight cooperage, boat and ship construction, and decorative
easily,but becauseofthe presence ofsilica,the wood se- veneers.
verely dulls the cuttingedges ofordinary tools and is very
hard on saws. Obeche
Obeche (TrIplochitonscieroxylon) treesofwest—central Africa
Themajor volumeofmersawawill probablybe used as
reacha height of50 m (150 ft) or more and a diameter ofup
plywoodbecauseconversioninthis form presents considera- to 2 m (5 ft). The trunk is usuallyfree ofbranchesfor a
bly less difficultythan does theproduction oflumber. considerable height so that clear lumberofconsiderable size
Mora can be obtained.
Mora (Mora excelsaand M gonggr/pii) is widely distrib- The wood is creamywhite to pale yellowwith little or no
utedinthe Guianas andalso occursin theOrinoco Deltaof difference betweensapwood and heartwood. The wocd is
Venezuela. fairlysoft, ofuniformmedium to coarsetexture, and the grain
is usually interlockedbut sometimes straight. Air-drywood
Theyellowishred—brown,reddishbrown, or dark red heart-
wood with pale streaksis distinctfrom the yellowishto pale weighsabout 385 kg/rn3(24 lb/ft3). Obeche dries readily
with little degrade.It is not resistantto decay, and green
brown sapwood. The texture is moderatelyfmeto rather sapwoodis subjectto blue stain. The wood is easy to work
coarse,and the grain is straight to interlocked. Mora is a and machine, veneers and glues well,and takes nails and
strong and heavy wood (densityofair-driedwood is 945 to screwswithout splitting.
1,040 kg/rn3 (59 to65 lb/fl3)); this wood is moderately
difficultto work but yields smoothsurfaces in sawing, plan- The characteristics ofobeche make it especiallysuitable for
ing, turning, and boring. The wood is generally rated as veneerand corestock. Otherusesincludefurniture,compo-
moderatelydifficultto dry. Mora isratedas durable to very nents,millwork, blockboard, boxes and crates,partic[eboard
durablein resistance to brown- and white-rot fungi.Mbra and fiberboard, patterns, and artificial limbs.
gonggrjjpiiis rated very resistantto dry-woodtermites, but
M excelsais considerablyless resistant. The sapwoodre- Ofram (see Limba)
spondsreadily to preservativetreatments,but the heartwood
resists treatment. Okoume
Thenaturaldistributionofokourne (Aucoumea klaineana)is
Mora is used for industrialflooring, railroadcrossties, ship- ratherrestricted; the species is found only in west—central
building,and heavy construction. Africa and Guinea. However, okoumeis extensively planted
throughout its natural range.
Oak (Tropical)
The oaks (Quercus)are abundantly representedin Mexico The heartwoodis salmon-pink in color,and the narrow
and CentralAmericawith about 150 species,whichare sapwoodis whitish or pale gray. The wood has a high luster
nearly equallydividedbetweenthe red andwhite oak groups. and uniform texture.The texture is slightly coarserthan that
Morethan 100 species occur in Mexicoand about25 in ofbirch (Betula). The nondurableheartwooddries readily
with little degrade. Sawn lumber is somewhat difficu't to

1—27
machinebecauseofthe silica content, but the wood glues, specific gravity, strength valuesarehigher thanthose ofsugar
nails, and peels into veneereasily. Okoumeoffers unusual maple, whichhas anaveragespecific gravityof0.56.
flexibility in fmishingbecausethe color,which is ofmedium
intensity, permitstoning to eitherlighter or darkershades. In its areas of growth, paumarfirnis used for much thesame
purposesas are sugarmaple and birch inthe United States.
In the UnitedStates,okoume is generallyusedfor decorative Introduced to the U.S. market in the late 1960s, pau martirn
plywood paneling,general utility plywood,and doors. has beenvery wellreceived and is especially esteemedfor
Otheruses include furniture components, joinery, and light tumery.
construction.
Peroba, White (see Peroba de Campos)
Opepe Peroba de Campos
Opepe (Nauclea diderrichii)is widelydistributed inAfrica Perobade campos (Paratecomaperoba),also referredto as
from SierraLeone to the Congoregionand eastwardto
white peroba, grows inthe coastalforests ofeasternBrazil,
Uganda.It is often found in pure stands.
ranging from Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. It is the only species
The orangeor goldenyellowheartwooddarkens on exposure in the genusParatecoma.
to air and is clearlydefmed from thewhitishor pale yellow The heartwoodvariesin color but is generallyshadesof
sapwood. The texture is rather coarse, and thegrain is usu- brownwith tendenciestoward olive and red. The sapwoodis
ally interlocked or irregular.The density ofair-driedwood a yellowish gray and is clearly definedfrom theheartwood.
(752 kg/rn3(47 lb/ft3)) is about the same as that oftrue hick- The textureis relatively fme andapproximates that ofbirch
ory (Carya),but strengthpropertiesare somewhat lower. (Betula).The grain is commonly interlocked, with a narrow
Quartersawn stock dries rapidlywith little checking or warp,
but flat-sawnlumbermaydevelopconsiderable degrade. The stripe orwavy figure. The wood machineseasily; howeer,
wood worksmoderatelywellwith hand and machine tools. particularcaremust betaken in planingto preventexcessive
It also glues and finishes satisfactorily. The heartwoodis grain tearing ofquartered surfaces. There is some evidence
ratedas very resistantto decay andmoderatelyresistantto that the fme dust from machiningoperations may produce
termite attacks. The sapwoodis permeable to preservatives, allergic responses in certain individuals.Densityofair-dried
wood averages about 738 kg/m3 (46 lb/ft3). Perobade cam-
but the heartwoodis moderatelyresistantto preservative
treatment. pos is heavierthan teak (Tectonagrandis) or white oak
(Quercusalba), and it is proportionately stronger than either
Opepe is a general constructionwood that is used in dock
ofthese species. The heartwoodofperobade campos is rated
and marine work, boat building, railroadcrossties, flooring, as very durable with respectto decayand difficult totreat
andfurniture. with preservatives.
In Brazil, perobade camposis used in themanufacture offme
Ossol (see Manni)
furniture,flooring, and decorative paneling. The principaluse
Otie (see Ilomba) in theUnitedStatesis shipbuilding, where perobade cam-
pos servesas substitute forwhite oak (Quercusalba)for all
Ovangkol (see Benge) purposesexceptbent members.
Palosapis (see Mersawa)
Peroba Rosa
Para—Angetim (see Sucupira) Peroba rosais the common name appliedto anumber of
Pau Marfim similar species in the genusAspidosperma.Thesespecies
Therangeofpau marfim(Balfourodendron riedelianum) is occur in southeastern Braziland parts ofArgentina.
rather limited,extendingfrom the State ofSao Paulo, Brazil,
into Paraguayand the provincesofCorrientes and Missiones The heartwoodis a distinctive rose-redto yellowish, often
ofnorthernArgentina. In Brazil, it is generallyknown as pau variegated or streakedwith purpleor brown, andbecomes
marfimand in Argentinaand Paraguay, as guatambu. brownishyellowto dark brownupon exposureto air; the
heartwoodis oftennot demarcated from the yellowish sap-
In color andgeneral appearance, pau marfimwood is very wood. The texture is fme and uniform, and the grain is
similarto birch (Betula)or sugarmaple(Acersaccharum) straight to irregular. The wood is moderatelyheavy; weight
sapwood.Althoughgrowth rings are present,they do not ofair-driedwood is 752 kg/rn3(47 lb/ft3). Strengthproperties
show as distinctlyas those in birch and maple. There is no are comparable with those ofU.S. oak (Quercus).Thewood
apparentdifference in color between heartwood and sapwood. dries with little checkingor splitting. It works with moder-
The wood is straightgrained and easy to work and finish, ate ease,and it gluesandfmishessatisfactorily. The heart-
but it is not consideredresistantto decay.In Brazil, average wood is resistantto decay fungi but susceptible to dry-wood
specific gravityofpau marfimis about 0.73 basedon volume termite attack. Although the sapwoodtakes preservative
ofgreenwood and ovendiyweight.Averagedensity ofair- treatment moderatelywell, theheartwoodresists treatment.
dried wood is about 802 kg/rn3(50 lb/ft3). On the basis of

1—28

at
Perobais suitedfor generalconstruction work and is favored limitedbecauseofits rather restrictedrange and relative
for fine furniture and cabinetwork and decorative veneers. scarcity ofnaturally growntrees. Recentplantations have
Otheruses include flooring, interiorwoodwork, sashesand increased the availability ofthis species andhave provideda
doors, and turneiy. more constantsource ofsupply.The quality ofthe rilanta-
tion-grown wood is equal in all respectsto the wood ob-
Pilon tainedfrom naturallygrowntrees.
The two main speciesofpilon are Hyeronimaalchorneoides The heartwoodis whitish to straw-yellow, and in some logs,
and H. lax?flora, also referredto as suradan. These species it may be tinted with pale brown or pinkishstreaks, The
range from southernMexicoto southernBrazilincluding the texture ismediumto rather coarse,andthe grain is straight
Guianas,Peru, and Colombia. Pilon species are also found to wavy, whichproducesawide varietyoffigurepatterns.
throughoutthe West Indies. The wood also has a very high luster. Shrinkage is rather
The heartwoodis a lightreddish brownto chocolatebrown low, and the wood shows ahigh degree ofdimensional
or sometimesdark red; thesapwoodis pinkish white. The stability. Despiteconsiderable grain variation,primtvera
textureismoderatelycoarseandthe grain interlocked. The machines remarkably well. The density ofair-driedwood is
wood air-driesrapidlywith only amoderateamountofwarp 465 kg/rn3(29 lb/ft3), and the wood is comparablein strength
and checking. It has good workingpropertiesin all opera- with watertupelo (Nyssaaquatica). Resistanceto both
tions exceptplaning,whichis ratedpooras a result ofthe brown- and white-rot fungivaries. Weathering characteristics
characteristic interlocked grain. The strengthofpilon is aregood.
comparable with that oftrue hickory(Carya), andthe density The dimensional stability, ease ofworking, and pleasing
ofair-driedwood rangesfrom 736 to 849 kglm3 (46to
53 lbIft3).Pilon is rated moderatelyto very durable in appearance makeprimavera asuitable choice for solid furni-
ture, paneling, interiorwoodwork, and specialexter.oruses.
groundcontactand resistantto moderatelyresistantto sub-
terraneanand dry-woodtermites. Both heartwoodand sap-
wood arereportedto be treatablewith preservativesby both Purpleheart
open tank andpressure vacuumprocesses. Purpleheart, alsoreferredto as amaranth, is the namoapplied
to species in thegenusPeltogyne. The centerofdistribution
Pilon is especially suited forheavy construction, railway is in the north-central partofthe Brazilian Amazonregion,
crossties, marinework, and flooring. Itis alsoused for furni- butthecombined range ofall species is from Mexicothrough
ture, cabinetwork, decorativeveneers,tumery,andjoinery, CentralAmericaand southwardto southernBrazil.

Piquia Freshlycut heartwoodis brown. It turns a deeppurple upon

Piquia is the commonname generallyappliedto species in exposureto air and eventually dark brownupon exposure to
thegenus Caryocar. This genus is distributedfrom Costa light. The texture is medium to fine, and the grain i usually
Rica southwardinto northernColombia andfrom the upland straight.This strong and heavy wood (densityofair..dried
forestofthe Amazon valleyto easternBrazilandthe wood is 800 to 1,057 kg/rn3 (50 to 66 lb/It3)) is rated as easy
Guianas. tomoderatelydifficult to air dry. It is moderately difficult to
work with using eitherhand or machinetools, and it dulls
The yellowishto light grayishbrown heartwoodis hardly cutters rather quickly.Gummyresin exudeswhenth wood
distinguishablefrom the sapwood.The texture is medium to is heatedby dull tools.A slow feedrate and specially hard-
rather coarse, and the grain is generallyinterlocked. The enedcuttersare suggested for optimalcutting. The wood
wood dries at a slowrate; warpingand checking may de- turns easily, is easy to glue, and takes finisheswell. The
velop, but only to a minor extent. Piquia is reportedto be heartwoodis rated as highlyresistantto attack by decay
easy to moderatelydifficultto saw; cutting edgesdull rap- fungiand very resistantto dry-wood termites. It is extremely
idly. The heartwoodis very durable and resistantto decay resistantto treatmentwith preservatives.
fungi and dry-woodtermitesbut only moderatelyresistantto
marineborers. The unusual and uniquecolor ofpurpleheart makesthis
wood desirable forturnery,marquetry, cabinets, fine :['urni-
Piquia is recommended forgeneraland marineconstruction, tare,parquetflooring, and many specialtyitems, such as
heavy flooring, railwaycrossties, boat parts,and furniture billiardcue butts andcarvings.Otheruses includeheavy
components. It is especiallysuitablewherehardness and construction, shipbuilding, and chemicalvats.
high wearresistance are needed.
Pycnanthus (see Ilomba)
Primavera Ramin
The naturaldistributionofprimavera(Tabebuiadonnell—
smithii [—Cybistaxdonnell-smithii]) is restrictedto south- Ramin(Gonyslylus bancanus)is native to southeastAsia
from the Malaysian Peninsulato Sumatraand Borneo.
westernMexico, the Pacific coastofGuatemala and El Sal-
vador,and north-central Honduras. Priniaverais regardedas Boththe heartwoodand sapwoodare the color ofpals straw,
one ofthe primarylight-coloredwoods,but its use has been yellow,or whitish. The grain is straightor shallowly

1—29
interlocked. The texture is even, moderatelyfme,and similar Forexample, Brazilian rosewoodis harder than any U.S.
to that ofAmerican mahogany(Swietenia macrophylla). The native hardwoodspecies used forfurnitureand veneer. The
wood is without figure or luster.Ramin is moderatelyhard wood machines andveneerswell. It canbe glued satisfacto-
and heavy,weighingabout 672 kg/rn3 (42 lb/fl3) in the air- rily, providedthe necessary precautionsare takento ensure
dried condition.The wood is easy to work, finisheswell, good glue bonds, with respect to oily wood. Brazilianrose-
and glues satisfactorily. Ramin is rated as not resistantto woodhas an excellentreputationfor durabilitywith respect
decay but permeable with respectto preservative treatment. to fungal and insectattack,includingtermites,althoughthe
wood is not used for purposeswhere durability is necessary.
Ramin is used forplywood,interiorwoodwork, furniture,
turnery,joinery, moulding,flooring, dowels, and handlesof Brazilian rosewoodis used primarilyin the form ofveneer for
nonstrikingtools (brooms),and as a generalutility wood. decorative plywood. Limitedquantitiesare usedin the solid
form for specialty items such as cutleryhandles,brush backs,
Roble billiardcue butts, and fancy turnery.
Roble,a species in theroble group ofTabebuía (generally
T rosea), rangesfrom southernMexicothroughCentral Rosewood, Indian
Americato Venezuelaand Ecuador. The nameroble comes Indian rosewood(Dalbergia latjfolia) is native to most
from the Spanishword for oak (Quercus). In addition, T. provincesofIndia exceptin the northwest.
rosea is calledroble becausethe wood superficially resem- The heartwoodvaries in color from goldenbrownto dark
bles U.S. oak. Othernames for T. rosea are mayflower and
purplishbrownwith denserblackishstreaks atthe end of
apamate. growthzones, giving rise to an attractivefigureon flat-sawn
surfaces. The narrow sapwoodis yellowish. The average
The sapwoodbecomesapalebrownupon exposureto air.
The heartwoodvaries from goldenbrownto dark brown,and weight is about 849 kg/rn3 (53 lb/fl3) at 12% moisture con-
it has no distinctiveodor or taste. The texture is medium tent. The texture is uniformand moderatelycoarse. Indian
andthe grain narrowlyinterlocked. The wood weighsabout rosewoodis quite similarin appearanceto Brazilian
642 kg/rn3 (40 lb/fl3) at 12% moisturecontent. Roble has (Dalbergianigra) and Honduran (Dalbergiastevensonhi)
rosewood. The wood is reported to kiln-drywell though
excellent working propertiesin all machine operations. It
finishesattractivelyin natural color and takes fmishes with slowly, and the color improves duringdrying. Indianrose-
wood is a heavywood with high strengthproperties;afler
good results. It weighs less than the average ofU.S. white
oaks (Quercus)but is comparablewith respectto bending drying, it is particularlyhard for its weight.The wood is
and compressionparallelto grain. The heartwoodofroble is moderately hard to work with hand tools and offers a fair
resistance in machine operations. Lumberwith calcareous
generallyrated as moderatelyto very durablewith respectto
decay; the darkerandheavierwood is regarded as more depositstends to dull tools rapidly. The wood turns well
resistantthan the lighter-colored woods. and has high screw-holding properties. If a very smooth
surface isrequiredfor certain purposes, pores(vessels) may
Roble is used extensively for furniture,interiorwoodwork, needto be filled.
doors, flooring, boat building, ax handles,and generalcon- Indianrosewood is essentiallya decorative wood forhigh-
struction. The wood veneerswell and producesattractive
quality furniture and cabinetwork. In the UnitedStates, it is
paneling. For some applications, roble is suggestedas a used primarily in the form ofveneer.
substituteforAmericanwhite ash (Fraxinusamericana)and
oak (Quercus). Sande
Practicallyall commercially availablesande (mostly
Rosewood, Brazilian Brosimum utile)comesfrom PacificEcuadorand Colombia.
Brazilian rosewood(Dalbergianigra), also referredto as However, the group ofspecies ranges from the AtlanticCoast
jacaranda,occurs in eastern Brazilian forestsfrom the Stateof in Costa Rica southwardto Colombiaand Ecuador.
Bahia to Rio de Janeiro. Since it was exploitedfor a long
time, Brazilianrosewoodis no longer abundant. The sapwoodand heartwoodshowno distinction;the wood
is uniformlyyellowishwhite to yellowish or light brown.
The heartwoodvarieswith respectto color,through shades The texture ismediumto moderatelycoarse and even, and
ofbrown,red, andviolet, and it is irregularlyand conspicu- thegrain can be widelyand narrowlyinterlocked. The den-
ouslystreakedwith black. It is sharplydemarcatedfromthe sity ofair-driedwood rangesfrom 384 to 608 kg/rn3 (24 to
white sapwood. Many kinds ofrosewoodare distinguished 38 lb/fl3), and the strengthis comparable with that ofU.S.
locallyonthe basis ofprevailingcolor. The texture is coarse, oak (Quercus).The lumberair dries rapidlywith little orno
and the grain is generallystraight. The heartwoodhas an degrade. However, materialcontainingtensionwood is
oily or waxyappearance and feel, and its odor is fragrant subjectto warp,and the tension wood may cause fuzzy grain
and distinctive.The wood is hard andheavy (weightofair- aswell as overheating ofsaws as aresult ofpinching.The
dried wood is 752 to 897 kg/rn3 (47 to 56 lb/fl3)); thor- wood is not durable with respect to stain, decay, and insect
oughly air-driedwood will barely float in water.Strength attack, and care must be exercised to prevent degradefrom
properties ofBrazilianrosewood arehigh and are more than these agents. The wood stainsand fmishes easily and
adequateforthe purposesforwhichthis wood is used. presents no gluingproblems.

1—30
Sandeis used for plywood, particleboard, fiberboard, carpen- The heartwoodis brownwith a pink or goldentinge that
try, light construction, furniture components, and moulding. darkens on exposure to air. Darkbrownorblack streaks
are sometimes present. The sapwoodis light gray, brown,
Santa Maria or straw-colored. The textureis moderatelyfine and even,
Santa Maria (Calophyllum brasiliense)ranges from the West andthe grain is narrowlyinterlocked. The strengthof sepetir
Indiesto southernMexicoand southward throughCentral is similarto that ofsheilbark hickory (Carya laciniosa),
Americainto northernSouthAmerica. and the density ofthe air-driedwood is also similar(640 to
720 kg/m3 (40 to 45 lb/fl3)). The wood dries well but rather
The heartwoodis pinkishto brick red or rich reddishbrown slowly, with a tendencyto end-split. The wood is difficultto
andmarkedby fme and slightly darkerstripingon flat-sawn workwith handtools and has a rather rapid dullingeffecton
surfaces. The sapwoodis lighterin color and generallydis- cutters. Gumsfrom the wood tend to accumulate on saw
tinct from the heartwood. The texture is medium and fairly teeth,whichcausesadditionalproblems. Sepetiris rated as
uniform,and the grain is generallyinterlocked. Theheart- nondurablein groundcontactunder Malaysian exposure. The
wood is rather similarin appearanceto dark red meranti heartwoodis extremely resistantto preservative treatment;
Shorea). The wood is moderatelyeasy to work and good however,the sapwoodis only moderatelyresistant.
surfaces can be obtainedwhenattentionis paidto machining
operations. The wood averagesabout 608 kg/rn3(38 lb/fl3)at Sepetiris ageneralcarpentry wood that is alsousedfor
12% moisture content. Santa Maria is in the density class of furniture and cabinetwork, joinely, flooring (especially truck
sugarmaple (Acersaccharum),and its strength properties are flooring), plywood, and decorative veneers.
generallysimilar;the hardness ofsugarmaple is superior to
that ofSanta Maria. The heartwoodis generallyratedas Seraya, Red and Dark Red (see Meranti Groups)
moderatelydurableto durable in contactwith the ground, Seraya, White
but it apparentlyhas no resistance againsttermitesand White serayaor bagtikan,as it is called in the Philippines,
marineborers.
is aname appliedto the 14 species ofParashorea, which
The inherent natural durability, color, and figureon the grow in Sabahand the Philippines.
quarter-sawn face suggestthat SantaMaria could be used as The heartwoodis light brownor straw-colored, sometimes
veneerforplywoodinboat construction. Otherusesare
with a pinkishtint. The texture is moderatelycoarse and the
flooring, furniture,cabinetwork, miliwork,and decorative
plywood. grain interlocked. White serayais very similar in appearance
and strength propertiesto light redmeranti,and sometimes
Sapele thetwo are mixed in themarket. Whiteserayadries easily
with little degrade,and works fairly wellwith hand and
Sapele (Entandrophrag,nacylindricum) is a largeAfricantree machine tools. The heartwoodis not durable to moderately
that occursfrom SierraLeonetoAngolaand eastward
durablein groundcontact,and it is extremelyresistantto
throughthe Congoto Uganda.
preservative treatments.
The heartwoodranges in color from that ofAmerican mahog-
Whiteseraya is usedforjoinery, light construction,
any (Swieteniamacrophylla)to a dark reddish orpurplish
brown. The lighter-coloredand distinctsapwoodmay be up mouldingand millwork,flooring, plywood,furniture,and
cabinet work.
to 10 cm(4 in.) wide. The texture is rather fine. The grain is
interlockedandproducesnarrowand uniform striping on
quarter-sawn surfaces.The wood averages about 674 kg/rn3 Seraya, Yellow (see Meranti Groups)
(42 lb/fl3)at 12% moisture content, and its mechanical prop- Silverballi,Brown (see Kaneelhart)
ertiesare in generalhigherthanthose ofwhite oak(Quercus
a/ba). The wood works fairlyeasily with machinetools, Spanish-Cedar
althoughthe interlockedgrain makesit difficultto plane. Spanish-cedar or cedro consists ofa group ofabout seven
Sapelefmishesand glueswell. The heartwoodis rated as species inthe genus Cedrela that are widelydistributed
moderately durableandis resistantto preservative treatment. in tropicalAmericafrom southernMexicoto northern
Argentina.
As lumber, sapeleis used for furniture and cabinetwork,
joinery,and flooring. As veneer,it is used for decoratiive Spanish-cedar is one ofonly a few tropicalspecies that are
plywood. ring-porous. The heartwoodvaries from light to dark reddish
brown, and the sapwoodis pinkishto white. The texture is
Selangan Batu (see Balau) rather fme and uniform to coarseanduneven. The grain is
not interlocked. The heartwoodis characterizedby a distinc-
Sepetir tive odor. The wood dries easily. Although Spanish-cedar is
Thenamesepetirappliesto species in the genus Sindoraand not high in strength, most other propertiesare similarto
to Pseudosindorapalustris. These species aredistributed those ofAmerican mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla),
throughoutMalaysia,Indochina, and the Philippines. except forhardnessandcompression perpendicular to the

1—31
grain,wheremahoganyis defmitelysuperior. Spanish-cedar ofLatinAmerica and Africa, andmany ofthese arenow
is considereddecayresistant;it works and glues well. producing teakwood.

Spanish-cedaris used locallyfor all purposesthat requirean The heartwoodvaries fromyellow—brownto dark golden—
easily worked,light but straightgrained,and durablewood. brownand eventually turns a rich brownupon exposureto
In the UnitedStates,thewood is favored for miliwork, air. Teakwoodhas a coarseuneventexture (ring porous), is
cabinets, fme furniture,boat building, cigar wrappers and usually straight grained,andhas a distinctlyoily feel. The
boxes, humidores,and decorative and utility plywood. heartwoodhas excellent dimensionalstabilityand avery
high degreeofnatural durability. Althoughteakis not gerler-
Sucupira (Angelin, Para-Angelim) ally used in the UnitedStateswhere strengthis ofprime
Sucupira,angelin,and para-angelimapply to species in four importance, its propertiesare generallyonpar with those of
U.S. oaks (Quercus).Teak is generallyworked with moder-
generaoflegumesfrom SouthAmerica. Sucupiraapplies to ate easewith hand andmachinetools.However,the presence
Bowdichia nitida from northernBrazil, B. virgilioides from
Venezuela,the Guianas,and Brazil, andDiplotropispur- ofsilica often dulls tools. Finishingand gluing aresatisfac-
pureafrom theGuianasand southernBrazil. Angelin tory, although pretreatmentmay be necessaryto ensure good
bonding offinishes and glues.
(Andirainermis)is awidespreadspecies that occurs
throughoutthe West Indies and from southernMexico Teak is one ofthe most valuable woods, but its use is lim-
throughCentralAmericato northern SouthAmericaand ited by scarcityandhigh cost. Because teak does not cause
Brazil. Para-angelim (Hymenolobium excelsum) is generally rust orcorrosionwhen in contactwith metal, it is extremely
restrictedto Brazil. usefulin the shipbuilding industry, fortanks and vats, and
The heartwoodofsucupirais chocolate-brown, red—brown, or for fixtures that require high acid resistance. Teakis currently
used inthe construction ofboats, furniture, flooring, decora-
light brown (especially in Diplotropispurpurea). Angelin tive objects, and decorative veneer.
heartwoodis yellowishbrown to dark reddishbrown;para-
angelimheartwoodturns palebrownupon exposure to air.
The sapwoodis generallyyellowishto whitish and is Torn1110
sharplydemarcatedfrom the heartwood. The textureofall Tornillo (Cedrelingacatenformis), also referredto as cedro-
threewoods is coarseanduneven, andthe grain can be inter- rana,growsin the LoretonHuanucoprovinces ofPeru and in
locked. The density ofair-driedwood ofthese species ranges thehumidterra firmaoftheBrazilian Amazonregion.
from 720 to 960 kg/rn3 (45 to 60 lb/ft3), whichmakesthem Tornillo can grow up to 52.5 m (160 ft) tall, with trunk
generallyheavierthan true hickory (Carya). Theirstrength diameters of 1.5 to 3 m (5 to 9 ft). Trees in Peru are often
properties are also higher than those oftruehickory.The smallerin diameter,with merchantable heights of 15 m
heartwoodis rated very durable to durable in resistance to (45 ft)or more.
decay fungibut only moderatelyresistantto attack by dry-
wood termites. Angelinis reportedtobe difficultto treat The heartwoodis pale brownwith a golden luster and
with preservatives, butpara-angelimand sucupira treat ade- prominently markedwith red vessellines; the heartwood
quately. Angelincan be sawn and workedfairlywell, except gradually merges into the lighter-coloredsapwood.
that it is difficultto planeto a smoothsurface becauseof The textureis coarse.The densityofair-driedmaterial
alternating hard (fibers)andsoft (parenchyma) tissue. Para- collected in Brazilaverages 640 kg/in3 (40 lb/fl3); for
angelimworks well in all operations.Sucupirais difficultto Peruvianstock, average density is about 480 kg/rn3
moderatelydifficultto work becauseofits high density, (30 lb/fl3). The wood is comparable in strength with Ameri-
irregulargrain, andcoarsetexture. can elm (Ulmus americana). Tornillocuts easily and can be
finishedsmoothly, but areas oftensionwood may result in
Sucupfra, angelin,and para-angelim are ideal forheavy woollysurfaces. The heartwoodis fairlydurable andreported
construction, railroad crossties,and other uses that do not to have goodresistance to weathering.
requiremuch fabrication. Other suggested uses include
flooring, boat building, furniture,turnely,tool handles, Tomillo is a general construction wood that can be used for
and decorative veneer. furniture components in lower-grade furniture.

Suradan (see Pilon) Trebol (see Macawood)

Tangare (see Andiroba) Virola (see Banak)
Tanguile (see Lauan—Meranti Groups) Waika (see Manni)
Teak Walele (see Ilomba)
Teak(Tectonagrandis)occursin commercial quantities in Wallaba
India, Burma,Thailand,Laos, Cambodia, North and South Wallabais a commonnameapplied to the speciesin the
Vietnam, and the East Indies. Numerousplantations have
been developedwithinits natural range and in tropicalareas genus Eperua. Othernames includewapa and apa. The
centerofdistributionis in the Guianas,but the species

1—32
extends into Venezuela and theAmazonregionofnorthern Growthrings are fairlydistinctand similartothose ofeastern
Brazil. Wallabagenerallyoccurs inpure stands or as the white pine (Pinusstrobus). The grain is not interlocked, and
dominant tree in the forest. thewoodtakes paint well,glues easily, and is free from resin
ducts,pitchpockets,and:pitch streaks. Densityofair-dried
Theheartwoodrangesfrom light to dark redto reddishor woodaverages545 kg/rn (34 lb/fl3). The strengthofparana
purplishbrownwith characteristically dark, gummystreaks. pine compares favorably with that ofU.S. softwoodspecies
The texture is rather coarse and the grain typicallystraight. ofsimilardensity and, in somecases, approaches that of
Wallabais a hard, heavywood; density ofair-driedwood is species with higherdensity. Paranapine is especiallystrong
928 kg/rn3 (58 lb/fl3). Its strengthis higher than thatof in shear strength, hardness,and nail-holding ability, but it is
shagbarkhickory (Carya ovata). The wood dries very slowly notably deficientin strengthin compressionacross the grain.
with a markedtendencyto check,split, and warp. Although The tendency ofthe kiln-driedwood to splitandwarp is
thewood has high density, it is easy to work with hand and caused by the presence ofcompression wood, an abnormal
machinetools. However,the high gum contentclogs saw- type ofwood with intrinsicallylarge shrinkage along the
teeth and cutters. Oncethe wood has beenkiln dried,gum
grain.Boardscontainingcompressionwood shouldbe
exudates are not a seriousproblem in machining. The heart- excluded from exacting uses.
wood is reportedto be very durable and resistantto subterra-
neantermitesand fairlyresistantto dry-wood termites. The principaluses ofparanapine includeframinglumber,
interiorwoodwork, sashes and door stock,furniture case
Wallabais well suitedforheavy construction, railroad goods,and veneer.
crossties, poles,industrial flooring, and tank staves. It is
alsohighly favored for charcoal.
Pine, Caribbean
Caribbean pine (Pinuscaribaea) occurs along the Caribbean
Wapa (see Wallaba) side ofCentral Americafrom Belizeto northeastern
Yang (see Keruing) Nicaragua. It is also nativeto the Bahamas and Cuba. This
low-elevation tree is widelyintroduced as a plantation
Softwoods species throughoutthe world tropics.
Cypress, Mexican The heartwoodis golden-to red-brownand distinctfrom the
Native to Mexico and Guatemala, Mexican cypress sapwood, which is light yellow and roughly2 to 5 m (ito
(Cupressuslusitanica) isnow widelyplantedat high eleva- 2 in.) wide.This softwoodspecieshas a strong resinous
tions throughoutthe tropical world. odor anda greasy feel. The weightvariesconsiderably and
mayrange from 416 to 817 kg/m3 (26 to 51 ib/ft3) at 12%
The heartwoodis yellowish, pale brown, or pinkish, with moisture content. Caribbean pine maybe appreciably heavier
occasionalstreaking or variegation. The textureis fine and than slash pine (P. elliottii), but the mechanical propertiesof
uniform, and the grain is usuallystraight.The wood is these two species are rather similar.The lumbercan be kiln
fragrantly scented. The density ofair-driedwood is driedsatisfactorily.Caribbeanpine is easy to work in all
512 kg/rn3 (32 lb/fl3), and the strengthis comparable with machiningoperations,but its high resin contentmay cause
that ofyellow-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) or western resin to accumulate on the equipment. Durabilityand resis-
hemlock(Tsuga heterophylla).The wood is easy to work tance to insect attackvary with resin content; in general, the
with hand and machine tools, and it nails, stains, and pol- heartwoodis rated as moderatelydurable.The sapwoodis
isheswell. Mexicancypressair dries very rapidlywith little highlypermeable andis easily treatedby open tank orpres-
orno end- or surface-checking. Reports on durability are sure—vacuum systems. Theheartwoodis ratedas moderately
conflicting. The heartwoodis nottreatableby the open tank resistantto preservative treatment,depending on resin
processand seemsto havean irregular response to pressure— content.
vacuumsystems.
Caribbeanpine is used for the same purposesas are the
Mexicancypressis used mainlyforposts and poles, furniture southernpines (Pinus spp.).
components, and generalconstruction.
Pine, Ocote
Parana Pine Ocote pine (Pinus oocarpa) is a high-elevation species that
The wood commonlycalled paranapine (Araucariaangusti- occurs from northwestern Mexicosouthward through
Jolla) is a softwoodbut not a true pine. It grows in south- Guatemala intoNicaragua. The largestand most extensive
easternBrazil and adjacentareas ofParaguay andArgentina. stands occur in Guatemala, Nicaragua, and Honduras.

Paranapine has many desirable characteristics. It is available The sapwoodis a pale yellowishbrown and generallyup to
in large-size clear boardswith uniformtexture.The small 7 cm (3 in.) wide. The heartwoodis a light reddish brown.
pinheadknots(leaftraces)that appearon flat-sawn surfaces The grain is not interlocked. The wood has a resinous odor,
and the lightorreddish-brown heartwoodprovidea desirable and it weighsabout 656 kg/rn3 (41 lb/ft3) at 12% moisture
figureformatchinginpanelingand interiorwoodwork. content. The strength properties ofocotepine are comparable
in most respectswith those oflongleafpine(P. palustris).

1—33
Decayresistancestudieshave shown ocote pine heartwoodto Building Research Establishment, Departmentof
be very durable with respectto white-rot fungalattackand Environment. 1977. A handbook of sofiwoods. London:
moderately durablewith respectto brown rot. H. M. Stationery Office.
Ocotepine is comparablewith the southernpines (Pinus) in Building Research Establishment, PrincesRisborough
workability and machiningcharacteristics. It is a general Laboratory;Farmer,R.H. 1972. Handbookofhardwoods.
construction wood suited for the same uses as are the Rev., 2d ed. London: H. M. Stationery Office.
southernpines. Chudnoff, Martin. 1984. Tropicaltimbers of the world.
Agric.Handb. 607. Washington DC: U.S. Departmentof
Pine, Radiata Agriculture.
Radiatapine (Pinus radkzta),also known as Monterey pine, Hardwood MarketReport: LumberNewsLetter. [Current
is planted extensively in the southernhemisphere, mainly in edition]. Memphis,Th.
Chile, New Zealand,Australia,and SouthAfrica.Plantation-
a
growntrees may reach height of26 to 30 m (80 to 90 ft) in Haynes, Richard W.; Adams, Darius M.; Mills, John R.
20 years. 1993. The 1993 RPA timber assessmentupdate. Gen. Tech.
Rep. RM—GTR—259. Fort Collins, Colorado:U.S. Depart-
The heartwoodfrom plantation-grown trees is light brownto ment ofAgriculture, Forest Service, RockyMountainForest
pinkishbrown and is distinctfrom the paler cream-colored and RangeExperimentStation.
sapwood.Growth rings are primarilywide and distinct.
False rings may be common. The texture is moderatelyeven Howard, James L. 1997. U.S. timber production,trade,
and fme, and the grain is not interlocked. Plantation-grown consumption, and price statistics, 1965—1994. (len. Tech.
radiatapine averagesabout 480 kg/rn3 (30 lb/ft3)at 12% Rep. FPL—GTR—98. Madison, Wisconsin:U.S. Department
moisture content. Its strength is comparable with that ofred ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest ProductsLaboratory.
pine (P. resinosa), although locationand growthrate may Keating, W.G.;Boiza, E. 1982. Characteristics, properties,
cause considerablevariationin strengthproperties. The wood and uses oftimbers: Vol. 1. SoutheastAsia, NorthernAits-
air or kiln dries rapidly with little degrade. The wood ma- tralia, and the Pacific. Melbourne, Australia: Inkata Press.
chineseasily althoughthe grain tends to tear aroundlarge
knots. Radiatapine nails and glues easily, and it takes paint Kukachka, B.F. 1970. Propertiesof importedtropical
and fmisheswell. The sapwoodis prone to attackby stain woods. Res. Pap. FPL 125. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory.
fungi and vulnerabletoboring insects. However, plantation-
grown stock is mostly sapwood,whichtreats readily with LittleE.L. 1979. Checklist ofUnited Statestrees (nati\e
preservatives. The heartwoodis rated as durable above and naturalized). Agric.Handb. 541. Washington, DC:
groundand is moderatelyresistantto preservativetreatment. U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
Radiatapine canbe used for the samepurposesas are the Markwardt,L.J. 1930. Comparative strengthpropertiesof
other pines grown in the United States. Theseuses include woods grown in the United States. Tech. Bull. 158. Wash-
veneer,plywood,pulp, fiberboard,construction, boxes,and ington, DC: U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
millwork. Panshin, A.J.; deZeeuw, C. 1980. Textbookofwood
technology. 4th ed. New York: McGraw—Hill.
References Record, S.J.; Hess, R.W. 1949. Timbers ofthe new world.
New Haven, CT: YaleUniversityPress.
Alden,H.A. 1995. HardwoodsofNorth America. (len.
Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—83. Madison, WI: U.S. Department Ulrich, Alice H. 1981. U.S. timberproduction,trade, con-
ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory. sumption, and price statistics, 1950—1980. Misc. Pub. 1408.
Washington, DC: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture.
Alden, H.A. 1997. SofiwoodsofNorth America. Gen.
Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—102. Madison, WI: U.S. Department USDA. 1990. An analysisofthe timber situationin the
ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest ProductsLaboratory. United States: 1989—2040. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM—199. Fort
Collins,CO: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Serv-
Berni, C.A.; Boiza, E.; Christensen, F.J. 1979. South ice, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range ExperimentStation.
American timbers—characteristics, properties, and uses of
190 species.Melbourne,Australia: Commonwealth
Scientificand IndustrialResearchOrganization, Division
ofBuildingResearch.
Boiza, E.; Keating,W.G. 1972. Africantimbers—the
properties, uses, and characteristics of700 species. Mel-
bourne,Australia: Commonwealth Scientificand Industrial
ResearchOrganization, DivisionofBuildingResearch.

1—34
 I Cfiapter
Structure of Wood
Regis B. Miller

he fibrous nature ofwood strongly influences how it

Contents is used. Wood is primarilycomposed ofhollow,
elongate, spindle-shaped cellsthat are arranged
parallelto each other along the trunk ofa tree. Whenlumber
Bark, Wood, Branches, and Cambium 2—1 and otherproductsare cut from the tree, the characteristics of
these fibrous cells andtheir arrangement affectsuchproperties
Sapwoodand Heartwood 2—2 as strengthandshrinkageas well as thegrain pattern ofthe
wood.This chapterbrieflydescribessome elements ofwood
Growth Rings 2—2 structure.

Wood Cells 2—3

Bark, Wood, Branches,
ChemicalComposition 2—3 and Cambium
A cross sectionofatree (Fig. 2—1)showsthe following well-
SpeciesIdentification 2—4 defmed features (from outside to center): bark, which maybe
dividedinto an outer corkydeadpart (A), whosethikness
References 2—4 variesgreatlywith species and age oftrees, and an inner thin
livingpart (B), whichcarriesfood from the leaves tc growing
parts ofthe tree; wood,whichin merchantable trees ofmost
species is clearly differentiated into sapwood(D) and heart-
wood (E); and pith (F), a smallcore oftissue locatedatthe
centeroftree stems, branches, and twigsabout whichinitial
wood growthtakes place. Sapwoodcontainsboth livingand
deadtissue and carriessap from the roots to the leaves.
Heartwood is formed by agradualchange in the sapwoodand
is inactive. The wood rays (G), horizontallyorientedtissue
throughthe radialplaneofthe tree, vary in size fromonecell
wide and a few cells high to more than 15 cells wide and
several centimeters high. The rays connectvariouslayers
from pithtobark for storage and transferoffood.Th cam-
bium layer(C), whichis insidethe inner bark and forms
wood and bark cells,can be seen only with a microscope.
As thetree growsin height, branching is initiated by lateral
bud development. The lateral branchesare intergrown with
thewood ofthetrunk as long as they arealive.After a branch
dies, the trunk continuesto increase in diameterand. sur-
rounds that portionofthe branchprojectingfrom the trunk
whenthebranchdied. Ifthe deadbranches drop from thetree,
thedeadstubs become overgrown and clear wood is formed.

2—1
 In general, heartwoodconsistsofinactivecells that do not
functionin eitherwater conduction or food storage.The
transition from sapwoodto heartwoodis accompaniedby an
increase in extractive content. Frequently, these extractives
darken the heartwood and give species such as black walnut
andcherrytheircharacteristic color.Lightercoloredheart-
wood occurs inNorth Americanspecies such as the spruces
(exceptSitka spruce), hemlocks, true firs, basswood,cotton-
wood,and buckeye, and intropical species such as ceiba
(Ce/bapentandra), obeche(Triplochitonscieroxylon), and
ramirt (Gonyslylus bancanus).In some species, suchas black
locust, western redcedar, andredwood,beartwoodextractyes
makethe woodresistantto fungi or insect attack. All darK-
coloredheartwoodis not resistantto decay,andsome nearly
colorlessheartwoodis decay resistant, as in northernwhite-
cedar. However, none ofthe sapwoodofany species is resis-
tant to decay.Heartwood extractives may also affectwood by
(a) reducing permeability, making theheartwoodslowerto
dry andmore difficult to impregnate with chemicalpreserva-
tives, (b) increasingstabilityin changing moisturecondi-
tions, and (c) increasingweight (slightly). However,as
Figure 2—1. Cross sectionofwhite oaktree trunk: sapwood changesto heartwood, no cells are addedor taken
(A) outer bark (dry dead tissue), (B) inner bark (living away, nor do any cells changeshape. The basic strengthof
tissue),(C) cambium, (D) sapwood, (E) heartwood, the wood is essentially not affectedby the transition from
(F) pith, and (0) wood rays. sapwoodcells to heartwoodcells.
In some species, such as the ashes, hickories,and certain
Most growth in thicknessofbark andwood is causedby cell oaks,the pores(vessels) becomepluggedto a greateror
division in the cambium(Fig. 2—iC).No growthin diame- lesser extentwith ingrowthsknownas tyloses. Heartwocdin
ter takes place in wood outsidethe cambialzone;new whichthe pores are tightlypluggedby tyloses, as in white
growthis purelythe addition and growthofnew cells,not oak, is suitable fortight cooperage, becausethe tyloses
thefurtherdevelopmentofold ones.New woodcells are preventthe passage ofliquid throughthe pores. Tyloses slso
formedon the insideofthe cambiumand new bark cells on make impregnation ofthe wood with liquidpreservatives
the outside. Thus,newwood is laid down to theoutsideof difficult
old wood and the diameterofthe woodytrunk increases.
Growth Rings
In most species, the existingbark is pushed outward by the
formation ofnew bark, andthe outer bark layersbecome Inmost species in temperate climates, thedifference between
stretched, cracked, andridged and are fmally sloughed off. woodthat is formed early in a growingseason and that
formed later is sufficient to produce well-marked annual
growthrings (Fig. 2—2).The age ofa tree at the stumpor the
Sapwood and Heartwood age at any cross sectionofthe trunk may be determinedby
Sapwood is located betweenthe cambium and heartwood
countingthese rings.However,ifthe growth in diameteris
interrupted, by drought or defoliation by insectsfor example,
(Fig. 2—iD). Sapwoodcontainsboth living and dead cells more than one ring maybe formed in the same season. In
and functionsprimarilyin the storage offood; in the outer such an event, the inner ringsusually do not have sharply
layersnearthe cambium, sapwoodhandlesthe transportof defmedboundaries andaretermed falserings.Trees that have
water or sap. The sapwoodmay vary in thicknessand num-
ber ofgrowthrings. Sapwoodcommonlyranges from 4 to only very small crowns or that have accidentally lostmost of
theirfoliagemay form an incomplete growthlayer,some-
6 cm(1-1/2 to 2 in.) in radial thickness. In certainspecies, times calleda discontinuous ring.
such as catalpaand blacklocust,the sapwoodcontains few
growthrings and usuallydoes not exceed 1 cm (1/2 in.) in The inner part ofthe growthring formedfirst in the growing
thickness. The maples,hickories,ashes, some southern seasonis called earlywoodand the outer part formed later in
pines,and ponderosapine ofNorth Americaand cativo thegrowingseason, latewood. Actualtime offormation of
(Prioriacopafera),ehie (Guibourtiaehie),and courbaril these two parts ofa ringmay vary with environmental and
(Hymenaeacourbaril) oftropicaloriginmayhave sapwood weatherconditions. Earlywood is characterized by cells with
8 to 15 cm (3 to 6 in.) or more in thickness,especiallyin
relativelylargecavitiesandthinwalls. Lateweodcells have
second-growth trees. As a rule,the more vigorously growing smallercavities and thickerwalls. The transitionfrom early-
treeshave wider sapwood. Many second-growth treesof woodto latewood may be gradualor abrupt, depending on
merchantable size consistmostly ofsapwood.

2—2
 within atree and among species. Hardwood fibersaverage
about 1 mm (1/25 in.) in length; softwood fibers range from
3 to 8 mm (1/8 to 1/3 in.) in length.
In addition to fibers, hardwoods havecells ofrelatieIy large
diameterknown as vesselsor pores. Thesecells form the
main conduits in the movementofsap. Sofiwoods do not
containvesselsforconducting sap longitudinally in the tree;
this functionis performedby the tracheids.
Both hardwoods and softwoodshavecells (usuallygrouped
into structures ortissues)that are oriented horizontally in the
directionfrom pith towardbark. Thesegroupsofcells con-
duct sap radiallyacrossthe grain and are calledrays orwood
rays (Fig. 2—1G). The rays are most easily seen on dge-
grained orquartersawn surfaces, and theyvary greatly in size
in different species. In oaks and sycamores, therays are
conspicuous and addtothe decorative featuresofthi wood.
Raysalsorepresent planes ofweaknessalongwhich season-
ing checks readily develop.
Another type ofwood cells,knownas longitudinal oraxial
Figure 2—2. Cross sectionofponderosa pine tog parenchymacells, function mainlyinthe storage of Food.
showing growth rings. Lightbands are earlywoodE,
dark bands latewood. An annual (growth) ring is
composed of an innerearlywood zone andouter
Chemical Composition
latewoodzone. Dry woodis primarilycomposed of cellulose, lignio,hemi-
celluloses, andminor amounts (5% to 10%) ofextruneous
thekind ofwood and thegrowingconditionsat the time it materials. Cellulose, the major component,constitutes
was formed. approximately 50% ofwood substanceby weight. It is a
high-molecular-weight linearpolymerconsisting ofchains of
Growthrings are most readily seen in species with sharp 1 to more than 4 3-linked glucose monomers. During
contrastbetweenlatewood formed in oneyear and ea:rlywood growthofthetree,the celldlosemolecules are arranged into
formedin the followingyear, such as in the nativering- orderedstrands called fibrils, whichin turnare orgaiized into
poroushardwoodsash andoak, and in softwoods like south- thelargerstructural elementsthat makeupthecell wall of
ern pines. In some other species, such as water tupelo, aspen, wood fibers. Most ofthe cell wall celluloseis crystalline.
and sweetgum, differentiation ofearlywood and latewood is Delignified wood fibers, whichconsistmostlyofcellulose,
slight andthe annual growthrings are difficultto recognize. havegreatcommercial valuewhenformed into paper.Delig-
Inmany tropical regions, growthmay be practicallycontinu- nifiedfibersmay alsobe chemically alteredto form textiles,
ous throughoutthe year,andno well-defmedgrowthrings films, lacquers, and explosives.
are formed.
Ligninconstitutes 23% to 33% ofthe wood substance in
Whengrowth rings are prominent, as in most softwoods and softwoods and 16% to 25% in hardwoods. Although lignin
ring-porous hardwoods, earlywood differs markedly from late- occurs in wood throughout the cell wall, it is concentrated
wood in physical properties. Earlywoodis lighterin weight, towardthe outside ofthe cells and betweencells. L:Lgninis
softer, andweakerthan latewood. Becauseofthe greater often calledthe cementing agentthat binds individual cells
density of latewood, the proportionoflatewood is sometimes together. Lignin is a three-dimensional phenylpropanol
usedtojudge the strength ofthewood. This methodis polymer,and its structure and distributionin wood are still
usefulwith such species as the southernpines,Douglas-fir, not fullyunderstood. Ona commercial scale,it is necessary
andthe ring-porous hardwoods(ash, hickory, andoak). toremoveligninfrom wood to make high-grade paper or
other paperproducts.
Wood Cells Theoretically, lignin might be converted to a variety of
Woodcells—thestructuralelementsofwood tissue——are of chemical products, but in commercial practicea largeper-
various sizes and shapes andare quite firmly cementedto- centage ofthe lignin removedfrom wood during pulping
gether. Dry wood cells may be empty or partly filledwith operations is atroublesomebyproduct,which is often burned
forheat and recovery ofpulpingchemicals. One sizable
deposits,such as gums and resins, or with tyloses. The commercial use for lignin is in the formulation ofoil-well
majorityofwood cells areconsiderably elongated and
pointedat the ends; these cells are customarily called fibers drillingmuds. Lignin is also used in rubber compoitnding
or tracheids. The length ofwood fibers is highlyvariable and concrete mixes. Lesser amounts are processed toyield

2—3
vanillin for flavoringpurposesand to produce solvents. References
Currentresearch is examiningthe potential ofusinglignin in
themanufacture ofwood adhesives. Bratt, L.C. 1965. Trends in theproductionof silvichemi-
cals in the United States and abroad.Tappi Journal.
The hemicelluloses are associated with celluloseand are 48(7): 46A—49A.
branched, low-molecular-weight polymerscomposed of
several different kindsofpentoseandhexosesugarmono- Browning, B.L. 1975. The chemistry of wood. Huntington,
mers.The relative amounts ofthese sugarsvary markedly NY: RobertE. KriegerPublishingCompany.
with species. Hemicelluloses play an important role in fiber- Core, H.A.; Côté, W.A.; Day,A.C. 1979. Wood structure
to-fiberbonding in the papermaking process.The component and identification. 7th ed. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse
sugarsofhemicellulose are ofpotential interestfor conversion UniversityPress.
into chemicalproducts.
Desch, H.E.; revised by Dinwoodie, J.M. 1996. Timber,
Unlikethe major constituentsofwood,extraneous materials structure,properties, conversion, anduse. 7th ed. London:
arenot structural components.Both organicand inorganic MacMillan Press,Ltd.
extraneous materialsare found in wood.The organic compo-
nent takes the form ofextractives, whichcontribute to such Fengel, D.; Wegener, G. 1984. Wood: Chemistry,ultras-
wood propertiesas color,odor, taste,decay resistance, den- tructure,reactions. Berlin andNew York: W. deGruyter.
sity, hygroscopicity, and flammability. Extractives include Hamilton, J.K.; Thompson, N.C. 1959. A comparisonof
tanninsand other polyphenolics,coloringmatter, essential thecarbohydrates ofhardwoodsand softwoods. Tappi
oils, fats, resins, waxes, gum starch, and simplemetabolic Journal. 42: 752—760.
intermediates. This component is termed extractives because
it can be removed from wood by extractionwith solvents, Hoadley, RB. 1980. Identif'ing wood: Accurateresults
such as water, alcohol, acetone, benzene,or ether. Extractives with simple tools. Newtown, CT: Taunton Press.
may constitute roughly5% to 30% ofthe wood substance, Hoadley, R.B. 1990. Understandingwood: A craftsmen's
depending on such factorsas species,growthconditions,and guide to wood technology.Newtown, CT: Taunton Press.
time ofyearwhen the tree is cut.
Kribs, D.A. 1968. Commercial woods on the American
The inorganic component ofextraneous material generally market. New York: Dover Publications.
constitutes 0.2%to 1.0% ofthe wood substance, although
Panshin, A.J.; de Zeeuw, C. 1980. Textbookof wood
greatervaluesare occasionallyreported. Calcium, potassium,
and magnesiumare the more abundantelemental constitu- technology. 4th ed. New York: McGraw—Hill.
ents. Trace amounts (<100 parts per million)ofphosphorus, Rowell, R.M. 1984. The chemistry ofsolid wood.Advances
sodium, iron, silicon,manganese,copper, zinc, and perhaps in Chemistry Series No. 207. Washington, DC: American
a few otherelementsare usually present. ChemicalSociety.
Valuable nonfibrous productsproducedfrom wood include Sarkanen,K.V.; Ludwig, C.H. (eds.). 1971. Lignins:
naval stores, pulp byproducts,vanillin, ethyl alcohol, char- occurrence, formation, structure and reactions. New York:
coal, extractives, andproductsmadefrom bark. Wiley—lnterscience.

Sjöström, E. 1981. Woodchemistry:fundamentals and

Species identification applications. New York: Academic Press.

Many speciesofwood have unique physical,mechanical, or Stamm, A.J. 1964. Woodand cellulosescience.New YDrk:
chemical properties. Efficientutilization dictates that species RonaldPress Company.
shouldbe matchedto end-userequirements throughan un-
derstanding oftheir properties. This requiresidentification of
thespeciesin wood form, independentofbark, foliage, and
othercharacteristics ofthe tree.
Generalwood identification can often be madequickly on the
basisofreadily visible characteristics such as color,odor,
density,presenceofpitch, or grain pattern.Where more
positiveidentification is required, a laboratory investigation
must be made ofthe microscopicanatomyofthe wood.
Identifying characteristics are describedin publications such
as the Textbook ofWood Technology by Panshinand de
Zeeuwand Identifying Wood: AccurateResults WithSimple
Toolsby R.B. Hoadley.

2—4
 I chapter 3
Physical Properties and
Moisture Relations of Wood
William Simpson and AntonTenWolde

Contents
Appearance 3—1

Gramand Texture 3—1

Plainsawnand Quartersawn 3—2
fl he versatility ofwood is demonstrated by a wide
varietyofproducts. This variety is a result ofa
spectrum ofdesirable physical characteristics or
properties among themany species ofwood. In many cases,
more than one property ofwood is importantto the end
product. For example, to select awood speciesfor a product,
Decorative Features the valueofappearance-type properties, such as texture,grain
3—2
pattern, or color,maybe evaluated againstthe influence of
MoistureContent 3—5 characteristics such as machinability, dimensionalstability,
Green WoodandFiber SaturationPoint 35 ordecay resistance.
Equilibrium MoistureContent 3—5 Woodexchanges moisture with air; the amountand direction
SorptionHysteresis 3—7
oftheexchange (gain or loss)depend on therelative humid-
ity and temperature ofthe air andthe currentamount ofwater
Shrinkage 3—7 in thewood. This moisture relationship has an important
Transverse and Volumetric 3—7 influence onwood properties andperformance. This chapter
discussesthe physicalproperties ofmost interestin the
Longitudinal 3—8 designofwood products.
Moisture—ShrinkageRelationship 3—8 Some physicalproperties discussedandtabulatedare influ-
Weight,Density,and Specific Gravity 3—11 enced by species as well as variableslike moisturecontent;
other propertiestend tobe independent ofspecies.ilie thor-
WorkingQualities 3—15
oughness ofsampling and the degree ofvariability influence
DecayResistance 3—15 the confidence with whichspecies-dependent properties are
ThermalProperties 3—15 known. In this chapter, an effortis madeto indicateeither
the general or specific natureoftheproperties tabulated.
Conductivity 3—15
Heat Capacity 3-17
ThermalDiffusivity 3—17
Appearance
ThermalExpansionCoefficient 3—21 Grain and Texture
ElectricalProperties 3—21 Theterms grain and textureare commonly usedrather
loosely in connection with wood.Grain is often used in
Conductivity 3—21 referenceto annualrings,as in fme grain and coarsegrain,
Dielectric Constant 3—22 but it is alsoused to indicatethedirectionoffibers, as in
straight grain, spiral grain, and curly grain. Grain,as a syno-
Dielectric PowerFactor 3—22 nym for fiberdirection,is discussedin detail relativeto
Coefficient ofFriction 3—22 mechanical properties in Chapter4. Woodfinishersrefer to
wood as open grainedand close grained, whichare terms
NuclearRadiation 3—23
reflecting the relative size ofthe pores, whichdetermines
References 3—23 whetherthe surface needsa filler. Earlywood andlatewood
withina growth incrementusuallyconsistofdifferentkinds
and sizes ofwood cells.The difference in cellsresults in
difference in appearance ofthe growth rings, and the resulting
appearance isthe textureofthe wood. Coarsetexturecan
result from wide bands oflargevessels, such as in oak.

3—1
"Even" texture generallymeansuniformityin cell dimen-
sions. Fine-texturedwoodshave small, even-textured cells.
Woods that have largereven-sizedcells are considered me-
dium-texturedwoods. When the wordsgrain or texture are
used in connectionwith wood,the meaningintendedshould
be madeclear(see Glossary).

Plainsawn and Quartersawn

Lumbercan be cut from a log intwo distinctways: (a) tan-
gentialto the annualrings, producing flatsawnor plainsawn
lumberin hardwoodsand flatsawnor slash-grained lumberin
softwoods, and (b) radiallyfrom the pith orparallelto the
rays, producing quartersawnlumberin hardwoods andedge-
grained or vertical-grainedlumberin softwoods(Fig. 3—1).
Quartersawn lumber is not usually cut strictlyparallelwith
therays. In plainsawnboards,thesurfaces nextto the edges
are often far from tangentialtothe rings.In commercial
practice, lumberwith rings at angles of45° to 900 tothe
wide surface is called quartersawn, and lumberwith ringsat
anglesof00 to 450 to thewide surface is calledplainsawn.
Hardwoodlumberin whichannualrings form angles of300
to 60° to thewide faces is sometimes called bastard sawn. A B
Figure 3—1. Quartersawn (A) and plainsawn (B)
Formany purposes,eitherplainsawnorquartersawnlumber boards cut froma log.
is satisfactory. Eachtype has certainadvantages that can be
importantfor a particularuse. Someadvantages ofplainsawn
and quartersawn lumberaregiven in Table 3—1. White sapwoodofcertainspecies, such as maple, may be
preferred tothe heartwood for specificuses. In most species,
heartwoodis darkerand fairlyuniform in color.In some
Decorative Features species,such as hemlock, spruce,the true firs, basswood,
The decorativevalue ofwood depends upon its color, figure, cottonwood, and beech,there is little orno difference in color
and luster, as wellas theway in whichitbleachesortakes betweensapwoodandheartwood. Table3—2describesthe
fillers, stains, and transparent fmishes.Becauseofthe combi- color and figureofseveral common domestic woods.
nationsofcolor andthe multiplicityofshades found in
wood, it is impossibleto give detailedcolor descriptions of Onthesurface ofplainsawn boardsand rotary-cut veneer,
the variouskinds ofwood. Sapwoodofmost species is light theannualgrowth rings frequently form ellipticand parabolic
in color;in some species, sapwoodis practicallywhite. patternsthat makestrikingfigures,especiallywhenthe rings
areirregularin widthand outlineonthe cutsurface.

Table 3—I. Some advantages of plainsawn and quartersawn lumber

Plainsawn Quartersawn

Shrinks and swells lessinthickness Shrinks and swells less in width

Surface appearanceless affectedby round orovalknots comparedtoeffect Cups, surface-checks,and splits less in seasoning and in use
ofspike knots in quartersawnboards; boardswith round or ovalknots not
asweakasboards withspikeknots
Shakes and pitchpockets,when present,extendthroughfewerboards Raisedgrain caused byseparation in annual rings does notbecome
aspronounced
Figure patterns resulting fromannual rings and some other types offigure Figure patterns resultingfrompronounced rays, interlocked grain,
broughtout more conspicuously and wavygrain are brought outmore conspicuously
Is less susceptible tocollapse in drying Does not allow liquids to passthrough readily insomespecies
Costs less because itiseasytoobtain Holds paint betterinsomespecies

Sapwood appears in boards atedgesand itswidth islimited bythe

width ofthelog

3—2
 Table 3—2. Colorand figure of several common domestic woods

Type offigure
Plainsawn lumber or Quartersawn lumber or
Species Color ofdryheartwood8 rotary-cutveneer quarter-slicedveneer
Hardwoods
Alder, red Pale pinkishbrown Faintgrowth ring Scattered large flakes, sometimes
entirelyabsent
Ash, black Moderately darkgrayish brown Conspicuousgrowth ring; occasional Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring
burl stripe; occasional burl
Ash, Oregon Grayish brown, sometimes with Conspicuousgrowth ring; occasional Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring
reddishtinge burl stripe; occasional burl
Ash, white Grayish brown, sometimes with Conspicuousgrowth ring; occasional Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
reddishtinge burl stripe; occasionalburl
Aspen Light brown Faint growth ring None
Basswood Creamy whiteto creamy brown, Faint growth ring None
sometimes reddish
Beech,American Whitewith reddish to reddish brown Faint growth ring Numerous small flakes upto 3.2 mm
tinge (1/8 in.) in height
Birch, paper Light brown Faint growth ring None
Birch, sweet Dark reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring; Occasionally wavy
occasionallywavy
Birch, yellow Reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring; Occasionally wavy
occasionally wavy
Butternut, light Chestnut brownwith occasional Faintgrowth ring None
reddish tinge or streaks
Cherry, black Light todark reddishbrown Faintgrowth ring; occasionalburl Occasional burl
Chestnut,American Grayish brown Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
stripe
Cottonwood Grayish whitetolightgrayish brown Faintgrowth ring None
Elm, American & rock Light grayish brown, usuallywith Distinct, inconspicuous grown ring Faintgrowth ring stripe
reddishtinge with finewavypattem
Elm, slippery Dark brownwithshades ofred Conspicuousgrowth ring with fine Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
pattern stripe
Hackberry Light yellowish orgreenish gray Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
stripe
Hickory Reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring Faintgrowth ring stripe
Honeylocust Cherry red Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring
stripe
Locust, black Golden brown, sometimes with tinge Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth rug
ofgreen stripe
Magnolia Light to darkyellowish brown with Faintgrowth ring None
greenish orpurplishtinge
Maple: black, bigleaf, Light reddish brown Faintgrowth ring, occasionally birds- Occasionally curlyand wavy
red, silver, and sugar eye, curly, and wavy

Oaks, all red oaks Light brown, usuallywith pinkorred Conspicuousgrowth ring Pronouncedflake; distinct, inconspicu-
tinge ousgrowth ring stripe
Oaks, allwhiteoaks Lightto dark brown, rarely with Conspicuousgrowth ring Pronouncedflake; distinct, inconspicu-
reddish tinge ousgrowth ring stripe
Sweetgum Reddish brown Faintgrowth ring; occasionalirregular Distinct, inconspicuous ribbon; occa-
streaks sional streak
Sycamore Light todark orreddish brown Faintgrowth ring Numerouspronouncedflakes up to 6.4
mm (1/4 in.) in height
Tupelo, black and water Pale to moderately darkbrownish Faintgrowth ring Distinct,not pronouncedribbon
gray
Walnut, black Chocolate brown, occasionally with Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring; Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
darker, sometimes purplish streaks occasionallywavy, curly, burl, and stripe; occasionally wavy, curly, burl,
other types crotch,and other types
Yellow-poplar Light to darkyellowish brown with Faintgrowth ring None
greenish orpurplishtinge

3—3
Table 3—2. Color and figure of several common domestic woods—con.
Type offigure
Plainsawn lumber or Quartersawn lumberor
Species Color ofdry heartwooda rotary-cutveneer quarter-sliced veneer

Softwoods
Baldcypress Light yellowish to reddish brown Conspicuous irregulargrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
stripe
Cedar, Atlantic White Light brownwith reddish tinge. Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring None
Cedar, Eastern red Brickred todeepreddish brown Occasionallystreaks ofwhitesap- Occasionallystreaks ofwhitesapwood
wood alternatingwith heartwood alternatingwith heactwood
Cedar, incense Reddish brown Faint growth ring Faintgrowth ring stripe
Cedar, northernWhite Light to dark brown Faintgrowth nng Faint growth ring stripe
Cedar, Port-Orford Light yellow topale brown Faintgrowth ring None
Cedar, western red Reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring Faint growth ring stripe
Cedar, yeflow Yellow Faintgrowth ring None
Douglas-fir Orange red to red,sometimes Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
yellow stripe
Fir, balsam Nearly white Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring Faint growth ring stripe
Fir, white Nearly whiteto pale reddish brown Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
stripe
Hemlock, eastern Light reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring Faintgrowth ring stripe
Hemlock, western Light reddishbrown (Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring Faintgrowth ring stripe
Larch, western Russet to reddish brown Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
stripe
Pine, eastern white Cream tolightreddish brown Faintgrowth ring None
Pine, lodgepole Light reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring; None
faint pockedappearance
Pine, ponderosa Orange to reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring Faintgrowth ring
Pine, red Orange to reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuousgrowth ring Faint growth ring
Pine, Southern:longleaf, Orange to reddish brown Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
loblolly, shortleaf,and stripe
slash
Pine, sugar Light crearny brown Faint growth ring None
Pine, western white Cream to lightreddish brown Faint growth ring None
Redwood Cherry red todeepreddish brown Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring; Faintgrowth ring stripe; occasionally
occasionallywavyand burl wavy and burl
Spruce: black, Engel- Nearly white Faint growth ring None
mann, red, and white
Spruce, Sitka Light reddish brown Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring Faintgrowth ring stripe
Tamarack Russet brown Conspicuousgrowth ring Distinct, inconspicuous growth ring
stripe

Sapwoodofall species is lightin colororvirtually white unless discolored byfungus orchemical stains.

Onquartersawnsurfaces, these rings form stripes, whichare fillers ofdifferent colors. In softwoods, the annualgrowth
not especiallyornamentalunless they are irregularin width layers can be made to stand out by applyinga stain. The
and direction.The relativelylarge rays sometimes appearas visualeffectofapplying stainto softwoodis an overall
flecksthat can forma conspicuous figurein quartersawn oak darkeningand a contrastreversalwith earlywoodofinitially
andsycamore.With interlockedgrain, whichslopes in lightercolor absorbing more stain, thus becomingdarker
alternatedirections in successive layersfrom the centerofthe than latewood. The final contrastis often greaterthanthat
tree outward, quartersawn surfaces showa ribbon effect, either in unstainedsoftwoodand sometimes appearsunnatural.
becauseofthedifference inreflection oflight from successive
layerswhen the wood has a naturalluster or becausecross Knots, pin wormholes, bird pecks, decay in isolated
grain ofvarying degreeabsorbs stainsunevenly.Much ofthis pockets,birdseye,mineral streaks, swirls in grain, and
type offigure is lost in plainsawnlumber. ingrownbark are decorative in some species whenthe
wood is carefully selected fora particulararchitectural
In open-grained hardwoods, the appearance ofboth plainsawn treatment.
and quartersawnlumbercan be variedgreatlybythe use of

3-4
Moisture Content piece, cell walls may be saturatedand lumens partially or
completely filledwith water. It is even probablethnt a cell
Moisturecontentofwood is definedas the weightofwater in wall will begin to dry beforeall the water has left the lumen
a
wood expressed as a fraction, usually percentage, ofthe ofthat same cell. The fibersaturation point ofwood.averages
weightofovendiy wood. Weight, shrinkage, strengl:h, and about 30% moisture content, but in individual species and
other propertiesdependuponthe moisturecontentofwood. individual piecesofwood it can vary by severalpercentage
points from that value. The fibersaturationpoint also is
In trees, moisturecontentcanrange from about 30% to more often considered asthat moisturecontentbelowwh:ichthe
than 200% ofthe weightofwood substance. In softwoods, physicaland mechanical properties ofwood begin to change
themoisturecontentofsapwoodis usuallygreater than that as a function ofmoisture content. Duringdrying, the outer
ofheartwood. Inhardwoods, thedifference in moisture con- parts ofa boardcan be less than fibersaturation while the
tent betweenheartwoodand sapwooddepends onthe species. innerparts are still greaterthan fibersaturation.
The averagemoisturecontentofheartwood and sapwoodof
some domesticspecies is given in Table 3—3. These values
are considered typical,but there is considerable variation Equilibrium Moisture Content
within andbetweentrees. Variability ofmoisture content The moisturecontentofwood belowthe fiber saturation
existseven withinindividualboardscut from the same tree. point is a function ofboth relative humidityand temperature
Additionalinformation on moisture in wood is given in ofthe surrounding air. Equilibrium moisture content(EMC)
Chapter 12. is defined as that moisturecontentat whichthe wood is
neither gaining nor losingmoisture; an equilibriumcondi-
Green Wood and Fiber tionhas been reached.The relationship betweenEMC,
relativehumidity, and temperatureis shownin Table 3—4.
Saturation Point Formost practicalpurposes, thevalues in Table 3—4 may be
Moisture canexist inwood as liquid water (freewater) or appliedto wood ofany species. Data in Table 3—4 can be
water vapor in cell lumens and cavitiesand as water held approximated by the following:
chemically (boundwater) withincell walls. Green wood is
often definedas freshlysawn woodin whichthe cell wallsare Kh
M = 1,800 + K1Kh+ 2K1K2K2h2
(3—3)
completely saturated with water; however, green wood usu- W I —Kh 1+ K1Kh+ K1K2K2h2
ally contains additionalwater in the lumens. The moisture
contentat whichboth the cell lumens and cell walls are where h is relative humidity(%/l00), and M is moisture
completelysaturatedwith water is the maximum possible content (%).
moisturecontent. Specific gravity is the major determinantof
maximummoisturecontent. Lumenvolume decreases as For temperatureTin Celsius,
specific gravityincreases,so maximum moisturecontentalso W= 349 + 1.29T+ 0.0l35I
decreases as specific gravity increases becausethereis less
room available for free water.Maximum moisturecontent K = 0.805 + 0.000736T— 0.00000273T2
Mmfor any specific gravity can be calculated from K1 = 6.27 — 0.00938T— 0.0003037
Mm = IOO(l.54—Gb)/l.S4Gb (3—i) K2 = 1.91 + 0.0407T— 0.000293T2
where Gbis basic specificgravity(based on ovendry weight and fortemperature inFahrenheit
and green volume) and 1.54 is specific gravityofwoodcell W= 330 + 0.452T+ O.0041572
walls. Maximum possible moisture contentvaries from
267% at specificgravityof0.30 to 44% at specific gravity K = 0.791 + 0.000463 T— 0.00000084412
0.90. Maximumpossiblemoisture content is seldomat-
tained in trees. However,green moisturecontentcan be quite K1 = 6.34 ± 0.000775T— 0.0000935T2
high in some speciesnaturallyor throughwaterlogging. The 1(2 1.09 + 0.0284T— 0.000090412
moisture contentat which woodwill sink in water can be
calculated by Woodin service is exposed to both long-term (seasonal) and
short-term (daily)changes in relative humidityand tempera-
MSIflk = 100(1—Gb)/Gb (3—2) tureofthe surrounding air. Thus, wood is always undergo-
ing at least slight changesin moisturecontent. The;e
Conceptually, the moisturecontent at whichonly the cell
walls are completely saturated (all boundwater)butrio water changes usually are gradual, and short-term fluctuations tend
to influence only thewood surface. Moisturejonteni:changes
exists in cell lumens is called the fiber saturation point. can be retarded, but notprevented, byprotectivecoatings,
Whilea usefulconcept,the term fiber saturation point is not such as varnish, lacquer, or paint.The objectiveofwood
very precise. In concept,it distinguishes betweenthe two
ways water is held in wood. In fact, it is possible for all cell dryingis to bring the wood close to the moisturecontent a
lumens to be empty andhave partially dried cell walls in one fmishedproductwill have in service (Chs. 12 and 15).
part ofapiece ofwood,while in anotherpartofthe same

3—5
 Table 3—3. Averagemoisture content ofgreenwood, by species
Moisture contenta (%) Moisture contenta (%)

Species Heartwood Sapwood Species Heartwood Sapwood

Hardwoods Softwoods
Alder, red — 97 Baldcypress 121 171

Apple 8t 74 Cedar,eastern red 33 —

Ash, black 95 — Cedar, incense 40 213
Ash, green — 58 Cedar, Port-Orford 50 98
Ash, white 46 44 Cedar,western red 58 249

Aspen 95 113 Cedar, yellow 32 166

Basswood, Amencan 81 133 Douglas-fir,coasttype 37 115

Beech, Amencan 55 72 Fir, balsam 88 173

Birch, paper 98 72 Fir, grand 91 136

Birch, sweet 75 70 Fir, noble 34 115

Birch, yellow 74 72 Fir, Pacific silver 55 164

Cherry, black 58 — Fir, white 96 160

Chestnut, American 120 — Hemlock, eastern 97 119

Cottonwood 162 146 Hemlock, western 85 170
Elm,American 95 92 Larch,western 54 119

Elm,cedar 66 61 Pine, loblolly 33 110

Elm,rock 44 57 Pine, lodgepole 41 120

Hackberry 61 65 Pine,longleaf 31 106

Hickory, bitternut B) 54 Pine, ponderosa 40 148

Hickory, mockernut 70 52 Pine, red 32 134

Hickory, pignut 71 49 Pine,shortleaf 32 122

Hickory, red 88 52 Pine,sugar 98 219

Hickory, sand 68 50 Pine,western white 62 148

Hickory, water 97 62 Redwood,old growth 66 210

Magnolia 80 104 Spruce, black 52 113

Maple, silver 58 97 Spruce,Engelmann 51 173

Maple, sugar 65 72 Spruce, Sitka 41 142

Oak, California black 76 75 Tamarack 49 —

Oak, northernred 80 88
Oak, southern red 83 75
Oak, water 81 81

Oak, white 64 78
Oak,willow 82 74
Sweetgurn 79 137

Sycamore, American 114 130

Tupelo, black 87 115

Tupelo, swamp 101 108

Tupelo, water 150 116

Walnut, black 50 73
Yellow-poplar 83 106

onweight when ovendry.

3-6
Table 3—4. Moisture content ofwood in equilibrium with stated temperatureand relative humidity
Temperature Moisture content (%) at various relative humidity values

(°C (°F)) 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% 45% 50% 55% 60% 65% 70% 75% 80% 85% 90% 95%

—1.1(30) 1.4 2.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.4 11.3 12.4 13.5 14.9 16.5 18.5 21024.3
4.4 (40) 1.4 2.6 3.7 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.4 11.3 12.3 13.5 14.9 16.5 18.5 21.0 24.3
10.0 (50) 1.4 2.6 3.6 4.6 5.5 6.3 7.1 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.3 112 12.3 13.4 14.8 16.4 18.4 20.9 24.3
15.6 (60) 1.3 2.5 3.6 4.6 5.4 6.2 7.0 7.8 8.6 9.4 102 11.1 12.1 13.3 14.6 162 18.2 20.7 24.1
21.1 (70) 1.3 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.4 6.2 6.9 7.7 8.5 9.2 10.1 11.0 12.0 13.1 14.4 16.0 17.9 20523.9
26.7 (80) 1.3 2.4 3.5 4.4 5.3 6.1 6.8 7.6 8.3 9.1 9.9 10.8 11.7 12.9 14.2 15.7 17.7 20.2 23.6

32.2(90) 1.2 2.3 3.4 4.3 5.1 5.9 6.7 7.4 8.1 8.9 9.7 10.5 11.5 12.6 13.9 15.4 17.3 19823.3
37.8(100) 12 2.3 3.3 4.2 5.0 5.8 6.5 7.2 7.9 8.7 9.5 10.3 112 12.3 13.6 15.1 17.0 19522.9
43.3(110) 1.1 2.2 3.2 4.0 4.9 5.6 6.3 7.0 7.7 8.4 9.2 10.0 11.0 12.0 132 14.7 16.6 19122.4
48.9 (120) 1.1 2.1 3.0 3.9 4.7 5.4 6.1 6.8 7.5 82 8.9 9.7 10.6 11.7 12.9 14.4 162 18.6 22.0

54.4(130) 1.0 2.0 2.9 3.7 4.5 52 5.9 6.6 7.2 7.9 8.7 9.4 10.3 11.3 12.5 14.0 15.8 18221.5
60.0(140) 0.9 1.9 2.8 3.6 4.3 5.0 5.7 6.3 7.0 7.7 8.4 9.1 10.0 11.0 12.1 13.6 15.3 17721.0
65.6(150) 0.9 1.8 2.6 3.4 4.1 4.8 5.5 6.1 6.7 7.4 8.1 8.8 9.7 10.6 11.8 13.1 14.9 17220.4
71.1(160) 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2 3.9 4.6 5.2 5.8 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.5 9.3 10.3 11.4 12.7 14.4 16719.9
76.7 (170) 0.7 1.5 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.3 4.9 5.6 62 6.8 7.4 8.2 9.0 9.9 11.0 12.3 14.0 16.2 19.3
822(180) 0.7 1.4 2.1 2.8 3.5 4.1 4.7 5.3 5.9 6.5 7.1 7.8 8.6 9.5 10.5 11.8 13.5 15718.7
87.8(190) 0.8 1.3 1.9 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.0 5.5 6.1 6.8 7.5 82 9.1 10.1 11.4 13.0 15.1 18.1

93.3(200) 0.5 1.1 1.7 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.1 4.6 52 5.8 6.4 7.1 7.8 8.7 9.7 10.9 12.5 14,617.5
98.9(210) 0.5 1.0 1.6 2.1 2.7 32 3.8 4.3 4.9 5.4 6.0 6.7 7.4 8.3 9.2 10.4 12.0 14016.9
104.4 (220) 0.4 0.9 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.9 3.4 3.9 4.5 5.0 5.6 6.3 7.0 7.8 &8 9.9
110.0 (230) 0.3 0.8 12 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 4.2 4.7 5.3 6.0 6.7
115.6 (240) 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.5 4.1 4.6
121.1 (250) 02 0.4 0.7 1.0 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9
.
126.7 (260) 02 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.4

1322 (270) 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4

Sorption Hysteresis oftool handles, gaps in strip flooring, or performance

problems that detract from the usefulness ofthe wood prod-
The amount ofwater adsorbedfrom a dry condition to equi- uct. Therefore, it is important that these phenomenabe
librium with any relativehumidityis always less than the understood and considered whentheycan affect productin a
amountretainedin the processofdrying from a wettercondi- whichwood is used.
tion to equilibriumwith that same relative humidity. The
ratio ofadsorptionEMC to desorptionEMC is constantat With respect to shrinkage characteristics, wood is an aniso-
about 0.85. Furthermore,EMC in the initialdesorption tropic material.It shrinks most in the directionofthe annual
(that is, from the originalgreen condition ofthe tree) is growthrings (tangentially), about halfas much acro s the
always greaterthan in any subsequent desorptions. Data in rings (radially), and only slightly along the grain (longi-
Table 3—4 were derivedprimarilyunderconditions described tudinally). The combined effectsofradial andtangential
as oscillating desorption(Stammand Loughborough 1935), shrinkage can distortthe shape ofwood piecesbecaue ofthe
which is thoughtto representa condition midwaybetween difference in shrinkage andthe curvature ofannualrings.
adsorptionand desorption and a suitable and practical com- The majortypes ofdistortion as aresult ofthese effectsare
promise for use whenthe directionofsorption is not always illustrated in Figure3—3.
known.Hysteresisis shown in Figure 3—2.
Transverse and Volumetric
Shrinkage Datahavebeen collected to represent the average rad al,
Wood is dimensionallystable when the moisture contentis tangential,and volumetric shrinkage ofnumerous domestic
greaterthan the fibersaturation point. Woodchanges dimen- species by methods describedin American Society for Test-
sion as it gains or loses moisture belowthat point. It shrinks ing and Materials (ASTM)D143—Standard Methodof
whenlosingmoisture from the cell walls and swells when Testing Small Clear Specimens of Timber(ASTM [997).
gainingmoisture in the cell walls. This shrinking and swel- Shrinkage values, expressed as a percentage ofthe green
ling can result in warping, checking, splitting,and loosening dimension, are listed in Table3—5. Shrinkage values

3—7
 Longitudinal
Longitudinalshrinkageofwood (shrinkageparallelto the
0 grain)is generallyquitesmall. Average valuesfor shrinkage
from green to ovendry are between0.1%and 0.2% for most
0 species ofwood.However, certain types ofwood exhibit
C
excessivelongitudinal shrinkage, and these should be
00 avoidedin uses where longitudinal stability is important.
Reactionwood,whethercompression wood in softwoods
Oscillating desorption.
or tensionwood in hardwoods, tends to shrink excessively
parallel tothe grain.Woodfrom near the centeroftrees
(juvenilewood)ofsomespecies also shrinks excessively
C
a) lengthwise. Reactionwood andjuvenile wood can shrink
0 2% from green to ovendry. Woodwith cross grain exhibits
a)
0. increasedshrinkage along the longitudinal axis ofthepiece.
Reactionwood exhibiting excessivelongitudinal shrinkage
0 50 60 70 80 90 100 canoccur in the sameboard with normalwood. The presence
Relative humidity (%) ofthis type ofwood, as well as cross grain, can cause serious
warping, such as bow, crook, ortwist, and cross breaks can
Figure3—2. Moisture content—relativehumidity developin the zonesofhigh shrinkage.
relationship forwood under adsorption and
variousdesorption conditions.
Moisture—ShrinkageRelationship
a
The shrinkageof smallpiece ofwood normallybeginsat
about the fibersaturation point and continuesin a fairly
linearmanneruntil the wood is completely dry. However,in
thenormaldrying oflumberorother large pieces,thesurface
ofthe wood dries first. Whenthesurface getsbelowthefiber
saturation point, it beginsto shrink. Meanwhile,the interior
canstill be quite wet and not shrink. The result is that
shrinkage oflumbercan begin beforethe average moisture
contentofthe entirepiece is belowthe fiber saturation point,
and the moisture content—shrinkagecurve can actuallylook
like the one inFigure3—4. The exact form ofthe curve
depends on several variables, principally size and shapeof
thepiece, species ofwood, and drying conditions used.
Considerable variationin shrinkage occursfor any species.
Shrinkage datafor Douglas-firboards,22.2 by 139.7 mm
(718 by 5-112in.) in cross section, are given in Figure 3—5.
The materialwas grown in one locality and dried undermild
conditions from green to near equilibrium at 18°C (65°F)
Figure 3—3. Characteristic shrinkage and distortion and 30% relative humidity.The figure shows that it is im-
of flat, square, and round pieces as affected
by directionofgrowthrings.Tangential shrinkage possibleto accurately predictthe shrinkage ofan individual
is about twice as greatas radial. piece ofwood; the average shrinkage ofa quantity ofpieces is
more predictable.

collected from the world literature for selected imported

Iftheshrinkage—moisturecontentrelationship is notknown
arelisted in Table 3—6. for a particularproductanddrying condition, data in
species Tables3—5 and3—6canbe usedto estimate shrinkage from
The shrinkageofwood is affected by anumberofvariables. the green conditionto any moisturecontent using
In general, greater shrinkage is associatedwith greaterden-
a
sity. The size andshape of piece ofwood can affectshrink- Sm = (3-4)
age, andtherate ofdiyingforsome species can affectshrink- s(30_MJ
age. Transverseand volumetric shrinkagevariability can be
a
expressed by coefficient ofvariation ofapproximately 15%. whereSm is shrinkage (%)fromthe green conditionto mois-
S
ture contentM (<30%), and is total shrinkage(radial.
tangential, orvolumetric (%)) from Table 3—5 or 3—6.

3—8
Table 3—5. Shrinkage values of domestic woods
Shrinkagea(%) fromgreen Shrinkag?(%) fromgreen
to ovendry moisture content toovendry moisture content
Species Radial Tangential Volumetric Species Radial Tangential Volumetric
Hardwoods Oak,white—con.
Alder, red 4.4 7.3 12.6 Chestnut
Ash Live 6.6 9.5 14.7
Black 5.0 7.8 152 Overcup 5.3 12.7 16.0
Blue 3.9 6.5 11.7 Post 5.4 9.8 16.2
Green 4.6 7.1 12.5 Swamp, chestnut 52 10.8 16.4
Oregon 4.1 8.i 132 White 5.6 10.5 16.3
Pumpkin 3.7 6.3 12.0 Persimmon, common 7.9 11.2 19.1
White 4.9 7.8 13.3 Sassafras 4.0 62 10.3
Aspen Sweetgum 5.3 102 15.8
Bigtooth 3.3 7.9 11.8 Sycamore, American 5.0 8.4 14.1
Quaking 3.5 6.7 11.5 Tanoak 4.9 11.7 17.3
Basswood,American 6.6 9.3 15.8 Tupelo
Beech, American 5.5 11.9 172 Black 5.1 8.7 14.4
Birch Water 42 7.6 12.5
Alaska paper 6.5 9.9 16.7 Walnut, black 5.5 7.8 12.8
Gray 52 — 14.7 Willow, black 3.3 8.7 13.9
Paper 6.3 8.6 16.2 Yellow-poplar 4.6 8.2 12.7
River 4.7 92 13.5 Softwoods
Sweet 6.5 9.0 15.6 Cedar
Yellow 7.3 9.5 16.8 Yellow 2.8 6.0 92
Buckeye,yellow 3.6 81 12.5 Atlantic white 2.9 5.4 8.8
Butternut 3.4 6.4 10.6 Eastemredcedar 3.1 4.7 7.8
Cherry, black 3.7 7.1 11.5 Incense 3.3 52 7.7
Chestnut, American 3.4 6.7 11.6 Northernwhite 22 4.9 72
Cottonwood Port-Orford 4.6 6.9 10.1
Balsam poplar 3.0 7.1 10.5 Western redcedar 24 5.0 6.8
Black 36 8.6 12.4 Douglas-fir,
Eastern 3.9 92 13.9 Coastb 4.8 7.6 12.4
Elm Interiornorth 3.8 6.9 10.7
American 42 9.5 14.6 lnteriorwesr 4.8 7.5 11.8
Cedar 4.7 102 15.4 Fir
81
Rock
Slippery
Winged
4.8
4.9
5.3
9
11.6
14.9
13.8
17.7
Balsam
California red
Grand
2.9
4.5
3.4
6.9
7.9
7.5
112
11.4
11.0
Hackberry 4.8 89 13.8 Noble 4.3 8.3 12.4
Hickory, pecan 4.9 8.9 13.6 Pacific silver 4.4 9.2 13.0
Hickory, true Subalpine 2.6 7.4 9.4
Mockemut 7.7 11.0 17.8 White 3.3 7.0 9.8
Pignut 72 11.5 17.9 Hemlock
Shagbark 7.0 10.5 16.7 Eastern 3.0 6.8 9.7
Shellbark 7.6 12.6 192 Mountain 4.4 7.1 11.1
Holly, American 4.8 9.9 16.9 Western 42 7.8 12.4
Honeylocust 42 6.6 10.8 Larch, western 4.5 9.1 14.0
Locust, black 4.6 72 102 Pine
Madrone,Pacific 5.6 12.4 18.1 Easternwhite 2.1 6.1 82
Magnolia Jack 3.7 6.6 10.3
Cucumbertree 52 88 13.6 Loblolly 4.8 7.4 12.3
Southern 5.4 6.6 12.3 Lodgepole 4.3 6.7 11.1
Sweetbay 4.7 83 12.9 Longleaf 5.1 7.5 122
Maple Pitch 4.0 7.1 10.9
Bigleaf 3.7 7.1 11.6 Pond 5.1 7.1 112
Black 4.8 9.3 14.0 Ponderosa 39 6.2 9.7
Red 4.0 82 12.6 Red 3.8 7.2 11.3
Silver 3.0 72 12.0 Shortleaf 4.6 7.7 12.3
Striped 32 8.6 12.3 Slash 5.4 7.6 12.1
Sugar 4.8 9.9 14.7 Sugar 2.9 5.6 7.9
Oak, red Virginia 42 72 11.9
Black 4.4 11.1 15.1 Western white 4.1 7.4 11.8
Laurel 4.0 9.9 19.0 Redwood
Northern red
Pin
4.0
4.3
6
9.5
13.7
14.5
Oldgrowth 2.6
22
4.4
4.9
6.8
7.0
Young growth
Scarlet 4.4 10.8 14.7 Spruce
Southern red 4.7 11.3 16.1 Black 4.1 6.8 11.3
Water 4.4 9.8 16.1 Engelrnann 38 7.1 11.0
Willow 5.0 9.6 18.9 Red 3.8 7.8 11.8
Oak,white 4.4 8.8 12.7 Sitka 4.3 7.5 11.5
Bur 5.3 10.8 16.4 Tamarack 3.7 7.4 13.6

Expressedas a percentageofthegreen dimension.

Coast type Douglas-fir isdefined asDouglas-fir growing inthe States ofOregon and Washingtonwest ofthesummit ofthe Cascade Mountaiiis.
InteriorWest indudes the State ofCaliforniaand allcounties in Oregon and Washingtoneast ofbutadjacent tothe Cascade summit. Interior Nlorth
indudesthe remainderofOregon and Washingtonand theStates ofIdaho,Montana,and Wyoming.

3—9
Table 3—6. Shrinkage for some woods imported intothe United Statesa
Shrinkagebfrom Shnnkage" from
green to ovendry green to ovendry
moisture content (%) moisture content (%)

Tan- Volu- Loca- Tan- Volu-- Loca-

Species Radial gential metric tionC Species Radial gential metric tjOflc

Afrormosia (Pericopsis elata) ao 6.4 10.7 AF Lauan,white(Pentacme conto,ta) 4.0 7.7 11.7 AS
Albarco (Canniana spp.) 2.8 5.4 9.0 AM Limba (Terminalia superba) 4.5 62 10.8 AF
Aridiroba (Carapa guianensis) 3.1 7.6 10.4 AM Macawood (Platymscium spp.) 2.7 3.5 6.5 AM
AngeHn(Andira inermis) 4.6 9.8 12.5 AM Mahogany,African (Khayaspp.) 2.5 4.5 8.8 AF
Angelique (Dico,ynia guianens!s) 52 8.8 14.0 AM Mahogany, true (Swieteniamacrophylla) 3.0 4.1 7.8 AM
Apitong (Dipterocarpusspp.) 5.2 10.9 16.1 AS Manbarkiak (Eschweileraspp.) 5.8 10.3 15.9 AM
Avodire (Turreanthus africanus) 4.6 6.7 12.0 AF Manni (Symphonia globulifera) 5.7 9.7 15.6 AM
Azobe (Lophira alata) 8.4 11.0 17.0 AM Marishballi (Licania spp.) 7.5 11.7 17.2 AM
Balata (Manhlkarabidenfata) 6.3 9.4 16.9 AM Meranti,white (Shorea spp.) 3.0 6.6 7.7 AS
Balsa (Ochiomapyramidale) 3.0 7.6 10.8 AM Meranti,yellow (Shorea spp.) 3.4 8.0 10.4 AS
Banak (Virola spp.) 4.6 8.8 13.7 AM Merbau (lntsia biuga and I. palembanica) 2.7 4.6 7.8 AS
Benge (Guibourtiaamoldiana) 52 8.6 13.8 AF Mersawa (Anisopteraspp.) 4.0 9.0 14.6 AS
Bubinga (Guibourtia spp.) 5.8 8.4 142 AF Mora (Mora spp.) 6.9 9.8 18.8 AM
Bulletwood (Manhlkarabidentata) 6.3 9.4 16.9 AM Obeche (Thplochitonscleroxylon) 3.0 5.4 92 AF
Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea) 6.3 7.8 12.9 AM Ocota pine (Pinus occalpa) 4.6 7.5 12.3 AM
Cativo (Pnoria copaifera) 2.4 5.3 8.9 AM Okoume (Aucoumeaklaineana) 4.1 6.1 11.3 AF
Ceiba (Ceiba penfandra) 2.1 4.1 10.4 AM Opepe (Naucleaspp.) 4.5 8.4 12.6 AF
Cocobolo (Dalbergia retusa) 2.7 43 7.0 AM Ovangkol (Guibourtaehie 4.5 82 12 AF
Courbaril (Hymenaea courbaril) 4.5 8.5 12.7 AM Para-angelium(Hymenolobium excelsum) 4.4 7.1 102 AM
Cuangare (Dialyanthera spp.) 42 9.4 12.0 AM Paranapine Araucariaangustifolia) 4.0 7.9 11.6 AS
Degame (Calycophyllum cand 4.8 8.6 132 AM Pau Marfim (Balfourodendron 4.6 8.8 13.4 AM
idissimum) riedelianum)
Determa (Ocotea rubra) 3.7 7.6 10.4 AM Perobadecampos (Paratecomaperoba) 3.8 6.6 10.5 AM
Ebony, East Indian (Diospyros spp.) 5.4 8.8 142 AS Peroba Rosa (Aspidospermaspp.) 3.8 6.4 11.6 AM
Ebony, African (Diospyros spp.) 9.2 10.8 20.0 AF Piquia (Caxyocarspp.) 5.0 8.0 13.C AM
Ekop (Tetraberlinia tubmaniana) 5.6 102 15.8 AF Pilon (Hyeronima spp.) 5.4 11.7 17.0 AM
Gmelina (Gmelina arborea) 2.4 4.9 8.8 AS Primavera (Cybistex donnell-smithi:) 3.1 5.1 9.1 AM
Goncalo alves(Astronium graveolens) 4.0 7.6 10.0 AM Purpleheart(Peltogynespp.) 3.2 6.1 9. AM
Greenheart (Ocotea rodiaei) 88 9.6 17.1 AM Ramin (Gonystylus spp.) 4.3 8.7 13.4 AS
Hura (Huracrepitans) 2.7 4.5 7.3 AM Roble (Quercus spp.) 6.4 11.7 18.5 AM
Ilomba (Pycnarthus angolensis) 4.6 8.4 12.8 AF Roble (Tabebuiaspp. Roble group) 3.6 6.1 9.5 AM
Imbuia (Phoebe porosa) 2.7 6.0 9.0 AM Rosewood, Brazilian (Dalbergianigra) 2.9 4.6 8.5 AM
Ipe (Tabebuiaspp.) 6.6 8.0 132 AM Rosewood,Indian (DalbergiaIatifolia) 2.7 5.8 8.5 AS
Iroko(Chlorophora excelsa and C. regia) 2.8 3.8 8.8 AF Rubberwood (Heveabrasiliensis) 2.3 5.1 7.4 AM
Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) 7.7 11.0 18.7 AS Sande (Brosimum spp. Utilegroup) 4.6 8.0 13.6 AM
Jelutong (Dyera costulata) 2.3 5.5 7.8 AS Sapele (Entandrophragmacylindncum) 4.6 7.4 14.0 AF
Kaneelhart (Licana spp.) 5.4 7.9 12.5 AM Sepetir (Pseudosirrdoraspp. and 3.7 7.0 10.5 AS
Sindora spp.)
Kapur(D,yobalanops spp.) 4.6 10.2 14.8 AS Spanish-cedar (Cedrela spp.) 4.2 63 10.3 AM
Karri(Eucalyptus diversicolo?) 7.8 12.4 202 AS Sucupira (Diplotropispuipurea) 4.6 7.0 11.8 AM
Kempas (Koompassia malaccensis) 6.0 7.4 14.5 AS Teak(Tectona grarrdis) 2.5 5.8 7.0 PS

Keruing (Dipterocarpus spp.) 5.2 10.9 16.1 AS Wallaba (Eperua spp.) 3.6 6.9 10.0 AM
Lauan, light red and red (Shorea spp.) 4.6 8.5 14.3 AS

Lauan, dark red (Sho,ea spp.) 3.8 7.9 13.1 AS

aShrinkagevalues were obtained fromworld literatureand may not representatrue species average.
bpreed as a percentageofthe green dimension.
CAF isAfrica; AM isTropical America; AS isAsia and Oceania.

3—10
 0
(0 Weight, Density, and
ci,
E Specific Gravity
.
Ca)
ci)
Two primaryfactors affectthe weightofwoodproducts:
density ofthe basic wood structure andmoisturecorLtent. A
third factor, minerals and extractable substances, has a
markedeffectonly on a limited numberofspecies.
C
ci
0 The density ofwood,exclusive ofwater, variesgreatlyboth
ci)
withinand betweenspecies. Although the density ofmost
0
Moisture content(%) species fallsbetweenabout 320 and 720 kg/rn3 (20 arid
45 lb/fl3),the range ofdensityactuallyextendsfrom about
Figure 3—4. Typical moisture content—shrinkage 160 kg/rn3(10 lb/fl3)forbalsa to more than 1,040 kg/rn3
curves. (65 lb/fl3)for someother imported woods. A coefficient of
variationofabout 10% is considered suitable fordescribing
7 thevariabilityofdensity withincommondomesticspecies.
6 Woodis used in a wide range ofconditions and has wide
a)
range ofmoisturecontentvalues in use. Moisturemakesup
0) 5
(ci
part ofthe weight ofeach productin use;therefore, tie den-
C
°0O 0
00 00 sity must reflectthis fact. This has resultedin the de:risityof
4 wood often being determined and reportedon the basis of
Co 00 moisture contentin use.
3.
C The calculated density ofwood,includingthe water con-
ci)
0) 2-
I
C

1
tained in the wood, is usuallybased on averagespecies
characteristics. This valueshouldalwaysbe consideredan
approximation becauseofthe naturalvariationin anatomy,
I I I I I .c.......i moisturecontent,andratio ofheartwoodto sapwoodthat
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 occurs. Nevertheless, this determination ofdensityth;ually
Moisture content(%) is sufficiently accurate to permitproperutilization ofwood
Figure 3—5. Variation in individualtangential shrinkage productswhereweightis important. Such applications range
values ofseveral Douglas-fir boardsfrom one locality, from the estimation ofstructural loadsto the calculation of
dried from green condition. approximateshippingweights.
To standardize comparisons ofspecies orproductsandesti-
mationsofproductweight,specificgravityis used as a
Ifthe moisturecontentat whichshrinkage fromthegreen standard reference basis,rather than density. The traditional
condition begins is knownto be other than 30% for a spe- definition ofspecific gravity is the ratio ofthe density ofthe
cies,the shrinkageestimatecan be improvedby replacingthe wood to the density ofwaterat a specified reference tempera-
valueof30 in Equation(3—4)with the appropriate moisture
contentvalue.
ture(often4.4°C (40°F))wherethedensity ofwater i
1.0000 g/cm3).Toreduce confusion introducedby tha vari-
able ofmoisture content, the specificgravityofwood usually
Tangentialvalues for S0shouldbe used for estimating width is basedon theovendry weight andthe volume at some
shrinkage offlatsawn material and radialvaluesfor quarter-
sawn material.For mixed or unknownring orientations, specified moisture content.
tangential values are suggested. Shrinkage valuesfor indi-
vidual pieceswill vary from predictedshrinkage values. As Commonlyused basesfor determining specific gravityare
noted previously, shrinkage variabilityis characterizecL by a ovendryweightand volumeat(a) green, (b) ovendry. and
coefficientofvariationofapproximately 15%. This applies to (c) 12% moisturecontent. Ovendry weightand green volume
are often used in databases to characterize specific gravity of
pure tangentialor radial ring orientation and is probably species, whichis referredto asbasic specific gravity. Some
somewhat greater in commercial lumber, where ring olienta-
tion is seldom alignedperfectlyparallelorperpendicular to specific gravitydata are reportedin Tables4—3, 4—4, and
4—5 (Ch. 4) on both the 12% and green volumebasi.
boardfaces. Chapter12 containsadditional discussion of A coefficient ofvariation ofabout 10% describes the vari-
shrinkage—moisturecontentrelationships,including a
methodto estimate shrinkage for the relativelysmallrnois- ability inherent in many common domestic species.
ture contentchangesofwood in service. Shrinkage assump-
Designspecifications forwood, such as containedin Ihe
tions for commercial lumber, whichtypically is notperfectly National DesignSpecflcationfor WoodConstruction, are
plainsawnor quartersawn, are discussedin Chapter6. basedon ovendry weightand ovendiyvolume.

3—11
 0.82 usage ofFigure3—6 is direct calculation ofGm using the
following:
0.78
Gm =Gb/(l—O.26SaGb) (3—5)
0.74
whereGm is specific gravity basedon volume at moisture
C
0.70 '
contentM, Gb is basic specific gravity(basedon green ol-
0
o 066 ume), and a = (30 — M)/30, where M < 30.
0.62 Alternatively, the density values in Table 3—7 can be calcu-
0 latedby
E 0.58
C p 1,000 Gm(1 + M/100) (kg/rn3) (3—6a)
0.54
C.) p = 62.4 Gm(1 + M/100) (lb/ft3) (36b)
0.50
It is often usefulto know theweightof lumberon avolumet-
0.46 ric basis. We can make these estimates using Table 3—7 or
0.42 with equations only. Theseresultsassume an average
shrinkage—specific gravityrelationship and providea good
0.38 estimate. Both methods are illustrated. For weights based on
theactualshrinkage ofindividual species,refertotheDry
0.34 Kiln Operator's Manual (Simpson 1991).
0
0. 0.30 Method i—Use of Table3—7
Cl)
0.26
Determine the weightper actualunit volume(cubicmeter
0.22 or 1,000 board feet) ofsugarmapleat 20% moisture con-
tent and at 50% moisture content. From Table 4—3a, the
specific gravity Gb (ovendryweight—greenvolume)i; 0.56.
0.18
0 2 4 68 1012141618202224262830 Becausethe specificgravity in Table 3—7 isbasedon
Moisture content (%)
volumeat tabulated moisture contentGm, we must convert
Figure 3—6. Relationship ofspecific gravityand Gb to Gm by either Figure 3—6or Equation (3—5):
moisture content.
At 20%,
Ifthe specific gravityofwood is known,based on ovendry G = 0.56/{1 — 0.265[(30 — 20)/30]0.56} = 0.59
weightand volumeat a specifiedmoisturecontent, the Determine the density from Table 3—7 at Gm = 0.59 and
specific gravity atany other moisture contentbetween0 and 20% moisturecontent. The result is approximately
30% can be approximated from Figure 3—6. This figure 708 kg/rn3 (44.1 lb/fl3) (by interpolation).
adjustsforaverageshrinkage and swelling that occurs below
30% moisturecontentand affectsthe volumeofwood. The At 50%,
specificgravityofwood basedon ovendry weightdoes not
change at moisturecontentvalues aboveapproximately 30%
Gm G 0.56

(the approximate fiber saturation point) becausethe volume Determinethe density from Table 3—7 at Gm = 0.56
does not change. To use Figure 3—6, locate the inclined line and 50% moisturecontent. The result is 840 kg/rn3
corresponding to the knownspecific gravity (volume when (52.4lb/fl3).
green). Fromthis point, move left parallel to the inclined
linesuntilverticallyabove the target moisturecontent. Method 2—Use ofequations only
Then,readthe new specificgravitycorresponding to this At 20%, Gm is calculatedas 0.589 as in Method 1.
point at the left-handside ofthe graph. Density is then calculatedfrom Equation(3—6)as
Forexample,to estimatethe density ofwhite ash at 12%
= 1,000 Gm(1+M/100)
moisture content, consultTable 4—3a in Chapter4. The =
1,000 (0.58 (1+20/100) 707 kg/rn3
average green (basic)specific gravityGb for thisspecies is
0.55. Using Figure3—6, the 0.55 green specificgravitycurve p= 62.4 Gm(1+M/100)
is foundto intersect with thevertical 12% moisturecontent = 62.4(0.589)(1+20/100)= 44.1 lb/ft3
line at a point corresponding to a specific gravityof0.605
basedon ovendryweightandvolume at 12% moisturecon- At 50%,
tent, Gm (see dashed lines in Fig. 3—6). The densityofwood p = 1,000 (0.56)(1+50/100) = 840 kg/rn3
includingwater at this moisture contentcan then be obtained
from Table 3—7, which converts the specific gravityof p = 62.4(0.56)(1+50/l00)= 52.4 lb/ft3
0.605to a density of675 kg/rn3 (42 lb/fl3). An alternativeto

3—12
Table 3—7a. Density of woodas a function of specificgravity and moisture content (metric)
Moisture . . .
oontent Density (kg/rn 3) when the specific gravity Gm IS
ofwood
(%) 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44. 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 Ci.68 0.70

0 300320340360380400420440460480 500520540560580600620640660380700
4 312 333 354 374 395 416 437 458 478 499 520 541 562 582 603 624 645 666 686 '707 728

8 324 346 367 389 410 432 454 475 497 518 540 562 583 605 626 648 670 691 713 '734 756

12 336 358 381 403 426 448 470 493 515 538 560 582 605 627 650 672 694 717 739 '762 784

16 348 371 394 418 441 464 487 510 534 557 580 603 626 650 673 696 719 742 766 '789 812

ai 360 384 408 432 456 480 504 528 552 576 600 624 648 672 696 720 744 768 792 316 840

24 372 397 422 446 471 496 521 546 570 595 620 645 670 694 719 744 769 794 818 343 868

28 384 410 435 461 486 512 538 563 589 614 640 666 691 717 742 768 794 819 845 370 896

32 396 422 449 475 502 528 554 581 607 634 560 686 713 739 766 792 818 845 871 398 924

36 408 435 462 490 517 544 571 598 626 653 680 707 734 762 789 816 843 870 898 325 952

40 420 448 476 504 532 560 588 616 644 672 700 728 756 784 812 840 868 896 924 352 980

44 432 461 490 518 547 576 605 634 662 691 720 749 778 806 835 864 893 922 950 379 1,008

48 444 474 503 533 562 592 622 651 681 710 740 770 799 829 658 888 918 947 977 1,006 1,036

52 456 486 517 547 578 608 638 669 699 730 760 790 821 851 882 912 942 973 1,003 1,034 1,064

56 468 499 530 562 593 624 655 686 718 749 780 811 842 874 905 936 987 998 1,030 1,1)61 1,092

60 480 512 544 576 608 640 672 704 736 768 800 832 864 896 928 960 992 1,024 1,056 1,1)88 1,120
64 492 525 558 590 623 656 689 722 754 787 820 553 886 918 951 984 1,017 1,050 1,082 1,115 1,148
68 504 538 571 605 638 672 706 739 773 806 540 874 907 941 974 1,008 1,042 1,075 1109 1,142 1,176
72 516 550 585 619 854 688 722 757 791 826 860 894 929 863 998 1032 1,066 1,101 1,135 1,170 1,204
76 528 563 598 634 669 704 739 774 810 845 880 915 950 986 1,021 1,056 1,091 1,126 1,162 1,197
80 540 576 612 648 684 720 756 792 828 864 990 936 972 1,008 1044 1,080 1,116 1,152 1,188
84 552 589 626 662 699 736 773 810 846 883 920 957 994 1030 1,067 1,104 1,141 1,178

85 564 602 639 677 714 752 790 827 865 902 940 978 1,015 1,053 1,090 1,128 1,166
92 576 614 653 691 730 768 806 845 883 922 960 998 1,037 1,075 1,114 1,152 1,190

96 588 627 666 706 745 784 823 862 902 941 980 1,019 1,058 1,098 1,137 1,176
100 600 640 680 720 760 80) 840 880 920 960 1,000 1,040 1,080 1,120 1,160 1,200

110 630 672 714 756 798 840 832 924 966 1,008 1,050 1,092 1,134 1,176 1,218
120 660 704 748 792 836 880 924 968 1,012 1,056 1,100 1,144 1,188 1,232

130 690 736 782 828 874 920 906 1,012 1,058 1,104 1,150.1,196 1,242 1,288
140 720 768 816 864 912 960 1,008 1,056 1,104 1,152 1,200 1,248 1296
150 750 800 850 950 1,000 1,050 1,100 1,150 1,200 1,250 1,300 1,350

3—i3
Table 3—7b. Density ofwoodas a functionofspecificgravityand moisture content (inch—pound)
Moisture
content Density (lb/ft3) whe n the specific, gravity Gm is
ofwood
(%) 0.30 0.320.340.36 0.380A00.420.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.580.600.620.64 0.660.680.70
0 18.720.021222.523.725.026.227.528.730.031232.433.734.936237.438.739.9
41.2 42,443.7
4 19.5 20.8221 24.726.027.228.6 29.831.232.4 33.735.036.6 37.638.940.241.5 42.8 44.1454
23.4

8 20221.622.924.325.627.028.329.631.032.333.735.036.437.739.140.441.843.1 44.545.84"2
12 21.022.423.825226.628.029.430.832233.534.936.337.739.l 40.541.943.344.7 46.1 47,548.9
16 21.7 23.224.626.0 27.529.030.431.8 33.334.736.2 37639.1 40.542.043.444.946.3 47.8 49250.7
20 22.524.025.527.028.430.031.432.934.435.937.438.940.441.943.444.946.447.9 49.4 50,952.4
24 232 24.8 26.3 27.8 29.4 31.0 3Z5 34.0 35.6 37.1 38.7 402 41.8 43.3 44.9 46.4 48.0 49.5 51.1 52.6 542
28 24.025.627228.830.431.933.535.136.738.339.941.543.144.746.347.949.551.1 52.754.355.9
32 24.726.428.029.731.332.934.636237.939.541242.844.546.l47.849.451152.7 54.4 56,057.7
36 25.5 272 28.9 30.6 322 33.9 35.6 37.3 39.0 40.7 42.4 44.1 45.8 47.5 492 50.9 52.6 54.3 56.0 57.7 59.4
40 26.2 28.0 29.7 31.4 332 34.9 36.7 38.4 40.2 41.9 43.7 45.4 47.2 48.9 50.7 52.4 54.2 55.9 57.7 59.4 6L2
44 27.0 28.830.632.3 34.1 35.937.739.541.343.144.9 46.748.550.3 52.1 53.955.757.5 59.3 61162.9
48 27.7 29.6 31.4 33.2 35.1 36.9 38.8 40.6 42.5 44.3 46.2 48.0 49.9 51.7 53.6 55.4 57.3 59.1 61.0 62.8 64.6
52 28.530.432234136.037.939.841.743.645.547.449.351253.155.056.958.86Q,7 62.6 64,566.4
56 29.231.233.135.037.038.940.942.844.846.748.750.652.654.556.558.460.462.3 642 66.2681
60 30.0 31.933.935.9 37.939.941.943.9 45.947.949.9 51.953.955.9 57.959.961.963.9 65.9 67969.9
64 30.7 32.734.836.8 38.940.943.045.0 47.1 49.1512 5a255.357.3 59.461.46a465.5 67.5 69671.6
68 31.433.535.637.739.841.944.046.148.250.352.454.556.658.760.862.965.067.1 69.2 71373.4
72 32.234.336.538.640.842.945.147.249.451.553.755.858.060.1 62.364.466.568.7 70.8 73075.1
76 32.9 35.1 37.3 39.5 41.7 43.9 46.1 48.3 50.5 52.7 54.9 57.1 59.3 61.5 63.7 65.9 68.1 70.3 72.5
80 33.7 35.9 382 40.4 42.7 44.9 47.2 49.4 51.7 53.9 56.2 58.4 60.7 62.9 65.1 67.4 69.6 71.9 74.1

84 34.4 36.7 39.0 41.3 43.6 45.9 48.2 50.5 52.8 55.1 57.4 59.7 62.0 64.3 66.6 68.9 712 73.5
88 352 37.5 39.9 422 44.6 46.9 493 51.6 54.0 56.3 58.7 61.0 63.3 65.7 68.0 70.4 72.7

g2 35.9 38.3 40.7 43.1 45.5 47.9 50.3 52.7 55.1 57.5 59.9 62.3 64.7 67.1 69.5 71.9 74.3

56 36.7 39.1 41.6 44.0 46.5 48.9 51.4 53.8 56.3 58.7 612 63.6 66.0 68.5 70.9 73.4

100 37.4 39,9 42.4 44.9 47.4 49.9 52.4 54.9 57.4 59.9 62.4 64.9 67.4 69.9 72.4 74.9

110 39.3 41.9 44.6 472 49.8 52.4 55.0 57.7 60.3 62.9 65.5 68.1 70.8 73.4 76.0

120 412 43.9 46.7 49.4 52.2 54.9 57.7 60.4 63.1 65.9 68.6 71.4 74.1 76.9

130 43.1 45.9 48.8 51.7 54.5 57.4 60.3 63.1 66.0 68.9 71.8 74.6 77.5 80.4

140 44.9 47.9 50.9 53.9 56.9 59.9 62.9 65.9 68.9 71.9 74.9 77.9 80.9

150 46.8 49.9 53.0 562 59.3 62.4 65.5 68.6 71.8 74.9 78.0 81.1 842

3—14
 Considerable difference in service life can be obtainedfrom
Working Qualities piecesofwood cut from the same species, even from the
The ease ofworkingwood with hand tools generally varies same tree, and used under apparently similarconditions.
directlywith the specificgravityofthe wood. The lower There are further complications because, in a few species,
the specific gravity,the easierit is to cutthewood with a such as the spruces and the true firs (notDouglas-fir), heart-
sharptool. Tables 4—3 and 4—5(Ch. 4) listthe specific wood and sapwoodare so similarin color that they cannot
gravityvalues for variousnativeand importedspecies. These be easily distinguished.
specificgravity valuescan be used as a general guide to the Marketable sizes ofsome species,such as the southern and
ease ofworkingwith hand tools. easternpines and baldcypress, are becoming primarilysecond
A wood speciesthat is easy to cut does not necessarily growthand contain a high percentage ofsapwoo1. Conse-
developa smoothsurface when it is machined. Conse- quently,substantial quantitiesofheartwoodlumberofthese
quently,tests have been made with many U.S. hardwoods to species are not available.
evaluatethem for machining properties. Resultsofthese
Precise ratings ofdecay resistance ofheartwood ordifferent
evaluationsare given in Table 3—8.
species are not possible becauseofdifferences within species
Machining evaluations are not available for many imported and the varietyofserviceconditions to whichwood is ex-
woods.However,threemajor factorsother thandensitycan posed.However, broadgroupings ofmany nativespecies,
affectproduction ofsmoothsurfaces during woodmachining: basedonservicerecords, laboratory tests, and generalexperi-
interlockedand variablegrain, hard mineral deposits, and ence,arehelpfulin choosing heartwoodforuse undercondi-
reactionwood, particularlytension wood in hardwoods. tions favorable to decay.Table 3—10 lists such groupingsfor
Interlocked grain is characteristic ofa few domestic species some domestic and importedwoods,accordingto their
and many tropical species, and it presents difficultyin plan- average heartwooddecay resistance. The extent ofvariations
ing quartersawn boardsunless attention is paid to feed rate, in decay resistance ofindividual treesor wood samples ofa
cutting angles, and sharpnessofknives. Harddepositsin the species is much greaterfor most ofthe more resistantspecies
cells, such as calciumcarbonate and silica, can havea pro- than forthe slightlyor nonresistant species.
nounceddulling effect on all cutting edges. This dulling
effectbecomesmore pronounced as the wood is driedto the Wheredecayhazards exist, heartwoodofspecies in the resis-
usual in-service requirements. Tensionwood can cause tant or very resistantcategory generallygivessatisfactory
fibrousand fuzzy surfaces. It can be veiy troublesome in service, butheartwoodofspecies in the other two categories
will usuallyrequiresome form ofpreservative treatment.For
speciesoflowerdensity.Reactionwood can also berespon- mild decay conditions, a simplepreservativetreatment—
sible forthe pinchingeffecton saws as aresult ofstressrelief.
The pinching canresult inburning and dullingofthe saw such as a shortsoak in preservative after all cuttingand
teeth. Table 3—9lists some importedspecies that have ir- boringoperations are complete—will be adequate for wood
low in decay resistance. Formore severe decay hazards,
regular grain, hard deposits, or tensionwood.
pressure treatment is often required. Even the very decay-
resistantspecies may require preservative treatment for im-
Decay Resistance portantstructural usesor other useswhere failure would
Wood kept constantlydry does not decay.In addition, if endanger life orrequireexpensive repairs.Preservative treat-
wood is kept continuouslysubmerged in water,even for long ments and methods for wood are discussedin Chapter14.
periods oftime, it does not decay significantly by the com-
mon decay fungiregardless ofthe wood species orthe pres- Thermal Properties
ence ofsapwood. Bacteria and certain soft-rot fungican attack
Four importantthermalpropertiesofwood are thermalcon-
submergedwood, butthe resultingdeterioration is very
slow. A large proportionofwood in use is kept sc dry at all ductivity, heat capacity, thermal diffusivity, andcoefficient of
times that it lasts indefmitely. thermal expansion.
Moisture andtemperature, whichvary greatlywith local
conditions, are the principalfactors that affectrate ofdecay. Conductivity
Wooddeteriorates more rapidlyin warm,humid areas than Thermalconductivityis ameasureofthe rate ofheat flow
a
in cool or dry areas. High altitudes, as rule, areless favor- throughone unit thicknessofa material subjected to a tem-
able to decay than are low altitudes because the average peraturegradient. The thermal conductivity ofcommon
temperatures at higheraltitudes are lowerand the growing structural woods is much less than the conductiviiy ofmetals
seasonfor fungi,whichcause decay,is shorter. The heart- with whichwood often is mated in construction. ILt is about
woodofcommonnativespecies ofwoodhas varyingdegrees two to fourtimesthat ofcommoninsulatingmaterial. For
ofnaturaldecay resistance. Untreated sapwoodofsubstan- example, the conductivity ofstructural softwoodlumberat
tially all species has low resistanceto decay and usually has 12% moisture contentis in the range of0.1 to 1.4 W/(mK)
a shortservicelife under decay-producing conditions. The (0.7 to 1.0 Btu.in/(hft2.°F)) comparedwith 216 (1,500)for
decay resistance ofheartwoodis greatlyaffected by aluminum,45 (310) for steel,0.9 (6) forconcrete,1 (7) for
differences in the preservative qualities ofthewood extrac- glass,0.7 (5) for plaster, and 0.036(0.25) for minral wool.
tives, the attackingfungus,and the conditions ofexposure.

3—15
Table 3—8. Some machining and related properties ofselected domestic hardwoods
Shaping: Turning: Boring: Mortising: Sanding: Steam Nail splitting: Screwsplitting:
Planing: goodto fairto goodto fair to goodto bending: pieces free pieces free
perfect excellent excellent excellent excellent excellent unbroken fromcomplete fromcomplete
pieces pieces pieces pieces pieces pieces pieces splits splits
Kind ofwood0 (0/) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
)___________________________________________________
Alder, red 61 20 86 64 52 — — — —
Ash 75 55 79 94 58 75 67 65 71

Aspen 7 55 78 55
Basswood 64 10 68 76 51 17 2 79 ss
BeeCh 83 24 99 99 92 49 75 42 58

Birch
.
Birch, paper

Cherry, black a) 99 88 100 100 — — — —

Chestnut 74 28 87 91 70 64 55 55 99

Cottonwoodb 21 3 70 70 52 19 . 44 92 78
•

Elm,softb 33 13 65 94 75 55 74 88 74

Hackberry 74 10 72 — 94 63 63

Hickory 76 20 64 100 99 88 76 35 63

Magnolia 65 71 37 85 73 76

Maple, bigleaf 55 99 ice a)

Maple, hard 99 95 38 57 27 52

Maple, soft 41 25 76 88 34 37 55 58 61

Oak, red 91 28 84 99 95 81 85 55 78

Oak, white 57 35 85 95 99 83 91 99 74

Pecan 88 40 89 100 99 — 78 47 58

Sweetgumb 51 92 58 Z 67 55 55

Sycamore' 22 12 85 96 99 21 29 79 74

Tanoak 99 39 81 100 100 — — —

Tupelo, waters' 52 79 52 33 34 46 64 63

Tupelo, blackb 48 75 52 24 21 42 65 63

Walnut, black 52 34 91 100 96 — 78 50 55

Willow 52 5 58 71 24 24 73 89 52

Yellow-poplar 70 13 81 87 63 19 58 77 67

8Commerdal lumbernomenclature.
blfllocked grain present.

3—16
Table 3—9. Some characteristics of imported woods Therefore, we do not providevaluesfor moisture content
that may affectmachining values >25%.
Hard mineral
Reactionwood The effectoftemperature onthermal conductivily is relatively
Irregularand deposits (silica
interlocked grain orcalcium carbonate) (tensionwood) minor: conductivity increases about 2% to 3% per 10°C
(1% to 2% per 10°F).
Avodire Angehque Andiroba
Courbaril Iroko Banak
Ekop Kapur Cativo Heat Capacity
Goncaloalves Ceiba
Keruing (Apftong) Heat capacityis defmed as the amountofenergyneededto
lpe Manbarklak Hura
Iroko Marishballi increase one unit ofmass(kg or lb) one unit in temperature
Mahogany,African
Jarrah Mersawa Mahogany,American (K or °F). Theheatcapacityofwood depends on the tem-
Kapur Okoume Sande perature andmoisturecontentofthe wood but is practically
Karri Rosewood,Indian Spanish-cedar independent ofdensity or species. Heat capacity ofdry wood
Keruing (Apitong) Teak co(kJfkg.K,Btullb°F) is approximately relatedto tempera-
Kokrodua turet (K, °F ) by
Lauan/meranti
= 0.1031 + 0.003867t (metric) (3—8 a)
Lignumvitae
Limba = 0.2605 + 0.0005132t (inch—pound) (3—8b)
Mahogany,African
Merasawa
Obeche
Theheatcapacity ofwoodthat containswater is greaterthan
Okoume that ofdry wood. Below fiber saturation, it is the sum ofthe
Rosewood,Indian heat capacity ofthe dry wood and that ofwater (c) andan
Santa Maria additional adjustment factorA that accounts for the addi-
Sapele tionalenergyin the wood—waterbond:

c,
= (co+0.01Mc)I(l + 0.OlM)+A (3—9)
Thethermal conductivity ofwood is affected by a numberof
where Mis moisturecontent(%). The heat capacityofwater
basic factors: density,moisturecontent, extractive content,
is about 4.19 kJ/kgK(I BtuJlb.°F). The adjustnientfactor
grain direction, structural irregularities such as checks and can be derived from
knots, fibril angle, and temperature. Thermal conductivity
increases as density, moisturecontent, temperature, or extrac- A=M(b+b2t+b,M)
live content ofthe wood increases.Thermalconductivity is
nearlythe same in the radial and tangential directions with
with b1 = —0.06191, b, = 2.36 x i0, and b3 —1.33 x 10
with temperature in kelvins (b1 = —4.23 x
respect to the growthrings. Conductivity along the grain has
beenreported as 1.5 to 2.8 times greaterthan conductivity b2= 3.12 x l0, and b3 —3.17 x 10 with temperaturein
acrossthe grain, with an average ofabout 1.8, but reported °F). Theseformulas are valid forwood belowfiber saturation
values vary widely. at temperatures between7°C (45°F)and 147°C (297°F).
Representative values forheat capacity canbe found in
Formoisture content levelsbelow25%, approximatethermal Table 3—12. The moisture above fiber saturation contributes
conductivity kacross the grain can be calculated with a linear to specific heat according to thesimplerule ofmixtures.
equation ofthe form
k= G(B + CM) + A Thermal Diffusivity
(3—7)
Thermaldiffusivity is a measureofhow quickly material
whereG is specificgravity based on ovendry weight and canabsorb heat from its surroundings; it is theral:ioofther-
volume at a given moisturecontentM(%) andA, B, and C mal conductivity to the product ofdensity and heatcapacity.
are constants. For specific gravity>0.3, temperaturesaround Diffusivity is defmedas the ratio ofconductivity 1:0 the prod-
24°C (75°F), and moisture contentvalues <25%, uctofheat capacity and density;therefore, conclu;ionsre-
A = 0.01864,B 0.1941, and C = 0.004064(with k in gardingits variation with temperature and density are often
W/(mK)) çor A = 0.129, B = 1.34,and C 0.028 with kin basedon calculating the effectofthese variables o:i heat
BtwinJ(hft .F)). Equation (3—7)was derived from measure- capacityand conductivity. Becauseofthe low thermal
mentsmadeby severalresearcherson a varietyofspecies. conductivity and moderatedensity andheatcapac[ty of
Table3—11 providesaverage approximate conductivity wood,the thermaldiffusivityofwood is much lowerthan
values for selectedwood species,based on Equation (3—7). that ofother structural materials,such as metal, brick, and
However,actual conductivity may vary as much as 20% stone. A typicalvalue for wood is 0.161 x l0_6m2/s
from the tabulated values. (0.00025 in2/s) compared with 12.9 x lO_6m2/s (102 in2/s)
for steel and 0.645 x 10_6m2/s (0.001 in2/s) for mineral
Althoughthermalconductivity measurements have been wool. For this reason,wood does not feel extremelyhot or
madeat moisturecontentvalues >25%, measurements have cold to the touch as do some other materials.
been few innumber and generally lackingin accuracy.

3—17
 Table 3—10. Grouping of some domestic and imported woods according to average heartwood
decay resistance
Resistant orvery resistant Moderatelyresistant Slightly ornonresistant

Domestic
Baldcypress,old growth Baldcypress,young growth Alder, red

Catalpa Douglas-fir Ashes

Cedar Larch, western Aspens
Atlantic white Pine, longleaf, old growth Beech
Eastern redcedar Pine, slash,oldgrowth Birches
Incense Redwood,younggrowth Buckeye
Northern white Tamarack Butternut
Port-Orford Cottonwood
Western redcedar Elms
Yellow Pine,eastern white, oldgrowth Basswood
Cherry, black Firs, true
Chestnut Hackberry
Cypress, Arizona Hemlocks
Junipers Hickories
Locust, Magnolia
Black° Maples
Honeylocust Pines (other than thoselisted)b
Mesquite Spruces
Mulberry, red8 Sweetgum
Oaks, whiteb Sycamore
Osage orange8 Tanoak
Redwood, oldgrowth Willows
Sassafras Yellow-poplar
Walnut, black
Yew,Pacific8

Imported
Aflotmosia (Kokrodua) Andiroba Balsa

Angelique8 Avodire Banak

Apamate (Roble) Benge Cativo

Azobe8 Bubinga Ceiba
Balata8 Ehie Hura
Balau" Ekop Jelutong
Courbaril Keruingb Limba
Determa Mahogany,African Meranti, light redb
Goncalo alves8 Meranti, dark redb Meranti, yellowb
Greenheart° Mersawab Meranti, whiteb

Ipe (lapacho)8 Sapele Obeche

Iroko Teak, younggrowth Okoume
Jarrah8 Tornillo Parana pine
Kapur Ramin
Karri Sande

Kempas Sepitir
Lignurnvitae8 Seraya, white

Mahogany, American
Manni
Purpleheart°
Spanish-cedar
Sucupira
Teak, old growth8
Wallaba

8Exceptionallyhigh decay resistance.

bMore thanone speciesinduded, someofwhich mayvaryin resistance fromthat indicated.

3—18
Table 3—11. Thermal conductivity ofselected hardwoodsand softWoodsa
Conductivity Resistivity
(W/mK (Btuin/hft2°F)) (Km/W (hft2•°F/Btu•in)) —

Species Specific gravity Ovendry 12% MC Ovendry 12% MC

Hardwoods
Ash
Black 0.53 0.12(0.84) 0.15(1.0) 8.2(1.2) 6.8 (0.98)
White 0.63 0.14 (0.98) 0.17 (1.2) 7.1 (1.0) 5.8 (0.84)
Aspen
Btooth 0.41 0.10(0.68) 0.12 (0.82) 10(1.5) 8.5(1.2)
Quaking 040 0.10 (0.67) 0.12 (0.80) 10(1.5) 8.6(1.2)
Basswood,American 0.38 0.092(0.64) 0.11 (0.77) 11(1.6) 9.0(1.3)
Beech,American 0.68 0.15(1.0) 0.18(1.3) 6.6 (0.96) 5.4(0.78)
Birch
Sweet 0.71 0.16 (1.1) 0.19(1.3) 6.4(0.92) 5.2(0.75)
Yellow 0.66 0.15(1.0) 0.18(1.2) 6.8(0.98) 5.6(0.81)
Cherry, black 0.53 0.12 (0.84) 0.15 (1.0) 8.2(1.2) 6.8 (0.93)
Chestnut, American 0.45 0.11(0.73) 0.13(0.89) 9.4(1.4) 7.8(1.1)
Cottonwood
Black 0.35 0.087(0.60) 0.10(0.72) 12(1.7) 9.6 (1.4)
Eastern 0.43 0.10(0.71) 0.12(0.85) 9.8(1.4) 8.1 (1.2)
Elm
American 0.54 0.12(0.86) 0.15 (1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7(0.93)
Rock 0.67 0.15(1.0) 0.18 (1.3) 6.7 (0.97) 5.5 (0.80)
Slippery 0.56 0.13(0.88) 0.15(1.1) 7.9(1.1) 6.5 (0.9:3)
Hackberry 0.57 0.13(0.90) 0.16(1.1) 7.7(1.1) 6.4(0.92)
Hickory, pecan 0.69 0.15 (1.1) 0.19 (1.3) 6.6 (0.95) 5.4(0.77)
Hickory, true
Mockemut 0.78 0.17 (1.2) 0.21 (1.4) 5.9 (0.85) 4.8(0.69)
Shagbark 0.77 0.21 (1.4) 5.9(0.86)
0.17(1.2) 4.9(0.70)
Magnolia, southern 0.52 0.12 (0.83) 0.14(1.0) 8.4(1.2) 6.9(1.0)
Maple
Black 0.60 0.14(0.94) 0.16(1.1) 7.4(1.1) 6.1 (0.813)
Red 0.56 0.13(0.88) 0.15(1.1) 7.9(1.1) 6.5(0.93)
Silver 0.50 0.12 (0.80) 0.14(0.97) 8.6 (1.2) 7.1 (1.1))
Sugar 0.66 0.15 (1.0) 0.18(1.2) 6.8(0.98) 5.6(0.81)
Oak, red
Black 0.66 0.15 (1.0) 0.18(1.2) 6.8(0.98) 5.6 (0.81)
Northern red 0.65 0.14 (1.0) 0.18 (12) 6.9(1.0) 5.7(0.82)
Southern red 0.62 0.14(0.96) 0.17 (12) 7.2(1.0) 5.9 (0.85)
Oak, white
Bur 0.66 0.15(1.0) 0.18(12) 6.8(0.98) 5.6(0.81)
White 0.72 0.16 (1.1) 0.19 (1.3) 6.3(0.91) 5.2(0Th)
Sweetgum 0.55 0.13(0.87 0.15 (1.1) 8.0(1.2) 6.6(0.9t5
Sycamore, American 0.54 0.12(0.86) 0.15(1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7(0.96)
Tupelo
Black 0.54 0.12 (0.86) 0.15(1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7(0.96)
Water 0.53 0.12(0.84) 0.15(1.0) 8.2(1.2) 6.8(0.98)
Yellow-poplar 0.46 0.11 (0.75) 0.13(0.90) 9.3(1.3) 7.7(1:)

3—19
 Table 3—Il. Thermal conductivity of selected hardwoods and softwOodsa_con.
Conductivity Resistivity
(W/mK (Btuin/hft2°F)) - (W/rnK(hft2°F/Btuin))

Species Specific gravity Ovendry 12% MC Ovendry 12% MC

Softwoods
Baldcypress 0.47 0.11(0.76) 0.13(0.92) 9.1 (1.3) 7.5(1.1)
Cedar
Atlantic white 0.34 0.085(0.59) 0.10 (0.70; 12(1.7) 9.9(1.4)
Eastern red 0.48 0.11 (0.77) 0.14(0.94) 8.9(1.3) 7.4(1.1)
Northern white 0.31 0.079(0.55) 0.094(0.65) 13(1.8) 11(1.5)
Port-Orford 0.43 0.10(0.71) 0.12 (0.85 9.8(1.4) 8.1 (1.2)
Western red 0.33 0.083(0.57) 0.10(0.68) 12(1.7) 10(1.5)
Yellow 0.46 0.11 (0.75) 0.13(0.90) 9.3(1.3) 7.7(1.1)
Douglas-fir
Coast 0.51 0.12 (0.82) 0.14(0.99) 8.5(1.2) 7.0(1.0)
Interior north 0.50 0.12(0.80) 0.14(0.97) 8.6(1.2) 7.1 (1.0)
Interior west 0.52 0.12(0.83) 0.14(1.0) 8.4(1.2) 6.91.0)
Fir
Balsam 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75' 11(1.6) 9.2(1.3)
White 0.41 0.10(0.68) 0.12(0.82; 10(1.5) 8.5(1.2)
Hemlock
Eastern 0.42 0.10(0.69) 0.12(0.84; 10(1.4) 8.3(1.2)
Western 0.48 0.11 (0.77) 0.14(0.94) 8.9(1.3) 7.4(1.1)
Larch,western 0.56 0.13(0.88) 0.15 (1.1) 7.9(1.1) 6.5(0.93)
Pine
Eastern white 0.37 0.090(0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11(1.6) 9.2(1.3)
Jack 0.45 0.11 (0.73) 0.13(0.89) 9.4(1.4) 7.8(1.1)
Loblolly 0.54 0.12(0.86) 0.15(1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7 (0.96)
Lodgepole 0.43 0.10(0.71) 0.12(0.85) 9.8(1.4) 8.1 (1.2)
Longleaf 0.62 0.14(0.96) 0.17 (1.2) 7.2(1.0) 5.9(0.85)
Pitch 0.53 0.12(0.84) 0.15(1.0) 8.2(1.2) 6.8(0.98)
Ponderosa 0.42 0.10(0.69) 0.12(0.84) 10(1.4) 8.3(1.2)
Red 0.46 0.11 (0.75) 0.13(0.90) 9.3(1.3) 7.7(1.1)
Shortleaf 0.54 0.12(0.86) 0.15(1.0) 8.1 (1.2) 6.7 (0.96)
Slash 0.61 0.14(0.95) 0.17(1.2) 7.3(1.1) 6.0 (0.86)
Sugar 0.37 0.090(0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11(1.6) 9.2(1.3)
Western white 0.40 0.10(0.67) 0.12(0.80) 10(1.5) 8.6(1.2)
Redwood
Old growth 0.41 0.10(0.68) 0.12(0.82) 10(1.5) 8.5(1.2)
Young growth 0.37 0.090(0.63) 0.11(0.75) 11(1.6) 9.2(1.3)
Spruce
Black 0.43 0.10(0.71) 0.12 (0.85) 9.8(1.4) 8.1 (1.2)
Engelmann 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11(1.6) 9.2(1.3)
Red 0.42 0.10(0.69) 0.12(0.84) 10(1.4) 8.3(1.2)
Sitlca 0.42 0.10(0.69) 0.12 (0.84) 10(1.4) 8.3(1.2)
White 0.37 0.090 (0.63) 0.11 (0.75) 11(1.6) 9.2(1.3)

Values inthistable are approximateand should be used with caution;actual conductivitiesmay vary byasmuchas20%.
Thespecific gravitiesalso do not representspecies averages.

3—20
 Table 3—12. Heatcapacity of solid wood at selected temperatures and ma isture contents
Temperature Specific heat (kJ/kgK(Btullb°F))

(K) (°C (°F)) Ovendry 5% MC 12% MC 20% MC

280 7 (45) 1.2(0.28) 1.3(0.32) 1.5 (0.37) 1.7(0.41)

290 17 (75) 1.2(029) 1.4(0.33) 1.6 (0.38) 1.8 (0.43)
3(X) 27 (80) 1.3(0.30) 1.4 (0.34) 1.7 (0.40) 1.9 (0.45)
320 47 (116) 1.3(0.32) 1.5 (0.37) 1.8 (0.43) 2.0(0.49)
340 67 (152) 1.4(0.34) 1.6 (0.39) 1.9 (0.46) 2.2 (0.52)
360 87 (188) 1.5(0.36) 1.7(0.41) 2.0(0.49) 2.3(0.56)

Thermal Expansion Coefficient Even in the longitudinal (grain) direction, where dimensional
changecausedby moisturechange is very small, such
The coefficientofthermalexpansion is ameasureofthe changes will still predominateover corresponding dimen-
changeofdimension causedby temperature change. The sional changes as aresult ofthermal expansion unless the
thermalexpansion coefficients ofcompletely dry wood are wood is very dry initially.For wood at usual mcisture
positivein all directions;that is, wood expands on heating levels,net dimensional changes will generallybe negative
and contracts on cooling. Limitedresearchhas been carried afterprolonged heating.
out to explorethe influence ofwood propertyvariability on
thermalexpansion. The thermalexpansion coefficient of
ovendry wood parallelto the grain appearsto be independent Electrical Properties
ofspecific gravityand species. In tests ofboth hardwoods The most important electrical propertiesofwood are conduc-
and softwoods, the parallel-to-grain values haverangedfrom
about 0.000031 to 0.0000045 per K (0.0000017 to tivity,dielectric constant, and dielectric power fa:tor. The
0.0000025 per °F). conductivity ofa material determines the electric currentthat
will flow whenthe material is placed under a given voltage
The thermalexpansion coefficients acrossthegrain (radial gradient. The dielectricconstantofanonconducting material
andtangential)are proportionalto wood specific gravity. determines the amountofpotential electricenergy, in the
Thesecoefficients range from about 5 to morethan10 times form ofinducedpolarization, that is storedin a given volume
ofthematerial whenthat materialisplacedin an electric
greater thantheparallel-to-grain coefficients and are ofmore field. The powerfactorofa nonconducting matethl deter-
practicalinterest. The radial andtangentialthermal expan- minesthe fractionofstoredenergy that is dissipai:edas heat
sion coefficients for ovendrywood, CLr and x,, can be ap-
whenthe material experiences a complete polarizc—depo1arize
proximatedby the followingequations, over an ovendry
specific gravityrange ofabout 0.1 to 0.8: cycle.

cz,.= (32.4G+ 9.9)10_6per K (3—11a) Examples ofindustrial wood processesand applications in

whichelectrical properties ofwood are importantinclude
a= (18G + 5.5)10_6 per °F (31lb) crossarms andpoles forhigh voltagepowerlines, utility
a,= (32.4G + 18.4)10_6 per K (3—12a) worker's tools,andthe heat-curing ofadhesivesin wood
productsby high frequency electric fields. Moisturemeters
a= (18G + 10.2)l0_6 per °F (312b) forwoodutilize therelationship betweenelectrical properties
and moisture contentto estimate the moisturecontent.
Thermal expansion coefficients can be considered independ-
entoftemperature over the temperaturerange of—51.1°C to
54.4°C (—60°F to 130°F). Conductivity
Woodthat containsmoisturereacts differently to varying The electrical conductivity ofwood varies slightly with
temperaturethan does dry wood. Whenmoist wood is appliedvoltageandapproximately doubles for each tempera-
heated,it tendsto expandbecauseofnormalthermalexpan- ture increase of10°C (18°F). The electrical conductivity of
sion and to shrink becauseofloss in moisturecontent. Un- wood (or its reciprocal, resistivity)varies greatlywith mois-
less the wood is very dry initially (perhaps3% or 4% mois- ture content, especiallybelowthe fibersaturation point. As
ture contentor less), shrinkage causedby moistureloss on the moisture content ofwoodincreases fromnear zeroto fiber
heatingwill be greater than thermalexpansion,so thenet
dimensionalchangeon heatingwillbe negative.Woodat
intermediate moisture levels (about8% to 20%) will expand
creases) by 1010to
1016 m
i'
saturation, electrical conductivity increases (resistivityde-

for ovendry wood and iø to i04 m i0

times. Resistivityis about to
for wood at
when firstheated, then gradually shrink to a volume smaller fibersaturation. As the moisture contentincreases from fiber
thanthe initial volume as the wood graduallyloseswater saturation to complete saturation ofthe wood structure, the
while in the heated condition.

3—21
 6 The dielectric constantofovendry wood ranges from ab6ut
2 to 5 at room temperature and decreasesslowly but steadily
with increasing frequency ofthe appliedelectric field. It
w
C-) increases as eithertemperature or moisture contentincreases.
with a moderate positiveinteraction betweentemperatureand
(I)
U, moisture. There is an intensenegativeinteractionbetween
G)
moisture and frequency. At20 Hz, the dielectricconstant
Ce
mayrange from about 4 for dry wood to near 1,000,000 for
2 wet wood; at 1 kHz, from about 4 when dry to about 5,000
C-)

a)
whenwet; and at 1 MHz, from about 3 when dry to about
100 whenwet. The dielectric constant is larger for polariza-
0.
E tion parallelto the grain than acrossthe grain.

0 Dielectric Power Factor

-J
- Whenanonconductor is placedin an electric field, it absorbs
-2
6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 and stores potential energy.The amountofenergy storedper
Moisture content unit volumedepends upon the dielectricconstant and the
(%)
magnitudeofthe appliedfield. An ideal dielectric releasesall
Figure 3—7. Change in electrical resistance of wood with this energy tothe external electriccircuitwhen the field is
varying moisturecontentlevelsfor many U.S. species; removed,but practicaldielectrics dissipate some ofthe en-
90%of testvalues are represented by the shaded area. ergy as heat. The powerfactoris ameasureofthat portion of
thestored energy converted to heat. Powerfactorvalues
alwaysfall betweenzero and unity. Whenthe powerfactor
furtherincreasein conductivity is smallerand erratic, gener- does not exceedabout 0.1, the fractionofthe stored energy
ally amountingto less than a hundredfold. that is lost in one charge—dischargecycle is approximately
equalto 2it timesthe power factor ofthe dielectric; for larger
Figure3—7illustratesthe change in resistance along the grain power factors, this fractionis approximated simplyby the
with moisturecontent, based on tests ofmany domestic powerfactor itself
species. Variability between test specimens is illustrated by
theshadedarea.Ninetypercent oftheexperimental data The powerfactor ofwood is large compared with that ofinert
pointsfall within this area.The resistancevalueswere ob- plasticinsulating materials, but somematerials,for example
tainedusing a standardmoisturemeter electrode at27°C some formulations ofrubber,haveequallylargepowerfac-
(80°F). Conductivityis greater along the grain than across tors. Thepower factor ofwood variesfrom about 0.01 for
thegrain and slightlygreater in theradial directionthan in dry, low density woods to as largeas 0.95 for dense woods
thetangentialdirection.Relativeconductivity values in the at high moisture levels. The power factor is usually, but not
longitudinal, radial, and tangential directions are relatedby always, greaterforelectricfields along the grain than across
the approximateratio of 1.0:0.55:0.50. thegrain.
Whenwood containsabnormalquantities ofwater-soluble The powerfactor ofwood is affected by several factors,in-
salts or other electrolyticsubstances, such as preservative or cluding frequency, moisture content, and temperature. These
fire-retardant treatment,or is inprolongedcontact with factors interact in complexways to cause the power factor to
seawater, electrical conductivity can be substantially in- have maximum andminimumvaluesat various combina-
creased.The increaseis smallwhenthe moisture content of tions ofthese factors.
thewood is less thanabout 8% but quicklyincreases as the
moisture contentexceeds 10% to 12%.
Coefficient of Friction
Dielectric Constant The coefficient offrictiondepends on the moisture contentof
the wood and the roughnessofthe surface. It varies little
The dielectricconstant is the ratio ofthe dielectricpermittiv- with species except forthose species, such as lignumvitae,
ity ofthe materialto that offree space;it is essentially a that contain abundantoily or waxyextraôtives.
measureofthe potentialenergyperunitvolume stored in the
material in the form ofelectricpolarization whenthe material Onmost materials, thecoefficients offrictionfor wood in-
is in agiven electricfield. As measuredby practicaltests, the crease continuously as the moisturecontentofthe wood
dielectric constantofa material is the ratio ofthe capacitance increases from ovendry to fibersaturation, then remain about
ofa capacitorusingthematerialas thedielectric tothe constantas the moisture contentincreases furtheruntil con-
capacitance ofthe same capacitor usingfree spaceas the siderable free water is present. Whenthe surface is flooded
dielectric. withwater,the coefficient offriction decreases.

3—22
Static coefficients offriction are generally greaterthan sliding When neutronsinteractwith wood, an additional result is
coefficients, andthe latter depend somewhat on the speedof theproduction ofradioactive isotopes oftheelementspresent
sliding. Sliding coefficientsoffrictionvary only slightly in thewood. The radioisotopes producedcan be identifiedby
with speedwhen the wood moisture contentis less than thetype, energy, andhalf-lifeoftheir emissions, and the
about 20%;at high moisture content, the coefficient offric- specific activity ofeach indicatesthe amountofisotope
tion decreasessubstantially as the speedincreases. present. This procedure, called neutronactivation analysis,
provides asensitive nondestructive methodofanalysisfor
Coefficients ofslidingfriction for smooth, dry wood against trace elements.
hard, smoothsurfaces commonly range from 0.3 to 0.5; at
intermediatemoisture content, 0.5 to 0.7; and near fiber In the previousdiscussions, moderateradiationlevels that
saturation,0.7 to 0.9. leavethe wood physically unchanged havebeen ansumed.
Verylargedoses ofyraysorneutronscan cause substantial
Nuclear Radiation degradation ofwood. The effectoflargeradiationdoses on
themechanical properties ofwood is discussedin Chapter4.
Radiationpassingthrough matter is reducedin intensity
according tothe relationship References
I = Joexp(—px) (3—i3) ASHIRAE. 1981. American Society ofHeating, Refrigera-
tion, and Air-Conditioning Engineershandbook, [.981
I
where is the reducedintensityofthe beamat depthx in the fundamentals. Atlanta, GA:American Society ofHeating,
material,jo is the incident intensity ofa beamofradiation, Refrigeration, and Air-Conditioning Engineers.
and t, the linearabsorptioncoefficient ofthe material,is the
fraction ofenergy removedfrom the beamper unitdepth ASTM. 1997. Standard methods for testing smallclear
traversed. Whendensity is a factorofinterestin energy specimens oftimber.ASTM D143. West Consh&iocken,
absorption, the linear absorption coefficient is divided by the PA: American Society for Testing and Materials.
density ofthe materialto derivethe massabsorptioncoeffi- Beall,F.C. 1968. Specific heat ofwood—further rsearch
cient.The absorptioncoefficient ofamaterialvaries withthe requiredto obtain meaningful data. Res. Note FPL—RIN--
type and energyofradiation. 0184. Madison, WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest
The linearabsorptioncoefficient ofwood for 'yradiationis Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
knownto vary directlywith moisturecontent and density James,W.L. 1975. Electricmoisturemeters for wood. Gen.
and inversely with the yray energy.As an example,the Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—6.Madison WI: U.S. Department of
irradiation ofovendry yellow-poplar with 0.047-MeV 'yrays Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
yields linearabsorptioncoefficients rangingfrom about 0.065 Kleuters, W. 1964. Determining local density of'woodby
to about 0.11 cm1over theovendryspecific gravityrange of betaray method.Forest ProductsJournal. 14(9): 414.
about 0.33 to 0.62.An increase in the linear absorption
coefficient ofabout 0.01 cm4occurs with an increase in Kollman, F.F.P.; Côté, W.A., Jr. 1968. Principlesof
moisture contentfrom ovendry to fiber saturation. Absorp- wood scienceandtechnologyI—solid wood.New York,
tion ofyrays in wood is ofpracticalinterest,in part for Springer—Verlag NewYork, Inc.
measuringthe densityofwood.
Kubler, H.; Liang, L.; Chang, L.S. 1973. Thermal ex-
J
The interaction ofwood with radiation is similar in pansionofmoist wood. Wood and Fiber. 5(3): 257—267.
characterto that with yradiation, exceptthat the absorption
Kukaehka, B.F. 1970. Properties ofimportedtropical
coefficients are larger. The linearabsorption coefficient of woods. Res. Pap. FPL—RP—125. Madison, WI: U.S.
woodwith a specific gravityof0.5 for a 0.5-MeVJ3ray
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
is about 3.0 cm'. The result ofthelargercoefficient is that Laboratory.
evenvery thin wood productsare virtuallyopaque to rays.
Lin,R.T. 1967. Reviewofdielectricproperties of wood and
The interaction ofneutronswith wood is ofinterestbecause cellulose. Forest Products Journal. 17(7): 61.
wood andthe water itcontainsare compoundsofhydrogen,
andhydrogenhas a relatively largeprobabilityofinteraction McKenzie,W.M.; Karpovich, H. 1968. Frictional behavior
with neutrons. Higherenergyneutronsloseenergy much ofwood. Munich: WoodScience and Technology. 2(2):
more quickly throughinteractionwith hydrogenthan with 138.
other elementsfound in wood.Lowerenergyneutronsthat Murase, Y. 1980. Frictional properties ofwood at high
result from this interaction are thus a measureofthe hydro- sliding speed. Journal oftheJapanese WoodResearch
gen densityofthe specimen. Measurement ofthe lower Society. 26(2): 61—65.
energylevel neutronscan be relatedto the moisture content
ofthewood. Panshin,A.J.; deZeeuw, C. 1980. Textbookofwood
technology. New York: McGraw—Hill.Vol. 1, 4th ed.

3—23
Simpson, W.T., ed. 1991. Dry kiln operator's manual. Steinhagen, H.P. 1977. Thermal conductivepropertiesof
Agric. Handb. 188. Washington,DC: U.S. Department of wood, green or dry, from —40° to +100°C: a literaturere-
Agriculture,Forest Service. view. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—9. Madison, WI: U.S.
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, ForestProducts
Simpson, W.T. 1993. Speciflc gravity, moisturecontent,
and density relationships for wood. U.S. Department of Laboratory.
AgricultureGen. Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—76.Madison, WI: TenWolde, A., McNatt, J.D., Krahn, L. 1988. Thermal
U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Service,Forest
ProductsLaboratory. propertiesofwood panelproductsfor use in buildings.
ORNLISub/87—21697/l. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge
Skaar, C. 1988. Wood—waterrelations. New York: NationalLaboratory.
Springer—Verlag.New York, Inc.
Weatherwax, R.C.; Stamm, A.J. 1947. The coefficientscf
Stamm,A.J.; Loughborough, W.K. 1935. Thermody- thermalexpansion ofwood and wood products.Transactions
namicsofthe swellingofwood.Journal ofPhysical ofAmerican Society ofMechanical Engineers. 69(44):
Chemistry.39(1): 121. 421—432.

3—24
 I Cfiapterl4
Mechanical Properties of Wood
David W. Green, JerroldE. Winandy,and David E. Kretschmann

he mechanical properties presentedin this chapter

Contents were obtainedfromtests ofsmallpieces ofwood
OrthotropicNatureofWood 4—1 i termed"clear" and "straightgrained"becausethey
Elastic Properties 4—2 did not containcharacteristics such as knots, cross grain,
ModulusofElasticity 4—2 checks,and splits. Thesetest pieces did have anatomical
characteristics such as growthrings that occurred in consis-
Poisson's Ratio 4--2
tent patternswithineach piece.Clearwood specimens are
Modulusof Rigidity 4—3
usually considered "homogeneous" in wood mechanics.
StrengthProperties 4—3
CommonProperties 4—3 Many ofthe mechanical properties ofwood tabulated in this
Less CommonProperties 4—24 chapterwere derivedfrom extensive sampling and analysis
VibrationProperties 4—25 procedures. Theseproperties are represented as the average
Speedof Sound 4—25 mechanical properties ofthe species. Some properties, such
InternalFriction 4—26 as tension parallelto thegrain, and all propertiesfor some
Mechanical Properties ofClearStraight-Grained Wood 4—26 importedspecies arebased on a more limited numberof
Natural Characteristics AffectingMechanical Properties 4—27 specimens that were not subjected to the same sampling and
analysis procedures. The appropriateness ofthese latter prop-
Specific Gravity 4—27 ertiesto represent the average properties ofa species is uncer-
Knots 4—27 tain; nevertheless, the properties represent the best ioforma-
Slope ofGrain 4—28 tion available.
Annual Ring Orientation 4—30
ReactionWood 4—31 Variability, or variationin properties, is common to all
Juvenile Wood 4—32 materials. Because wood is a natural material andthe tree is
CompressionFailures 4—33 subjectto many constantly changing influences (suchas
Pitch Pockets 4—33 moisture, soil conditions, andgrowing space), wood proper-
Bird Peck 4—33 ties vary considerably, evenin clearmaterial.This chapter
Extractives 4—33 providesinformation, wherepossible,on the nature and
magnitudeofvariability inproperties.
Properties ofTimberFrom Dead Trees 4—33
Effects ofManufacturing and Service Environments 4—34 This chapteralsoincludes a discussion ofthe effect ofgrowth
MoistureContent 4—34 features, such as knotsand slope ofgrain,on clearwood
Temperature 4—35 properties. The effects ofmanufacturing and service environ-
Time Under Load 4—37 ments on mechanical properties are discussed,andtheir
Aging 4—41 effectson clearwood and material containing growthfeatures
are compared. Chapter6 discusses howthese researchresults
Exposureto Chemicals 4—41 have beenimplemented in engineering standards.
ChemicalTreatment 4—41
NuclearRadiation 4—43
Mold and Stain Fungi 4—43 Orthotropic Nature of Wooci
Decay 4—43
InsectDamage 4—43
References 4—44
has uniqueand independent mechanical properties the i
Wood may be describedas an orthotropic material;that is, it

directions ofthreemutuallyperpendicular axes: longitudinal,

radial, and tangential.The longitudinal axis L is parallelto
thefiber (grain); theradialaxis R is normaltothe growth
rings(perpendicular to the grain inthe radial direction); and

4—1
 .
V
Longitudinal
Rathal, e

Tangential

Figure 4—1. Threeprincipalaxes of wood with

respect to grain direction and growth rings.
Table 4—I. Elastic ratios for various species at
approximately 12%moisturecontenta
Species

Ash,white
Balsa
Basswood
Birch, yellow
Cherry, black
Cottonwood,eastern
Mahogany,African
Mahogany,Honduras
Maple, sugar
Maple, red
Oak, red
Oak, white
ED'EL

0.027
0.050
0.086
0.047
0.050
0.064
0.065
0.067
0.082
0.072
ER/EL

Hardwoods
0.080
0.015
0.125
0.046
0.066
0.078
0.197
0.083
0.111
0.107
0.132
0.140
0.154
0.163
GLRIEL

0.109
0.054
0.056
0.074
0.147
0.076
0.088
0.066
0.111
0.133
0.089
0.086
GL7/EL

0.077
0.037
0.046
0.068
0.097
0.052
0.059
0.086
0.063

0.081
—
GR7/Et

—
0.005
—
0.017
—
—
0.021
0.028
—
—
—
—
Sweetgum 0.050 0.115 0.089 0.061
Walnut, black 0.056 0.106 0.085 0.062
Yellow-poplar 0.043 0.092 0.075 0.069 0.011
the tangentialaxis T is perpendicularto the grain but tangent
to thegrowth rings. These axes are shownin Figure 4—1. Softwoods
Baldcypress 0.039 0.084 0.063 0.054 0.007
Cedar, northernwhite 0.081 0.183 0210
Elastic Properties Cedar,western red 0.055
0.050
0.081
0.068
0.087
0.064
0.086
0.078 0.007
Douglas-fir
Twelve constants(nine are independent) are neededto de- Fir, subalpine 0.039 0.102 0.070 0.058
scribethe elasticbehaviorofwood: threemoduliofelasticity Hemlock, western 0.031 0.058 0.038 0.032

E, three moduli ofrigidity G, and six Poisson's ratios t. Larch, western

Pine
0.065 0.079 0.063
The moduli ofelasticityand Poisson's ratios are relatedby Loblolly 0.078 0.113 0.082 0.081 0.013
expressions ofthe form Lodgepole 0.068 0.102 0.049 0.046
Longleaf 0.055 0.102 0.071 0.012
Pond 0.041 0.071 0.050 0.009
i,j=L,R,T (4—1) Ponderosa 0.083 0.122 0.138 0.115 0.017
Red 0.044 0.088 0.096 0.081 0.011
Slash 0.045 0.074 0.055 0.053 0.010
Generalrelationsbetweenstress and strain for a homogene- Sugar 0.087 0.131 0.124 0.113
0.048
0.019
0.005
Western white 0.038 0.078
ousorthotropic materialcanbe foundintexts on anisotropic Redwood 0.089 0.087 0.066 0.077 0.011
elasticity. Spruce, Sitka 0.043 0.078 0.064 0.061 0.003
Spruce, Engelmann 0.059 0.128 0.124 0.120

Modulus of Elasticity °EL maybe approximatedbyincreasing modulus ofelasticity values

inTable 4—3by 10%.
Elasticity impliesthat deformations producedby low stress
are completely recoverable after loadsare removed. When
loadedtohigher stress levels,plasticdeformationorfailure This adjustedbendingEL can be used to determineER and E:r
occurs. The three moduliof elasticity, whichare denotedby based on the ratios in Table 4—1.
EL,ER, and E respectively,are the elastic modulialong the
longitudinal, radial, andtangentialaxes ofwood.These
moduli are usually obtainedfrom compression tests; how- Poisson's Ratio
E
ever,data for ER and are not extensive. Average values of When a member is loadedaxially,the deformationperpen-
ER andETfor samples from a few species are presented in dicularto the directionofthe load is proportionalto the
Table4—1 as ratios with EL; the Poisson's ratios are shown deformation parallelto the directionofthe load. The ratio of
in Table4—2. The elasticratios, as well as the elasticcon- the transverse to axial strain is called Poisson's ratio. The
stantsthemselves,vary within and between species and with
moisture content and specificgravity.
Poisson's ratios are denotedby I-LLR, u, lILT, /-LTL, JIRT, and
The firstletter ofthe subscript refers to directionof
The modulusofelasticitydeterminedfrom bending, EL, appliedstress andthe secondletter to directionoflateral
deformation. For example,Jil.]?is the Poisson's ratio for
rather than from an axial test, may be the only modulusof deformationalong the radial axiscausedby stress along the
elasticity available for a species. Average EL values obtained
from bending tests are given in Tables4—3 to4—5. Represen- longitudinal axis. Averagevalues ofPoisson's ratios for
tative coefficients ofvariationofEL determined with bending samples ofa few species are given in Table4—2. Values for
4Ujuand1Um are less preciselydeterminedthan are those for
tests for clear wood are reportedin Table4—6. As tabulated, the other Poisson's ratios. Poisson's ratios vary within and
EL includes an effectofshear deflection; EL frombendingcan
between species andare affected by moisturecontent and
be increased by 10% to removethis effectapproximately.
specific gravity.

4—2
Table 4—2. Poisson's ratiosforvarious species at made to evaluate work to maximumload in bending, impact
approximately 12% moisture content bendingstrength, tensilestrengthperpendicularto grain, and
Species ILR l.LLT l.IRT I.LTR l.LRL l.LTL
hardness.Theseproperties, grouped according to the broad
forest tree categories ofhardwood andsoftwood(riotcone-
Hardwoods latedwith hardness or softness), are given in Tables4—3 to
Ash, white 0.371 0.440 0.684 0.360 0.059 0.051 4—5 for many ofthe commercially important species. Average
—
Aspen,quaking 0.489 0.374 0.496 0.054 0.022
coefficients ofvariation forthese properties from alimited
Balsa 0.229 0.488 0.665 0.231 0.018 0.009
Basswood 0.364 0.406 0.912 0.346 0.034 0.022 sampling of specimens are reported in Table4—6.
0.426 0.451 0.697 0.426 0.043 0.024
Birch, yellow Modulus of rupture—Reflectsthe maximum load-
Cherry, black 0.392 0.428 0.695 0282 0.086 0.048
Cottonwood,eastern 0.344 0.420 0.875 0.292 0.043 0.018 canying capacity ofa member inbendingand is propor-
Mahogany,African 0297 0.641 0.604 0.264 0.033 0.032 tional to maximum momentborne by the specimen.
Mahogany,Honduras 0.314 0.533 0.600 0.326 0.033 0.034 Modulusofrupture is an accepted criterionofstrength, al-
though it is not a true stress becausethe formulaby which
Maple,sugar 0.424 0.476 0.774 0.349 0.065 0.037
Maple, red 0.434 0.509 0.762 0.354 0.063 0.044
it is computed is valid only to the elastic limjt.
Oak,red 0.350 0.4.48 0.560 0.292 0.064 0.033
Oak,white 0.369 0.428 0.618 0.300 0.074 0.036 Work to maximum load in bending—Abilityto absorb
Sweet gum 0.325 0.403 0.682 0.023
0.309 0.044 shock with some permanentdeformationand more or less
Walnut, black 0.495 0.632 0.718 0.378 0.052 0.035
Yellow-poplar 0.318 0.392 0.703 0.329 0.030 0.019 injury to a specimen. Workto maximum load is a meas-
ure ofthe combined strength and toughness ofwood under
Softwoods
Baldcypress 0.338 0.326 0.411 0.356 — — bendingstresses.
Cedar, northernwhite 0.337 0.340 0.458 0.345 — — Compressive strengthparallel to grain—Maximum
Cedar, western red 0.378 0.296 0.484 0A03 — — stress sustained by a compression parallel-to-grain speci-
Douglas-fir 0.292 0449 0.390 0.374 0.036 0.029
— — men havinga ratio oflengthto least dimensionofless
Fir, subalpine 0.341 0.332 0.437 0.336
Hemlock, western 0.485 0.423 0.442 0.382 — — than 11.
— —
Larch, western
Pine
0.355 0.276 0.389 0.352 Compressive stress perpendicular to grain——Reported
0.328 0.292 0.382 0.362 — — as stress at proportional limit. There is no clearlydefmed
Loblolly
0.316 0.347 0.469 0.381 — — ultimate stress for this property.
Lodgepole
Longleaf 0.332 0.365 0.384 0.342 — — Shear strengthparallel to grain—Abilityto resist inter-
— —
Pond 0.280 0.364 0.389 0.320
— — nalslippingofone part upon anotheralongthe grain.
Ponderosa 0.337 0.400 0.426 0.359
Red 0.347 0.315 0.408 0.308 — — Valuespresented are average strength in radialand tangen-
Slash 0.392 0.444 0.447 0.387 — — tial shearplanes.
— —
Sugar
Western white
0.356
0.329
0.349
0.344
0.428
0.410
0.358
0.334 — — Impact bending—In theimpactbendingtest, a hammer
Reciwood 0.360 0.346 0.373 0.400 — — ofgiven weightis droppedupon abeam from successively
Spruce, Sitka 0.372 0.467 0.435 0.245 0.040 0.025 increased heights untilruptureoccurs or thebeam deflects
Spruce, Engelmann 0.422 0.462 0.530 0.255 0.083 0.058 152 mm (6 in.) or more. The height ofthe maximum
drop, or the drop that causes failure, is a comparative value
that represents the abilityofwood to absorb shocks that
Modulus of Rigidity cause stressesbeyondthe proportionallimit.
The modulus of rigidity, also called shear modulus, indi- Tensile strengthperpendicularto grain—Rsistance of
catesthe resistance todeflectionofa member caused by shear wood to forcesactingacross the grain that tend to splita
stresses. The three moduli ofrigidity denotedby GLT, G, member. Valuespresented are the average ofradialand
and GRTare the elastic constantsin the LR,LT, arid RT tangential observations.
planes, respectively.For example,
based on shear strain in the LR
G
is themodulusof Hardness—Generallydefined as resistance to indentation
a
rigidity planeand shear using modifiedJankahardnesstest, measuredbythe load
stressesinthe LTandRTplanes.Averagevalues ofshear requiredto embed a 11.28-mm (0.444-in.) bal] to one-half
modulifor samples ofa few species expressed as ratioswith its diameter. Valuespresentedare the averageofradialand
EL are given in Table4—1. As with moduliof elasticity, the tangential penetrations.
moduliofrigidity vary within and betweenspecies and with Tensile strength parallelto grain—Maximumtensile
moisture contentand specific gravity. stress sustainedin directionparallelto grain. Relatively
few dataare available on thetensilestrengthofvarious
Strength Properties species ofclear wood parallelto grain. Table4—7lists av-
Common Properties eragetensile strengthvaluesfor a limited numberof
specimens ofafew species. Inthe absenceofsufficient ten-
Mechanical properties most commonly measuredandrepre- sion test data,modulusofrupturevalues are sometimes
sentedas "strengthproperties"for designincludemodulusof substituted for tensile strength ofsmall, clear, straight-
rupture in bending,maximumstress in compression parallel grainedpieces ofwood.The modulusofruptureis consid-
to grain, compressivestressperpendicularto grain,and shear eredto be a low or conservative estimate oftensilestrength
strengthparallelto grain.Additionalmeasurements are often for clear specimens (this is not true forlumber'i.

4—3
Table 4-3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a
Static bending Corn-
Work to Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus maxi- pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of mum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravityb (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/rn3) (mm) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (N)

Hardwoods
Alder, red Green 0.37 45,000 8,100 55 560 20,400 1,700 5,300 2,700 2,000
12% 0.41 68,000 9,500 58 510 40100 3,000 7,400 2,900 2,600
Ash
Black Green 0.45 41,000 7,200 83 840 15,900 2,400 5,900 3,400 2,300
12% 0.49 87,000 11,000 103 890 41,200 5,200 10,800 4,800 3,800
Blue Green 0.53 66,000 8,500 101 — 24,800 5,600 10,600 — —
12% 0.58 95,000 9,700 99 — 48,100 9,800 14,000 — —
Green Green 0.53 66,000 9,700 81 890 29,000 5,000 8,700 4,100 3,900
12% 0.56 97,000 11,400 92 810 48,800 9,000 13,200 4,800 5,300
Oregon Green 0.50 52,000 7,800 84 990 24,200 3,700 8,200 4,100 3,500
12% 0.55 88,000 9,400 99 840 41,600 8,600 12,300 5,000 5,200
White Green 0.55 66,000 9,900 108 970 27,500 4,600 9,300 4,100 4,300
12% 0.60 103,000 12,000 115 1,090 51,100 8,000 13,200 6,500 5,900
Aspen
Green 0.36 37,000 7,700 39 — 17,200 1,400 5,000 — —
Bigtooth
12% 0.39 63,000 9,900 53 — 36,500 3,100 7,400 — —
Quaking Green 0.35 35,000 5,900 44 560 14,800 1,200 4,600 1,600 1,300
12% 0.38 58,000 8,100 52 530 29,300 2,600 5,900 1,800 1,600
Basswood,American Green 0.32 34,000 7,200 37 410 15,300 1,200 4,100 1,900 1,100
12% 0.37 60,000 10,100 50 410 32,600 2,600 6,800 2,400 1,800
Beech, American Green 0.56 59,000 9,500 82 1,090 24,500 3,700 8,900 5,000 3,800
12% 064 103,000 11,900 104 1,040 50,300 7,000 13,900 7,000 5,800
Birch
Paper Green 0.48 44,000 8,100 112 1,240 16,300 1,900 5,800 2,600 2,500
12% 0.55 85,000 11,000 110 860 39,200 4,100 8,300 — 4,000
Sweet Green 0.60 65,000 11,400 108 1,220 25,800 3,200 8,500 3,000 4,300
12% 0.65 117,000 15,000 124 1,190 58,900 7,400 15,400 6,600 6,500
Yellow Green 0.55 57,000 10,300 111 1,220 23,300 3,000 7,700 3,000 3,600
12% 0.62 114,000 13,900 143 1,400 56,300 6,700 13,000 6,300 5,600
Butternut Green 0.36 37,000 6,700 57 610 16,700 1,500 5,200 3,000 1,700
12% 0.38 56,000 8,100 57 610 36,200 3,200 8,100 3,000 2,200
Cherry, black Green 0.47 55,000 9,000 88 840 24,400 2,500 7,800 3,900 2,900
12% 0.50 85,000 10,300 79 740 49,000 4,800 11,700 3,900 4,200
Chestnut, American Green 0.40 39,000 6,400 48 610 17,000 2,100 5,500 3,000 1,900
12% 0.43 59,000 8,500 45 480 36,700 4,300 7,400 3,200 2,400
Cottonwood
Balsam poplar Green 0.31 27,000 5,200 29 — 11,700 1,000 3400 — —
12% 0.34 47,000 7,600 34 — 27,700 2,100 5,400 — —
Black Green 0.31 34,000 7,400 34 510 15,200 1,100 4,200 1,900 1,100
12% 0.35 59,000 8,800 46 560 31,000 2,100 7,200 2,300 1,600
Eastern Green 0.37 37,000 7,000 50 530 15,700 1,400 4,700 2,800 1,500
12% 0.40 59,000 9,400 51 510 33,900 2,600 6,400 4,000 1,900
Elm
American Green 0.46 50,000 7,700 81 970 20,100 2,500 6,900 4,100 2,800
12% 0.50 81,000 9,200 90 990 38,100 4,800 10,400 4,600 3,700
Rock Green 0.57 66,000 8,200 137 1,370 26,100 4,200 8,800 — —
12% 0.63 102,000 10,600 132 1,420 48,600 8,500 13,200 — —
Slippery Green 0.48 55,000 8,500 106 1,190 22,900 2,900 7,700 4,400 2,900
12% 0.53 90,000 10,300 117 1,140 43,900 5,700 11,200 3,700 3,800
Hackberry Green 0.49 45,000 6,600 100 1,220 18,300 2,800 7,400 4,300 3,100
12% 0.53 76,000 8,200 88 1,090 37,500 6,100 11,000 4,000 3,900

4-4
Table 4—3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a._con.
Static bending Corn-
Work to Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus maxi- pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of mum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravityb (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (mm) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (N)
Hickory, pecan
Bitternut Green 0.60 71,000 9700 138 1,680 31,500 5,500 8,500 — —
12% 0.66 118,000 12,300 125 1,680 62,300 11,600 — — —
Nutmeg Green 0.56 63,000 8,900 157 1,370 27,400 5,200 7,100 — —
12% 0.60 114,000 11,700 1.73 — 47,600 10,800 — — —
Pecan Green 0.60 68,000 9,400 101 1,350 27,500 5,400 10,200 4,701) 5,800
12% 0.66 94,000 11,900 95 1,120 54,100 11,900 14,300 — 8,100
Water Green 0.61 74,000 10,800 130 1,420 32,100 6,100 9,900 — —
12% 0.62 123,000 13,900 133 1,350 59,300 10,700 — — —
Hickory,true
Mockernut Green 0.64 77,000 10,800 180 2,240 30,900 5600 8,800 — —
12% 0.72 132,000 15,300 156 1,960 61,600 11,900 12,000 — —
Pignut Green 0.66 81,000 11,400 219 2,260 33,200 6,300 9,400 — —
12% 0.75 139,000 15,600 210 1,880 63,400 13,700 14,800 — —
Shagbark Green 0.64 76,000 10,800 163 1,880 31,600 5,800 10,500 — —
12% 0.72 139,000 14,900 178 1,700 63,500 12,100 16,800 — —
Shellbark Green 0.62 72,000 9,200 206 2,640 27,000 5,600 8,200 — —
12% 0.69 125,000 13,000 163 2,240 55,200 12,400 14,500 — —
Honeylocust Green 0.60 70,01)0 8,900 87 1,190 30,500 7,900 11,400 6,400 6,200
12% — 101,000 11,200 92 1,190 51,700 12,700 15,500 6,200 7,000
Locust, black Green 0.66 95,000 12,800 106 1,120 46,900 8,000 12,100 5,301) 7,000
12% 0.69 134,000 14,100 127 1,450 70,200 12,600 17100 4,400 7,600
Magnolia
Cucumbertree Green 0.44 51,000 10,800 69 760 21,600 2,300 6,800 3,000 2,300
12% 0.48 85,000 12,500 84 890 43,500 3,900 9,200 4,600 3,100
Southern Green 0.46 47,000 7,700 106 1,370 18,600 3,200 7,200 4,200 3,300
12% 0.50 77,000 9,700 88 740 37,600 5,900 10,500 5,100 4,500
Maple
Bigleaf Green 0.44 51,000 7,600 60 580 22,300 3,100 7,700 4,100 2,800
12% 0.48 74,000 10,000 54 710 41,000 5,200 11,900 3,700 3,800
Black Green 0.52 54,000 9,200 88 1,220 22,500 4,100 7,800 5,000 3,700
12% 0.57 92,000 11,200 86 1,020 46,100 7,000 12,500 4,600 5,200
Red Green 0.49 53,000 9,600 79 810 22,600 2,800 7,900 — 3,100
12% 0.54 92,000 11,300 86 810 45,100 6,900 12,800 — 4,200
Silver Green 0.44 40,000 6,500 76 740 17,200 2,600 7,200 3,900 2,600
12% 0.47 61,000 7,900 57 640 36,000 5,100 10,200 3,400 3,100
Sugar Green 0.56 65,01)0 10,700 92 1,020 27,700 4,400 10,100 — 4,300
12% 063 109,000 12,600 114 990 54,000 10,100 16,100 — 6,400
Oak, red
Black Green 0.56 57,000 8,100 84 1,020 23,900 4,900 8,400 — 4,700
12% 0.61 96,000 11,300 94 1,040 45,000 6,400 13,200 — 5,400
Cherrybark Green 0.61 74,000 12,300 101 1,370 31,900 5,200 9,100 5,500 5,500
12% 0.68 125,000 15,700 126 1,240 60,300 8,600 13,800 5,800 6,600
Laurel Green 0.56 54,000 9,600 77 990 21,900 3,900 8,100 5,300 4,400
12% 0.63 87,000 11,700 81 990 48,100 7,300 12,600 5,400 5,400
Northern red Green 0.56 57,000 9,300 91 1,120 23,700 4,200 8,300 5,200 4,400
.12% 0.63 99,000 12,500 100 1,090 46,600 7,000 12,300 5,500 5,700
Pin Green 0.58 57,000 9,100 97 1,220 25,400 5,000 8,900 5,500 4,800
12% 0.63 97,000 11,900 102 1,140 47,000 7,000 14,300 7,200 6,700
Scarlet Green 0.60 72,000 10,200 103 1,370 28,200 5,700 9,700 4,800 5,300
12% 0.67 120,000 13,200 141 1,350 57,400 7,700 13,000 6,000 6,200
Southern red Green 0.52 48,000 7,900 55 740 20,900 3,800 6,400 3,300 3,800
12% 0.59 75,000 10,300 65 660 42,000 6,000 9,600 3,500 4,700
Water Green 0.56 61,000 10,700 77 990 25,800 4,300 8,500 5,700 4,500
12% 0.63 106,000 13,900 148 1,120 46,700 7,000 13,900 6,300 5,300

4—5
Table 4—3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a_con.
Static bending Corn-
Work to Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus maxi- pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of mum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravityb (kPa) (MPa) (kJIm3) (mm) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (N)
Oak, red—con.
WIlow Green 0.56 51,000 8,900 61 890 20,700 4,200 8,100 5,200 4,400
12% 0.69 100,000 13,100 101 1,070 48,500 7,800 11,400 — 6,500
Oak, white
Bur Green 0.58 50,000 6,100 74 1,120 22,700 4,700 9,300 5,500 4,900
12% 0.64 71,000 7,100 68 740 41,800 8,300 12,500 4,700 6,100
Chestnut Green 0.57 55,000 9,400 65 890 24,300 3,700 8,300 4,800 4,000
12% 0.66 76 1,020 47,100 5,800 10,300 — 5,000
92,000 11,000
85 — 14,100 15,200 — —
Live Green 0.80 82,000 10,900 37,400
12% 0.88 127,000 13,700 130 — 61,400 19,600 18,300 — —
Overcup Green 0.57 55,000 7,900 87 1,120 23,200 3,700 9,100 5,000 4,300
12% 0.63 87,000 9,800 108 970 42,700 5,600 13,8006,500 5,300
Post Green 0.60 56,000 7,500 76 1,120 24,000 5,900 8,800 5,400 5,000
12% 0.67 91,000 10,400 91 1,170 45,300 9,900 12,700 5,400 6,000
Swamp chestnut Green 0.60 59,000 9,300 88 1,140 24,400 3,900 8,700 4,600 4,900
12% 0.67 96,000 12,200 83 1,040 50,100 7,700 13,700 4,800 5,500
Swamp white Green 0.64 68,000 11,000 100 1,270 30,100 5,200 9,000 5,900 5,200
12% 0.72 122,000 14,100 132 1,240 59,300 8,200 13,800 5,700 7,200
White Green 0.60 57,000 8,600 80 1,070 24,500 4,600 8,600 5,300 4700
12% 0.68 105,000 12,300 102 940 51,300 7,400 13,800 5,500 6,000
49 — 18,800 2,600 6,600 — —
Sassafras Green 0.42 41,000 6,300
0.46 62,000 60 — 32,800 5,900 8,500 — —
12% 7,700
Sweetgum Green 0.46 49,000 8,300 70 910 21,000 2,600 6,800 3,700 2,700
12% 0.52 86,000 11,300 82 810 43,600 4,300 11000 5,200 3,800
Sycamore,American Green 0.46 45,000 7,300 52 660 20,100 2,500 6,900 4,300 2,700
12% 0.49 69,000 9,800 59 660 37,100 4,800 10,100 5,000 3,400
Tanoak Green 0.58 72,000 10,700 92 — 32,100 — — — —
12% — — — — — — — — — —
Tupelo
Black Green 0.46 48,000 7,100 55 760 21,000 3,3007,600 3,900 2,800
12% 0.50 66,000 8,300 43 560 38,100 6,4009,200 3,400 3,600
Water Green 0.46 50,000 7,200 57 760 23,200 3,3008,200 4,100 3,200
12% 0.50 66,000 8,700 48 580 40,800 11,000 4,800 3,900
6,000
Walnut, black Green 0.51 66,000 9,800 101 940 29,600 3,400 8,400 3,900 4,000
12% 0.55 101,000 11,600 74 860 52,300 7,000 9,400 4,800 4,500
76 — 1,200 4,700 — —
Willow, black Green 0.36 33,000 5,400 14,100
0.39 54,000 — 28,300 3,000 8,600 — —
12% 7,000 61
Yellow-poplar Green 0.40 41,000 8,400 52 660 18,300 1,900 5,400 3,500 2,000
12% 0.42 70,000 10,900 61 610 38,200 3,400 8,200 3,700 2,400
Softwoods
Baldcypress Green 0.42 46,000 8,100 46 640 24,700 2,800 5,600 2,100 1,700
12% 0.46 73,000 9,900 57 610 43,900 5,000 6,900 1,900 2,300
Cedar
Atlanticwhite Green 0.31 32,000 5,200 41 460 16,500 1,700 4,800 1,200 1,300
12% 0.32 47,000 6,400 28 330 32,400 2,800 5,500 1,500 1,600
Eastern redcedar Green 0.44 48,000 4,500 103 890 24,600 4,800 7,000 2,300 2,900
12% 0.47 57 560 41,500 6,300 — — 4,000
61,000 6,100
Incense Green 0.35 43,000 5,800 44 430 21,700 2,600 5,700 1,900 1,700
12% 0.37 55,000 7,200 37 430 35,900 4,100 6,100 1,900 2,100
Northern white Green 0.29 29,000 4,400 39 380 13,700 1,600 4,300 1,700 1,000
12% 0.31 45,000 5,500 33 300 27,300 2,100 5,900 1,700 1,400

4—6
Table 4—3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a_con.
Static bending Corn-
Work to Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus maxi- pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of mum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravityb (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (mm) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (N)
Cedar—con.
Port-Orford Green 0.39 45,000 9,000 51 530 21,600 2,100 5,800 1,2)0 1,700
12% 0.43 88,000 11,700 63 710 43,100 5,000 9,400 2,8)0 2,800
Western redcedar Green 0.31 35,900 6,500 34 430 19,100 1,700 5,300 1,6)0 1,200
12% 0.32 51,700 7,700 40 430 31,400 3,200 6,800 1,5)0 1,600
Yellow Green 0.42 44,000 7,900 63 690 21,000 2,400 5,800 2,300 2,000
12% 0.44 77,000 9,800 72 740 43,500 4,300 7,800 2,500 2,600
Douglasfird
Coast Green 0.45 53,000 10,800 52 660 26,100 2,600 6,200 2,100 2,200
12% 0.48 85,000 13,400 68 790 49,900 5,500 7,800 2300 3,200
Interior West Green 0.46 53,000 10,400 50 660 26,700 2,900 6,500 2,000 2,300
12% 0.50 87,000 12,600 73 810 51,200 5,200 8,900 2,400 2,900
Interior North Green 0.45 51,000 9,700 56 560 23,900 2,500 6,600 2,300 1,900
12% 0.48 90,000 12,300 72 660 47,600 5,300 9,700 2,700 2,700
Interior South Green 0.43 47,000 8,000 55 380 21,400 2,300 6,600 1,700 1,600
12% 0.46 82,000 10,300 62 510 43,000 5100 10,400 2,300 2,300
Fir
Balsam Green 0.33 38,000 8,600 32 410 18,100 1,300 4,600 1,21)01,300
12% 0.35 63,000 10,000 35 510 36,400 2,800 6,500 1,21)01,800
Californiared Green 0.36 40,000 8,100 44 530 19,000 2,300 5,300 2,61)01,600
12% 0.38 72,400 10,300 61 610 37,600 4,200 7,200 2,700 2,200
Grand Green 0.35 40,000 8,600 39 560 20,300 1,900 5,100 1,700 1,600
12% 0.37 61,400 10,800 52 710 36,500 3,400 6,200 1,700 2,200
Noble Green 0.37 43,000 9,500 41 480 20,800 1,900 5,500 1,600 1,300
12% 0.39 74,000 11,900 61 580 42,100 3,600 7,200 1,500 1,800
Pacific silver Green 0.40 44,000 9,800 41 530 21,600 1,500 5,200 1,700 1,400
12% 0.43 75,800 12,100 64 610 44,200 3,100 8,400 — 1,900
Subalpine Green 0.31 34,000 7,200 — — 15,900 1,300 4,800 — 1,200
12% 0.32 59,000 8,900 — — 33,500 2,700 7,400 — 1,600
White Green 0.37 41,000 8,000 39 560 20,000 1900 5,200 2,100 1,500
12% 0.39 68,000 10,300 50 510 40,000 3,700. 7,600 2,100 2,100
Hemlock
Eastern Green 0.38 44,000 7,400 46 530 21,200 2,500 5,900 1,600 1,800
12% 0.40 61,000 8,300 47 530 37,300 4,500 7,300 — 2,200
Mountain Green 0.42 43,000 7,200 76 810 19,900 2,600 6,400 2,300 2,100
12% 0.45 79,000 9,200 72 810 44,400 5,900 10,600 — 3,000
Western Green 0.42 46,000 9,000 48 560 23,200 1,900 5,900 2,000 1,800
12% 0.45 78,000 11,300 57 580 49,000 3,800 8,600 2,300 2,400
Larch, western Green 0.48 53,000 10,100 71 740 25,900 2,800 6,000 2,300 2,300
12% 0.52 90,000 12,900 87 890 52,500 6,400 9,400 3,000 3,700
Pine
Easternwhite Green 0.34 34,000 6,800 36 430 16,800 1,500 4,700 1,700 1,300 .
12% 0.35 59,000 8,500 47 460 33,100 3,000 6,200 2,100 1,700
Jack Green 0.40 41,000 7,400 50 660 20,300 2,100 5,200 2,500 1,800
12% 0.43 68,000 9,300 57 690 39,000 4,000 8,100 2,900 2,500
Loblolly Green 0.47 50,000 9,700 57 760 24,200 2,700 5,900 1,800 2,000
12% 0.51 88,000 12,300 72 760 49,200 5,400 9,600 3,200 3,100
Lodgepole Green 0.38 38,000 7,400 39 510 18,000 1,700 4,700 1,500 1,500
12% 0.41 65,0C)0 9,200 47 510 37,000 4,200 6,100 2,000 2100
Longleaf Green 0.54 59,0C)0 11,000 61 890 29,800 3,300 7,200 2,300 2,600
12% 0.59 100,0C)0 13,700 81 860 58,400 6,600 10,400 3,200 3,900
Pitch Green 0.47 47,0C)0 8,300 63 — 20,300 2,500 5,900 — —
12% 0.52 74,OC)0 9,900 63 — 41,000 5,600 9,400 — —

4—7
Table 4—3a. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (metric)a_con.
Static bending Corn-
Work to Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus maxi- pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of mum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain grain grain to grain ness
to
names content gravityb (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (mm) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (kPa) (N)
Pine—con.
Pond Green 0.51 51,000 8,800 52 — 25,200 3,000 6,500 — —
12% 0.56 80,000 12,100 59 — 52,000 6,300 9,500 — —
Ponderosa Green 0.38 35,000 6,900 36 530 16,900 1,900 4,800 2,100 1,400
12% 0.40 65,000 8,900 49 480 36,700 4,000 7,800 2,900 2,000
Red Green 0.41 40,000 8,800 42 660 18,800 1,800 4,800 2,100 1,500
12% 0.46 76,000 11,200 68 660 41,900 4,100 8,400 3,200 2,500
Sand Green 0.46 52,000 7,000 66 — 23,700 3,100 7,900 — —
12% 0.48 80,000 9,700 66 — 47,700 5,800 — — —
Shortleaf Green 0.47 51,000 9,600 57 760 24,300 2,400 6,300 2,200 2,000
12% 0.51 90,000 12,100 76 840 50,100 5,700 9,600 3,200 3,100
Green 0.54 66 — 26,300 3,700 6,600 — —
Slash 60,000 10,500
12% 0.59 91 — 56,100 7,000 11,600 —- —
112,000 13,700
Green 0.41 — — 19,600 1,900 6,200 — 2,000
Spruce 41,000 6,900
12% 0.44 — — 39,000 5,000 10,300 — 2,900
72,000 8,500
Sugar Green 0.34 34,000 7,100 37 430 17,000 1,400 5,000 1,900 1,200
12% 0.36 57,000 8,200 38 460 30,800 3,400 7,800 2,400 1,700
Virginia Green 0.45 50,000 8,400 75 860 23,600 2,700 6,100 2,800 2,400
12% 0.48 90,000 10,500 94 810 46,300 6,300 9,300 2,600 3,300
Westernwhite Green 0.36 32,000 8,200 34 480 16,800 1,300 4,700 1,800 1,200
12% 0.38 67,000 10,100 61 580 34,700 3,200 7,200 — 1,900
Redwood
Old-growth Green 0.38 52,000 8,100 51 530 29,000 2,900 5,500 1,800 1,800
12% 0.40 69,000 9,200 48 480 42,400 4,800 6,500 1,700 2,100
Young-growth Green 0.34 41,000 6,600 39 410 21,400 1,900 6,100 2,100 1,600
12% 0.35 54,000 7,600 36 380 36,000 3,600 7,600 1,700 1,900
Spruce
Black Green 0.38 42,000 9,500 51 610 19,600 1,700 5,100 700 1,600
0.46 72 580 41,100 3,800 8,500 — 2,300
12% 74,000 11,100
Engelmann Green 0.33 32,000 7,100 35 410 15,000 1,400 4,400 1,700 1,150
12% 0.35 64,000 8,900 44 460 30,900 2,800 8,300 2,400 1,750
Red Green 0.37 41,000 9,200 48 460 18,800 1,800 5,200 1,500 1,600
12% 0.40 74,000 11,100 58 640 38,200 3,800 8,900 2,400 2,200
Sitka Green 0.33 34,000 7,900 43 610 16,200 1,400 4,400 1,700 1,600
12% 0.36 65,000 9,900 65 640 35,700 3,000 6,700 2,600 2,300
White Green 0.37 39,000 7,400 41 560 17,700 1,700 4,800 1,500 1,400
12% 0.40 68,000 9,200 53 510 37,700 3,200 7,400 2,500 2,100
Tamarack Green 0.49 50,000 8,500 50 710 24,000 2,700 5,900 1,800 1,700
12% 0.53 80,000 11,300 49 580 49,400 5,500 8,800 2,800 2,600
aResults of tests on small clear specimensin the green and air-dried conditions, convertedto metric units directly from
Table 4—3b. Definition of properties: impact bending is height of drop that causes complete failure, using
0.71-kg (50-Ib) hammer; compression parallel to grain is also called maximum crushing strength; compression
perpendicularto grain is fiber stress at proportional limit; shear is maximum shearing strength;tension is maximum
tensile strength; and side hardnessis hardnessmeasured when load is perpendicularto grain.
bSpeciflc gravity is based on weight when ovendry and volume when green or at 12% moisturecontent.
cModulus of elasticity measuredfrom a simply supported, center-loaded beam, on a span depth ratio of 14/1. To correct
for shear deflection, the moduluscan be increasedby 10%.
dCoast Douglas-firis definedas Douglas-firgrowingin Oregon and Washington State west of the Cascade Mountains
summit. InteriorWest includes Californiaand all counties in Oregon and Washington east of, but adjacentto, the
Cascade summit; Interior North, the remainderof Oregon and Washington plus Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming; and
Interior South, Utah, Colorado,Arizona, and New Mexico.

4—8
Table 4—3b. Strength properties ofsome commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch_pound)a
Static bending Corn-
Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus Work to pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of maximum Impact parallel dicular to dic'jlar hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravityb (Ibf/in2) (xlO6lbfIin2) (in-Ibflin3) (in.) (lbf/in2) (Ibf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf'1n2) (lbt)

Hardwoods
Alder, red Green 0.37 6,500 1.17 8.0 22 2,960 250 770 390 440
12% 0.41 9,800 1.38 8.4 20 5,820 440 1,080 420 590
Ash
Black Green 0.45 6,000 1.04 12.1 33 2,300 350 860 490 520
12% 0.49 12,600 1.60 14.9 35 5,970 760 1570 700 850
Blue Green 0.53 9,600 1.24 14.7 — 4,180 810 1,540 —. —
12% 0.58 13,800 1.40 14.4 — 6,980 1,420 2,030 —. —
Green Green 0.53 9,500 1.40 11.8 35 4,200 730 1,260 59) 870
12% 0.56 14,100 1.66 13.4 32 7,080 1,310 1,910 70) 1,200
Oregon Green 0.50 7,600 1.13 12.2 39 3,510 530 1,190 59) 790
12% 0.55 12,700 1.36 14.4 33 6,040 1,250 1,790 72) 1,160
White Green 0.55 9,500 1.44 15.7 38 3,990 670 1,350 59') 960
12% 0.60 15,000 1.74 16.6 43 7,410 1,160 1,910 94') 1,320
Aspen
Green 0.36 5,400 1.12 5.7 — 2,500 210 730 —. —
Bigtooth
12% 0.39 9,100 1.43 7.7 — 5,300 450 1,080 —. —
Quaking Green 0.35 5,100 0.86 6.4 22 2,140 180 660 230 300
12% 0.38 8,400 1.18 7.6 21 4,250 370 850 260 350
Basswood,American Green 0.32 5,000 1.04 5.3 16 2,220 170 600 280 250
12% 0.37 8,700 1.46 7.2 16 4,730 370 990 350 410
Beech, American Green 0.56 8,600 1.38 11.9 43 3,550 540 1,290 720 850
12% 0.64 14,900 1.72 15.1 41 7,300 1,010 2,0101,010 1,300
Birch
Paper Green 0.48 6,400 1.17 16.2 49 2,360 270 840 381) 560
12% 0.55 12,300 1.59 16.0 34 5,690 600 1,210 — 910
Sweet Green 0.60 9,400 1.65 15.7 48 3,740 470 1,240 431) 970
12% 0.65 16,900 2.17 18.0 47 8,540 1,080 2,240 951) 1,470
Yellow Green 0.55 8,300 1.50 16.1 48 3,380 430 1,110 431) 780
12% 0.62 16,600 2.01 20.8 55 8,170 970 1,880 921) 1,260
Butternut Green 0.36 5,400 0.97 8.2 24 2,420 220 760 430 390
12% 0.38 8,100 1.18 8.2 24 5,110 460 1,170 441) 490
Cherry,black Green 0.47 8,000 1.31 12.8 33 3,540 360 '1,130 571) 660
12% 0.50 12,300 1.49 11.4 29 7,110 690 1,700 561) 950
Chestnut, American Green 0.40 5,600 0.93 7.0 24 2,470 310 800 441) 420
12% 0.43 8,600 1.23 6.5 19 5,320 620 1,080 460 540
Cottonwood
Balsam, poplar Green 0.31 3,900 0.75 4.2 — 1,690 140 500 —
12% 0.34 6800 1.10 5.0 — 4,020 300 790 —
Black Green 0.31 4,900 1.08 5.0 20 2,200 160 610 270 250
12% 0.35 8,500 1.27 6.7 22 4,500 300 1,040 330 350
Eastern Green 0.37 5,300 1.01 7.3 21 2,280 200 680 410 340
12% 0.40 8,500 1.37 7.4 20 4,910 380 930 580 430
Elm
American Green 0.46 7,200 1.11 11.8 38 2,910 360 1,000 590 620
12% 0.50 11,800 1.34 13.0 39 5,520 690 1,510 660 830
Rock Green 0.57 9,500 1.19 19.8 54 3,780 610 1,270 — 940
12% 0.63 14,800 1.54 19.2 56 7,050 1,230 1,920 — 1,320
Slippery Green 0.48 8,000 1.23 15.4 47 3,320 420 1,110 640 660
12% 0.53 13,000 1.49 16.9 45 6,360 820 1,630 530 860
Hackberry Green 0.49 6,500 0.95 14.5 48 2,650 400 1,070 630 700
12% 0.53 11,000 1.19 12.8 43 5,440 890 1,590 580 880

4—9
Table 4—3b. Strength properties ofsome commerclally important woods grown in the United States (inch_pound)a_con.
Static bending Corn-
Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus Work to pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of maximum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravity" (lbf/in2) (x106 bf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (in.) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf

Hickory, pecan — —
Bitternut Green 0.60 10,300 1.40 20.0 66 4,570 800 1,240
12% 0.66 1.79 18.2 66 9,040 1,680 — — —
17,100
Green 0.56 1.29 22.8 54 3,980 760 1,030 — —
Nutmeg 9,100
0.60 1.70 25.1 — 6,910 1,570 — — —
12% 16,600
Pecan Green 0.60 9,800 1.37 14.6 53 3,990 780 1,480 680 1,310
12% 0.66 13,700 1.73 13.8 44 7,850 1,720 2,080 — 1,820
0.61 1.56 18.8 56 4,660 880 1,440 — —
Water Green 10,700
2.02 19.3 53 8,600 1,550 — — —
12% 0.62 17,800
Hickory, true — —
Mockernut Green 0.64 11,100 1.57 26.1 88 4,480 810 1,280
12% 0.72 2.22 22.6 77 8,940 1,730 1,740 —
19,200
Green 0.66 1.65 31.7 89 4,810 920 1,370 — —
Pignut 11,700
12% 0.75 2.26 30.4 74 9,190 1,980 2,150 — —
20,100 —
0.64 1.57 23.7 74 4,580 840 1,520 —
Shagbark Green 11,000 —
0.72 2.16 25.8 67 9,210 1,760 2,430 —
12% 20,200
0.62 1.34 29.9 104 3,920 810 1,190 — —
Shelibark Green 10,500
12% 0.69 18,100 1.89 23.6 88 8,000 1,800 2,110 — —.

Honeylocust Green 0.60 10,200 1.29 12.6 47 4,420 1,150 1,660 930 1,390
12% — 14,700 1.63 13.3 47 7,500 1,840 2,250 900 1,580
Locust, black Green 0.66 13,800 1.85 15.4 44 6,800 1,160 1,760 770 1,570
12% 0.69 19,400 2.05 18.4 57 10,180 1,830 2,480 640 1,700
Magnolia 440 520
Cucumbertree Green 0.44 7,400 1.56 10.0 30 3,140 330 990
12% 0.48 12,300 1.82 12.2 35 6,310 570 1,340 660 700
Southern Green 0.46 6,800 1.11 15.4 54 2,700 460 1,040 610 740
12% 0.50 11,200 1.40 12.8 29 5,460 860 1,530 740 1,020
Maple 600 620
Bigleaf Green 0.44 7,400 1.10 8.7 23 3240 450 1,110
12% 0.48 10,700 1.45 7.8 28 5,950 750 1,730 540 850
Black Green 0.52 7,900 1.33 12.8 48 3,270 600 1,130 720 840
12% 0.57 13,300 1.62 12.5 40 6,680 1,020 1,820 670 1,180
— 700
Red Green 0.49 7,700 1.39 11.4 32 3,280 400 1,150
12% 0.54 1.64 12.5 32 6,540 1,000 1,850 — 950
13,400
Green 0.44 5,800 0.94 11.0 29 2,490 370 1,050 560 590
Silver
12% 0.47 8,900 1.14 8.3 25 5,220 740 1,480 500 700
0.56 1.55 13.3 40 4,020 640 1,460 — 970
Sugar Green 9,400
12% 0.63 1.83 16.5 39 7,830 1,470 2,330 — 1,450
15,800
Oak, red —
Black Green 0.56 8,200 1.18 12.2 40 3,470 710 1,220 1,060
12% 0.61 1.64 13.7 41 6,520 930 1,910 — 1,210
13,900
Green 0.61 10,800 1.79 14.7 54 4,620 760 1,320 800 1,240
Cherrybark
12% 0.68 18,100 2.28 18.3 49 8,740 1,250 2,000 840 1,480
Laurel Green 0.56 7900 1.39 11.2 39 3,170 570 1,180 770 1,000
12% 0.63 12,600 1.69 11.8 39 6,980 1,060 1,830 790 1,210
Northernred Green 0.56 8300 1.35 13.2 44 3,440 610 1,210 750 1,000
12% 0.63 14,300 1.82 14.5 43 6,760 1,010 1,780 800 1,290
Pin Green 0.58 8300 1.32 14.0 48 3,680 720 1,290 800 1,070
12% 0.63 14000 1.73 14.8 45 6,820 1,020 2,080 1,050 1,510
Scarlet Green 0.60 10,400 1.48 15.0 54 4,090 830 1,410 700 1,200
12% 0.67 17400 1.91 20.5 53 8,330 1,120 1,890 870 1,400
0.52 1.14 8.0 29 3,030 550 930 480 860
Southern red Green 6,900
12% 0.59 10,900 1.49 gA 26 6,090 870 1,390 510 1,060

4—10
Table 4—3b. Strength properties ofsome commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch_pouIld)a—con.
Static bending Corn-
Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus Work to pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of maximum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravityb (lbf/in2) (xl 06 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (in.) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/1n2) (lbf/in2) (lbt)

Oak, red—con.
Water Green 0.56 8,900 1.55 11.1 39 3,740 620 1,240 820 1,010
12% 0.63 15,400 2.02 21.5 44 6,770 1,020 2,020 920 1,190
Wllow Green 0.56 7400 1.29 8.8 35 3,000 610 1,180 760 980
12% 0.69 14,500 1.90 14.6 42 7,040 1,130 1,650 — 1,460
Oak, white
Bur Green 0.58 7,200 0.88 10.7 44 3,290 680 1,350 800 1,110
12% 0.64 10,300 1.03 9.8 29 6,060 1,200 1820 680 1,370
Chestnut Green 0.57 8,000 1.37 9.4 35 3,520 530 1,210 690 890
12% 0.66 13,300 1.59 11.0 40 6,830 840 1,490 — 1,130
Live Green 0.80 11,900 1.58 12.3 — 5,430 2,040 2,210 — —
12% 0.88 18,400 1.98 18.9 — 8,900 2,840 2,660 — —
Overcup Green 0.57 8,000 1.15 12.6 44 3,370 540 1,320 730 960
12% 0.63 12,600 1.42 15.7 38 6,200 810 2,000 940 1,190
Post Green 0.60 8,100 1.09 11.0 44 3,480 860 1,280 790 1,130
12% 0.67 13,200 1.51 13.2 46 6,600 1,430 1,840 780 1,360
Swamp chestnut Green 0.60 8,500 1.35 12.8 45 3,540 570 1,260 670 1,110
12% 0.67 13,900 1.77 12.0 41 7,270 1,110 1,990 690 1,240
Swamp white Green 0.64 9,900 1.59 14.5 50 4,360 760 1,300 850 1,160
12% 0.72 17,700 2.05 19.2 49 8,600 1,190 2,000 830 1,620
White Green 0.60 8,300 1.25 11.6 42 3,560 670 1,250 770 1,060
12% 0.68 15,200 1.78 14.8 37 7,440 1,070 2,000 8D0 1,360
Sassafras Green 0.42 6,000 0.91 7.1 — 2,730 370 950 —
12% 0.46 9,000 1.12 8.7 — 4,760 850 1,240 —
Sweetgum Green 0.46 7,100 1.20 10.1 36 3,040 370 990 540 600
12% 0.52 12,500 1.64 11.9 32 6,320 620 1,600 730 850
Sycamore,American Green 0.46 6,500 1.06 7.5 26 2,920 360 1,000 630 610
12% 0.49 10,000 1.42 8.5 26 5,380 700 1,470 720 770
Tanoak Green 0.58 10,500 1.55 13.4 — 4,650
12% — —
Tupelo
Black Green 0.46 7,000 1.03 8.0 30 3,040 480 1,100 570 640
12% 0.50 9,600 1.20 6.2 22 5,520 930 1,340 500 810
Water Green 0.46 7,300 1.05 8.3 30 3,370 480 1,190 600 710
12% 0.50 9,600 1.26 6.9 23 5,920 870 1,590 700 880
Walnut, Black Green 0.51 9,500 1.42 14.6 37 4,300 490 1,220 570 900
12% 0.55 14,600 1.68 10.7 34 7,580 1,010 1,370 690 1,010
Willow, Black Green 0.36 4,800 0.79 11.0 2,040 180 680 -— —
12% 0.39 7,800 1.01 8.8 4,100 430 1,250 .— —
Yellow-poplar Green 0.40 6,000 1.22 7.5 26 2,660 270 790 510 440
12% 0.42 10,100 1.58 8.8 24 5,540 500 1,190 540 540
Softwoods
Baldcypress Green 0.42 6,600 1.18 6.6 25 3,580 400 810 300 390
12% 0.46 10,600 1.44 8.2 24 6,360 730 1,000 270 510
Cedar
Atlanticwhite Green 0.31 4,700 0.75 5.9 18 2,390 240 690 1130 290
12% 0.32 6,800 0.93 4.1 13 4,700 410 800 220 350
Eastern redcedar Green 0.44 7,000 0.65 15.0 35 3,570 700 1,010 330 650
12% 0.47 8,800 0.88 8.3 22 6,020 920 — -— —
Incense Green 0.35 6,200 0.84 6.4 17 3,150 370 830 280 390
12% 0.37 8,000 1.04 5.4 17 5,200 590 880 270 470
NorthernWhite Green 0.29 4,200 0.64 5.7 15 1,990 230 620 240 230
12% 0.31 6,500 0.80 4.8 12 3,960 310 850 240 320

4—Il
Table 4—3b. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch_pound)a__con.
Static bending Corn-
Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus Work to pression perpen- parallelperpen- Side
of of maximum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravityb (lbf/in2) (x106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (in.) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lb1

Cedar—con.
Port-Orford Green 0.39 6,600 1.30 7.4 21 3,140 300 840 180 380
12% 0.43 12,700 1.70 9.1 28 6,250 720 1,370 400 630
Western redcedar Green 0.31 5200 0.94 5.0 17 2,770 240 770 230 260
12% 0.32 7,500 1.11 5.8 17 4,560 460 990 220 350
Yellow Green 0.42 6,400 1.14 9.2 27 3,050 350 840 330 440
12% 0.44 11,100 1.42 10.4 29 6310 620 1,130 360 580
Douglas_fird
Coast Green 0.45 7,700 1.56 7.6 26 3,780 380 900 300 500
12% 0.48 12,400 1.95 9.9 31 7,230 800 1,130 340 710
Interior West Green 0.46 7,700 1.51 7.2 26 3,870 420 940 290 510
12% 0.50 12,600 1.83 10.6 32 7,430 760 1,290 350 660
Interior North Green 0.45 7,400 1.41 8.1 22 3,470 360 950 340 420
12% 0.48 13,100 1.79 10.5 26 6,900 770 1,400 390 600
Interior South Green 0.43 6,800 1.16 8.0 15 3,110 340 950 250 360
12% 0.46 11,900 1.49 9.0 20 6,230 740 1,510 330 510
Fir
Balsam Green 0.33 5,500 1.25 4.7 16 2,630 190 662 180 290
12% 0.35 9,200 145 5.1 20 5,280 404 944 180 400
California red Green 0.36 5,800 1.17 6.4 21 2,760 330 770 380 360
12% 0.38 10,500 1.50 8.9 24 5,460 610 1,040 390 500
Grand Green 0.35 5,800 1.25 5.6 22 2,940 270 740 240 360
12% 0.37 8,900 1.57 7.5 28 5,290 500 900 240 490
Noble Green 0.37 6,200 1.38 6.0 19 3,010 270 800 230 290
12% 0.39 10,700 1.72 8.8 23 6,100 520 1,050 220 410
Pacific silver Green 0.40 6400 1.42 6.0 21 3,140 220 750 240 310
12% 0.43 11,000 1.76 9.3 24 6,410 450 1,220 — 430
Green 0.31 4,900 1.05 — — 2,300 190 700 — 260
Subalpine —
12% 0.32 8,600 1.29 — — 4,860 390 1,070 350
White Green 0.37 5,900 1.16 5.6 22 2,900 280 760 300 340
12% 0.39 9,800 1.50 7.2 20 5,800 530 1,100 300 480
Hemlock
Eastern Green 0.38 6,400 1.07 6.7 21 3,080 360 850 230 400
12% 0.40 1.20 6.8 21 5,410 650 1,060 — 500
8,900
Mountain Green 0.42 6,300 1.04 11.0 32 2,880 370 930 330 470
12% 0.45 11,500 1.33 10.4 32 6,440 860 1,540 — 630
Western Green 0.42 6,600 1.31 6.9 22 3,360 280 860 290 410
12% 0.45 11300 1.63 8.3 23 7,200 550 1,290 340 540
Larch, western Green 0.48 7,700 1.46 10.3 29 3,760 400 870 330 510
12% 0.52 13,000 1.87 12.6 35 7,620 930 1,360 430 830
Pine
Eastern white Green 0.34 4900 0.99 5.2 17 2,440 220 680 250 290
12% 0.35 8,600 1.24 6.8 18 4,800 440 900 310 380
Jack Green 0.40 6,000 1.07 7.2 26 2,950 300 750 360 400
12% 0.43 9,900 1.35 8.3 27 5,660 580 1,170 420 570
LobloIly Green 0.47 7,300 1.40 8.2 30 3,510 390 860 260 450
12% 0.51 12,800 1.79 10.4 30 7,130 790 1,390 470 690
Lodgepole Green 0.38 5,500 1.08 5.6 20 2,610 250 680 220 330
12% 0.41 9,400 1.34 6.8 20 5,370 610 880 290 480
Longleaf Green 0.554 8,500 1.59 8.9 35 4,320 480 1,040 330 590
12% 0.59 14,500 1.98 11.8 34 8,470 960 1,510 470 870
Pitch Green 0.47 6,800 1.20 9.2 — 2,950 360 860 — —
12% 0.52 10,800 1.43 9.2 — 5,940 820 1,360 — —

4—12
Table 4—3b. Strength properties of some commercially important woods grown in the United States (inch.pound)a_con.
Static bending Corn-
Corn- pression Shear Tension
Modulus Modulus Work to pression perpen- parallel perpen- Side
of of maximum Impact parallel dicular to dicular hard-
Common species Moisture Specific rupture elasticityc load bending to grain to grain grain to grain ness
names content gravityb (lbf/in2) (xlO6lbfTin2) (in-lbf/in3) (in.) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lb1
Pine—con.
Pond Green 0.51 7,401) 1.28 7.5 — 3,660 440 940 — —
12% 0.56 11,600 1.75 8.6 — 7,540 910 1,380 — —
Ponderosa Green 0.38 5,100 1.00 5.2 21 2,450 280 700 310 320
12% 0.40 9,400 1.29 7.1 19 5,320 580 1,130 420 460
Red Green 0.41 5,800 1.28 6.1 26 2,730 260 690 300 340
12% 0.46 11,001) 1.63 9.9 26 6,070 600 1,210 460 560
Sand Green 0.46 7,500 1.02 9.6 — 3,440 450 1,140 — —
12% 0.48 11,600 1.41 9.6 — 6,920 836 — — —
Shortleaf Green 0.47 7,400 1.39 8.2 30 3,530 350 910 320 440
12% 0.51 13,100 1.75 11.0 33 7,270 820 1,390 470 690
Slash Green 0.54 8,700 1.53 9.6 — 3,820 530 960 — —
12% 0.59 16,300 1.98 13.2 — 8,140 1020 1,680 — —
Spruce Green 0.41 6,000 1.00 — — 2,840 280 900 — 450
12% 0.44 10,400 1.23 — — 5,650 730 1,490 — 660
Sugar Green 0.34 4,900 1.03 5.4 17 2,460 210 720 270 270
12% 0.36 8,200 1.19 5.5 18 4,460 500 1,130 350 380
Virginia Green 0.45 7,300 1.22 10.9 34 3,420 390 890 400 540
12% 0.48 13,000 1.52 13.7 32 6,710 910 1,350 380 740
Westernwhite Green 0.35 4,700 1.19 5.0 19 2,430 190 680 260 260
12% 0.38 9,700 1.46 8.8 23 5,040 470 1,040 — 420
Redwood
Old-growth Green 0.38 7,500 1.18 7.4 21 4,200 420 800 260 410
12% 0.40 10,000 1.34 6.9 19 6,150 700 940 240 480
Young-growth Green 0.34 5,900 0.96 5.7 16 3,110 270 890 300 350
12% 0.35 7,900 1.10 5.2 15 5,220 520 1,110 250 420
Spruce
Black Green 0.38 6,100 1.38 7.4 24 2,840 240 739 100 370
12% 0.42 10,800 1.61 10.5 23 5,960 550 1,230 — 520
Engelmann Green 0.33 4,70(1 1.03 5.1 16 2,180 200 640 240 260
12% 0.35 9,300 1.30 6.4 18 4,480 410 1,200 350 390
Red Green 0.37 6,00(1 1.33 6.9 18 2,720 260 750 220 350
12% 0.40 10,80() 1.61 8.4 25 5,540 550 1,290 350 490
Sitka Green 0.37 5,700 1.23 6.3 24 2,670 280 760 250 350
12% 0.40 10,200 1.57 9.4 25 5,610 580 1,150 370 510
White Green 0.33 5,000 1.14 6.0 22 2,350 210 640 220 320
12% 0.36 9,40(1 1.43 7.7 20 5,180 430 970 360 480
Tamarack Green 0.49 7,200 1.24 7.2 28 3,480 390 860 260 380
12% 0.53 11,60(1 1.64 7.1 23 7,160 800 1,280 400 590
aResults of tests on small clear specimensin the green and air-driedconditions.Definition of properties: impact bending is
height of drop that causes complete failure, using 0.71-kg (50-Ib) hammer; compression parallel to grain is also called maxi-
mum crushing strength; compressionperpendicularto grain is fiber stress at proportional limit; shear is maximum shearing
strength; tension is maximumtensile strength; and side hardnessis hardnessmeasured when load is perpendicularto grain.
bSpecjfic gravity is based on weightwhen ovendryand volume when green or at 12% moisture content.
cModulus of elasticity measured from a simply supported, center-loaded beam, on a span depth ratio of 14/1. To correct for
shear deflection,the moduluscan be increasedby 10%.
dCoast Douglas-firis definedas Douglas-fir growingin Oregon and WashingtonState west of the Cascade Mountainssummit.
Interior West includes Californiaand all counties in Oregon and Washingtoneast of, but adjacentto, the Cascade summit;
Interior North, the remainderof Oregon and Washington plus Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming; and Interior South, Utah,
Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.

4—13
 Table 4—4a. Mechanical properties of some commercially important woods grown in Canada and imported into
the United States (metric)a
Staticbending Shear
Compression Compression
Common species Moisture Specific Modulusof Modulus of parallel to perpendicular parallel to
names content gravity rupture (kPa) elasticity (MPa) grain (kPa) tograin(kPa) grain (kPa)
Hardwoods
Aspen
Quaking Green 0.37 38000 9,000 16,200 1,400 5,000
12% 68,000 11,200 36,300 3,500 6,800
Big-toothed Green 0.39 36,000 7,400 16,500 1,400 5,400
12% 66,000 8,700 32,800 3,200 7,600
Cottonwood
Black Green 0.30 28,000 6,700 12,800 700 3,900
12% 49,000 8,800 27,700 1,800 5900
Eastem Green 0.35 32,000 6,000 13,600 1,400 5,300
12% 52,000 7,800 26,500 3,200 8,000
Balsam, poplar Green 0.37 34,000 7,900 14,600 1,200 4,600
12% 70,000 11,500 34,600 2,900 6,100
Softwoods
Cedar
Northern white Green 0.30 27,000 3,600 13,000 1,400 4,600
12% 42,000 4,300 24,800 2,700 6,900
Western redcedar Green 0.31 36,000 7,200 19,200 1,900 4,800
12% 54,000 8,200 29,600 3,400 5,600
Yellow Green 0.42 46,000 9,200 22,300 2,400 6,100
12% 80,000 11,000 45,800 4,800 9,200
Douglas-fir Green 0.45 52,000 11,100 24,900 3,200 6,300
12% 88,000 13,600 50,000 6,000 9,500
Fir
Subalpine Green 0.33 36,000 8,700 17,200 1800 4,700
12% 56,000 10,200 36,400 3,700 6,800
Pacific silver Green 0.36 38,000 9,300 19,100 1,600 4,900
12% 69,000 11,300 40,900 3,600 7,500
Balsam Green 0.34 36,000 7,800 16,800 1,600 4,700
12% 59,000 9,600 34,300 3,200 6,300
Hemlock
Eastern Green 0.40 47,000 8,800 23,600 2,800 6,300
12% 67,000 9,700 41,200 4,300 8,700
Western Green 0.41 48,000 10,200 24,700 2,600 5,200
12% 81,000 12,300 46,700 4,600 6,500
Larch, western Green 0.55 60,000 11400 30,500 3,600 6,300
12% 107,000 14,300 61,000 7,300 9,200
Pine
Eastern white Green 0.36 35,000 8,100 17,900 1,600 4,400
12°/a 66,000 9,400 36,000 3,400 6,100
Jack Green 0.42 43,000 8,100 20,300 2,300 5,600
12% 78,000 10,200 40,500 5,700 8,200
Lodgepole Green 0.40 39,000 8,800 19,700 1,900 5,000
76,000 10,900 43,200 3,600 8,500
Ponderosa Green 0.44 39,000 7,800 19,600 2,400 5,000
12% 73,000 9,500 42,300 5,200 7,000
Red Green 0.39 34,000 7,400 16,300 1,900 4,900
12% 70,000 9,500 37,900 5,200 7,500
Western white Green 0.36 33,000 8,200 17,400 1,600 4,500
64,100 10,100 36,100 3,200 6,300
Spruce
Black Green 0.41 41,000 9,100 19,000 2,100 5,500
12% 79,000 10,500 41600 4,300 8,600
Engelmann Green 0.38 39,000 8,600 19,400 1,900 4,800
12% 70,000 10,700 42,400 3,700 7,600
Red Green 0.38 41,000 9,100 19,400 1,900 5,600
12% 71,000 11,000 38,500 3,800 9,200
Sitka Green 0.35 37,000 9,400 17,600 2,000 4,300
12°/a 70,000 11,200 37,800 4,100 6,800
White Green 0.35 35,000 7,900 17,000 1,600 4,600
12% 63,000 10,000 37,000 3,400 6,800
Tamarack Green 0.48 47,000 8,600 21,600 2,800 6,300
12% 76,000 9,400 44,900 6,200 9,000
aResuftoftestson small, dear, straight-grainedspecimens. Property values basedonASTMStandard D2555—88. Informationon additional
properties can be obtained fromDepartmentof Forestry,Canada, PublicationNo. 1104. Foreach species, values in thefirst line are from
testsofgreen material; those in the second line are adjustedfromthe green conditionto 12% moisture content using dryto green clearwood
property ratios as reportedinASTMD2555—88. Specificgravity is based on weightwhen ovendry and volumewhen green.

4—14
Table 4—4b. Mechanical properties ofsome commercially important woods grown in Canada and imported iiito the
UnitedStates (inch_pound)a
Staticbending Compression Compression Shear
Common species Moisture Specific Modulusof Modulus ofelas- parallel to perpendicular parallelto
names content gravity rupture (tbflin2) ticity(xl06lbf/in2) grain (lbf/in2) to grain (lbf/1n2) grain(Ibf/in2)
Hardwoods
Aspen
Quaking Green 0.37 5,500 1.31 2,350 200 720
12% 9,800 1.63 5,260 510 980
Bigtooth Green 0.39 5,300 1.08 2,390 210 790
9,500 1.26 4,760 470 1,100
Cottonwood
Balsam,poplar Green 0.37 5,000 1.15 2,110 180 670
12% 10,100 1.67 5,020 420 890
Black Green 0.30 4,100 0.97 1,860 100 560
12% 7,100 128 4,020 260 860
Eastern Green 0.35 4,700 0.87 1,970 210 770
12% 7,500 1.13 3,840 470 1,160
Softwoods
Cedar
Northern white Green 0.30 3,900 0.52 1,890 200 660
12% 6,100 0.63 3,590 390 1,000
Western redcedar Green 0.31 5,300 1.05 2,780 280 . 700
12% 7,800 1.19 4,290 500 810
Yellow Green 0.42 6,600 1.34 3,240 350 880
12% 11,600 1.59 6,640 690 1,340
Douglas-fir Green 0.45 7,500 1.61 3,610 460 920
12% 12,800 1.97 7,260 870 1380
Fir
Balsam Green 0.34 5,300 1.13 2,440 240 680
12% 8,500 1.40 4,980 460 910
Pacific silver Green 0.36 5,500 1.35 2,770 230 710
12% 10,000 1.64 5,930 520 1,190
Subalpine Green 0.33 5,200 1.26 2,500 260 680
12°/a 8,200 1.48 5,280 540 980
Hemlock
Eastern Green 0.40 6,800 127 3,430 400 910
12% 9,700 1.41 5,970 630 1,260
Western Green 0.41 7,000 1.48 3,580 370 750
12% 11,800 1.79 6,770 660 940
Larch, western Green 0.55 8,700 1.65 4,420 520 920
12% 15,500 2.08 8,840 1,060 1,340
Pine
Eastern white Green 0.36 5,100 1.18 2,590 240 640
12% 9,500 1.36 5,230 490 880
Jack Green 0.42 6,300 1.17 2,950 340 820
12% 11,300 1.48 5,870 830 1,190
Lodgepole Green 0.40 5,600 127 2,860 280 720
11,000 1.58 6,260 530 1,240
Ponderosa Green 0.44 5700 1.13 2,840 350 720
12% 10,600 1.38 6,130 760 1,020
Red Green 0.39 5,000 1.07 2,370 280 710
12% 10,100 1.38 5,500 720 1,090
Western white Green 0.36 4,800 1.19 2,520 240 650
9,300 1.46 5,240 470 920
Spruce
Black Green 0.41 5,900 1.32 2,760 300 800
12% 11,400 1.52 6,040 620 1,250
Engelmann Green 0.38 5,700 125 2,810 270 700
12% 10,100 1.55 6,150 540 1,100
Red Green 0.38 5,900 1.32 2,810 270 810
12% 10,300 1.60 5,590 550 1,330
Sitka Green 0.35 5,400 1.37 2,560 290 630
12% 10,100 1.63 5,480 590 980
White Green 0.35 5,100 1.15 2,470 240 670
12% 9,100 1.45 5,360 500 960
Tamarack Green 0.48 6,800 1.24 410
3,130 920
12% 11,000 1.36 6,510 900 1,300
°Resultsoftests onsmall, clear, straight-grainedspecimens.Propertyvalues basedonASTM StandarlD2555—88. Informationon additional
propertiescan beobtained fromDepartmentofForestry,Canada, PublicationNo. 1104. Foreach species,values inthe firstline are from
testsofgreen material; those inthe second line are adjustedfromthe green conditionto 12% moisture contentusing dryto green clearwood
propertyratios as reportedinASTMD2555—88. Specificgravity is basedonweight when ovendry and volume when green.

4—15
 Table 4—5a. Mechanical properties of some woods imported intothe United States otherthan Canadian
imports (metric)a
Static bending Corn-
Modulus Modulus Work to pression Shear Side
of of maximum parallel parallel hard-
Common and botanical Moisture Specific rupture elasticity load to grain to grain ness Sample
names of species content gravity (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (kPa) (kPa) (N) originb

Afrormosia (Pericopsis elata) Green 0.61 102,000 12,200 135 51,600 11,500 7,100 AF
- 12% 126,900 13,400 127 68,500 14,400 6,900
Albarco (Carinianaspp.) Green 0.48 — — AM
12% 100,000 10,300 95 47,000 15,900 4,500
Andiroba(Carapaguianensis) Green 0.54 71,000 11,700 68 33,000 8,400 3,900 AM
12% — 106,900 13,800 97 56,000 10,400 5,000
Green 0.65 — — AF
Angelin (Andira inermis)
12% 124,100 17,200 63,400 12,700 7,800
Angelique(Dicotynia Green 0.6 78,600 12,700 83 38,500 9,200 4,900 AM
12% — 120,000 15,100 105 60,500 11,400 5,700
guianensis)
Avodire(Turraeanthus Green 0.48 — — AF
africanus) 12% 87,600 10,300 65 49,300 14,000 4,800
Azobe(Lophiraalata) Green 0.87 116,500 14,900 83 65,600 14,100 12,900 AF
12% 168,900 17,000 86,900 20,400 14,900
Balsa(Ochromapyramidale) Green 0.16 AM
12% 21,600 3,400 14 14,900 2,100 —
Banak (Virolaspp.) Green 0.42 38,600 11,300 28 16,500 5,000 1,400 AM
12% — 75,200 14,100 69 35,400 6,800 2,300
Green 0.65 — — AF
Benge(Guibourtiaamoldiana)
12% 147,500 14,100 — 78,600 14,400 7,800
Green 0.71 — — AF
Bubinga (Gu!bourtia spp.)
12% 155,800 17100 — 72,400 21,400 12,000
Bulletwood(Manilkara Green 0.85 119,300 18,600 94 59,900 13,100 9,900 AM
bidentata) 12% 188,200 23,800 197 80,300 17,200 14,200
Cativo (Prioria copaifera) Green 0.4 40,700 6,500 37 17,000 5,900 2,000 AM
12% — 59,300 7,700 50 29,600 7,300 2,800
Ceiba (Ceiba pentandra) Green 0.25 15,200 2,800 8 7,300 2,400 1,000 AM
12% 29,600 3,700 19 16,400 3,800 1,100
Green 0.71 88,900 12,700 101 40,000 12,200 8,800 AM
Courbaril(Hymenaea
12% — 133,800 14,900 121 65,600 17,000 10,500
courbaril)
Green 0.31 27,600 7,000 — 14,300 4,100 1,000 AM
Cuangare (Dialyantheraspp.)
12% 50,300 10,500 — 32,800 5,700 1,700
Green 0.93 — 19,900 6,600 1,500 AF
Cypress, Mexican (Cupressus 42,700 6,300
12% 71,000 7,000 — 37,100 10,900 2,000
lustianica)
Green 0.67 98,600 13,300 128 42,700 11,400 7,300 AM
Degame (Calycophyllum
candidissimum) 12% 153,800 15,700 186 66,700 14,600 8,600
Determa (Ocotea rubra) Green 0.52 53,800 10,100 33 25,900 5,900 2,300 AM
12% 72,400 12,500 44 40,000 6,800 2,900
Green 0.6 — — AF
Ekop(Tetraberlinia
12% 115,100 15,200 62,100 — —
tubmaniana)
Goncalo alves (Astronium Green 0.84 83,400 13,400 46 45,400 12,100 8,500 AM
12% — 114,500 15,400 72 71,200 13,500 9,600
graveolens)
Greenheart(Chiorocardium Green 0.8 133,100 17,000 72 64,700 13,300 8,400 AM
12% 171,700 22,400 175 86,300 18,100 10,500
rodie,)
Hura (Hura crepitans) Green 0.38 43,400 7,200 41 19,200 5,700 2,000 AM
12% 60,000 8,100 46 33,100 7,400 2,400

4—16
Table 4—5a. Mechanical properties ofsomewoods imported into the United States otherthan Canadian
imports (metric)a_con.
Static bending Corn-
Modulus Modulus Work to pression Shear Side
of of maximum parallel parallel hard-
Common and botanical Moisture Specific rupture elasticity load to grain to grain ness Sample
names of species content gravity (kPa) (MPa) (kJlm3) (kPa) (kPa) (N) origin
Ilomba (Pycnanthus Geen 0.4 37900 7,900 20,000 5,800 2,100 AF
angolensis) 12% 68,300 11,000 38,300 8,900 2,700
Ipe (Tabebuiaspp., Green 0.92 155,800 20,100 190 71,400 14,600 13,600 AM
lapachogroup) 12% 175,100 21,600 152 89,700 14,200 16,400
Iroko (Chiorophora spp.) Green 0.54 70,300 8,900 72 33,900 9,000 4,800 AF
12% 85,500 10,100 62 52,300 12,400 5,600
Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) Green 0.67 68,300 10,200 35,800 9,100 5,700 AS
12% — 111,700 13,000 61,200 14,700 8,500
Jelutong (Dyera costulata) Green 0.36 38,600 8,000 39 21,000 5,200 1,500 AS
15% 50,300 8,100 44 27,000 5,800 1,700
Kaneelhart (Licana spp.) Green 0.96 153,800 26,300 94 92,300 11,600 9,800 AM
12% 206,200 28,000 121 120,000 13,600 12,900
Kapur (Dryobalanopsspp.) Green 0.64 88,300 11,000 108 42,900 8,100 4,400 AS
12% 126,200 13,000 130 69,600 13,700 5,500
Karri (Eucalyptusdiversico!o,) Green 0.82 77,200 13,400 80 37,600 10,400 6,000 AS
12% 139,000 17,900 175 74,500 16,700 9,100
Kempas (Koompassia Green 0.71 100,000 16,600 84 54,700 10,100 6,600 AS
malaccensis) 12% 122,000 18,500 106 65,600 12,300 7,600
Keruing (Dipterocarpusspp.) Green 0.69 82,000 11,800 96 39,200 8,100 4,700 AS

Lignumvitae(Guaiacumspp.)
12%
Green
12%
1.05
—
-
137,200

—
- -
14,300

—
162

—
-
78,600
- -
72,400 14,300

—
5,600

20,000
AM

Limba(Terminaliasuperba) Green 0.38 41,400 5,300 53 19,200 600 1,800 AF

12% 60,700 7,000 61 32,600 9,700 2,200
Macawood (Platymiscium spp.) Green 0.94 153,800 20,800 — 72,700 12,700 14,800 AM
12% 190,300 22,100 — 111,000 17,500 14000
Mahogany, African Green 0.42 51,000 7,900 49 25,700 6,400 2,800 AF
(Khaya spp.) 12% 73,800 9,700 57 44,500 10,300 3,700
Mahogany, true Green 0.45 62,100 9,200 63 29,900 8,500 3,300 AM
(Swieteniamacrophylla) 12% — 79,300 10,300 52 46,700 8,500 3,600
Manbarkiak (Eschweilera spp.) Green 0.87 117,900 18,600 120 50,600 11,200 10,100 AM
12% 182,700 21,600 230 77,300 14,300 15,500
Manni (Symphonia globulifera) Green 0.58 77,200 13,500 77 35,600 7,900 4,200 AM
12% 116,500 17,000 114 60,800 9,800 5,000
Marishballi(Lincania spp.) Green 0.88 117,900 20,200 92 52300 11,200 10,000 AM
12% 191,000 23,000 98 92,300 12,100 15,900
Merbau (lntsia spp.) Green 0.64 88,900 13,900 88 46,700 10,800 6,100 AS
15% — 115,800 15,400 102 58,200 12,500 6,700
Mersawa (Anisoptera spp.) Green 0.52 55,200 12,200 — 27,300 5,100 3,900 AS
12% 95,100 15,700 — 50,800 6,100 5,700
Mora (Moraspp.) Green 0.78 86,900 16,100 93 44,100 9,700 6,400 AM

Oak (Quercus spp.)

12%
Green 0.76
152,400 20,400 128

114
-
81,600

— —
-
13100
-
10,200
AM
12% 158,600 20,800 11,100
Obeche(Thplochiton Green 0.3 35,200 5,000 43 17,700 4,600 1,900 AF
scleroxylon) 12% 51,000 5,900 48 27,100 6,800 1,900

4—17
Table 4—5a. Mechanical properties of some woods imported into the United States otherthan Canadian
imports(metric)a__con.
Static bending Corn-
Modulus Modulus Work to pression Shear Side
of of maximum parallel parallel hard-
Common and botanical Moisture Specific rupture elasticity load to grain to grain ness Sample
names of species content gravity (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (kPa) (kPa) (N) originb
Okoume (Aucoumea Green 0.33 — — — — — — AF
kiaineana) 12% 51,000 7,900 — 27,400 6,700 1,700
Opepe (Nauclea diderrichi:) Green 0.63 93,800 11,900 84 51,600 13,100 6,800 AF
12% 120,000 13,400 99 71,700 17,100 7,300
Ovangkol (Guibourtiaehie) Green 0.67 — — — — — — AF
12% 116,500 17,700 — 57,200 — —
Para-angelim (Hymenolobium Green 0.63 100,700 13,400 88 51,400 11,000 7,700 AM
excelsum) 12% 121,300 14,100 110 62,000 13,900 7,700
Parana-pine(Araucaria Green 0.46 49,600 9,300 67 27,600 6,700 2,500 AM
augustifolia) 12% — 93,100 11,100 84 52,800 11,900 3,500
Pau marfim (Balfourodendron Green 0.73 99,300 11,400 — 41,900 — — AM
riedellanum) 15% 130,300 — — 56,500 — —
Peroba de campos Green 0.62 — — — — — — AM
(Paratecoma peroba) 12% 106,200 12,200 70 61,200 14,700 7,100
Peroba rosa (Aspidosperma Green 0.66 75,200 8,900 72 38,200 13,000 7,000 AM
spp., peroba group) 12% 83,400 10,500 63 54,600 17,200 7,700
Pilon (Hyeronimaspp.) Green 0.65 73,800 13,000 57 34,200 8,300 5,400 AM
12% 125,500 15,700 83 66,300 11,900 7,600
Pine, Caribbean(Pinus Green 0.68 77,200 13,000 74 33,800 8,100 4,400 AM
caribaca) 12% — 115,100 15,400 119 58,900 14,400 5,500
Pine, ocote (Pinus oocarpa) Green 0.55 55,200 12,000 48 25,400 7,200 2,600 AM
12% — 102,700 15,500 75 53,000 11900 4,000
Pine, radiata (Pinus radiata) Green 0.42 42,100 8,100 — 19,200 5,200 2,100 AS
12% — 80,700 10,200 — 41,900 11,000 3300
Piquia (Ca,yocarspp.) Green 0.72 85,500 12,500 58 43,400 11,300 7,700 AM
12% 117,200 14,900 109 58,000 13,700 7,700
Primavera (Tabebuia Green 0.4 49,600 6,800 50 24,200 7,100 3,100 AM
donnell—smithi:) 12% 65,500 7,200 44 38600 9,600 2,900
Purpleheart(Peltogynespp.) Green 0.67 9,400 13,800 102 48,400 11,300 8,100 AM
12% 132,400 15,700 121 71,200 15,300 8,300
Ramin (Gonystylusbancanus) Green 0.52 67,600 10,800 62 37,200 6,800 2,800 AS
12% — 127,600 15,000 117 69,500 10,500 5,800
Robe (Tabebuiaspp., Green 0.52 74,500 10,000 81 33,900 8,600 4,000 AM
roble group) 12% 95,100 11,000 86 50,600 10,000 4,300
Rosewood, Brazilian Green 0.8 97,200 12,700 91 38,000 16,300 10,900 AM
(Dalbergianigra) 12% — 131,000 13,000 — 66,200 14,500 12,100
Rosewood, Indian(Dalbergia Green 0.75 63,400 8,200 80 31,200 9,700 6,900 AS
latifolia) 12% 116,500 12,300 90 63,600 14,400 14,100
Sande (Brosimumspp., Green 0.49 58,600 13,400 — 31,000 7,200 2,700 AM
utile group) 12% 98,600 16,500 — 56,700 8,900 4,000
Santa Maria(Calophyllum Green 0.52 72,400 11,000 88 31,400 8700 4,000 AM
brasiliense) 12% — 100,700 12,600 111 47,600 14,300 5,100
Sapele (Entandrophragma Green 0.55 70,300 10,300 72 34,500 8,600 4,500 AF
cylindricum) 12% — 105,500 12,500 108 56,300 15,600 6,700
Sepetir (Pseudosindora Green 0.56 77,200 10,800 92 37,600 9,000 4,200 AS
palustris) 12% 118,600 13,600 92 61,200 14,000 6,300

4—18
Table 4—5a. Mechanical properties ofsome woods imported intothe United States otherthan Canadian
imports (metric)a_con.
Static bending Corn-
Modulus Modulus Work to pression Shear Side
of of maximum parallel parallel hard-
Common and botanical Moisture Specific rupture elasticity load to grain to grain ness Sample
names of species content gravity (kPa) (MPa) (kJ/m3) (kPa) (kPa) (N) orginb
Shorea (Shorea spp., Green 0.68 80,700 14,500 — 37,100 9,900 6,000 AS
baulaugroup) 12% 129,600 18,000 — 70,200 15,100 7,900
Shorea, lauan—merantigroup
Dark red meranti Green 0.46 64,800 10,300 59 32,500 7,700 3,100 AS
12% 87,600 12,200 95 50,700 10,000 3,500
Light red meranti Green 0.34 45,500 7,200 43 23,000 4,900 2,000 AS
12% 65,500 8,500 59 40,800 6,700 2,000
White meranti Green 0.55 67,600 9,000 57 37,900 9,100 4,400 AS
15% 85,500 10,300 79 43,800 10,600 5,100
Yellow meranti Green 0.46 55,200 9,000 56 26,800 7,100 3,300 AS
12% 78,600 10,700 70 40,700 10,500 3,400
Spanish-cedar (Cedrelaspp.) Green 0.41 51,700 9,000 49 23,200 6,800 2,400 iM
12% — 79,300 9,900 65 42,800 7,600 2,700
Sucupira (Bowdichiaspp.) Green 0.74 118,600 15,700 — 67,100 — —
15% 133,800 — — 76,500 — —
Sucupira (Dipiotropispurpurea) Green 0.78 120,000 18,500 90 55,300 12,400 8,800 PM
12% 142,000 19,800 102 83,700 13,500 9,500
Teak (Tectona grandis) Green 0.55 80,000 9,400 92 41,100 8,900 4,100 AS
12% 100,700 10,700 83 58,000 13,000 4,400
Tornillo(Cedrelinga Green 0.45 57,900 — — 28,300 8,100 3,900 PM
cateniformis) 12% — — — — — — —
Wallaba (Eperua spp.) Green 0.78 98,600 16,100 — 55,400 — 6,900 PM
12% — 131,700 15,700 — 74,200 — 9,100
8Results of tests on small, clear, straight-grained specimens. Propertyvalues were taken from world literature
(not obtained from experimentsconducted at the Forest Products Laboratory). Otherspecies may be reported
in the world literature, as well as additional data on many of these species. Some propertyvalues have been
adjustedto 12% moisture content.
bAF is Africa; AM, America; AS, Asia.

4—19
Table 4—Sb. Mechanical properties ofsome woods imported into the United States otherthan Canadian imports
(jnc._pOund)a
Static bending Corn-
Modulus Modulus Work to pression Shear Side
of of maximum parallel parallel hard-
Common and botanical Moisture Specific rupture elasticity load to grain to grain ness Sample
names of species content gravity (lbfliri2) (x106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbl orjginb
Afrormosia (Pericopsiselata) Green 0.61 14,800 1.77 19.5 7,490 1,670 1,600 AF

Albarco(Carinianaspp.)
12%
Green
12%
0.48
18,400
—
1.94
—
1.5
18.4

13.8
- - -
9,940 2,090 1,560
AM
14,500 6,820 2,310 1,020
Andiroba(Carapaguianensis) Green 0.54 10,300 1.69 9.8 4,780 1,220 880 AM
12% — 15,500 2 14 8,120 1,510 1,130
Angelin(Andira inermis) Green 0.65 — — — — — AF
12% 18,000 2.49 — 9,200 1,840 1,750
Angelique(Dico,ynia Green 0.6 11,400 1.84 12 5,590 1,340 1,100 AM
guianensis) 12% — 17,400 2.19 15.2 8,770 1,660 1,290
Avodire(Turraeanthus Green 0.48 — — — — — — AF
africanus) 12% 12,700 1.49 9.4 7,150 2,030 1,080
Azobe (Lophira alata) Green 0.87 16,900 2.16 12 9,520 2,040 2,890 AF

Balsa (Ochromapyramidale)
12%
Green 0.16
24,500
—
2.47
—
0.49
—

2.1
- - -
12,600 2,960 3,350

300 —
AM
12% 3,140 2,160
Banak (Virola spp.) Green 0.42 5,600 1.64 4.1 2,390 720 320 AM
12% — 10,900 2.04 10 5,140 980 510
Green 0.65 — — — — — AF
Benge (Guibourtiaamoidiana)
12% 21,400 2.04 — 11,400 2,090 1,750
Green 0.71 — — — — — — AF
Bubinga (Guibourtia spp.)
12% 22,600 2.48 — 10,500 3,110 2,690
Bulletwood (Manllkara Green 0.85 17,300 2.7 13.6 8,690 1,900 2,230 AM
bidentata) 12% 27,300 3.45 28.5 11,640 2,500 3,190
Cativo (Prioria copaifera) Green 0.4 5,900 0.94 5.4 2,460 860 440 AM
12% — 8,600 1.11 7.2 4,290 1,060 630
Ceiba (Ceiba pentandra) Green 0.25 2,200 0.41 1.2 1,060 350 220 AM
12% 4,300 0.54 2.8 2,380 550 240
Courbaril (Hymenaea Green 0.71 12,900 1.84 14.6 5,800 1,770 1,970 AM
12% — 19,400 2.16 17.6 9,510 2,470 2,350
courbari!)
Green 0.31 4,000 1.01 — 2,080 590 230 AM
Cuangare (Dialyantheraspp.)
12% 7,300 1.52 — 4,760 830 380
Cypress, Mexican (Cupressus Green 0.93 6,200 0.92 — 2,880 950 340 AF
lustianica) 12% 10,300 1.02 — 5,380 1,580 460
Degame(Calycophyllum Green 0.67 14,300 1.93 18.6 6,200 1,660 1,630 AM
candidissimum) 12% 22,300 2.27 27 9,670 2,120 1,940
Determa (Ocotea rubra) Green 0.52 7,800 1.46 4.8 3,760 860 520 AM
12% 10500 1.82 6.4 5,800 980 660
Ekop(Tetraberlinia Green 0.6 — — — — — — AF
tubmaniana) 12% 16,700 2.21 9,010 — —
Goncalo alves (Astronium Green 0.84 12,100 1.94 6.7 6,580 1,760 1,910 AM
graveolens) 12% — 16,600 2.23 10.4 10,320 1,960 2,160
Greenheart (Chlorocardium rodie,) Green 0.8 19,300 2.47 10.5 9,380 1,930 1,880 AM
12% 24,900 3.25 25.3 12,510 2,620 2,350
Hura (Hura crepitans) Green 0.38 6,300 1.04 5.9 2,790 830 440 AM
12% 8,700 1.17 6.7 4,800 1,080 550

4—20
Table 4—5b. Mechanical properties ofsome woods imported into the United States otherthan Canadian imports
(inch_pound)a__con.
Static bending Corn-
Modulus Modulus Work to pression Shear Side
of of maximum parallel parallel hard-
Common and botanical Moisture Specific rupture elasticity load to grain to grain ness Sample
names of species content gravity (lbf/in2) (x106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (lbf/in2) (lbflin2) (lbf) originb
Ilomba (Pycnanthus Geen 0.4 5,500 1.14 — 2,900 840 470 AF
angolensis 12% 9,900 1.59 — 5,550 1,290 610
Ipe (Tabebuia spp., Green 0.92 22,600 2.92 27.6 10,350 2,120 3,060 AM
lapachogroup) 12% 25,400 3.14 22 13,010 2,060 3,680
lroko(Chlorophoraspp.) Green 0.54 10,200 1.29 10.5 4,910 1,310 1,080 AF
12% 12,400 1.46 9 7,590 1,800 1,261)
Jarrah (Eucalyptusmarginata) Green 0.67 9,900 1.48 — 5,190 1,320 AS
1,290
12% —- 16,200 1.88 — 8,870 2,130 1,910
Jelutong (Dyera costulata) Green 0.36 5,600 1.16 5.6 3,050 760 330 AS
15% 7,300 1.18 6.4 3,920 840 390
Kaneelhart (Licaria spp.) Green 0.96 22,300 3.82 13.6 13,390 1,680 2,210 AM
12% 29,900 4.06 17.5 17,400 1,970 2,900
Kapur (Diyobaianopsspp.) Green 0.64 12,800 1.6 15.7 6,220 1,170 980 AS
12% 18,300 1.88 18.8 10,090 1,990 1,230
Karri (Eucalyptusdiversicolot) Green 0.82 11,200 1.94 11.6 5,450 1,510 1,360 AS
12% 20,160 2.6 25.4 10,800 2,420 2,040
Kempas (Koompassia Green 0.71 14,500 2.41 12.2 7,930 1,460 1,480 AS
malaccensis 12% 17,700 2.69 15.3 9,520 1,790 1,710
Keruing (Dipterocarpusspp.) Green 0.69 11,900 1.71 13.9 5,680 1,170 1,060 AS

Lignumvitae (Guaiacumspp.)
12%
Green
12%
1 .C)5
--
19,900
—
—
-
2.07

—
-
23.5

—
- - -
10,500

11,400
2,070

—
1,270
AM
4,500
Limba (Terminaliasuperba) Green 0.38 6,000 0.77 7.7 2,780 88 400 AF
12% 8,800 1.01 8.9 4,730 1,410 490
Macawood (Platymiscium spp.) Green 0.94 22,300 3.02 — 10,540 1,840 3,320 AM
12% 27,600 3.2 — 16,100 2,540 3,150
Mahogany, African (Khaya spp.) Green 0.42 7,400 1.15 7.1 3,730 931 640 AF
12% 10,700 1.4 8.3 6,460 1,500 830
Mahogany, true Green 0.45 9,000 1.34 9.1 4,340 1,240 740 AM
(Swieteniamacrophylla) 12% —- 11,500 1.5 7.5 6,780 1,230 800
Manbarkiak(Eschweilera spp.) Green 0.87 17,100 2.7 17.4 7,340 1,630 2,280 AM
12% 26,500 3.14 33.3 11,210 2,070 3,480
Manni(Symphonia globuilfera) Green 0.58 11,200 1.96 11.2 5,160 1,140 94C AM
12% 16,900 2.46 16.5 8,820 1,420 1,120
Marishballi (Lincaniaspp.) Green 0.88 17,100 2.93 13.4 7,580 1,620 2,250 AM
12% 27,700 3.34 14.2 13,390 1,750 3,570
Merbau (lntsia spp.) Green 0.64 12,900 2.02 12.8 6,770 1,560 1,380 AS
15% —- 16,800 2.23 14.8 8,440 1,810 1,500
Mersawa (Anisoptera spp.) Green 0.52 8,000 1.77 — 3,960 740 880 AS
12% 13,800 2.28 — 7,370 890 1,290
Mora (Moraspp.) Green 0.78 12,600 2.33 13.5 6,400 1,400 1,450 AM

Oak (Quercus spp.)

12%
Green
12%
0.76
22,100
— -
2.96

3.02
-
18.5

16.5
- - -
11,840

—
1,900

—
2,300
AM
23,000 2,500
Obeche(Triplochiton Green 0.3 5,100 0.72 6.2 2,570 660 420 AF
scieroxylon) 12% 7,400 0.86 6.9 3,930 990 430

4—21
Table 4—5b. Mechanical properties ofsome woods imported intothe United States otherthan Canadian imports
(inch.pound)a_con.
Static bending Corn-
Modulus Modulus Work to pression Shear Side
of of maximum para to parallel hard-
Common and botanical Moisture Specific rupture elasticity load grain Ilel to grain ness Sample
names of species content gravity (lbflin2) (x106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (lbu/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf) originb
Okoume (Aucoumea Green 0.33 — — — — — — AF
klaineana) 12% 7,400 1.14 — 3,970 970 380
Opepe (Naucleadiderrichi,) Green 0.63 13,600 1.73 12.2 7,480 1,900 1,520 AF
12% 17,400 1.94 14.4 10,400 2,480 1,630
Ovangkol (Guibourtiaehie) Green 0.67 — — — — — — AF
12% 16,900 2.56 — 8,300 — —
Para-angelim (Hyrnenolobium Green 0.63 14,600 1.95 12.8 7,460 1,600 1720 AM
excelsum) 12% 17,600 2.05 15.9 8,990 2,010 1,720
Parana-pine (Araucaria Green 0.46 7,200 1.35 9.7 4,010 970 560 AM
augustifolia) 12% — 13,500 1.61 12.2 7,660 1,730 780
Pau marfim (Balfourodendron Green 0.73 14,400 1.66 — 6,070 — — AM
nedelianum) 15% 18,900 — — 8,190 — —
Peroba de campos Green 0.62 — — — — — — AM
(Paratecomaperoba) 12% 15,400 1.77 10.1 8,880 2,130 1,600
Peroba rosa (Aspidosperma Green 0.66 10,900 1.29 10.5 5,540 1,880 1,580 AM
spp., peroba group) 12% 12,100 1.53 9.2 7,920 2,490 1,730
Pilon (Hyeronima spp.) Green 0.65 10,700 1.88 8.3 4,960 1,200 1,220 AM
12% 18,200 2.27 12.1 9,620 1,720 1,700
Pine, Caribbean(Pinus canbaea) Green 0.68 11,200 1.88 10.7 4,900 1,170 980 AM
12% — 16,700 2.24 17.3 8,540 2,090 1,240
Pine, ocote (Pinus oocarpa) Green 0.55 8,000 1.74 6.9 3,690 1,040 580 AM
12% — 14,900 2.25 10.9 7,680 1,720 910
Pine, radiata (Pinus radiata) Green 0.42 6,100 1.18 — 2,790 750 480 AS
12% — 11,700 1.48 — 6,080 1,600 750
Piquia (Cwyocarspp.) Green 0.72 12,400 1.82 8.4 6,290 1,640 1,720 AM
12% 17000 2.16 15.8 8,410 1,990 1,720
Primavera(Tabebuia Green 0.4 7,200 0.99 7.2 3,510 1,030 700 AM
donnell—smithil) 12% 9,500 1.04 6.4 5,600 1,390 660
Purpleheart(Peltogynespp.) Green 0.67 1,370 2 14.8 7,020 1,640 1,810 AM
12% 19,200 2.27 17.6 10,320 2,220 1,860
Ramin (Gonystylus bancanus) Green 0.52 9,800 1.57 9 5,390 990 640 AS
12% — 18,500 2.17 17 10,080 1,520 1,300
Robe (Tabebuiaspp., Green 0.52 10,800 1.45 11.7 4,910 1,250 910 AM
roble group) 12% 13,800 1.6 12.5 7,340 1,450 960
Rosewood, Brazilian Green 0.8 14,100 1.84 13.2 5,510 2,360 2,440 AM
(Dalbergianigra) 12% — 19,000 1.88 — 9,600 2,110 2,720
Rosewood, Indian (Dalbergia Green 0.75 9,200 1.19 11.5 4,530 1,400 1,560 AS
latifolia) 12% 16,900 1.78 13.1 9,220 2,090 3,170
Sande (Brosimumspp., Green 0.49 8,500 1.94 — 4,490 1,040 600 AM
utile group) 12% 14,300 2.39 — 8,220 1,290 900
Santa Maria (Calophylium Green 0.52 10,500 1.59 12.7 890 AM
4,560 1,260
brasillense) 12% — 14,600 1.83 16.1 6,910 2,080 1,150
Sapele(Entandrophragma Green 0.55 10,200 1.49 10.5 5,010 1,2501,020 AF
cylindricum) 12% — 15,300 1.82 15.7 8,160 2,260 1,510
Sepetir (Pseudosindorapalustris) Green 0.56 11,200 1.57 13.3 5,460 1,310 950 AS
12% 17,200 1.97 13.3 8,880 2,030 1,410

4—22
Table4—5b. Mechanical properties ofsome woods imported into the United States otherthan Canadianimports
(inch_pound)a__con.
Static bending Corn-
Modulus Modulus Work to pression Shear Side
of of maximum parallel parallel hard-
Common and botanical Moisture Specific rupture elasticity load to grain to grain ness Sample
names of species content gravity (lbf/in2) (x106 lbf/in2) (in-lbf/in3) (lbf/in2) (lbf/in2) (lbf) originb
Shorea (Shorea spp., Green 0.68 11,700 2.1 — 5,380 1,440 1,350 AS
bullau group) 12% 18,800 2.61 — 10,180 2,190 1,780
Shorea,lauan—meranti group
Dark red meranti Green 0.46 9,400 1.5 8.6 4,720 1,110 700 AS
12% 12,700 1.77 13.8 7,360 1,450 780
Light red meranti Green 0.34 6,600 1.04 6.2 3,330 710 440 AS
12% 9,500 1.23 8.6 5,920 970 460
White meranti Green 0.55 9,800 1.3 8.3 5,490 1,320 1,000 AS
15% 12,400 1.49 11.4 6,350 1,540 1,140
Yellow meranti Green 0.46 8,000 1.3 8.1 3,880 1,030 750 AS
12% 11,400 1.55 10.1 5,900 1,520 770
Spanish-cedar (Cedrelaspp.) Green 0.41 7,500 1.31 7.1 3,370 990 550 AM
12% -— 11,500 1.44 9.4 6,210 1,100 600
Sucupira(Bowdichiaspp.) Green 0.74 17,200 2.27 — 9,730 — — AM
15% 19,400 — — 11,100 — —
Sucupira (Diplotropispurpurea) Green 0.78 17,400 2.68 13 8,020 1,800 1,980 AM
12% 20,600 2.87 14.8 12,140 1,960 2,140
Teak(Tectonagrandis) Green 0.55 11,600 1.37 13.4 5,960 1,290 930 AS
12% 14,600 1.55 12 8,410 1,890 1,000
Tornillo(Cedrelinga Green 0.45 8,400 — — 4,100 1,170 870 AM
cateniformi.s) 12% -— — — — — — —
Wallaba(Eperua spp.) Green 0.78 14,300 2.33 — 8,040 — 1,540 AM
12% -— 19,100 2.28 — 10,760 — 2,040
aResults of tests on small, clear, straight-grained specimens. Propertyvalues were taken from world literature
(not obtained from experimentsconducted at the Forest Products Laboratory). Other speciesmay be reported
in the world literature, as well as additional data on many of these species. Some property values have been
adjustedto 12% moisture content.
bAF is Africa; AM, America; AS, Asia.

Table 4—6. Average coefficients of variation for some mechanical properties

ofclearwood
Coefficientof variationa
Property (%)
Static bending
Modulusof rupture 16
Modulusof elasticity 22
Work to maximum load 34
Impact bending 25
Compression parallel to grain 18
Compression perpendicularto grain 28
Shear parallel to grain, maximumshearing strength 14
Tension parallelto grain 25
Side hardness 20
Toughness 34
Specific gravity rn
°Values based on results cf tests of green wood from approximately50 species.
Values for wood adjustedto 12% moisture content may be assumed to be
approximatelyof the same magnitude.

4—23
Table 4—7. Average parallel-to-grain tensile strengthof Table 4—8. Averagetoughnessvalues fora few hardwood
some wood speciesa speciesa
Tensilestrength Toughness
Species (kPa (lb/in2))
Moisture Specific Radial Tangential
Hardwoods Species content gravity (J (in-lbf)) (J (in-lbf))
Beech,American 86,200 (12,500)
Birch, yellow 12% 0.65 8,100 (500) 10,100 (620)
Elm, cedar 120,700 (17,500)
Maple, sugar 108,200 (15,700) Hickory (mocker- Green 0.64 11,400 (700) 11,700 (720)
Oak nut, pignut,sancO 12% 0.71 10,100 (620) 10,700 (660)
Overcup 77,900 (11300) 14% 0.64
Maple,sugar 6,000 (370) 5,900 (360)
Pin 112,400 (16,300)
Poplar, balsam 51,000 Oak, red
(7,400)
Sweetgum 93,800 (13,600) Pin 12% 0.64 7,000 (430) 7,000 (430)
Willow, black 73,100 (10,600) Scarlet 11% 0.66 8,300 (510) 7,200 (440)
Yellow-poplar 109,600 (15,900) Oak,white
Softwoods Overcup Green 0.56 11,900 (730) 11,100 (680)
Baldcypress 58,600 (8,500) 13% 0.62 5,500 (340) 5,000 (310)
Cedar
Sweetgum Green 0.48 5,500 (340) 5,400 (330)
Port-Orford 78,600 (11,400) 13% 0.51 4,200 (260) 4,200 (260)
Western redcedar 45,500 (6,600)
Douglas-fir, interior north 107,600 (15,600) Willow,black Green 0.38 5,000 (310) 5,900 (360)
Fir 11% 0.4 3,400 (210) 3,700 (230)
California red 77,900 (11,300) Yellow-poplar Green 0.43 5,200 (320) 4,900 (3C0)
Pacific silver 95,100 (13,800) 12% 0.45 3,600 (220) 3,400 (210)
Hemlock, western 89,600 (13,000)
Larch, western 111,700 (16,200)
Pine
Eastern white 73,100 (10,600) Creep and durationofload—Time-dependentdeforma-
Loblolly 80,000 (11,600) tionofwood under load. Ifthe load is sufficiently high and
Ponderosa 57,900 (8,400) thedurationof loadis long, failure (creep—rupture)will
Virginia 94,500 (13,700)
Redwood eventuallyoccur. The time requiredto reachruptureis
Virgin 64,800 (9,400) commonly calleddurationofload. Durationofload is an
Young growth 62,700 (9,100) important factor in settingdesignvalues forwood. Creep
Spruce and durationofloadare describedin later sections ofthis
Engelmann 84,800 (12,300) chapter.
Sitka 59,300 (8,600)
Fatigue—Resistance to failure under specific combinations
aResultsoftestsonsmall, dear, straight-grained specimens tested ofcyclicloading conditions: frequency andnumber of
green. Forhardwood species, strength ofspecimenstested at
12% moisture content averagesabout 32% higher:forsofiwoods, cycles, maximum stress,ratio ofmaximumto minimum
about 13% higher. stress, andother less-important factors. The main factors
affecting fatiguein wood are discussedlater in this chapter.
The discussionalso includesinterpretation offatiguedata
and information on fatigueas a function ofthe service
Less Common Properties environment.
Strength propertiesless commonlymeasuredin clear wood Rolling shear strength—Shearstrength ofwood where
include torsion, tougimess,rollingshear, and fracturetough- shearing force is in alongitudinal plane and is acting per-
ness. Otherpropertiesinvolvingtime under load include pendicularto the grain. Few test values ofrolling shear in
creep, creeprupture ordurationofload,and fatiguestrength. solid wood havebeen reported.In limitedtests, rolling
shearstrength averaged 18% to 28% ofparallel-to-grain
Torsionstrength—Resistanceto twistingabout a longi- shearvalues. Rollingshear strength is about the same in
tudinal axis. For solid wood members,torsionalshear thelongitudinal—radialand longitudinal—tangentialplanes.
strengthmay be taken as shear strengthparallelto grain. Fracturetoughness—Abilityofwood to withstandflaws
Two-thirdsofthe valuefortorsionalshear strength may be that initiate failure. Measurement offracture toughness
usedas an estimateofthetorsionalshear stress at thepro-
portional limit. helps identif'the length ofcriticalflawsthat initiatefailure
in materials.
Toughness—Energyrequired to cause rapid complete
failure in a centrallyloaded bendingspecimen. Tables4—8 To date there is no standardtestmethod for determining
and4—9give averagetoughnessvaluesfor samples ofa few fracturetoughness in wood. Threetypes ofstress fields, and
hardwoodand softwoodspecies. Average coefficients of associated stress intensity factors, canbe definedat a crack
variationfortoughnessas determinedfrom approximately tip: openingmode (I), forwardshearmode (II), and transverse
50 species are shownin Table4—6. shearmode (III) (Fig.4—2a). A crackmay lie in one ofthese

4—24
 Table4—9. Average toughness values for a fewsoftwood (a) Failuremodes
specie?
Toughness
Moisture Specific Radial Tangential
Spees content gravity (J (in-lbt)) (J (in-Ibf))
Cedar
Western red 9% 0.33

t<i
1,500 (90) 2,100 (130) (b)Orientations
Yellow 10% 0.48 3,400 (210) 3,700 (230)
Douglas-fir
Coast Green 0.44 3,400 (210) 5,900 (360)
12% 0.47 3,300 (200) 5,900 (360)
Interior west Green 0.48 3,300 (200) 4,900 (300)
13% 0.51 3,400 (210) 5,500 (340)
Interior north Green 0.43 2,800 (170) 3,900 (240)
14% 0.46 2,600 (160) 4,100 (250)
Interiorsouth Green 0.38 2,100 (130) 2,900 (180)
14% 0.4 2,000 (120) 2,900 (180)
Fir Figure 4—2. Possible crack propagation systems for
California red Green 0.36 wood.
2,100 (130) 2,900 (180)
12% 0.39 2,000 (120) 2,800 (170)
Noble Green 0.36 3,900 (240) three planesand may propagate in one oftwo directions in
12% 0.39 3,600 (220)
Pacific silver
each plane. This givesrise to six crack-propagation systems
Green 0.37 2,400 (150) 3,700 (230)
13% 0.4 2,800 (170) 4,200 (260) (RL, TL, LR, TR, LT, and RT) (Fig. 4—2b). Ofthese crack-
White Green 0.36 2,300 (140) 3,600 (220) propagation systems, four systemsare ofpractica] impor-
13% 0.38 2,100 (130) 3,300 (200) tance:RL, TL, TR, and RT. Each ofthese four syttems allow
Hemlock forpropagation ofa crackalong the lowerstrength path
Mountain Green 0.41 4,100 (250) 4,600 (280) parallelto the grain. The RL and TL orientations in wood
14% 0.44 2,300 (140) 2,800 (170) (whereRor T is perpendicular tothe crackplaneand L is the
Western Green 0.38 2,400 (150) 2,800 (170) direction in whichthe crackpropagates) will predominate as
12% 0.41 2,300 (140) 3,400 (210) aresult ofthelow strength and stiffness ofwoodperpendicu-
Larch, western Green 0.51 4,400 (270) 6,500 (400) lar tothe grain. It is thereforeone ofthese two orientations
12% 0.55 3,400 (210) 5,500 (340)
Pine that ismost often tested.Valuesfor Mode I fracture
Eastern white Green 0.33 2,000 (120) 2,600 (160) toughness range from 220 to 550 kPa'I (200 to
12% 0.34 1,800 (110) 2,000 (120)
Jack Green 0.41
500 lbf/ in2V)and for Mode II range from 1,650 to
3,300 (200) 6,200 (380)
12% 0.42 2,300 (140) 3,900 (240) 2,400kPaV (1,500 to 2,200 lbf/in2./). Table 4—10
Loblolly Green 0.48 5,000 (310) 6,200 (380) summarizes selected mode I and mode II test resultsat 10%
12% 0.51 2,600 (160) 4,200 (260) to 12% moisturecontent available in the1iteratur. The
Lodgepole Green 0.38 2,600 (160) 3,400 (210) limitedinformation available onmoisture contenteffects on
Ponderosa Green 0.38 3,100 (190) 4,400 (270) fracture toughness suggests that fracture toughness is either
11% 0.43 2,400 (150) 3,100 (190)
Red insensitive to moisturecontentor increases as the material
Green 0.4 3,400 (210) 5,700 (350)
12% 0.43 2,600 (160) 4,700 (290) dries,reachinga maximum between6% and 15% moisture
Shortleaf Green 0.47 4,700 (290) 6,500 (400) content; fracture toughness thendecreases with furtherdrying.
13% 0.5 2,400 (150) 3,700 (230)
Slash Green
12%
0.55
0.59
5,700
3,400
(350)
(210)
7,300
5,200
(450)
(320)
Vibration Properties
Green 0.45
Virginia 5,500 (340) 7,600 (470) The vibration properties ofprimaryinterestin structural
12% 0.49 2,800 (170) 4,100 (250)
Redwood materials are speedofsound and internalfriction(damping
Old-growth Green 0.39 1,800 (110) 3,300 (200)
capacity).
11% 0.39 1,500 (90) 2,300 (140)
Young-growth Green
12%
0.33 1,800
0.34 1,500
(110) 2,300 (140) Speed of Sound
(90) 1,800 (110)
Spruco, Green 0.34 2,400 (150) 3,100 (190) The speed ofsound in a structural material is a function of
Enelmann 12% 0.35 1,800 (110) 2,900 (180) themodulusofelasticityand density.In wood, the speedof
aResuftsoftestson small, clear, straight-grainedspecimens. sound alsovarieswith grain directionbecausethe transverse
modulusof elasticity is much less than the longitudinal
value(as little as 1/20); the speed ofsoundacross the grain
is about one-fifth to one-thirdofthelongitudinal value.
Forexample,a piece ofwood with a modulus
lonitudinal
ofelasticity of12.4 GPa(1.8 x 106lbt7in ) and of
de:risity

4—25
Table 4—10. Summary ofselected fracturetoughness Similarly, there are temperaturesat which internalfrictionis
results minimum, and the temperatures ofminimuminternalfriction
vary with moisturecontent. The temperaturesofminimum
Fracturetoughness (kPaJ (lbf/in2JI)) internal frictionarehigher as the moisturecontent is de-
ModeI Mode II creased.Fortemperatures above0°C (32°F) andmoisture
Species TL RL TL RL contentgreaterthan about 10%, internalfrictionincreases
strongly as temperature increases,with a strongpositive
320 360
Douglas-fir 2,230 interaction with moisturecontent.For very dry wood,there
(290) (330) (2,030)
Western hemlock 375 2,240 is a generaltendency for internal frictionto decreaseas the
(340) (2,040) temperature increases.
Pine
Western white 250 260 The valueofinternal friction, expressed by logarithmic
(225) (240) decrement, rangesfrom about 0.1 for hot, moist wood to less
Scots 440 500 2,050 than0.02 for hot, dry wood. Cool wood, regardless ofmois-
(400) (455) (1,860) turecontent, would havean intermediatevalue.
Southern 375 2,070
(340) (1,880)
Ponderosa 290
(265) Mechanical Properties of
Red spruce 420
(380)
2,190
(1,990)
1,665
(1,510) Clear Straight-Grained Wood
Northernredoak 410
(370) The mechanicalpropertieslistedin Table4—1 through
Sugarmaple 480 Table4—9are basedon a variety ofsampling methods.
(430) Generally, the most extensive samplingis representedin
Yellow-poplar 517
Tables4—3 and 4—4. The values in Table 4—3 are averages
(470)
derivedfor anumber ofspecies grownin the UnitedStates.
The tabulated valueis an estimateofthe average clear WOOd
480 kg/rn3 (30 lb/fl3) would have a speedofsound in the property ofthe species. Many valueswere obtainedfromtest
specimens taken at a height of2.4 to 5 m (8 to 16 ft) above
longitudinal directionofabout 3,800 rn/s (12,500 ftls). thestumpofthe tree. Valuesreportedin Table4—4represent
Inthetransversedirection,modulusofelasticity would be estimates ofthe average clear woodproperties ofspecies
about 690 MPa (100 x i03 lbf/in2) and the speed of sound
grown in Canadaand commonlyimportedinto the United
approximately 890 rn/s (2,900 ftfs). States.
The speedofsound decreases with increasing temperature or Methods ofdata collection andanalysischangedover the
moisturecontentinproportionto the influence ofthese
variableson modulusofelasticityand density.The speed of years during whichthe datain Tables4—3 and4—4were
collected. In addition, the character ofsome forests has
sound decreases slightly with increasingfrequency andam-
changedwith time. Becausenot all the species were reevalu-
plitude ofvibration, althoughformost common applications ated to reflect these changes, the appropriateness ofthedata
this effect is too smallto be significant. There is no recog- shouldbereviewedwhen usedfor criticalapplications such
nizedindependent effectofspecies on the speedofsound. as stress grades oflumber.
Variability in the speed ofsound in wood is directlyrelated
to the variabilityofmodulusofelasticityand density. Valuesreportedin Table4—5 were collected from the world
literature; thus, the appropriateness ofthese propertiesto
Internal Fricfion representa species is notknown.The propertiesreported in
Tables 4—1, 4—2, 4—5, 4—7, 4—8, 4—9 and 4—10 may not
Whensolid materialis strained, somemechanicalenergyis necessarily represent average species characteristics becauseof
dissipatedasheat. Internalfriction isthe termused to denote inadequate sampling; however, they do suggestthe relative
themechanismthat causesthis energydissipation. The influence ofspecies and otherspecimen parameters on the
internalfrictionrnechanisrn in wood is a complexfunction of mechanical behaviorrecorded.
temperatureand moisturecontent. In general, there is a value
ofmoisturecontent at which internalfrictionis minimum. Variability in propertiescan be importantin both production
Oneither sideofthis minimum, internal frictionincreases as and consumption ofwoodproducts. The fact that a piece
moisturecontent varies down to zero orup to the fiber satu- maybe stronger, harder, or stifferthanthe averageis often of
ration point. The moisture content at whichminimuminter- less concern to the userthan ifthe piece is weaker;however,
nalfrictionoccursvarieswith temperature. Atroom tempera- this may not be true iflightweight material is selectedfor a
ture(23°C (73°F)), the rninimum occursat about 6% specific purposeor ifharderortoughermaterial is difficultto
moisture content; at —20°C (—4°F), it occurs at about 14% work. Someindication ofthe spreadofpropertyvalues is
moisture content, and at 70°C(158°F), at about 4%. At therefore desirable. Average coefficients ofvariationformany
90°C (194°F), the minimumis not well defmedand occurs mechanical properties are presentedin Table4—6.
nearzeromoisturecontent.

4—26
 The mechanical propertiesreportedin the tables are signifi- gums, resins,and extractives, which contribute1Ettle to
cantly affectedby specimenmoisture contentat time oftest. mechanical properties.
Some tables includeproperties that were evaluatedat differ-
Approximate relationships betweenvariousmechanical
ing moisture levels; these moisturelevels are reported. As
indicated in the tables,many ofthe dry testdatawere ad- properties and specific gravity for clear straight-giained wood
ofhardwoods and softwoods are given in Table4—11 as
justed to a commonmoisture contentbase of I2%.
powerfunctions. Thoserelationships arebased on average
Specific gravityis reportedin many tables becausethis valuesfor the 43 softwood and 66 hardwood species pre-
property is usedas an index ofclearwood mechanical proper- sentedin Table4—3. The average data vary aroundthe rela-
ties. The specificgravity values given in Tables4—3 and 4—4 tionships, so that the relationships do not accuralelypredict
represent the estimatedaverage clear wood specific gravity of individual average species values or an individual specimen
thespecies.In theother tables, the specific gravityvalues a
value. Infact, mechanical properties within species tendto
representonly the specimens tested.The variabililyofspe- be linearly, ratherthan curvilinearly, relatedto spcific grav-
cific gravity, represented by the coefficient ofvariation de- ity; where dataare available forindividual specie, linear
rived from tests on 50 species, is includedin Table4—6. analysis is suggested.

Mechanical and physicalproperties asmeasuredandreported Knots

oftenreflectnot only the characteristics ofthe woodbut also
the influenceofthe shapeand size ofthe test specimen and Aknot is that portion of abranchthat has become incorpo-
the test mode. The testmethodsusedto establish properties rated in thebole ofa tree. The influenceofakno on the
in Tables 4—3, 4—4, 4—7, 4—8 and 4—9 arebased on standard mechanical properties ofa wood member is due to the inter-
procedures (ASTM D143).The test methods for properties ruptionofcontinuity andchange in the directionofwood
presentedinother tables are referencedin the selectedbibli- fibers associated with theknot. The influenceofknotsde-
ography atthe end ofthis chapter. pends on their size, location, shape, and soundness; atten-
dant local slope ofgrain; andtype ofstress to whichthe
Commonnamesofspecieslisted inthe tables conform to wood memberis subjected.
standard nomenclature ofthe U.S. Department ofAgriculture,
Forest Service. Other namesmay be used locally fora spe- The shape(form) ofa knot on asawn surface depends upon
cies. Also, one commonname may be appliedto groups of the directionofthe exposing cut. A nearlyroundknot is
species for marketing. producedwhen lumber is sawn from alog and abranchis
sawn through atright anglesto its length (as in a flatsawn
board). An ovalknot is producedifthe saw cut diagonal
Natural Characteristics to thebranchlength (as in a bastard-sawn board)and a
"spiked"knot when the cut is lengthwise to the branch(as
Affecting Mechanical Properties in a quartersawn board).
Clearstraight-grainedwoodis used fordeterminin.gfunda- Knotsare further classified as intergrown or encaed
mentalmechanical properties; however, becauseofnatural
(Fig. 4—3). As long as a limb remainsalive,there is con-
growthcharacteristics oftrees, wood products vary in specific tinuousgrowthat thejunction ofthe limb and the bole ofthe
gravity, may contain cross grain, or may haveknots and tree, and theresultingknot is calledintergrown. After the
localizedslopeofgrain.Naturaldefects such as pitchpockets branchhas died,additional growthon the trunk enclosesthe
may occur as a result ofbiologicalor climaticelements dead limb,resulting in an encasedknot; bole fibers are not
influencingthe livingtree. Thesewood characteristics must continuous with the fibersofthe encasedknot. Encasedknots
be taken into accountin assessingactual properties or esti- and knotholes tend to be accompaniedby less cross-grain
matingthe actualperformance ofwood products. than are intergrown knotsand are therefore generallyless
problematic with regardtomost mechanical properties.
Specific Gravity Most mechanical properties are lower in sections containing
The substanceofwhichwood is composed is actually heav- knotsthan in clear straight-grained woodbecause (a) the clear
ier than water; its specificgravityis about 1.5 regardless of wood is displaced by the knot, (b) the fibersaround the knot
wood species. In spite ofthis, the dry wood ofmost species are distorted, resultingin cross grain, (c) the discontinuity of
floats in water, and it is thus evidentthatpart ofthe volume wood fiberleads to stress concentrations, and (d) checking
ofapiece ofwood is occupiedby cell cavitiesandpores. oftenoccursaroundthe knotsduringdrying. Hardness and
Variations in the size ofthese openings and in the thickness strength in compression perpendicular to the grain are excep-
ofthe cell walls cause some species to have morewood tions, whereknots may be objectionable only in that they
substance per unit volumethanother species and Iherefore cause nonuniform wear or nonuniform stress distributions at
higherspecificgravity. Thus,specificgravityis an excellent contact surfaces.
index ofthe amountofwood substance contained in a piece
ofwood; it is a good index ofmechanicalproperties as long Knotshavea much greatereffecton strength inaxial tension
as the wood is clear,straightgrained,and free from defects. thanin axial short-column compression, and the ffects on
However, specific gravity valuesalsoreflectthe presence of bendingare somewhat less than those in axial tension.

4—27
Table 4—ha. Functions relating mechanical properties to specific gravity of clear, straight-grained wood (metric)

Specific gravity—strength relationship

Green wood Wood at 12% moisture content
Propertya Softwoods Hardwoods Softwoods Hardwoods
Static bending
MOR (kPa) 109,600G1°1 118,700G116 170,700G1°1 171,300G°13
MOE(MPa) 16,100 G°76 13,900 G°72 20,500 G° 16,500 G°7
WML (kJ/m3) 147 G121 229 G152 179 G1 219 G1
Impact bending (N) 353 G'35 422 G139 346 G139 423 G165
Compression parallel (kPa) 49,700 G°' 49,000 G111 93,700G°97 76,000G°89
Compression perpendicular(kPa) 8,800 G153 18,500 G2'48 16,500 G157 21,600 G2°9
Shear parallel(kPa) 11,000 G°'73 17,800 G124 16,600 G°65 21,900 G113
Tensionperpendicular(kPa) 3,800 G°7° 10,500 G137 6,000 G111 10,100G13
Side hardness(N) 6,230 G141 16,550 G231 85,900 G15 15,300G2°9
acompressionparallelto grain is maximumcrushingstrength; compression perpendicularto grain is fiber stress at
proportionallimit. MOR is modulus of rupture; MOE, modulus of elasticity; and WML, work to maximumload. For green
wood, use specific gravity based on ovendry weightand green volume;for dry wood, use specific gravity based on
ovendry weight and volume at 12% moisture content.

Table 4—1 lb. Functions relating mechanical properties to specificgravityofclear, straight-grained wood (inch—pound)
Specific gravity—strength relationship -
Green wood Wood at 12% moisture content
Propertya Softwoods Hardwoods Softwoods Hardwoods

Static bendinq
MOR (lb/in 15,890 G1°1 17,210 G116 24,760 G1°1 24,850 G°13
MOE(xl 06 lb/in2) 2.33 G°76 2.02 G°72 2.97 G° 2.39 G°7
WML (in-lbf/in3) 21.33 G121 33.2 G152 25.9 G1 31.8 GlM
Impact bending (lbf) 79.28 G1 94.9 G1 77.7 G139 95.1 G165
Compression parallel (lb/in2) 7,210 G° 7,110 G111 13,590 G°97 11,030 G°89
Compression perpendicular(lb/in2) 1,270 G1 2,680 G2 2,390 G157 3,130 G2°9
Shear parallel (lb/in2) 1,590 G°73 2,580 G124 2,410 G°85 3,170 G113
Tension perpendicular(lb/in2) 550 G°78 1,520 G1'37 870 G111 1,460 G13
Side hardness (lbf) 1,400 G141 3,720 G 1,930 G15 3,440 G2°9
aCompression parallel to grain is maximumcrushingstrength; compression perpendicularto grain is fiber stress at
proportionallimit. MOR is modulusof rupture; MOE, modulus of elasticity; and WML, work to maximumload. For green
wood, use specific gravity based on ovendryweight and green volume;for dry wood, use specific gravity based on
ovendry weight and volume at 12% moisture content.

Forthis reason, in a simplysupportedbeam, a knot on the timbersthere is no discontinuity in wood fibers, which
lowerside(subjectedto tensile stresses) has a greatereffect resultsfrom sawing throughboth local andgeneral slope of
on the load the beam willsupportthan does a knot on the grain.
upperside (subjectedto compressive stresses). The effectsofknotsin structural lumberare discussedin
In long columns,knots are importantbecausethey affect Chapter6.
stiffness. In shortor intermediate columns, the reductionin
strengthcausedby knots is approximately proportionalto Slope of Grain
their size; however,largeknots have asomewhat greater In somewood productapplications,thedirectionsofimpor-
relative effectthan do smallknots. tant stressesmay not coincide with the natural axes offiber
Knots in round timbers,such as poles and piles, have less orientation in the wood. This may occur by choicein
effect on strengththan do knots in sawn timbers. Although design,fromthe waythe wood was removedfrom the log, cr
thegrain is irregulararound knots in both formsoftimber, becauseofgrain irregularities that occurred whilethe tree was
theangleofthegrain to the surface is smaller in naturally growing.
round timberthan in sawn timber. Furthermore, in round

4—28
 1.0
0)

2 0.8
ci.
0.6

ov
C
0
0.4
-'----:
_-Q/P 0.20
=
C.)
CO 0.2
U-

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Angle to fiber direction (deg)

Figure 4—4. Effect of grain angle on mechanical property

ofclearwoodaccording to Hankinson-typeformula.
Q/P is ratio of mechanical property acrossthe grain (Q)
to that parallel to the grain (P); n is an empirically
determined constant.

The Hankinson-typeformulacan be graphically depictedas a

functionof Q/P and n. Figure4—4shows the strengthin any
directionexpressed as a fraction ofthe strength parallel to
fiber direction, plottedagainstangletothe fiberdirection0.
The plotis for a range ofvalues ofQ/P and n.
The term slope ofgrain relatesthe fiberdirectionto the edges
ofa piece.Slope ofgrainis usually expressed bythe ratio
Figure 4—3. Types of knots. A, encased knot; between25 mm(1 in.) ofthe grain from the edgcor long
B, intergrown. axis ofthe piece and the distance in millimeters(inches)
withinwhichthis deviationoccurs(tan 9). The effectofgrain
Elastic propertiesin directions other than along the natural slope onsome propertiesofwood,as determined from tests,
axes can be obtainedfrom elastictheory. Strength properties is shownin Table 4—12. The values for modulusofrupture
in directions ranging from parallel to perpendicular tothe fall very close to the curve in Figure4—4 for Q/P = 0.1 and
fiberscanbe approximated usinga Hankinson-type formula n = 1.5. Similarly, the impactbendingvalues fall closeto
(Bodig and Jayne 1982): thecurve for Q/P= 0.05 and n =1.5, andthecompression
values for the curve for Q/P = 0.1,n = 2.5.
N= PQ The term cross grain indicatesthe conditionmeasuredby
(4—2)
Psing 9+ Qcos slopeofgrain.Two importantforms ofcross grain are spiral
and diagonal(Fig. 4—5). Othertypes are wavy, dipped,
whereN is strengthat angle0 from fiberdirection, interlocked, andcurly.
Q strength perpendicularto grain,P strength parallelto
grain,andn an empiricallydeterminedconstant. Spiralgrain is causedby windingor spiral growlhofwood
fibersabout the boleofthetree insteadofverticallgrowth. In
This formulahas been used formodulusofelasticityas well sawnproducts,spiral grain canbe defmed as fibers lying in
as strength properties. Valuesofn and associated ratios of thetangential planeofthegrowthrings,ratherthan parallel
Q/P tabulated from available literature are as follows: to thelongitudinal axis ofthe product (see Fig. Li_S for a
simplecase).Spiralgrainin sawn productsoften goes unde-
Property n Q/P tected by ordinary visual inspection. The besttest for spiral
Tensile strength 1.5—2 0.04—0.07 grain is to splita sample sectionfrom the piece in the radial
Compression strength 2—2.5 0.03—0.40 direction. A visual method ofdetermining the presenceof
Bending strength 1.5—2 0.04—0.10 spiralgrain is to note the alignmentofpores, rays, and resin
Modulus of elasticity 2 0.04—0.12 ductson aflatsawn face.Drying checks ona flatsawn surface
Toughness 1.5—2 0.06—0.10 follow the fibers and indicatethe slopeofthe fiber. Relative

4—29
Table 4—12. Strength of woodmembers with various change in electrical capacitance is an effective technique for
grain slopes compared with strengthofa straight- measuring slopeofgrain.
grained membera
Maximumslope Modulus Impact Compression
Diagonal grain is cross grain causedby growth ringsthat ar
not parallel to one or both surfaces ofthe sawn piece. Diago-
of grain in of rupture bending parallelto grain nalgrain is producedby sawing a log with pronounced taper
member (%) (%) (%)
parallel to the axis(pith) ofthe tree. Diagonal grain also
100 100 100 occurs in lumbersawn from crooked logs or logs with butt
Straight-grained
swell.
1in25 96 95 100
lin2O 93 90 100 Crossgrain can be quitelocalizedas a result ofthe distur-
linl5 89 81 100 bance ofa growthpattern by a branch.This condition,
linlO 81 62 99 termedlocal slope ofgrain,may be presenteventhough the
branch (knot) may havebeenremovedby sawing. The degree
lin5 55 36 93
oflocal cross grain mayoften be difficultto determine. Any
almpactbending is height of drop causing complete form ofcross grain canhavea deleterious effect onmechanical
failure (0.71-kg (50-Ib) hammer); compression parallel properties ormachiningcharacteristics.
to grain is maximumcrushing strength.
Spiraland diagonalgrain can combineto produce amore
complexcross grain.To determinenet cross grain, regardless
oforigin,fiberslopes onthecontiguous surface ofa piece
must be measuredand combined. The combinedslope of
grain is determinedby taking the square root ofthe sum of
the squares ofthe two slopes. For example,assumethat the
spiral grain slopeon the flat-grained surfaceofFigure4—5D
is 1 in 12 and thediagonal-grainslope is I in IS. The com-
bined slope is

j(l/l8)2÷(l/l2)2 = 1/10
or a slope of 1 in 10.
A regularreversal ofrightand left spiraling ofgrain in a tree
stemproducesthe condition knownas interlockedgrain.
Interlocked grain occurs in somehardwoodspecies (Ch. 3,
Table3—9)and markedly increases resistanceto splitting in
the radialplane. Interlocked grain decreasesboth the static
bending strengthandstiffnessofclear wood specimens. The
data from tests ofdomestichardwoodsshownin Table4—3
do not includepiecesthat exhibitedinterlockedgrain. Some
mechanical property valuesin Table4-5 are basedon speci-
menswith interlockedgrain becausethat is a characteristic cf
somespecies. The presence ofinterlockedgrain altersthe
relationship betweenbendingstrengthand compressive
E F strength oflumbercut from tropicalhardwoods.

Annual Ring Orientation

Stresses perpendicular to the fiber(grain)directionmay be
at any anglefrom 00 (T) to 90° (R) to thegrowth rings
(Fig.4—6). Perpendicular-to-grain propertiesdependsome-
what upon orientation of annualrings with respectto the
G H
directionofstress. The compression perpendicular-to-grain
Figure 4—5. Relationship offiber orientation (0-0) to valuesin Table 4—3 were derivedfrom tests in whichthe
axes, as shown by schematic ofwoodspecimens load was appliedparallelto the growthrings (Tdirection);
containing straightgrain and cross grain. Specimens A shearparallel-to-grain and tension perpendicular-to-grain
through D have radial and tangential surfaces; valuesare averages ofequalnumbersofspecimens with 0°
E throughH do not. Specimens A and E contain no and 90° growthring orientations. In some species, there is
cross grain; B, D, F, and H have spiral grain; no difference in 0° and 90°orientation properties. Other
C, D, G, and H have diagonal grain.
species exhibit slightly higher shearparallel ortensionper-
pendicular-to-grain properties forthe 00 orientation than for

4—30
 Ii 90°(R) 45° 00 (T)

Figure 4—6. Direction of load in relation to direction of

annual growth rings: 90° or perpendicular (R), 450, 00
or parallel (T).

the 900orientation;the converseis true for about an equal

numberofspecies.
The effectsofintermediate annualringorientations havebeen
studied in a limitedway. Modulusofelasticity, compressive
perpendicular-to-grain stress atthe proportionallimit, and
tensile strengthperpendicular to the grain tendto be about
the same at 45° and 0°, but for somespecies these valuesare
40% to 60% lower at the 45° orientation. For those species
with lowerpropertiesat 45° ring orientation, propertiestend
to be about equal at 0° and 90° orientations. For species with
about equalpropertiesat 0° and 45° orientations, properties Figure 4—7. Projecting tensionwoodfibers on sawn
tend to be higher atthe 90° orientation. surface ofmahogany board.

Reaction Wood
frequentlyhas arelatively lifeless appearance, especially in
Abnormalwoodytissue is frequently associatedwith leaning woods inwhichthe transitionfrom earlywoodto latewood is
boles and crookedlimbs ofboth conifers and hardwoods. It abrupt. Becausecompression wood is more opaquethan
is generallybelievedthat such wood is formedas a natural normalwood, intermediate stages ofcompression.wood can
response ofthe tree to return its limbs or bole to a more be detectedby transmitting lightthrough thin cross sections;
normalposition,hence the term reactionwood. In soft- however, borderline forms ofcompression wood l:hatmerge
woods,the abnormal tissue is called compression wood; it with normalwood can commonly be detectedonly by mi-
is commonto all softwoodspecies and is foundon thelower croscopic examination.
side ofthe limb or inclinedbole. In hardwoods, the abnor-
mal tissue is knownas tensionwood; it is locatedon the Tensionwood is more difficultto detectthan is compression
upper side ofthe inclinedmember,althoughin somein- wood.However, eccentric growthas seen on the transverse
stancesit is distributedirregularlyaroundthe cross section. sectionsuggestsits presence.Also, becauseit is difficult to
Reactionwood is more prevalentin some species than in cleanlycut thetoughtensionwoodfibers,the sur[hces of
others. sawn boards are "woolly,"especiallywhen the boardsare
sawn in the green condition (Fig. 4—7). In some species,
Many ofthe anatomical, chemical, physical, andmechanical tensionwoodmay be evidenton a smoothsurface as areas of
properties ofreaction wood differ distinctly fromthose of contrasting colors. Examples ofthis are the silvetyappear-
normal wood. Perhapsmost evident is the increase in den- ance oftension wood in sugarmaple andthe darlercolor of
sity compared with that ofnormalwood. The specific gravity tension wood in mahogany.
ofcompression wood is commonly 30% to40% greaterthan
that ofnormalwood; the specific gravityoftension wood Reactionwood,particularlycompression wood in the green
commonly rangesbetween 5% and 10% greaterthanthat of condition, may be stronger than normalwood. However,
normalwood, but it may be as much as 30% greater. compared with normalwood with similar specificgravity,
reactionwood is defmitely weaker.Possibleexceptionsto
Compressionwood is usually somewhat darkerthan normal this are compression parallel-to-grain properties cfcompres-
woodbecauseofthe greaterproportionoflatewood, and it sion wood and impact bendingpropertiesoftensionwood.

4—31
 Mature wood
a>
C)
C—
0)
—c
8
a>
.
o'
UJQ)

Figure 4-8. Effects ofcompression wood.A, eccentric

growth about pith in crosssectioncontaining compres- 0)0
sion wood—dark area in lowerthird of crosssectionis (I)
OC
compression wood; B, axial tensionbreak caused by >s
excessive longitudinal shrinkage of compression wood; > ()U)—
C, warpcaused by excessive longitudinal shrinkage. ;U)
Because ofthe abnormal propertiesofreactionwood,it may
flffl
)
cL'5 .:
COOO)Ol-Q
a>
Maturewood

be desirableto eliminatethis wood from raw material, hi

logs, compression wood is characterized by eccentric growth
about the pith and the large proportionoflatewood at the
point ofgreatest eccentricity (Fig.4—8A). Fortunately, pro-
nouncedcompression wood in lumbercan generallybe Pith 5-20 rings Bark
detectedby ordinary visualexamination.
Figure 4—9. Properties ofjuvenilewood.
Compressionand tensionwood undergo extensive longitu-
dinal shrinkagewhen subjectedto moistureloss below the
fiber saturation point. Longitudinalshrinkagein compression and cellulosefibrils),whichcauseslongitudinal shrinkage
wood may be up to 10 times that in normalwood and in that may be more than 10 timesthat ofmature wood.Corn-
tension wood, perhaps up to 5 timesthat in normal wood. pressionwood and spiral grain are also more prevalentin
Whenreactionwood and normalwood are present inthe juvenile wood than in mature wood and contributeto longi-
same board,unequallongitudinal shrinkagecauses internal tudinal shrinkage.In structural lumber, the ratioofmodulus
stressesthat result in warping.In extremecases,unequal ofrupture, ultimate tensile stress,and modulusofelasticity
longitudinal shrinkageresults in axial tensionfailure over a forjuvenile to maturewood ranges from 0.5 to 0.9, 0.5 to
portion ofthe cross sectionofthe lumber(Fig.4—8B). Warp 0.95, and 0.45 to 0.75,respectively.Changesin shear
sometimes occurs in rough lumberbut more often in planed, strengthresultingfrom increases injuvenile wood content
ripped, or resawn lumber (Fig. 4—8C). can be adequately predicted by monitoring changes in den-
sity alonefor all annualring orientations. The same is true
Juvenile Wood for perpendicular-to-grain compressive strengthwhenthe load
is applied in thetangential direction. Compressivestrength
Juvenilewood is the wood producednearthe pith ofthe tree; perpendicular-to-grain for loadsappliedin the radial direc-
for softwoods, it is usuallydefmedas thematerial 5 to tion,however, is more sensitive to changes in juvenile wood
20 rings from thepith dependingon species.Juvenilewood contentand may be up to eight times less than that sug-
has considerably differentphysicaland anatomical properties gestedby changesin density alone. The juvenile wood to
than that ofmature wood (Fig. 4—9). In clear wood,the maturewoodratio is lowerforhigher grades of lumberthan
propertiesthat havebeen foundto influence mechanical for lowergrades,whichindicatesthat juvenile wood has
behavior includefibril angle, cell length, and specific gravity, greaterinfluence in reducing themechanical properties of
the latter acompositeofpercentage oflatewood, cell wall high-grade structural lumber. Only a limitedamountof
thickness,and lumen diameter.Juvenile wood has a high research has beendone onjuvenilewood in hardwood
fibril angle(angle between longitudinal axis ofwood cell species.

4—32
 Products containingvisiblecompression failureshavelow
strength properties, especially in tensile strengthand shock
resistance. The tensile strength ofwood containingcompres-
sion failures may be as low as one-third the strengthof
matched clear wood. Even slight compression fail[ures,visi-
ble only under a microscope, may seriously reduce strength
and cause brittlefracture. Because ofthe low strerLgth associ-
ated with compression failures, many safetycodesrequire
certain structural members, such as ladderrails and scaffold
planks, tobe entirely free ofsuch failures.

Pitch Pockets
Apitch pocketis a well-defmed openingthat containsfree
resin. The pocket extendsparallelto the annualrings; it is
almostflat on the pith side and curvedon the barc side.
Pitch pocketsare confined to such species as thepines,
spruces, Douglas-fir, tamarack, and western larch.
The effectofpitch pocketson strength depends upontheir
number, size,and location in the piece.A large numberof
pitchpockets indicates a lack ofbondbetweenannualgrowth
layers, and a piecewith pitchpocketsshould be inspected for
shake orseparationalongthe grain.

Bird Peck
Maple, hickory, white ash, and a numberofother species are
often damaged by smallholes madebywoodpeckers.
Thesebirdpecks often occur in horizontal rows, ometimes
a
encircling thetree, and brown orblack discoloration known
as a mineralstreakoriginates from each hole. Holes fortap-
ping mapletrees are alsoa sourceofmineral streaks. The
streaks are causedby oxidation and other chemical changes
in thewood.Bird pecks and mineralstreaks are not generally
important in regardto strengthofstructural lumber, although
theydo impair the appearance ofthe wood.
Figure 4—10. Compression failures.A, compression
failureshown by irregularlines acrossgrain; B, fiber
breakage in end-grain surfaces ofspruce lumber caused Extractives
by compression failures below dark line. Many wood species containremovable extraneous materials
or extractives that do not degradethe cellulose—ligninstruc
tare ofthe wood.These extractives are especially abundant in
Compression Failures species such as larch,redwood, westernredcedar, and black
locust.
Excessive compressive stresses along the grain that produce
minutecompression failures can be caused by excessive A smalldecreasein modulusofruptureand strengthin
bendingofstanding trees from wind orsnow; felling oftrees compression parallelto grain has been measuredfor some
across boulders,logs, or irregularities in the ground;or species after the extractives have beenremoved.The extentto
roughhandlingoflogs orlumber. Compressionfailures whichextractives influence strengthis apparently a function
shouldnotbe confusedwith compression wood. In some oftheamount ofextractives, the moisturecontentofthe
instances, compression failures are visibleon the surface of piece,and the mechanical property underconsideration.
a boardas minutelines or zones formed by crumpling or
buckling of cells (Fig.4—1OA), althoughthe failuresusually
appearas white lines ormay evenbe invisibleto thenaked Properties of Timber From Dead Trees
eye. The presenceofcompression failures may be indicated Timber from treeskilled by insects,blight, wind, or fire may
by fiberbreakage on end grain (Fig.4—lOB). Since compres- be as good for any structural purposeas that from live trees,
sion failures are often difficult to detectwith theunaidedeye,
providedfurtherinsect attack, staining, decay, or drying
specialefforts, including optimum lighting,may be required degrade has not occurred. In a living tree, the heactwood is
for detection. The most difficult cases are detectedonly by
entirely deadand only a comparatively few sapwoodcells are
microscopic examination. alive. Therefore, most wood is deadwhencut, regardless of

4—33
whetherthe tree itselfis livingor not. However, ifatree Table 4—13. Intersection moisture content values
stands on the stumptoo long afterits death, the sapwoodis selected speciesa
likelyto decay orto be attacked severely by wood-boring M
insects,and eventuallythe heartwoodwill be similarly Species (%)
affected. Such deterioration also occurs in logs that havebeen
Ash, white 24
cutfrom live trees andimproperly caredforafterwards. Be- 27
cause ofvariations in climatic and other factors that affect Birch, yellow
Chestnut, American 24
deterioration,the time that deadtimbermay stand or lie in Douglas-fir 24
theforestwithout seriousdeterioration varies. Hemlock, western
Larch, western 28
Tests on wood from trees that had stood as long as 15 years 21
Pine, loblolly
after being killed by fire demonstrated that this woodwas as Pine, longleaf 21
sound and strong as wood from live trees. Also, the heart- Pine, red 24
wood oflogs ofsome more durablespecies has been foundto Redwood 21
be thoroughlysound after lying in theforestfor manyyears. Spruce, red 27
Spruce, Sitka
Ontheother hand, in nonresistantspecies, decay may cause Tamarack 24
great loss ofstrengthwithin a very brieftime, both in trees
standingdead on the stumpand in logs cut from live trees alntersection moisture content is point at which
and allowedto lie on the ground. The importantconsidera- mechanical propertiesbegin to changewhen wood
tion is not whetherthe trees from whichwoodproductsare is dried from the green condition.
cutarealive or dead, butwhethertheproductsthemselves are
free from decay or otherdegrading factors that would render
them unsuitableforuse.
example, suppose you want to fmd the modulusofruptureof
white ash at 8% moisturecontent. Using informationfrom
Effects of Manufacturing and Tables4—3a and 4—13,
Service Environments
=119,500kPa
Moisture Content P8

Many mechanicalpropertiesare affected by changes in mois- Careshouldbe exercised whenadjustingpropertiesbelow

turecontentbelowthe fiber saturation point.Most properties 12% moisture. Although most propertieswill continueto
reportedinTables 4—3, 4—4, and 4—5 increase with decrease increase while wood is dried to very low moisture content
in moisture content.The relationshipthat describesthese
changesin clear wood propertyat about 21°C (70°F) is levels,for most species somepropertiesmay reach a
maximum valueandthen decreasewith furtherdrying
I 12—M (Fig. 4—11). For clear SouthernPine, the moisture content
at whicha maximum propertyhas been observedis given
P (4-3) in Table 4—14.
[P]MP_12
This increase in mechanical properties with dryingassumes
whereP is the property atmoisture contentM (%), P12 the small, clear specimens in a dryingprocess in whichno
same propertyat 12% MC,Pgthe same property for green deterioration ofthe product(degrade) occurs.For 51-mm-
wood, and M moisturecontentat the intersection ofa (2-in.-)thick lumbercontainingknots, the increasein prop-
horizontal line representingthe strengthofgreen wood and erty with decreasingmoisturecontent is dependentupon
an inclinedline representingthe logarithm ofthestrength— lumberquality.Clear, straight-grained lumbermay show
moisture contentrelationship fordry wood.This assumed increases in properties with decreasingmoisture contentthat
linearrelationshipresults in an M value that is slightlyless approximate those ofsmall, clear specimens. However,as the
than the fiber saturationpoint. Table4—13 gives valuesofM frequency and size ofknots increase, the reductionin strength
for afew species;for other species,M = 25 may be assumed. resultingfrom theknots beginsto negatethe increasein
propertyin the clear wood portion ofthe lumber.Very low
Average property valuesofP12 andPg are given formany qualitylumber, whichhas many large knots, may be insensi-
species in Tables 4—3 to 4—5. The formulaformoisture tive to changes in moisturecontent.Figures4-12 and 4-13
contentadjustmentis not recommendedforwork to maxi-
illustrate the effectofmoisturecontenton the properties of
mum load,impact bending, and tensionperpendicular to
lumberas afunctionofinitiallumberstrength(Greenand
grain. Thesepropertiesareknown to be erratic in their others 1989). Application ofthese results in adjustingallow-
responseto moisturecontentchange. able propertiesoflumberis discussedin Chapter6.
The formulacan be usedto estimate apropertyat anymois-
ture contentbelowM from the species datagiven. For Additional information on influencesofmoisture content
on dimensionalstability is includedin Chapter 12.

4—34
 22.0 120 -
16

(0
a-
16.5
o Z80
ii.o.>.
0
0)
0.
0
0.
t
0)
a,
=
5.5 2
a-
4O-
10 15 20 5
—_----------------.
_______________________
4 ;
Moisture content (%) E
I
Figure 4—11. Effectof moisture content on wood 0 I
—0
strength properties. A, tension parallel to grain.; 8 12 16 20 24
B, bending; C, compression parallel to grain; Moisturecontent (%)
D, compression perpendicular to grain; and Figure 4—12. Effect ofmoisturecontent on tensile
E, tension perpendicular to grain. strengthof lumberparallel to grain.

Table 4—14. Moisture content formaximum property 90 -

value in drying clearSouthern Pinefrom green to 0 12 (\1

4% moisture content
Moisture content C
0
OD

at which peak a) x
60
Property
property occurs
(%)
a)
>
8c C
0)
(0
(0
a, (0
Ultimate tensile stress
parallelto grain
Ultimate tensile stress
perpendicularto grain
12.6

10.2
4 (0

Q.
E
0
MOEtension perpendicularto grain 4.3 C,
MOEcompressionparallelto grain 4.3 J30 a,
ce
Modulusof rigidity, GRT 10.0 0 E
8 12 16 20 24
Moisturecontent (%)

Figure 4-13. Effect of moisture contenton

Ternperature compressive strengthof lumberparallel to grain.
Reversible Effects
In general, themechanical properties ofwood decrease when The width ofthe bands illustratesvariabilitybetweenand
heatedand increase when cooled. At a constantmoisture withinreportedtrends.
contentandbelow approximately 150°C (302°F), mechanical
properties are approximately linearlyrelatedtotemperature. Table 4—15 lists changesin clear wood propertiesat —50°C
The changein propertiesthat occurswhenwood is quickly (—58°F) and 50°C (122°F) relativeto those at 20°C (68°F) for
heatedor cooled and then tested at that condition is termed a numberofmoisture conditions.The largechangesat
an immediateeffect. Attemperaturesbelow 100°C(212°F), —50°C (—58°F) for green wood (at fiber saturation point or
theimmediateeffectis essentially reversible;that is, the wetter) reflectthe presence ofice. in the wood cell cavities.
propertywill returnto the valueat the original temperature The strengthofdry lumber, at about 12% moisturecontent,
ifthe temperature changeis rapid. maychangelittleas temperature increases from —29°C
Figure 4—14 illustrates the immediate effectoftemperature on (—20°F) to 38°C (100°F). For green lumber,strengthgener-
modulusofelasticityparallelto grain,modulusofrupture, ally decreases with increasing temperature. However, for
and compressionparallelto grain, 20°C(68°F), based on a temperaturesbetweenabout 7°C (45°F) and 38°C (100°F),
thechanges may not differsignificantly from thoseat room
composite ofresults forclear,defect-free wood. Thisfigure
represents an interpretation ofdata from several investigators. temperature. Table4-16 providesequationsthat havebeen

4—35
 200 Table 4—15. Approximate middle-trend effects of
(a) temperature on mechanical properties of clearwood
12%moisture content atvariousmoisture conditions
Relativechange in
0 150 mechanical property
U)
(5 from20°C(68°F) at
a)
0 Moisture —50°C +50°C
(0 0% moisture content
100 conditiona (—58°F) (+122°F
Property (%) (%) (%) —
0
E MOE parallel tograin 0 +11 —6

12 +17 —7
50
(5 >FSP +50 —
a)
MOE perpendicularto grain 6 — —20

12 — —35

-200 -100 0 100 200 300 20 — -38

Shear modulus >FSP — —25
250 Bendingstrength 4 +18 —10
(b)
11—15 +35 —20
18%moisture content 18—20 +60 —25
200
>FSP +110 —25
Tensile strength paralleltograin 0—12 — —4

Compressive strength parallel 0 +20 —10

0 150 to grain 12-45 +50 —25
(/)
12%moisture content 0% Shear strengthparallelto grain >FSP — —25
•0 moisture content
0 100 - Tensilestrength perpendicular 4—6 — —10
E tograin 11—16 — —20
ci) 18 — —30
>
(5 0-6 — —20
50 Compressive strength perpen-
a) dicular to grain atproportional 10 — —35
limit
0 aFSp indicates moisture content greaterthanfibersaturation point.
I U

-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150

300 - used to adjust some lumber propertiesforthe reversible

(0) effects oftemperature.
12%moisture content
250 Irreversible Effects
II) In addition tothereversible effectoftemperature onwood,
200 there is an irreversible effectat elevated temperature. This
permanent effectis one ofdegradation ofwood substance,
whichresults in loss ofweightand strength. The loss de-
Cl)
150
pends on factors that includemoisturecontent, heatingme-
E
0
0 0% moisture content dium,temperature, exposureperiod, and to some extent,
a) species and size ofpiece involved.
>
50 Thepermanentdecrease ofmodulus ofrupturecaused by
heatingin steam andwater is shownas a functionoftempera-
ture and heatingtime in Figure4—i5, based on tests ofclear
-200 -100 0 100 200 300 pieces ofDouglas-firand Sitka spruce.In the same studies,
Temperature (°C) heatingin water affected work to maximumloadmore than
modulusofrupture (Fig.4—16). The effect ofheatingdry
Figure 4—14. Immediate effectof temperature at two wood (0% moisturecontent) on modulusofrupture and
moisturecontentlevels relative to valueat 20°C (68°F) modulusofelasticityis shown in Figures4—17 and 4—18,
for clear, defect-free wood: (a) modulus of elasticity respectively, as derivedfrom testsonfoursoftwoods andtw
parallel to grain, (b) modulus of rupturein bending, hardwoods.
(c) compressive strengthparallel to grain. Theplot is a
composite of results from several studies.Variability
in reported trends is illustratedby width of bands.

4—36
 Table 4—16. Percentagechange in bending properties of lumber with change in temperaturea
Lumber Moisture ((P—P70) F'70) 100 = A + BT + CT2
I Temperature range
Property gradeb content A B C Tmi, Tmax

MOE All Green 22.0350 —0.4578 0 0 32

Green 13.1215 —0.1793 0 32 150
12% 7.8553 —0.1108 0 —15 150
MOR SS Green 34.13 —0.937 0.0043 —20 46
Green 0 0 0 46 100
12% 0 0 0 —20 100
No. 2 Green 56.89 —1.562 0.0072 —20 46
or less Green 0 0 0 46 100
Dry 0 0 0 —20 100
aFor equation, P is property at temperature T in °F; P70, propertyat 21°C (70°F).
bSS is Select Structural.

Figure4—19 illustratesthe permanentloss in bending Time Under Load

strengthofSpruce—Pine—Fir standard38- by 89-mm
(nominal2- by 4-in.) lumber heatedat 66°C (150F) and Rate of Loading
about 12% moisture content. Duringthis same,period, Mechanicalpropertyvalues, as given in Tables4—3, 4—4,
modulusofelasticitybarely changed. Most in-service and 4—5, are usuallyreferredto as staticstrengthvalues.
exposures at 66°C(150°F)would be expectedto result in Staticstrengthtests are typicallyconductedata rate ofload-
much lowermoisturecontentlevels. Additionalresults for ing or rate ofdeformationto attain maximum loadin about
other lumberproductsandexposureconditions wilil be re- 5 min.Higher valuesofstrengthareobtainedfor wood
portedas ForestProducts Laboratory studiesprogress. loadedat a more rapid rate and lowervalues are obtainedat
The permanentpropertylosses discussed here arebased on slowerrates. For example, the loadrequiredto produce
tests conducted after the specimens were cooledto room failure in awood memberin 1 s is approximately 10%
temperatureand conditioned to arange of7% to 12% mois- higher thanthat obtainedin a standardstatic strengthtest.
ture content. Ifspecimens are tested hot,the percentage of Over several ordersofmagnitudeofrate ofloading, strength
strength reductionresultingfrom permanenteffects is based is approximately an exponential function ofrate. See
on values alreadyreducedby theimmediate effects. Repeated Chapter6 for application to treatedwoods.
exposure to elevatedtemperature has a cumulative effecton Figure4—20 illustrates how strengthdecreaseswith time to
wood properties. For example,at a given temperature the maximum load. The variabilityin the trend sho'wn is based
propertyloss will be aboutthe same after six 1-month expo- onresultsfrom several studiespertainingto bend:Lng, com-
sure as itwould be aftera single6-monthexposure. pression, andshear.
The shapeand size ofwoodpieces are important in analyzing
the influenceoftemperature. Ifexposure is for only a short Creep and Relaxation
When initially loaded,a wood member deformselastically.
time, so that the inner parts ofa largepiece do notreach the
temperatureofthe surrounding medium,the immediate effect Ifthe loadis maintained, additional time-dependent deforma-
on strengthofthe inner parts will be less than that for the tion occurs. This is called creep. Creepoccursat evenvery
outer parts.However,thetype ofloading must be consid- low stresses, and it will continueover a period ofyears. For
ered. Ifthe memberis to be stressedin bending, the outer sufficiently high stresses, failure eventually occurs.This
fibersofapiece will be subjectedto the greateststress and failure phenomenon, calleddurationofload (or creep
willordinarily govern theultimatestrengthofthepiece; rupture), is discussedin the next section.
hence,under this loadingcondition,the fact that the inner
part is at alowertemperaturemay be oflittle significance. At typical design levels and use environments, after several
For extendednoncyclicexposures, it can be assumedthat the years the additional deformation caused by creepnay
entire piece reaches the temperature oftheheatingmedium approximately equalthe initial, instantaneous elastic
andwill thereforebe subjectto permanent strengthlosses deformation. For illustration, a creepcurve basedon creep as
a function ofinitial deflection (relative creep)at several stress
throughoutthe volume ofthe piece, regardless of size and levels is shown in Figure4—21; creepis greater underhigher
mode ofstress application. However,in ordinary construc-
tion wood often will notreach the dailytemperature extremes stresses than underlowerones.
oftheair aroundit; thus, long-term effectsshouldbebased
ontheaccumulated temperature experience ofcritical
structural parts.

4—37
 100
0 0
a) a)
c,)
a) 90
C—
ed) 15°C (240°F)
03
IN 0. C
.— 0
80

.
eQ
ccci •V 70
2 60
(275°F)

2> 155°C(310°F)
00 -o
0 50
175°C (350°F) 175°C (350°F)
I I I —— I — I —

16 24 32 0 50 100 150 300 200 250

Heating period (h) Time of exposure (days)
Figure 4—15. Permanent effectof heating in water Figure 4—17. Permanenteffectof oven heating at four
(solidline)and steam (dashed tine) on modulus of rup- temperatures on modulus of rupture, based on clear
ture of clear, defect-free wood.All data based on tests pieces offour softwood and two hardwood species.
of Douglas-fir and Sitka spruce at roomtemperature. All tests conducted at room temperature.

•3 100
0
C
0
C.)

a)
a)
a)
C
0
9OT-
80 93°C
0
Cd
C
a)—.100

.2i
104
102

98
96
C(240°F)
135°C (275°F)

a)
0) 70 - (ace
a) 94
C
a)
C) 92
60 -
a)
0.
>'
— Modulus of rupture — —— D
0 90 (350°F)
———Work
0
a) 50 I I I I I
88 13'5°C I I I
0 0 10050 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
a- Time of exposure (days)
Heating period (days)
Figure 4—16. Permanent effectof heating in wateron Figure 4—18. Permanenteffectof oven heating atfour
work to maximum loadand modulus of ruptureof clear, temperatures on modulus ofelasticity,based on clear
defect-freewood.All data based on tests of Douglas-fir pieces of foursoftwood and two hardwood species.
and Sitka spruceat roomtemperature. All tests conducted at roomtemperature.

Ordinary climaticvariations in temperature andhumidity Relative creepat low stress levels is similar in bending,
will cause creepto increase. An increase ofabout 28°C (50°F) tension, or compression parallelto grain, although itmay be
a
in temperature cancause two- to threefoldincrease in creep. somewhat less intensionthan in bending or compression
Greenwoodmay creepfourto six timesthe initial deforma- undervaryingmoistureconditions. Relativecreepacross the
tion as it dries under load. grain is qualitatively similar to, but likely to be greater than,
creepparallel to the grain.The creep behaviorofall species
Unloadinga memberresults in immediateand complete studiedis approximately the same.
recovery ofthe original elastic deformation and aftertime, a
recovery ofapproximately one-halfthe creep at deformation as Ifinsteadofcontrollingload or stress, a constantdeformation
well. Fluctuations in temperatureand humidityincreasethe is imposed and maintainedon a wood member,theinitial
magnitudeofthe recovereddeformation. a
stress relaxesat decreasingrate to about 60% to 70% ofits
originalvaluewithin a few months. This reduction of stress
with time is commonly called relaxation.

4—38
 Ci) 2 Stress
0
C 0 MPa x103 lbf/in
0 C)
C) C). 3.4 0.5

0
0
..—0
— 6.9
13.8
— — 27.6
1.0
2.0
0.8 4.0
C)
——
U) 1650f-1 5E
0 0.7 C)
C)-
>< .0 C
C) C)-
C)
C) a)
0.6
CC 0
0
0.5
0 12 24 36 48 60 72
0 100 200 300 400 500
Timeunder load (days)
Exposure time(months)

Figure 4—19. Permanenteffect of heating at 66°C (150°F) Figure 4—21. Influence of four levels of stresson creep
on modulus of rupturefortwo grades of machine-stress- (Kingston 1962).
rated Spruce—Pine—Firlumberat 12%moisturecontent.
Alt tests conducted at roomtemperature.

140 120
6% and 12% moisture content
0
120
12% moisture content 0
C)
100
0)
CC
100 C
0 280
80
CC
C
C) 60
60 C)0
C,

40
C).

(I,
C,
(C
U)
C
40

a,
20 00 20

.
(C
0
io- 100 102 106 108
0
1 0-6 b-4 10-2 100 102 10 106
Timeto ultimate stress (s) Timeto failure (h)
Figure 4—20. Relationship of ultimate stressat short- Figure 4—22. Relationship betweenstressdue to constant
timeloadingto that at 5-mm loading, based on com- load and time to failure forsmall clearwood specimens,
posite of results from rate-of-loadstudieson bending, based on 28 s at 100% stress. The figure is a composite
compression, and shear parallel to grain. Variability oftrendsfrom several studies; moststudiesinvolved
in reported trends is indicated by width of band. bending but some involved compression parallel to grain
and bending perpendicular to grain. Variability in
reported trendsis indicated by width of band.
In limitedbendingtests carriedoutbetweenapproximately
18°C (64°F) and 49°C (120°F)over 2 to 3 months, the curve
ofstress as afunctionoftime that expressesrelaxationis important factorin determining the load that the membercan
approximately themirror image ofthe creepcurve safelycarry. The duration ofloadmaybeaffectedby changes
(deformation as a functionoftime).Thesetests were carried in temperatureand relative humidity.
out at initialstresses up to about 50% ofthe bending
strengthofthe wood.As with creep, relaxationis markedly The constant stress that a wood membercan sustainis ap-
affectedby fluctuations intemperature and humidity. proximately an exponential functionoftime to failure,as
illustratedin Figure4—22. This relationshipis a composite
Duration of Load ofresults ofstudieson small, clearwood specimens, con-
The duration ofload, orthe time duringwhich a load acts on ductedat constanttemperatureandrelativehumidity.
a wood membereither continuouslyor intermittently, is an

4—39
Foramemberthat continuouslycarriesa load for a long Table 4—17. Summary of reported results on cyclic
period,the load requiredtoproduce failure is much lessthan fatiguea
that determinedfrom the strengthproperties in Tables4—3 to
Approxi-
4—5. Based on Figure 4—22, a wood memberunderthe Maximum mate
Cyclic
continuous actionofbendingstress for 10 years maycany fre- stressper fatigue
only 60% (orperhaps less) ofthe load requiredtoproduce Property
Range
ratio
quency cycleb life
failure in the same specimenloadedin a standardbending (Hz) (%) (x106cycles)

strengthtest ofonly a few minutesduration. Conversely, if Bending,dear,

the duration ofloadis very short,theload-carrying capacity straightgrain
Cantilever 0.45 3) 45
maybe higherthan that determined from strengthproperties Cantilever 0 3) 40
30
30
given in the tables. Cantilever —1.0 30 30 30
Center-point 40 30 4
Timeunder intermittentloadinghas a cumulative effect. In —1.0

tests wherea constant loadwas periodically placedon a

beam andthen removed,the cumulativetime the load was
Rotational
Third-point
—1.0
0.1
—
8-1/3 )
28 30
2

actuallyappliedtothe beambefore failure was essentially Bending,third-point

equalto the time to failurefor a similarbeam underthe same
Small knots 0.1 8-1/3 2
Clear, 1:12 slope 0.1 8-1/3 50 2
load applied continuously. ofgrain
Small knots, 1:12 0.1 8-1/3 40 2
The time to failure under continuous or intermittent loading slope ofgrain
is lookedupon as a creep—ruptureprocess; amemberhasto
Tension parallel
undergo substantial deformation before failure. Deformation at tograin
failure is approximately the same for durationofload tests as Clear, straight grain 0.1 15 3)
for standard strengthtests. Clear, straight grain 0 40 3.E
Scarfjoint 0.1 15 50 30
Changes in climaticconditions increase the rate ofcreepand Fingerjoint 0.1 15 40 30
shortenthe durationduringwhich a membercan supporta
Compression parallel
given load. This effect can be substantial for very smallwood tograin
specimens under largecyclic changes in temperature and Clear, straight grain 0.1 40 75 3.5
relativehumidity. Fortunately,changesin temperatureand
relativehumidityare moderatefor wood in the typicalservice Shear paralleltograin
Glue-laminated 0.1 15 45 30
enviromnent.
alnial moisture contentabout 12%to15%.
Fatigue bPercontageofestimatedstaticstrength.
In engineering, the term fatigueis defined as the progressive
damagethat occursin amaterial subjected to cyclic loading.
This loadingmay be repeated(stressesofthe same sign; that strength, is associatedwith the fatigue life given in millions
is, always compressionoralways tension)orreversed ofcycles.The firstthree lines ofdata,which listthesame
(stressesofalternatingcompression and tension). When cyclicfrequency (30 Hz), demonstrate the effectofrangeratio
sufficiently high and repetitious, cyclicloadingstresses can on fatiguestrength (maximumfatiguestress that can be
result in fatiguefailure. maintained for a given fatiguelife); fatiguebendingstrength
decreases as rangeratio decreases. Third-pointbending re-
Fatiguelife is a term used to definethe numberofcyclesthat sults showthe effectofsmallknots orslope ofgrain on
are sustainedbeforefailure.Fatiguestrength, the maximum fatiguestrength ata range ratio of0.1 and frequency of
stress attainedin the stress cycle usedto determine fatigue 8.33 Hz. Fatiguestrengthis lowerfor wood containingsmall
life, is approximately exponentially relatedto fatiguelife; knotsor a 1-in-12 slopeofgrainthan for clear straight-
that is, fatiguestrengthdecreasesapproximately linearlyas grainedwood and evenlowerforwood containinga combi-
thelogarithm ofnumber ofcyclesincreases. Fatigue strength nation ofsmallknotsand a 1-in-i2 slope ofgrain. Fatigue
andfatiguelife also depend on several other factors: frequency strengthis the same for a scarfjoint in tensionas for tension
ofcycling; repetition or reversalofloading; range factor (ratio parallelto the grain, but alittle lowerfor a fmgerjointin
ofminimumto maximumstress per cycle); and otherfactors tension. Fatigue strengthis slightlylower in shear than in
such as temperature,moisturecontent, and specimen size. tensionparallel to the grain. Othercomparisonsdo not have
Negativerange factorsimplyrepeatedreversing loads, muchmeaningbecauserangeratios or cyclicfrequency differ;
whereaspositiverange factors implynonreversing loads. however,fatiguestrengthis high in compressionparallelto
thegrain compared with other properties. Little is known
Results from severalfatigue studieson wood are given in about otherfactorsthat may affectfatigue strength inwood.
Table 4—17.Most ofthese resultsare forrepeatedloading
with a range ratioof 0.1, meaningthat the minimumstress Creep,temperature rise, and loss ofmoisturecontentoccur in
per cycle is 10% ofthemaximum stress.The maximum tests ofwood for fatiguestrength. At stressesthat cause
stress per cycle,expressedas a percentage ofestimatedstatic failurein about 106 cyclesat40 Hz, a temperature rise of

4—40
 15°C (27°F) has beenreportedforparallel-to-grain compres- use is recommended wherepossible. Forexample,large
sion fatigue (range ratio slightlygreaterthan zero),parallel- cypress tanks havesurvivedlong continuous use where
to-graintensionfatigue(rangeratio = 0), and reversed bend- exposureconditions involved mixed acids at the boiling
ing fatigue(rangeratio = —1). The rate oftemperature rise is point. Woodis also used extensively in cooling 1:owers
high initially but then diminishes to moderate; a moderate becauseofits superiorresistance to mild acids and solutions
rate oftemperaturerise remainsmore or less constantduring ofacidicsalts.
a largepercentage offatiguelife. During the latter stages of
fatigue life, the rate oftemperature rise increases until failure Chemical Treatment
occurs. Smaller rises in temperature wouldbe expectedfor
slowercyclicloadingor lowerstresses. Decreases in mois- Woodis often treatedwith chemicals to enhance its fire
ture contentare probablyrelatedto temperature rise. performance or decay resistance in service. Eachset of
treatment chemicals andprocesses has a unique effectonthe
mechanical properties ofthe treatedwood.
Aging
In relatively dry and moderatetemperature conditions where Fire-retardant treatments andtreatmentmethods distinctly
wood is protectedfrom deteriorating influences such as de- reducethe mechanical properties ofwood. Somefire-
retardant-treated products haveexperienced significant in-
cay, the mechanical propertiesofwoodshow little change
with time. Test results for very old timbers suggest that service degradation on exposure to elevated temperatures
whenused as plywood roofsheathingor roof-truss lumber.
significant losses in clearwood strength occur only after
several centuries ofnormal aging conditions. The soundness New performance requirements withinstandards setbythe
ofcenturies-old wood in some standing trees(redwood, for American Standards forTestingand Materials (A:STM)and
American WoodPreservers'Association (AWPA) preclude
example) also attests to the durabilityofwood.
commercializationofinadequatelyperforming fire-retardant-
treated products.
Exposure to Chemicals
The effectofchemicalsolutions on mechanical properties Although preservative treatments and treatment methods
generally reducethe mechanical properties ofwool,any
depends onthe specific type ofchemical. Nonswel]Ling liq- initial loss in strength from treatmentmust be balanced
uids,such as petroleumoils andcreosote, haveno apprecia-
ble effectonproperties. Properties are loweredin the presence againstthe progressive loss ofstrength from decay when
untreated wood is placed inwetconditions. The effectsof
ofwater, alcohol, or other wood-swelling organicliquids
eventhough these liquids do not chemically degradethe preservative treatments on mechanical propertiesare directly
related to wood quality, size, and various pretreatment,
wood substance. The loss in properties depends largelyon
the amountofswelling,and this loss is regainedupon re- treatment, and post-treatment processingfactors.The key
factors include preservative chemistry or chemical type,
moval ofthe swellingliquid.Anhydrousammoniamarkedly
reduces the strength and stiffness ofwood,but these proper- preservative retention, initialkiln-dryingtemperature, post-
treatment drying temperature, and pretreatment incising(if
ties are regainedto a great extentwhen the ammoniais
removed. Heartwoodgenerallyis less affected thanapwood required). North American design guidelinesaddress the
effects ofincising onmechanical properties ofrefratory wood
becauseit ismore impermeable. Accordingly, wood treat-
ments that retard liquidpenetrationusually enhance natural species andthe short-term duration-of-load adjustments for
resistance to chemicals. all treatedlumber. These guidelines are describedin
Chapter6.
Chemicalsolutions that decompose wood substance (by
hydrolysis or oxidation)havea permanenteffecton strength. Oil-Type Preservatives
The following generalizations summarize the effectof Oil-type preservatives cause no appreciablestrenglh loss
chemicals: becausethey do not chemically react with wood cell wall
• Somespecies are quiteresistant to attack by dilute components. However,treatment with oil-typepreservatives
mineral and organic acids. can adversely affectstrength ifextreme in-retort seasoning
parameters are used (for example,Boultonizing, steaming, or
• Oxidizing acids such as nitric acid degradewood more vapordryingconditions) or ifexcessivetemperaturesor
than do nonoxidizingacids. pressuresare usedduringthetreating process. To preclude
• Alkalinesolutions are more destructivethanare acidic strength loss,the usershould follow specific treatment proc-
solutions. essing requirements as describedin the treatmentstandards.
• Hardwoods are more susceptible to attackby both acids Waterborne Preservatives
and alkalis than are softwoods. Waterbome preservative treatments can reducethe mechanical
• Heartwood is lesssusceptible to attack by both acidsand properties ofwood. Treatment standards includespecific
alkalis than is sapwood. processingrequirements intendedto preventor liniit strength
reductions resulting fromthe chemicals andthe wai;erborne
Because both species and application are extremely impor-
preservative treatment process. The effects ofwaterborne
tant, referenceto industrial sources with a specific historyof preservative treatmenton mechanical properties are relatedto

4—41
species,mechanical properties, preservative chemistry or affects the relative ratio oftreatment-induced weightgain
type,preservativeretention,post-treatment dryingtempera- to originalwood weight.
ture, size and grade ofmaterial,producttype, initialkiln-
dryingtemperature, incising, and both temperature and Gradeofmaterial—Theeffectofwaterbome preservative
moisturein service. treatment is aquality-dependent phenomenon. Higher
grades ofwood are more affected thanlowergrades. When
Species—Themagnitude ofthe effectofvarious water- viewed over a range ofquality levels,higher qualitylum-
bornepreservativeson mechanical propertiesdoes not ber is reducedin strength to aproportionately greater
appearto vary greatlybetweendifferentspecies. extentthan is lower qualitylumber.

Mechanicalproperty—Waterbornepreservatives affect Producttype—The magnitudeofthetreatmenteffecton

eachmechanical property differently. Iftreatedaccording to strength for laminated veneerlumberconfonns closely to
AWPAstandards,the effectsare as follows: modulusof effects noted forhighergradesofsolid-sawn lumber. The
elasticity(MOE), compressivestrengthparallel to grain, effects ofwaterbome preservative treatment onplywood
and compressive stress perpendicular to grain areunaffected seem comparable to that on lumber. Fiber-basedcomposite
or slightlyincreased; modulusofrupture (MOR) and ten- productsmay be reducedin strength to a greater extent
sile strengthparallelto grain are reducedfrom 0% to 20%, than is lumber. This additional effecton fiber-basedcom-
dependingon chemicalretentionand severityofrediying a
positesmaybe more functionofinternalbond damage
temperature; andenergy-related properties (for example, caused by waterborne-treatment-induced swelling rather
work to maximumload and impact strength)are reduced than actualchemical hydrolysis.
from l0%toSO%.
Initial kiln-drying temperatnre—Although initialkiln
Preservative chemistry ortype—Waterbornepreservative dryingofsome lumberspecies at 100°Cto 116°C (212°F
chemical systemsdiffer in regardto their effecton strength, to 240°F) for short durations has little effect on structural
but the magnitudeofthese differences is slight compared properties, such drying resultsin more hydrolyticdegrada-
with the effectsoftreatmentprocessing factors. Chemistry- tion ofthe cell wall than does dryingat lowertemperature
related differences seem to be related tothe reactivity ofthe kiln schedules. Subsequent preservativetreatment and
waterborne preservativeandthe temperature during the redrying ofmaterial initially dried at high temperatures
fixation/precipitation reactionwith wood. causes additional hydrolyticdegradation. Whenthe mate-
rial is subsequently treated,initialkilndrying at 113°C
Retention—Waterbomepreservative retention levels of (235°F) has been shown to result in greaterreductionsover
l 6 kg/rn3 ( 1.0 lb/fl3)have no effecton MOE or compres- the entirebendingand tensile strengthdistributions than
does initialkiln drying at 91°C (196°F). Because Southern
sive strengthparallelto grain and a slight negative effect
(—5% to —10%) on tensile or bending strength. However, Pine lumber, the most widelytreated product,is most of-
energy-related properties are often reducedfrom 15% to teninitially kiln dried at dry-bulbtemperatures near or
30%.At a retentionlevel of40 kg/rn3(2.5 lb/ft3), above 113°C (235°F),treatmentstandardshave imposed a
MORand energy-related properties are further reduced. maximum redrying temperaturelimitof74°C (165°F) to
preclude the cumulative effectofthermalprocessing.
Post-treatment drying temperature—Air drying after
treatmentcausesno significantreductionin the static Incising—Incising, a pretreatment mechanical process in
whichsmallslits(incisions) arepunchedin the surface of
strengthofwood treatedwith waterbome preservative at a thewood product,is used to improvepreservativepenetra-
retentionlevel of 16 kg/rn3(1.0 lb/fl3). However, energy-
tion and distributionin difficult-to-treat species. Incising
relatedproperties are reduced. Thepost-treatment redrying
temperature used formaterial treatedwith waterborne pre- mayreducestrength; however, becausethe increase in
servative has been found to be criticalwhentemperatures treatability providesa substantial increase in biological
exceed 75°C (167°F). Redryinglimitationsin treatment performance, this strengthloss must be balancedagainst
standards haveprecluded the need foran across-the-board theprogressiveloss in strengthofuntreatedwood from the
incidence ofdecay.Most incisingpatternsinducesome
designadjustment factorfor waterborne-preservative-treated strengthloss,and the magnitudeofthis effect is relatedto
lumberin engineeringdesignstandards.The limitationon
thesize ofmaterial being incisedandthe incisiondepth
post-treatmentkiln-dryingtemperature is setat 74°C and density(that is, number ofincisionsperunitarea).
(165°F). In less than 50 mm(2 in.) thick, dry lumber, incisingand
Size ofmaterial—Generally,largermaterial, specifically preservative treatmentinduces lossesin MOE of5% to
15% and in staticstrengthpropertiesof20% to 30%. In-
thicker, appearsto undergo less reductionin strengththan
does smallermaterial.Recallingthat preservative treat- cising and treatingtimbersortie stock at an incisionden-
mentsusuallypenetratethe treatedmaterial to adepth of l (
sity of ,500 incisions/rn2 140 incisions/fl2) andto a
only 6 to 51 mm (0.25 to 2.0 in.), dependingon species depth of 19 mm (0.75 in.) reduces strengthby 5% to 10%.
and other factors, the difference in size effect appears to be
afunctionoftheproduct's surface-to-volume ratio,which

4—42
 In-serviceternperature—Both fire-retardantand preserva- Although low levels ofbiologicalstaincause little loss in
tive treatments accelerate thethermaldegradation of strength, heavystainingmayreduce specificgravty by 1%
bendingstrengthoflumberwhenexposedtotemperatures to 2%, surfacehardnessby 2% to 10%, bending and crushing
above 54°C (130°F). strength by 1% to 5%, and toughnessor shock resistanceby
15% to 30%.Althoughmolds and stainsusually do not
In-servicemoisturecontent—Currentdesignvalues apply have amajor effecton strength, conditions that favorthese
to material dried to 19% maximum(15%average)mois- organismsalsopromotethe development ofwood-destroying
ture content or to green material. No differences in strength (decay) fungiand soft-rotfungi (Ch. 13). Pieceswith mold
havebeen found betweentreatedanduntreatedmaterial and stainshouldbe examined closely for decay ifthey are
whentested green or atmoisture contents above 12%. used for structural purposes.
Whenvery dry treatedlumberofhigh gradewas tested at
10% moisturecontent,its bending strength was reduced
Decay
compared with that ofmatched dry untreatedlumber.
Unlike mold and stain fungi, wood-destroying (decay) fungi
Durationof load—Whensubjectedto impact loads, seriously reduce strength by metabolizing the cellulose
wood treated with chromated copperarsenate (CCA)does fraction ofwood that gives wood its strength.
not exhibitthe same increase in strengthas that exhibited
by untreatedwood. However, whenloadedover along Earlystages ofdecay are virtuallyimpossible to detect.For
period, treatedanduntreatedwood behavesimilarly. example, brown-rot fungimayreducemechanical properties
in excess of 10% beforea measurable weightloss is observed
Polymerization andbefore decay is visible.Whenweight loss reaches5% to
Wood is also sometimesimpregnatedwith monomers, such 10%, mechanical properties arereducedfrom 2O% to 80%.
as methyl methacrylate, which are subsequently polymerized. Decayhas the greatesteffect on toughness, impact bending,
Many ofthemechanicalpropertiesofthe resultantwood— and work tomaximumload in bending, the least effecton
plasticcompositeare higherthan those ofthe originalwood, shear and hardness, and an intermediate effecton etherprop-
generallyas a result offillingthe void spaces inthe wood erties. Thus,when strengthis important, adequate measures
structure with plastic. The polymerization process andboth shouldbe takento (a) preventdecay beforeit occurs,
thechemical nature andquantity ofmonomersinfluence (b) controlincipientdecay by remedialmeasures(Ch. 13), or
compositeproperties. (c)replaceany wood memberin whichdecayis evidentor
believed to existin a criticalsection. Decay can be prevented
from starting or progressing ifwood is kept dry (below20%
Nuclear Radiation moisture content).
Wood is occasionallysubjected to nuclear radiation. Exam-
Nomethodis knownfor estimatingthe amount ofreduction
plesare woodenstructures closely associatedwith nuclear in strength from the appearance ofdecayed wood. Therefore,
reactors, the polymerizationofwood with plasticusing
nuclearradiation,and nondestructive estimation ofwood whenstrength is an importantconsideration, the sLfeproce-
dure is to discardevery piece that contains evena small
density and moisturecontent. Verylarge doses ofgamma amount ofdecay.An exception may be piecesinwhichdecay
rays orneutronscan cause substantial degradation ofwood.
In general, irradiation with gammarays in doses UI) to about occurs in a knot but does not extend into the surrounding
1 megaradhas little effect on the strength properties ofwood. wood.
As dosageexceeds 1 megarad,tensilestrength parallelto
grain and toughnessdecrease. At a dosageof300 megarads, Insect Damage
tensilestrengthis reducedabout 90%. Gammarays also
affectcompressive strengthparallel to grainat a dosageabove Insect damage may occur in standingtrees, logs, and undried
1 megarad, but higherdosagehas agreatereffectontensile (unseasoned) ordried (seasoned) lumber. Althoughdamage
strengththan on compressivestrength; only approximately is difficultto controlin thestandingtree, insectdamage can
one-thirdofcompressivestrengthis lost whenthe total dose be eliminatedto agreat extentby propercontrolmethods.
is 300 megarads. Effectsofgammarays on bendingand shear Insectholesare generallyclassified as pinholes,giub holes,
andpowderpost holes.Becauseoftheirirregularburrows,
strengthare intermediate between the effects on tensile and
compressivestrength. powderpost larvae may destroymost ofa piece's interior
while only smallholes appearon the surface,andthe
strength ofthe piece may be reducedvirtually to zero. No
Mold and Stain Fungi methodis known for estimating the reductionin strength
Moldandstainfungidonot seriously affectmost mechanical from the appearance ofinsect-damaged wood.Whenstrength
properties ofwoodbecausesuch fungifeedon substances is an important consideration, the safeprocedureis to elimi-
withinthe cell cavityor attachedto the cell wall rather than nate pieces containing insectholes.
on the structural wall itself.The durationofinfection and the
species offungi involved are important factors in determining
theextentofdegradation.

4—43
References Green,D.W.; Shelley,B.E.; Vokey, H.P. (eds). 1989.
In-grade testingofstructural lumber. Proceedings 47363.
ASTM. [Current edition}. Standardmethods for testing Madison, WI: Forest ProductsSociety.
small clear specimensoftimber. ASTM D143-94.West
Hearmon, R.F.S. 1948. The elasticityofwood and ply-
Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and wood. Special Rep. 7. London,England: Department of
Materials.
Scientific and Industrial Research, ForestProductsResearch.
Bendtsen, B.A. 1976.Rollingshear characteristics ofnine
structuralsoftwoods. Forest ProductsJournal. Hearmon, R.F.S. 1961. An introductionto applied aniso-
tropic elasticity. London, England: OxfordUniversityPress.
26(11): 51—56.
Bendtsen, B.A.; Freese, F.; Ethington,R.L. 1970. Meth- Kingston, R.S.T. 1962. Creep, relaxation,and failure of
wood.ResearchAppliedin Industry. 15(4).
ods for sampling clear, straight-grained woodfrom the forest.
Forest Products Journal. 20(11): 38—47. Kollmann, F.F.P.; Cote, W.A., Jr. 1968. Principlesof
woodscienceand technology. New York: SpringerVerlag.
Bodig, J.; Goodman, J.R. 1973. Predictionofelastic
parametersfor wood. WoodScience.5(4): 249—264. Koslik, C.J. 1967. Effect ofkiln conditions on the strength
ofDouglas-firand westernhemlock. Rep. D—9. Corvallis,
Bodig, J.; Jayne, BA. 1982. Mechanics of wood and wood OR: OregonState University, SchoolofForestry,Forestry
composites. New York: Van NostrandReinhold Company. Research Laboratory.
Boiler, K.H. 1954. Wood at low temperatures. Modem Little, E.L., Jr. 1979. Checklist of United States trees
Packaging.28(1): 153—157. (nativeand naturalized). Agric. Handb. 541. Washington,
Chudnoff, M. 1987. Tropicaltimbers of the world. Agric. DC: U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
Handb. 607. WashingtonDC: U.S. Department of
Kretschmann, D.E.; Bendtsen, B.A. 1992. Ultimate
Agriculture. tensile stress and modulusofelasticityoffast-grown planta-
Coffey, D.J. 1962. Effects ofknots and holes on the fatigue tionloblollypine lumber. Woodand Fiber Science. 24(2):
strengthofquarter-scale timberbridgestringers. Madison, 189—203.
WI: UniversityofWisconsin,DepartmentofCivil
Kretschmann, D.E.; Green, D.W. 1996. Modelingmois-
Engineering.M.S. Thesis. ture content—mechanicalproperty relationships for clear
Gerhards,C.C. 1968. Effectsoftype oftesting equipment Southern Pine. Wood and Fiber Science.28(3): 320—337.
and specimen size on toughnessofwood. Res. Pap. FPL—
RP—97. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,
Kretschmann, D.E.; Green, D.W.; Malinauskas, V.
1991. Effect ofmoisture content on stress intensity factors in
Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory. SouthernPine. In: Proceedings, 1991 international timber
Gerhards,C.C. 1977. Effect ofduration and rate ofloading engineering conference; 1991 September 2—5; London.
on strengthofwood and wood based materials.Res. Pap. London: TRADA: 3.391—3.398. Vol. 3.
FPL—RP—283. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgricul-
LeVan, S.L.; Winandy, J.E. 1990. Effects offire-retardant
ture, Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory. treatments on wood strength: a review. Wood and Fiber
Gerhards,C.C. 1979. Effectofhigh-temperature drying on Science.22(1): 113—13 1.
tensile strengthofDouglas-fir2 by 4's. Forest Products
Journal. 29(3): 39—46. MacLean, J.D. 1953. Effectofsteamingon the strength or
wood.AmericanWood-Preservers' Association. 49: 88—112.
Gerhards,C.C. 1982. Effectofmoisturecontentand tem- MacLean, J.D. 1954. Effectofheatingin water on the
perature on themechanicalpropertiesofwood: an analysis of
immediateeffects. WoodandFiber. 14(1): 4—36. strengthpropertiesofwood.AmericanWood-Preservers'
Association.50: 253—281.
Green,D.W.; Evans,J.W. 1994. Effectofambienttem- Mallory, M.P.; Cramer S. 1987. Fracture mechanics: a tool
peratureson the flexural propertiesoflumber. In: PTEC94 forpredicting ood component strength. Forest Products
Timbershapingthe future: Proceedings, Pacifictimberengi- Journal. 37(7/8): 39—47.
neeringconference; 1994 July 11—15; GoldCoast,Australia.
FortitudeValley MAC, Queensland,Australia: Timber Mark, R.E.; Adams, S.F.; Tang, R.C. 1970. Moduli of
ResearchDevelopment andAdvisoryCouncil: 190—197. rigidity of Virginiapine and tulip poplar relatedto moisture
Vol. 2. content. WoodScience.2(4): 203—211.
Green, D.W.; Rosales, A. 1996. Propertyrelationships for McDonald,K.A.; Bendtsen, B.A. 1986. Measuringlocal-
tropical hardwoods. In: Proceedings, international wood ized slopeofgrain by electrical capacitance. Forest Products
engineering conference; 1996October21—3 1; New Orleans, Journal. 36(10): 75—78.
LA. Madison, WI: Forest Products Society: 3-516—3-521.

4—44
McDonald, K.A.; Hennon,P.E.; Stevens, J.H,.; Wilcox,W.W. 1978. Reviewofliterature on the effects of
Green, D.W. 1997. Mechanicalpropertiesofsalvaged earlystagesofdecay onwood strength. Woodand Fiber.
yellow-cedar in southeasternAlaska—Phase I. Res. Pap. 9(4): 252—257.
FPL—RP---565.Madison,WI: U.S. Department ofAgricul-
ture, Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory. Wilson, T.R.C. 1921. The effectof spiral grain onthe
strength ofwood. Journal ofForestry. 19(7): 740—747.
Millett, M.A.; Gerhards,C.C. 1972. Acceleratedaging:
residualweightand flexuralpropertiesofwood heatedin air Wilson, T.R.C. 1932. Strength-moisture relationsfor wood.
Tech. Bull. 282. Washington,DC: U.S. Department of
at 115°C to 175°C. Wood Science. 4(4): 193—201.
Agriculture.
Nicholas,D.D. 1973. Wood deterioration and its prevention
by preservativetreatments. Vol. I. Degradation and protec- Winandy, J.E. 1995a. Effects ofwaterborne preservative
tionofWood. Syracuse,NY: SyracuseUniversityPress. treatment on mechanical properties: A review.In: Proceed-
ings,91st annualmeetingofAmerican WoodPreservers'
Pillow, M.Y. 1949. Studiesofcompressionfailures and their Association; 1995, May 21—24; New York, NY. Wood-
detection in ladder rails. Rep. D 1733. Madison, WI: U.S. stock,MD: American WoodPreservers'Association.
Department ofAgriculture,Forest Service,Forest Products 91: 17—33.
Laboratory.
Winandy, J.E. I995b. The Influenceoftime-to-failure on
Sliker, A.; Yu, Y. 1993. Elastic constants for hardwoods thestrength ofCCA-treated lumber. Forest Products Journal.
measuredfrom plate and tensiontests. Woodand Fiber 45(2): 82—85.
Science.25(1): 8—22.
Winandy, J.E. 1995c. Effectsofmoisturecontent on
Sliker, A.; Yu, Y.; Weigel, T.; Zhang,W. 1994. Ortho- strengthofCCA-treated lumber. Woodand Fiber Science.
tropic elasticconstantsfor easternhardwood species. Wood 27(2): 168—177.
and Fiber Science.26(1): 107—121.
Winandy, J.E. 1994. Effectsoflong-term elevatedtempera-
Soltis, L.A.; WinandyJ.E. 1989. Long-termstrength of ture on CCA-treated SouthernPine lumber. Forest Products
CCA-treatedlumber. Forest Products Journal. 39(5): 64—68. Journal. 44(6): 49—55.
Timell, T.E. 1986. Compressionwood in gymncsperms. Winandy, J.E.; Morrell, J.J. 1993. Relationshipbetween
Vol. I—Ill. Berlin: Springer—Verlag.
incipientdecay,strength, and chemical composition of
U. S. DepartmentofDefense. 1951. Design ofwood air- Douglas-firheartwood. WoodandFiber Science.
craft structures. ANC—l8 Bull. Subcommittee on Air Force— 25(3):278—288.
Navy CivilAircraft,Design CriteriaAircraftCommission. Woodfin, R.O.; Estep, E.M. (eds). 1978. In: The dead
2d ed. MunitionsBoard AircraftCommittee. timberresource. Proceedings, 1978May 22—24, Spokane,
Wangaard,F.F. 1966. Resistanceofwood to chemical WA. Pullman, WA: EngineeringExtensionService,
degradation.Forest Products Journal. 16(2): 53—64. Washington State University.

4—45
 I Chapter 5
Commercial Lumber
Kent A. McDonald and David W. Green

n a broadsense, commercial lumberis any lumber

Contents that is bought or sold in the normalchannelsof
HardwoodLumber 5—1 commerce. Commercial lumbermay be found in a
variety offorms,species,and types,and in various commer-
Factory Lumber 5—2 cial establishments, both wholesaleand retail. Most com-
Dimensionand ComponentParts 5—2 merciallumberis gradedby standardized rules that make
purchasingmore or less uniformthroughout the country.
FinishedMarketProducts 5—6
When sawn, a logyields lumberofvarying quaLity.To
Lumber Species 5—7 enableusers to buy the quality that best suits their purposes,
SoftwoodLumber 5—7 lumberis gradedintouse categories, each havingan appro-
LumberGrades 5—7 priate range in quality.
LumberManufacture 5—10 Generally, the grade ofa pieceoflumberis basedonthe
number, character, and location offeaturesthat may lowerthe
SoftwoodLumberSpecies 5—12 strength, durability, orutility valueofthe lumber. Among
SoftwoodLumberGrading 5—12 themore common visual featuresare knots, checks,pitch
pockets, shake, and stain, some ofwhichare a naturalpart of
Purchase ofLumber 5—12 thetree. Somegrades arefree orpractically free fromthese
features. Other grades, whichconstitute the greatbulk of
Retail Yard Inventory 5—16
lumber, containfairlynumerous knotsand other features.
ImportantPurchaseConsiderations 5—17 With proper grading,lumbercontaining these featuresis
entirelysatisfactory formanyuses.
CommonlyUsed LumberAbbreviations 5—18
Reference 5—20 The gradingoperationformost lumbertakes place at the
sawmill. Establishment ofgradingprocedures is largelythe
responsibility ofmanufacturers' associations. Beause ofthe
wide varietyofwoodspecies,industrial practices,and cus-
tomer needs, differentlumbergradingpracticescoexist. The
gradingpractices ofmost interestare considered in the sec-
tions that follow,underthe major categories ofhardwood
lumberand softwood lumber.

Hardwood Lumber
The principaluse ofhardwoodlumberis forremanufacture
into furniture,cabinetwork, andpallets, or directuse as
flooring, paneling, moulding,and miliwork.Hardwood
lumberis gradedandmarketedin three main categories:
Factorylumber, dimension parts, and fmishedniarketprod-
ucts. Several hardwood species are gradedunderthe Ameri-
canSoftwood LumberStandardand sold as structural lumber
(Ch. 6). Also, speciallygradedhardwoodlumbercan be used
forstructural glued-laminated lumber.

5—1
Prior to 1898, hardwoodswere gradedby individual mills is subject to contractagreement. Abbreviations commonly
for local markets. In 1898, manufacturers and users formed used in contracts and other documents forthe purchaseand
theNationalHardwoodLumberAssociation to standardize sale oflumberare listedatthe end ofthis chapter.
grading for hardwoodlumber. Between 1898and 1932, Hardwoodlumberis usually manufacturedto randomwidth.
gradingwasbased onthe number and size ofvisualfeatures. The hardwoodlumbergradesdo not specify standardwidths;
In 1932, the basis for gradingwas changed to standard clear-
cutting sizes. however, the grades do specify minimumwidthforeach
grade as follows:
Both Factory lumberand dimensionparts are intended to
servethe industrialcustomer. The important difference is that Minimum width
forFactorylumber, the gradesreflectthe proportion ofapiece Grade (mm(in.))
that can be cut into useful smallerpieces,whereas the grades
FAS 150 (6)
fordimensionparts are based on use ofthe entirepiece.
Finishedmarket productsare graded fortheir unique end-use F1F 150 (6)
with little orno remanufacture. Examples offmished prod- Selects 100 (4)
ucts include moulding, stair treads, and hardwoodflooring. No. 1, 2A, 2B, 3A, 3B Common 80 (3)

Factory Lumber Ifthewidthis specifiedby purchaseagreement, SiE or S2E

Grades lumber is 10 mm (3/8 in.) scant ofnominal size in lumber
Therulesadopted by theNationalHardwoodLumberAsso- less than 200 mm (8 in.) wide and 13 mm (1/2 in.) scant in
ciation are considered standardin gradinghardwoodlumber lumber 200 mm in.) wide.
intendedfor cutting into smallerpiecesto make furniture or
other fabricatedproducts.In these rules,the grade ofapiece Dimension and Component Parts
ofhardwoodlumber is determined by theproportionofa The term "dimensionparts" for hardwoodssignifies stock
piece that can be cut into a certainnumberofsmallerpieces that is processedin specificthickness,width, and length,or
ofmaterial,commonlycalled cuttings, which are generally
clearon one side, havethe reverseface sound, and arenot multiples thereofand ranges from semi-machined to com-
smallerthan a specifiedsize. pletelymachinedcomponentproducts. This stock is some-
timesreferredto as "hardwooddimension stock"or
The best grade in the Factory lumbercategoryis termed "hardwoodlumberfor dimension parts." This stock should
FAS. The second grade is F1F. The third grade is Selects, not be confusedwith "dimensionlumber," a term used in
which is followedby No. 1 Common, No. 2A Common, thestructural lumbermarketto meanlumber standard
No. 2B Common,Sound Wormy, No. 3A Common,and 38 mm to less than 114 mm thick (nominal2 in. to less
No. 3B Common. Except for FiF and Selects, the poorer than 5 in. thick).
sideofa piece is inspectedforgrade assignment. Standard
hardwoodlumbergradesare describedin Table 5—1. This Dimensioncomponent parts are normallykilndried and
table illustrates, for example,that FAS includespiecesthat generallygradedundertherules ofthe WoodComponents
will allow at least 83-1/3% oftheirsurface measure to be cut Manufacturers Association (WCMA). These rules encompass
into clear face material.Except for SoundWormy, the mini- three classes ofmaterial, each ofwhichis classifiedinto
mum acceptable length,width,surface measure, and percent- variousgrades:
age ofpiece that must work into acutting decreasewith
decreasing grade.Figure5—1 is anexampleofgrading for Hardwood Solid kiln- Solid kiln-dried
cuttings. dimension parts dried squares squares
This briefsummaryofgrades for Factorylumbershouldnot (flat stock) (rough) (surfaced)
beregardedas a complete set ofgradingrules becausemany Clear two faces Clear Clear
details, exceptions, and specialrules for certainspecies are Clearone face Select Select
not included. The complete official rules ofthe National Paint Sound Paint
HardwoodLumberAssociation (NHLA)shouldbe followed Core Second
as theonly fulldescriptionofexistinggrades(see Table5—2 Sound
foraddressesofNHLA and other U.S. hardwoodgrading
associations). Table 5—3 lists names ofcommercial domestic
hardwoodspecies that are gradedby NHLArules. Eachclassmaybe further definedas semifabricated (roughor
surfaced) orcompletely fabricated, including edge-glued
Standard Dimensions panels. The rough wood component parts are blank-sawn
Standard lengthsofhardwoodlumberare in 300-mm (1-ft) and rippedto size. Surfaced semifabricated parts havebeen
increments from 1.2 to 4.8 m (4 to 16 ft). Standardthickness throughone ormore manufacturingstages. Completely
valuesforhardwoodlumber, rough and surfaced on two sides fabricated parts havebeencompletely processed fortheir
(S2S), are given in Table 5—4. The thicknessof SiS lumber end use.

5—2
Table 5—i. Standardhardwood lumbergrades
Minimum
Allowable amount of
surface piece in
Allowable measure clearface Allowable cuttings
width of pieces cuttings Maximum
Grade and allowable lengths (in.) (ft2) (%) no. Minimum size
4to9 I 41n.by5ft,or
FASC 6+ 10 to 14 83-1/3 2 3 in. by 7 ft
15+ 3

4to7 83-1/3 1
6and7 91-2/3 2
8toll 83-1/3 2
4 in. by 5 ft, or
F1FC 6+ 8 to 11 91-2/3
12to15 83-1/2 3 3tn.by7ft
12to15 91-2/3 4
16+ 83-1/3 4

Selects 2 and 3 91-2/3 .

6tol6ft(willadniit30%of6tollIt) 4+ 4+ 1 by5ft,or
3 in. by 7 ft

1 100 0
2 75 1
3 and4 66-2/3 1
No. I Common 3 and 4 75 2
in. by2ft, or
4to l6ft(willadmit 10%of4to7ft, 3+ 5to7 66-2/3 2
1/2ofwhichmaybe4and5ft) 5to7 75 3 3in.by3ft
8tolO 66-2/3 3
lltol3 66-2/3 4
14+ 66-2/3 5

1 66-2/3 1
2and3 50 1
2 and 3 66-2/3 2
4and5 50 2
No. 2 Common 4 and 5 66-2/3 3
4to l6ft(willadmit30%of4to7ft, 3+ 6and7 50 3 3m. by2ft
1/3 of which may be 4 and 5 It) 6 and 7 66-2/3 4
8and9 50 4
lOandlI 50 5
l2andl3 50 6
14+ 50 7

Sound Wormye
No. 3A Common
4to 16 ft(will admit 50% of4 to 7ft, 3+ 1+ 33l/3 3 in. by2 ft
1/2 of which may be 4 and Sit)

Sound Wormye
No. 3B Common
4 to 16 ft (will admit 50% of4 to 7 It, 3÷ 1+ 25h — 1-1/2 in. by 2 ft
1/2 ofwhich may be 4 and 5 It)

acurrent grading rules are written only in the inch—pound system of measurement.
binspection made on poorer side of piece, except in Selectsgrade.
CFAS is a grade that designatesFirsts and Seconds. F1F is a grade that designates FAS one face.
I
dSame as Fl F, with reverse side of board not below No. Common or reverse side of sound cuttings.
eSame requirementsas those for No. I Common and better except that wormholesand limited sound knots
and other imperfectionsare allowed in cuttings.
Also admits pieces that grade not below No. 2 Common on the good face and reverse side of sound cuttings.
9Unlimited.
hcuttings must be Sound; clear face not required.

5—3
I—
CuttingNo. 1 —3-1/2 in. by 4-1/2ft = 15-3/4 units

Cuthng No. 2—8-1/2 in. by 4-1/2 It 38-1/4 units

12ft.
t'
Cutting No. 3—4-1/2 in. by 4-1/2ft = 20-1/4 units ---—----._—f
CuttingNo. 4—6in. by 5-2/3 ft = 34 units

1. DetermineSurfaceMeasure(S.M.)using lumber 5. Determine clear-facecuttingunits needed.

scale stick or from formula: For No. 1 Common grade S.M. x8 = 12x8
Width in inchesx length in feet 12 in. 2ft xl 96 units
12 12 6. Determine total area of permitted clear-face
12ft2S.M. cutting in units.
2. No. 1 Common is assumed grade of board. Width in inches and fractionsof inches
Percentof clear-cutting area required for x length in feetand fractionsof feet
No.1 Common—66213%or 8/12. Cutting #1—3½in. x 41/21t= l5¾units
3. Determine maximumnumberof cuttings Cutting#2—81/2 Ifl.X 41,2 ft =38 UflitS
Cutting#3_41/2in. x 41,2 ft = 20',d units
Cutting#4—61n. x 53ft=34__units
permitted.
For No. 1 Common grade (S.M. + 1) .3 Total Units 108
(12 + 1) = 13
3
— .
4 cuttings. Unitsrequiredfor No. 1 Common—96.
3
4. DetermIne minimumsizeof cuttings. 7. Conclusion: Board meets requirementsfor
For No. 1 Commongrade 4 in. x2 ft or 3 in.x3 ft. No. 1 Common grade.

I
Figure 5—1. Example of hardwood gradingforcuttingsusingNo. Common lumbergrade. Current grading
rules are written only in the inch—pound systemofmeasurement.

Table 5—2. Hardwood gradingassociations in UnitedState?

Name and address Species covered by grading rules (products)

National HardwoodLumberAssociation All hardwood species (furniturecuttings, constructionlumber,

P.O. Box 34518 siding, panels)
Memphis,TN 38184—0518
Wood Components ManufacturersAssociation All hardwood species(hardwood furnituredimension, squares,
1000 Johnson Ferry Rd., SuiteA-130 laminated stock, interior trim, stair treads and risers)
Marietta, GA 30068

Maple Flooring ManufacturersAssociation Maple, beech, birch (flooring)

60 Revere Dr., Suite 500
Northbrook, IL 60062
National Oak Flooring Manufacturers Association Oak, ash, pecan, hickory, pecan, beech, birch, hard maple
P.O. Box 3009 (flooring,including prefinished)
Memphis,TN 38173—0009
www.nofma.org

aorading associationsthat include hardwood species in structuralgrades are listed in Table 5—5.

5-4
Table 5—3. Nomenclature of commercial hardwood lumber
Commercial Commercial
namefor namefor
lumber Common tree name Botanicalname lumber Common tree name Botanicalname

Alder, Red Redalder Alnusrubra Maple,Oregon Bigleafmaple Acer macrophyllum

Ash, Black Black ash Fraxinus nigra Maple,Soft Red maple Acer nibrum
Ash,Oregon Oregon ash Fraxinus Jatifolia Silver maple Acer sacchannurn
Fraxinus quadrangulafa Oak, Red Black oak Quercus ye/ut/na
Ash, White Blue ash
Green ash Fraxinus pennsyivanica Blackjackoak Quercus marl/andica
Whiteash Fraxinus americana Califomia blackoak Quercus kelloggi
Aspen (popple) Bigtoothaspen Populusgrandklèntata Cherrybark oak Querousfalcaf&var.
pagodaefolia
Popu/us tremuloides Laurel oak Quercus laurifo'ia
Quakingaspen
Basswood American basswood Ti/ia americana Northern pin oak Quemus el/ipsoida/is
Whitebasswood Ti/iaheterophylla Northern red oak Quercusrubra
Beech American beech Fagusgrandifolia Nuttall oak Quercus nuttalli
Birch Graybirch Betula popu/ifolia Pinoak Quercuspalustris
Scarlet oak Quercuscoccinea
Paper birch Betula papyrifera
Riverbirch Betula n/gm Shumard oak Queivus shumadii
Sweet birch Betulalenta Southern red oak Queicus falcata
Yellow birch Beta/aalleghanier?sis Turkeyoak Quemus laevis
Box Elder Boxelder Acernegur,do Willowoak Quercusphellos
Ohiobuckeye Aesculus glabra Oak, White Arizona whiteoak Quercus arizonka
Buckeye
Yellow buckeye Aesculus octandra Blueoak QUe1tJSdoug!aü
Butternut Butternut ,Juglanscinema Bur oak Quercus macmcaipa
Black cherry Prunus semtina Valley oak Querous !obata
Cherry
Chestnut American chestnut Castaneadentafa Chestnutoak Quercusprinus
Cottonwood Balsam poplar Populus balsamifera Chinkapinoak Quercusmuehlenbergii
Easterncottonwood Populusdeltoides Emory oak Queivus emotyi
Black cottonwood Populus trichocaipa Gambel oak Quercus gambeil
Cucumber Cucumbertree Magnolia acum/nata Mexicanblue oak Quercusoblongifo/ia
Flowering dogwood Comus florida Liveoak Quercus virginians
Dogwood
Pacific dogwood Comus nut/al/il Oregon whiteoak Quercusgariyana
Elm, Rock Cedar elm U!mus crassifolia Overcup oak Quemus lyrata
Rockelm U/mus thomas/i Postoak Querous ste/late
September elm Ulmus serotina Swamp chestnutoak Quercus michauxä
Winged elm Ulmus alata Swamp whiteoak Quercus bicoior
Ulmus americana Whiteoak Quercusa/ba
Elm, Soft American elm
Ulrnus rubra California-laurel Urnbellularia califcmica
Slippery elm Oregon Myrtle
Gum Sweetgum Liquidambar syracfflua Osage Orange Osage-orange Maclura pomifera
Hackberry Hackberry Ce/f/soccidentalis Pecan Bitternut hickory Cwya cordiformis
Sugarberry Ce/f/slaevigata Nutmeg hickory Can/amyristiciformis
Hickory Mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa Waterhickory Can/a aquatica
Pignut hickory Car'a glabra Pecan Can/a illlnoensis
Shagbark hickory Car/aovata Persimmon Common persimmon Diospyros virgin/era
Sheilbark hickory Can/a Iacinosa Poplar Yellow-poplar Liriodendron tu/ipifera
American holly hexopaca Sassafras Sassafras Sassafras albidum
Holly
lronwood Eastern hophombeam Ostrya virginiana Sycamore Sycamore Platanus occidentaifS
Locust Blacklocust Robiniapseudoacacia Tanoak Tanoak Lithocarpusdensiflorus
Honeylocust Gleditsia triacanthos Tupelo Black tupelo, blackgum Nyssasylvatica
Madrone Pacific madrone Arbutus menziesii Ogeectieetupelo Nyssa ogethe
Magnolia Southern magnolia Magnolia grand/flora Water tupelo Nyssa aquafica
Sweetbay Magnolia virginiana Walnut Black walnut Juglans nigra
Maple, Hard Blackmaple Acer nigrum Willow Blackwillow Salixn/gre
Acer saccharum Peachleaf willow Sa/ixamygdaloides
Sugar maple

5—5
 Table 5—4. Standard thickness values • Secondgrade—tight, soundknots (except on edges or
for roughand surfaced (S2S) hard- ends)and other slight imperfections allowed;must be
woodlumber possibleto lay flooringwithoutwaste
Rough Surfaced • Third grade—may contain all visual featurescommonto
(mm (in.)) (mm (in.))
hard maple, beech, and birch; willnot admit voids on
9.5 (3/8) 4.8 (3/16) edgesor ends, or holes over 9.5-mm (3/8-in.)in
12.7 (1/2) 7.9 (5/16) diameter;must permitproperlaying offloor andprovide a
serviceable floor; few restrictions on imperfections; must
15.9 (5/8) 9.4 (7/16) be possibleto lay flooringproperly
19.0 (3/4) 14.3 (9/16)
25.4 (1) 20.6 (13/16) • Fourth grade—may containall visual features,butmust
31.8 (1-1/4) 27.0 (1-1/16) be possibleto laya serviceablefloor, with some cutting
38.1 (1-1/2) 33.3 (1-5/16) Combination grades of"Secondand Better" and "Third and
44.4 (1-3/4) 38.1 (1-1/2) Better" are sometimes specified. There are also specialgrades
50.8 (2) 44.4 (1-3/4) based on color and species.
63.5 (2-1/2) 57.2 (2-1/4)
The standardthicknessofMFMA hard maple, beech, and
76.2 (3) 69.8 (2-3/4) birch flooringis 19.8 mm (25/32 in.). Face widths are 3S,
88.9 (3-1/2) 82.8 (3-1/4) 51, 57, and 83 mm (1-1/2, 2, 2-1/4, and 3-1/4 in.). Standard
101.6 (4) 95.2 (3-3/4) lengths are 610 mm (2 ft) and longer in First- and Second-
114.3 (4-1/2) grade flooringand 381 mm(1-1/4ft) and longer in Third-
a
127.0 (5) grade flooring.
139.7 (5-1/2) The Official FlooringGradingRules ofNOFMAcoveroak
152.4 (6) (unfinished and prefmished), beech,birch, hard maple, ash,
8Finished size not specified in rules.
and hickory/pecan. Flooringgrades are determinedby the
Thickness subject to special contract. appearanceofthe face surface.
Oakis separated as red oak and white oak andby grain
direction:plainsawn (all cuts),quartersawn(50%quartered
Finished Market Products character), rift sawn(75%riftcharacter), and quarter/rift sawn
(acombination). Oak flooring has four maingrade separa-
Some hardwoodlumberproductsare gradedinrelatively tions—Clear,Select, No. 1 Common,and No. 2 Common.
fmishedform, with little orno furtherprocessing anticipated. Clearis mostlyheartwoodand acceptsa 10-mm (3/8-in.)
Flooringis probablythe finishedmarket productwith the strip ofbright sapwoodor an equivalent amountnot more
highest volume.Other examplesare lath, siding, ties, than 25 mm (1 in.) wide along the edge and a minimum
planks, carstock, constructionboards,timbers,trim, mould- numberofcharacter marksand discoloration, allowingfor all
ing,stair treads, and risers. Gradingrules promulgated for naturalheartwoodcolor variations.Selectallows all color
flooringanticipate final consumeruse andare summarized in variations ofnaturalheartwoodand sapwoodalongwith
this section. Detailson gradesofother finishedproductsare characters such as smallknots, pinwormholes, and brown
found in appropriate association gradingrules. streaks. No. 1 Commoncontainsprominentvariationsin
Hardwoodflooring generallyis gradedunderthe rules ofthe coloration,which include heavy streaks,sticker stains, open
checks,knots, and small knot holes that fill. No. 2 Common
MapleFlooringManufacturers Association (MFMA)orthe contains soundnaturalvariationofthe forestproduct and
NationalOak FlooringManufacturers Association manufacturing imperfections to provideaserviceablefloor.
(NOFMA). Tongued-and-grooved, end-matched hardwood
flooring is commonlyfurnished. Square-edge, square-end- Average lengths for unfinished oakgradesare as follows:
strip flooringis also availableas well as parquetflooring
suitable for laying with mastic.
Grade Standard packaging Shorter packaging
The gradingrules oftheMaple FlooringManufacturers
Clear 1.14m (3-3/4ft) 1.07m (3-1/2ft)
Association cover flooring that is manufactured from hard
maple, beech, and birch. Each species is gradedinto four Select 0.99 m (3-114ft) 0.91m (3 ft)
categories: No. 1 Common 0.84m (2-3/4 ft) 0.76m (2-11/2 ft)
• First grade—one face practically free ofall imperfections; No.2Common 0.69m (2-1/4 It) 0.61 m (2 ft)
variations innatural color ofwood allowed

5—6
Standardpackagingreferstonominal2.4-rn (8-fl)pallets or To minimize unnecessary differences inthe gradingrules of
nestedbundles.Shorterpackagingrefersto nominal 2.13-rn softwood lumberand to improveand simplifythese rules, a
(7-fl)and shorterpalletsornestedbundles. number ofconferences were organized bythe U.S. Depart-
ment ofCommerce from 1919to 1925. These meetingswere
Standardand specialNOFMAgradesfor species otherthan attended by representatives oflumber manufacturers, distribu-
oak are as follows: tors, wholesalers, retailers, engineers, architects, and contrac-
tors. The result was arelativestandardization ofsize3,
definitions, andprocedures for deriving allowable design
Grade
properties, formulated as avoluntaryAmerican Lumber
Species
Standard grades Standard. This standard has been modifiedseveraltimes,
Beech, birch, First,Second, Third, Second &Better,Third including addition ofhardwoodspecies tothe standard
and hard maple & Better beginning in 1970. The currentedition is the American
Softwood LumberStandardPS—20. LumbercannotiDe
Hickory and pecan First,Second, Third, Second &Better,Third
& Better graded as American Standardlumberunless the grade rules
havebeen approved by the American LumberStandard
Ash Clear,Select,No. I Common, Committee (ALSC), Inc., Board ofReview.
No. 2 Common
Softwood lumber is classified formarketuse by form of
Special grades manufacture, species,and grade.For many products, the
Beech and birch First GradeRed American Softwood LumberStandardandthe gradingrules
certified throughitserveas a basic reference. For specific
Hard maple First GradeWhite
information on other products, referencemust be madeto
Hickoryand pecan First GradeWhite,First GradeRed,Second grade rules, industry marketingaids, and tradejournals.
Grade Red
Lumber Grades
Standardthicknessvaluesfor NOFMAtongueandgroove Softwoodlumbergradescanbe classified into threemajor
flooring are 19, 12, 9.5 (3/4, 1/2, 3/8 in.), with 19.8, and categories ofuse: (a) yard lumber, (b) structural lumber, and
26.2 mm (25/32 and 33/32 in.) formaple flooring. Standard (c)Factory and Shop lumber. Yard lumberand structural
face widths are 38, 51, 57, and 83 mm (1-1/2,2, 2-1/4, and lumberrelate principally to lumberexpectedto function as
3-1/4 in.). Strips are random length from minimum 0.23 m gradedand sized afterprimaryprocessing (sawingandplan-
to maximum2.59m (9 to 102 in.). ing). Factoryand Shop referto lumberthat willundergo a
numberoffurther manufacturing stepsandreachthe consumer
Lumber Species in a significantly different form.
The names usedby the trade to describecommercial lumber Yard Lumber
in theUnitedStates arenot alwaysthesame as thenamesof The gradingrequirements ofyard lumberare specifically
treesadoptedas officialby the USDAForest Service. relatedto the constructionuses intended,and little orno
Table 5—3 shows the commontrade name, the USDAForest furthergrading occurs once the piece leavesthe sawmill.
Servicetree name, andthe botanicalname. UnitedStates Yard lumber can be placedinto two basic classifications,
agenciesand associations that preparerulesfor andsupervise Select and Common. Select and Commonlumber. as
grading ofhardwoodsare given in Table5—2. categorizedhere, encompass those lumberproductsin which
appearance is ofprimaryimportance; structural intogrity,
Softwood Lumber while sometimes important, is a secondary feature,
Formanyyears,softwoodlumberhasdemonstrated the Select Lumber—Selectlumberis generallynon-sress-
versatility ofwood by servingas aprimaryrawmaterial for graded,but it forms aseparate categorybecauseofthe dis-
construction andmanufacture. In this role, softwoodlumber tinct importance ofappearance in the gradingprocss. Select
has beenproducedina wide varietyofproductsfrom many lumberis intended fornatural and paintfinishes.This cate-
different species. The firstindustry-sponsored gradingrules gory oflumberincludeslumberthat has been machinedto a
(product descriptions) for sofiwoods, whichwere established patternand S4S lumber. Secondary manufacture ofthese
before 1900, were comparatively simplebecausesawmills itemsis usually restrictedto on-site fittingsuch as cutting to
marketedtheirlumberlocallyand gradeshad only local length and mitering.The Selectcategoryinclude trim,
significance. As new timbersources were developed and siding, flooring, ceiling,paneling, casing, base, stepping,
lumberwas transportedto distantpoints, each producing andfinishboards.
region continuedto establishits own gradingrules; thus,
lumberfrom variousregionsdifferedin size,grade name, and Most Selectlumbergrades are generallydescribedby letters
allowable grade characteristics. Whendifferentspecies were and combinations ofletters (B&BTR, C&BTR,ID) or
graded underdifferentrules and competed in the same con- names (Superior, Prime) depending uponthe species and the
suming areas, confusion and dissatisfaction were inevitable. gradingrules under whichthe lumberis graded.(See list of

5—7
commonly usedlumberabbreviations at the end ofthis
chapter.) The specifications FG (flat grain),VG (vertical
grain), and MG (mixedgrain) are offeredas a purchase option
for some Selectlumberproducts.
In cedarand redwood, there is a pronounced difference in
colorbetweenheartwoodand sapwood. Heartwood alsohas No.1
high natural resistanceto decay, so some grades are denoted
as "heart."Because Selectlumbergrades emphasize the
qualityofone face, the reverse sidemay be lowerinquality.
Selectlumbergradesare not uniformacrossspecies and
products,so certifiedgrade rules for the species must be used
fordetailed reference.
Common Lumber—Commonlumber isnormallya non- No.2
stress-graded product.The gradesofCommon lumberare
suitable for constructionand utility purposes.Common
lumber is generallyseparated intothreeto five different
grades dependinguponthe species and gradingrules
involved. Gradesmay be describedby number(No. I,
No. 2, No. I Common,No. 2 Common)or descriptive
term (Select Merchantable, Construction, Standard).
Because there are differences in the inherent properties of No.3
various species andtheircorresponding names, the grades
fordifferentspecies arenot alwaysinterchangeable. The top-
grade boards (No. I, No. 1 Common, SelectMerchantable)
are usually gradedfor serviceability, but appearance is also
considered. Thesegradesareusedfor such purposesas
siding, cornice, shelving,and paneling. Features such as
knots and knotholesare permittedto be larger and more
frequentas the gradelevel becomes lower. Intermediate-grade No.4 0
boardsare often used for suchpurposesas subfloors, roofand
wall sheathing,and rough concretework. The lowergrade Figure 5—2. Typical examplesofsoftwoodboards
in the lowergrades.
boardsare selectedforadequatestrength, not appearance.
They are usedforroofandwall sheathing, subfloor, and
rough concretefonnwork (Fig.5—2). the thickness.Beamsand stringersare primarilyused to
resist bendingstresses, and the grade descriptionfor the
Grading provisionsfor other non-stress-graded products
vary by species,product,and applicablegradingrules.For middlethird ofthe length ofthe beam is more stringentthan
detaileddescriptions, consult the appropriate grade rule that for the outer two-thirds. Posts and timbers are members
forthese products(see Table 5—5 for softwoodgrading standard 114 by 114 mm (nominal5 by 5 in.) and larger.
wherethe width is not more than 51 mm(2 in.) greater than
organizations). thethickness. Post andtimbers areprimarilyused to resist
StructuralLumber—Almostall softwoodlumberstandard axial stresses. Structural timbersofSouthern Pine are graded
38 to 89 mmthick(nominal2 to 4 in. thick, actual 1-1/2 to without regardto anticipateduse, as with dimensionlumber.
3-1/2 in. thick) is producedas dimensionlumber. Dimen- Other stress-graded products include deckingand some
sion lumberis stress gradedand assignedallowable proper- boards.Stress-graded lumbermay be gradedvisuallyor
ties under theNationalGradingRule, apart ofthe American mechanically. Stressgradesandthe NationalGrading Rule
Softwood LumberStandard. For dimensionlumber, a single are discussedin Chapter6.
setofgrade names and descriptionsis used throughoutthe
UnitedStates, althoughthe allowable properties vary with StructuralLaminations—Structurallaminatinggrades
describe the characteristics used to segregatelumberto be
species. Timbers (lumberstandard 114 mm (nominal5 in.)
ormore in least dimension)are alsostructurally gradedunder usedin structuralglued-laminated (glulam)timbers.
ALSCprocedures. Unlikegrade descriptions fordimension Generally, allowable properties are not assignedseparately to
lumber, grade descriptions for structural timbers are not laminating grades; rather,the rules for laminating grades are
standardized across species.For most species,timbergrades based on the expectedeffectofthat grade oflamination on the
are classifiedaccording to intendeduse. Beams and stringers combined glularntimber.
aremembers standard 114 mm (nominal5 in.) ormore in
thicknesswith a width more than 51 mm (2 in.) greaterthan

5—8
Table 5—5. Organizations promulgating softwoodgrades

Name and address Species covered by grading rules

Cedar Shingle& Shake Bureau Western redcedar (shinglesand shakes)

515 116thAvenue NE, Suite 275
Bellevue,WA 98004—5294
National HardwoodLumberAssociation Baldcypress, eastern redcedar
P.O. Box 34518
Memphis, TN 38184—0518
National Lumber GradesAuthority8 Northern white cedar, westernred cedar, yellow cedar, alpine fir,
406 First Capital Place amabilis fir, balsam fir, Douglas-fir, grand fir, eastern hemlock,
960 QuamsideDrive westernhemlock, westernlarch, easternwhite pine, jack pine,
New Westminister,BC, CanadaV3M6G2 lodgepolepine, ponderosa pine, red pine, westernwhite pine,
black spruce, sitka spruce,red spruce, Engelmann spruce,
white spruce, tamarack, aspen, black cottonwood,balsam
poplar, red alder, white birch
NortheasternLumber Manufacturers Association,Inc. Balsam fir, eastern white pine, red pine, eastern hemlock, black
272 Tuttle Road, P.O. Box 87A spruce,white spruce, red spruce, pitch pine, tamarack, jack
Cumberland Center, ME 04021 pine, northern white cedar, aspen, red maple, mixed maple,
beech, birch, hickory, mixed oaks, red oak, northern red oak,
white oak,yellow poplar
NorthernSoftwood LumberBureaua Eastern white pine, jack pine, red pine, pitch pine, eastern
272 Tuttle Road, P.O. Box 87A spruce (red, white, and black), balsam fir, eastern hemlock,
Cumberland Center, ME 04021 tamarack, eastern cottonwood, aspen (bigtoothand quaking),
yellow poplar
Redwood InspectionService Redwood
405 EnfrenteDrive, Suite 200
Novato, CA 94949
Southern Cypress ManufacturersAssociation Batdcypress
400 Penn Center Boulevard Suite 530
Pittsburgh,PA 15235
Southern Pine Inspection Bureaua Longleafpine, slash pine, shortleafpine, loblolly pine,
4709 Scenic Highway Virginia pine, pond pine, pitch pine
Pensacola, FL 32504
West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureaua Douglas-fir, western hemlock, western redcedar, incense-cedar,
Box 23145 Port-Orford-cedar, yellow-cedar, westerntrue firs, mountain
6980 SW. Varns Road hemlock, Sitka spruce,western larch
Portland, OR 97223
Western Wood Products Association8 Ponderosa pine, westernwhite pine, Douglas-fir, sugar pine,
Yeon Building, 522 SW Fifth Avenue western true firs, western larch, Engelmann spruce, incense-
Portland, OR 97204—2122 cedar, westernhemlock, lodgepolepine, western redcedar,
mountain hemlock,red alder, aspen, alpine fir, Idahowhite pine

apublishesgrading rules certified by the Board of Reviewof the AmericanLumberStandard Committee

as conformingto the American Softwood LumberStandard PS—20.

There are two kinds ofgradedmaterial: visuallygradedand membersand outer tensionlaminationson bendingmem-
E-rated. Visuallygradedmaterialis gradedaccording to one bers. The visualgrades have provisions for dense, close-
ofthree sets ofgrading rules: (1) thefirst set is basedon the grain, medium-grain, or coarsegrain lumber.
grading rules certifiedas meeting the requirements ofthe
American Softwood LumberStandardwith additionalre- TheE-ratedgrades are categorized by a combination ofvisual
quirements forlaminating;(2) the secondset involves lami- grading criteriaand lumberstiffness. Thesegraths are ex-
nating grades typicallyused forvisuallygradedwestern pressedin terms ofthe size ofmaximum edge characteristic
species and includesthree basic categories (LI, L2, L3); and permitted(as a fraction ofthewidth)along with a specified
(3) the thirdset includesspecialrequirements for tension long-span modulusofelasticity(for example,l'6—2.2E).

5—9
Factory and Shop Lumber woodsupplyhave led to different grade descriptions and
A wide variety ofspecies, grades, andsizes ofsoftwood terminology. For example,in West Coast species, the ladder
lumberis suppliedto industrial accountsfor cutting to industtycanchoose from one "ladderand pole stock"grade
specific smallersizes, whichbecome integralparts ofother plus two ladderrail grades and one ladder rail stock grade.In
SouthernPine, ladder stock is availableas Selectand Indus-
products. In the secondatymanufacturing process,grade trial. Moulding stock, tank stock, pole stock, stave stock,
descriptions, sizes, andoften the entireappearance ofthe
wood piece are changed. Thus, forFactory and Shop lumber, stadiumseat stock,box lumber, and pencil stock are other
therole ofthegradingprocessis to reflectas accurately as typicalclassesorientedto the final product.Some product
classeshaveonlyone grade level; a few offertwo or three
possiblethe yield to be obtainedin the subsequent cutting levels.Special features ofthese grades may includearestric-
operation. Typicaloflumberforsecondary manufacture are
thefactorygrades, industrialclears,box lumber, moulding tion on sapwoodrelatedto desired decay resistance, specific
stock,and ladderstock. The varietyofspecies availablefor requirements for slopeofgrain and growthring orientation
these purposeshas ledto a varietyofgrade namesand grade forhigh-stress use such as ladders, andparticularcutting
definitions. The followingsectionsbrieflyoutline someof requirements as inpencil stock. All referencesto these grades
themore common classifications. Fordetails,referencemust shouldbe madedirectlyto currentcertifiedgrading rules.
be made to industrysources,such as certified gradingrules.
Availability and grade designationoften vary by regionand Lumber Manufacture
species. Size
Factory(Shop) Grades—Traditionally,softwoodlumber Lumberlength is recordedin actual dimensions,whereas
usedfor cuttingshas been calledFactory or Shop. This width and thicknessare traditionallyrecorded in "nominal"
lumberforms the basicraw material formany secondary dimensions—actual dimensions are somewhatless.
manufacturing operations. Somegradingrules referto these
grades as Factory, while othersrefer to them as Shop. All Softwood lumberis manufactured in lengthmultiplesof
impose asomewhatsimilar nomenclature inthe grade struc- 300 mm (1 ft) as specifiedin variousgradingrules. In prac-
ture. Shop lumberis gradedon the basis ofcharacteristics tice, 600-mm(2-ft)multiples(in evennumbers)are common
that affect its use forgeneral cut-uppurposesoronthe basis for most construction lumber. Width ofsoftwoodlumber
ofsize ofcutting,such as for sashand doors.Factory Select varies,commonlyfrom standard38 to 387 mm(nominal
and Select Shop are typicalhigh grades, followedby No. I 2 to 16 in.). The thicknessoflumber can be generally
Shop, No. 2 Shop, and No. 3 Shop. categorized as follows:
Gradecharacteristics ofboardsare influenced by the width, • Boards—lumber lessthan standard 38 mm(nominal
length, andthicknessofthe basic piece and are based on the 2 in.) in thickness
amountofhigh-qualitymaterialthat can be removed by
cutting. Typically,Factory Selectand Select Shop lumber
• Dimension—lumber from standard38 mm (nominal2 in.)
would be requiredto contain70% ofcuttingsofspecified to, but not including, 114 mm (5 in.) in thickness
size,clear on both sides.No. I Shop would be required to • Timbers—lumber standard 114 mm (nominal5 in.) or
have 50% cuttings and No. 2 Shop,33-1/3%.Becauseof
morein thicknessin least dimension
differentcharacteristics assignedto grades with similarno-
menclature,the gradesofFactory and Shop lumbermust be To standardizeand clarifj nominalto actual sizes, the
referencedto the appropriate certified gradingrules. American Softwood LumberStandardPS—20 specifies the
IndustrialClears—Thesegrades are used fortrim, cabinet actualthicknessand widthfor lumberthat falls underthe
standard. The standard sizes for yard and structural lumber
stock,garage door stock, and other product components aregiven in Table 5—6. Timbersare usually surfacedwhile
whereexcellent appearance, mechanical andphysical proper-
ties, and fmishingcharacteristics are important. Theprincipal "green"(unseasoned); therefore, only green sizes are given.
grades are B&BTR,C, and D industrial.Grading is primar- Becausedimension lumber and boardsmay be surfaced green
ily based on the best face,althoughthe influence ofedge or dry at theprerogative ofthe manufacturer, both green and
characteristics is importantandvaries depending uponpiece
width andthickness.In redwood,the IndustrialClear All dry standard sizes are given. The sizes are such that a piece
ofgreen lumber, surfaced to thestandardgreen size, will
Heart grade includesan"allheart" requirement fordecay shrink to approximately the standarddry size as it dries to
resistancein the manufactureofcoolingtowers,tanks,pipe, about 15% moisture content.The defmitionofdry is lumber
and similar products. that has been seasonedor dried to a maximummoisture
contentof 19%. Lumbermay alsobe designatedas kiln dried
Moulding, Ladder, Pole, Tank, and Pencil Stock—
Withinproducingregions,grading rules delineatethe re- (KD),meaningthe lumberhas been seasonedin a chamberto
a predetermined moisturecontentby applyingheat.
quirements for avariety oflumberclassesorientedto specific
consumerproducts.Customandthe characteristics ofthe

5—10
Table 5—6. American Standard Lumber sizes for yard and structurallumberforconstruction
Thickness Face width
Minimum dressed Minimum dressed —
Nominal Dry Green Nominal Dry Green
Item (in.) (mm (in.)) (mm (in.)) (in.) (mm (in.)) (mm (in.)) —
Boards 1 19 (3/4) 20 (25/32) 2 38 (1-1/2) 40 (1-91W)
1-1/4 25 (1) 26 (1-1/32) 3 64 2-l/2) 65 (2-9/16)
1-1/2 32 (1-1/4) 33 (1-9/32) 4 89 (3-1/2) 90 (3-9116)
5 114 (4—1/2) 117 (4—5/8)
6 140 (5-1/2) 143 (5-5/8)
7 165 (6-1/2) 168 (6-5/8)
8 184 (7-1/4) 190 (7-1/2)
9 210 (8-1/4) 216 (8-1/2)
10 235 (9-1/4) 241 (9-1/2)
. 11 260 (10-1/4) 267 (10-1/2)
12 286 (11—1/4) 292 (11-1/2)
14 337 (13-1/4) 343 (13-1/2)
16 387 (15-1/4) 394 (15-1/2)
Dimension 2 38 (1-1/2) 40 (1-9/16) 2 38 (1-1/2) 40 (1-9/16)
2-1/2 51 (2) 52 (2-1/16) 3 64 (2-1/2) 65 (2-9/16)
3 64 (2-1/2) 65 (2-9/16) 4 89 (3-1/2) 90 (3-9/16)
3-1/2 76 (3) 78 (3-1/16) 5 114 (4—1/2) 117 (4—5/8)
4 89 (3-1/2) 90 (3-9/16) 6 140 (5-1/2) 143 (5-5/8)
4-1/2 102 (4 103 (4-1/16 8 184 (7-1/4) 190 (7-112)
10 235 (9-1/4) 241 (9-1/2)
12 286 (11-1/4) 292 (11-1/2)
14 337 (13-1/4) 343 (13-1/2)
16 387 (15-1/4) 394 (15-1/2)
Timbers 5 13 mm (1/2 in. 13 mm (1/2 in. 5 13 mm (1/2 in. 13 mm (1/2 in.
oif off) off off) off off) off off)

Factory and Shoplumberfor remanufacture is offered in uponthe type ofsawmillequipment. Rough lumberserves
specifiedsizes to fit end-product requirements. Factory as a raw material for further manufacture and alsofor some
(Shop) grades forgeneralcuttings are offered inthickness decorative purposes. A roughsawnsurface is common in post
from standard 19 to 89 mm(nominal ito 4 in.). Thick- andtimberproducts. Because ofsurface roughness, gradingof
nesses ofdoor cuttingsstart at 35mm (nominal1-3/8 in.). rough lumber is generally more difficult.
Cuttings are ofvarious lengths and widths. Laminatingstock
is sometimes offered oversize, compared with standard di- Surfacedlumberhas beensurfaced by a machine on one side
mensionsizes,to permitresurfacingprior to laminating. (SIS), two sides (S2S), one edge(S1E), two edges S2E), or
Industrial Clearscan be offered rough or surfaced ina variety combinations of sides and edges (S1S1E, S2S1E, S1S2,
ofsizes, startingfrom standard38 mm (nominal2 in.) and S4S).Lumberis surfaced to attain smoothness and uniform-
thinner and as narrow as standard 64 mm (nominal 3 in.). ity ofsize.
Sizesfor special productgrades such as mouldingstock and Imperfections or blemishes definedinthe gradingrules and
ladderstockare specified in appropriate gradingrules or causedby machining are classified as "manufacturing imper-
handledbypurchaseagreements. fections." For example, chippedand torn grain are surface
irregularities inwhichsurface fibershavebeentorn cut bythe
Surfacing surfacingoperation. Chippedgrain is a "barelyperceptible"
Lumbercan be producedeitherrough orsurfaced (dressed). characteristic, while torn grain is classified by depth. Raised
Roughlumberhas surface imperfections causedby the pri- grain, skip, machine burn and gouge, chipmarks, and wavy
mary sawing operations. Itmay be greaterthan target size by surfacingare other manufacturing imperfections. Manrfactur-
variableamountsin both thicknessand width, depending ing imperfections are defmed in the American Softwood

5—Il
LumberStandardand furtherdetailedin the gradingrules.
Classifications ofmanufacturing imperfections (combinations
ofimperfections allowed)are established in therules as
StandardA, StandardB, and so on. For example, Standard
A admits very light torn grain, occasionalslight chip marks, Flooring (standard match)
and very slightknife marks. These classifications areusedas
part ofthe grade rule description ofsome lumberproductsto C
specify the allowable surface quality.
Ceiling (edge beading)
Patterns
Lumberthat has been matched,shiplapped, or otherwise
patterned, in addition to being surfaced, is often classified
as "worked lumber." Figure 5—3 showstypicalpatterns.

Softwood Lumber Species

The names oflumberspecies adoptedby the trade as stan-
dard may vary from the namesoftreesadoptedas official by Decking
theUSDAForest Service. Table 5—7 shows theAmerican
SoftwoodLumberStandardcommercial namesfor lumber,
the USDAForest Servicetree names,and the botanical
names. Somesoftwoodspeciesare marketed primarilyin
combinations. Designationssuch as Southern Pine and
Hem—Fir representtypicalcombinations. Gradingrule agen-
cies (Table5—5)shouldbe contactedforquestionsregarding
combination names and speciesnot listed in Table5—7.
Species groupsare discussedfurtherin Chapter6.

Softwood Lumber Grading

Most lumber is gradedunder the supervisionofinspection
Heavy decking
bureaus and gradingagencies. Theseorganizations supervise
lumbermill grading and providere-inspection services to
resolvedisputes concerning lumber shipments. Some of
these agenciesalso write gradingrulesthat reflectthe species
and productsin the geographic regionsthey represent. These
gradingrules followthe American Softwood LumberStan-
dard (PS—20). This is importantbecauseit providesfor Drop siding (shiplapped)
recognized uniform gradingprocedures. Names andaddresses
ofrules-writingorganizations in theUnited Statesandthe
species with whichthey are concernedare listed in
Table 5—5. Canadian softwoodlumber imported into the
UnitedStates and gradedby inspectionagenciesin Canada Bevel siding
also follows the PS—20 standard. Names and addressesof
accreditedCanadiangradingagencies may be obtained from
theAmerican LumberStandardCommittee, P.O. Box 210,
Germantown,Maryland20874.

Purchase of Lumber
\\
Dressed and matched (center matched)

Afterprimarymanufacture, most lumber products aremar-

ketedthroughwholesalers to remanufacturing plantsor retail
outlets.Becauseofthe extremely wide variety oflumber
products,wholesaling is very specialized—some organiza-
tions deal with only a limitednumberofspecies or products.
H II
Shiplap
Where the primarymanufacturer canreadily identify the
customers, direct salesmay be made. Primarymanufacturers Figure 5—3. Typical patterns of worked lumber.
oftensell directlyto largeretail-chain contractors, manufac-
turers ofmobile and modularhousing,and truss fabricators.

5—12
Table 5—7. Nomenclatureof commercial softwood lumber
Commercial species orspecies
group names under American Tree name used
SoftwoodLumber Standard in this handbook Botanicalname
Cedar
Alaska yellow-cedar Chamaecypansnootkatensis
Eastern Red eastern redcedar Juniperus virginiana
Incense incense-cedar Libocednjs decurrens
Northem White northernwhite-cedar Thuja occidentalis
Port Orford Port-Orford-cedar ChamaecyparisIawsoniana
SouthernWhite Atlantic white-cedar Chamaecyparisthyoides
Western Red western redcedar Thujaplicata
Cypress
Baldcypress baldcypress Taxodium distichum
Pond cypress pond cypress Taxodiumdistichum var. nutans
Fir
Alpine subalpine fir (alpinefir) Abies Iasiocaipa
Balsam balsam fir Abies balsamea
California Red California red fir Abies magnifica
Douglas Fir Douglas-fir Pseudotsugamenziesii
Fraser Fraserfir Abiesfraseri
Grand grand fir Abies grand/s
Noble Fir noble fir Abies procera
Pacific Grand Pacific silverfir Abiesamabills
White whitefir Abies concolor
Hemlock
Carolina Carolina hemlock Tsuga caroliniana
Eastern eastern hemlock Tsugacanadensis
Mountain mountainhemlock Tsugamertensiana
Western western hemlock Tsugaheterophylla
Juniper
Western alligator juniper Juniperusdeppeana
Rocky Mountainjuniper Juniperus scopulorum
Utahjuniper Juniperus osteosperrna
western juniper Juniperus occidentalls
Larch
Western western larch Larixoccidentalis
Pine
Bishop bishoppine Pinusmuricata
Coulter Coulter pine Pinus coulteri
Digger Digger pine Pinus sabibiana
Knobcone knobconepine Pinusaltenuata
IdahoWhite western white pine Pinus montico!a
Jack jack pine Pinus banksiana
Jeffrey Jeffrey pine Pinusjeffreyi
Limber limber pine Pinus flexilis
Lodgepole lodgepolepine Pinus conto,ta
Longleaf longleafpine Pinuspalustris
slash pine Pinuselliott/i
Northern White eastern white pine Pinus strobus
Norway red pine Pinus resinosa
Pitch pitch pine Pinus rigida
Ponderosa pcnderosapine Pinuspondesosa
Southern Pine Major loblolly pine Pinustaeda
longleafpine Pinus palustris
shortleafpine Pinusechinata
slash pine Pinus elliottli
Southern Pine Minor pondpine Pinus serotina
sand pine Pinusciausa
spruce pine Pinus glabra
Virginia pine Pinus virginiana
Southern PineMixed lobIollypine Pinustaeda
longleafpine Pinus palustris
pondpine Pinus serotina
shortleaf pine Pinusechinata
slash pine Pinus elliottii
Virginia pine Pinus virginiana
RadiataiMontereyPine Monterey pine Pinusradiata

5—13
 Table 5—7. Nomenclatureofcommercial softwoodlumber—con.
Commercial species orspecies
group names under American Treename used in this
Softwood LumberStandard handbook Botanicalname
Pine—con.
Sugar sugar pine Pinus lambertiana
Whitebark whitebark pine Pinus albicaulis
Redwood
Redwood redwood Sequoia sempe,virens
Spruce
Blue blue spruce Piceapungens
Eastern blackspruce Picea mariana
redspruce Picea rubens
whitespruce Picea glauca
Engelmann Engelmannspruce Picea engelmannhi
Sitka Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis
Tamarack
Tamarack tamarack Lanx larcinia
Yew
Pacific Pacific yew Taxus bravifolia
CoastSpecies Douglas-fir Pseudotsugamenziesii
western larch Larix occidentalls
EasternSoftwoods black spruce Picea mariana
red spruce Piceaivbens
white spruce Piceaglausa
balsam fir Abies balsamea
easternwhitepine Pinus strobus
jackpine Pinusbanksiana
pitch pine Pinus rigida
red pine Pinus resinosa
eastern hemlock Tsugacanadensis
tamarack Larixoccidentalis
Hem—Fir western hemlock Tsugaheterophylla
California red fir Abies magnifica
grand fir Abies grandis
noble fir Abies procera
Pacific silverfir Abies amabilis
whitefir Abies concolor
Hem—Fir (North) western hemlock Tsugaheterophylla
Pacific silverfir Abies amabilis
Northern Pine jack pine Pinusbanksiana
pitchpine Pinus rigicla
red pine Pinus resinosa
North Species northemwhitecedar Thujaoccidentalls
western redcedar Thujaplicanta
yellow-cedar Charnaecyparisnootkatensis
eastern hemlock Tsugacanadensis
western hemlock Tsugaheterophylla
Douglas-fir Pseudofsuga menziesii
balsam fir Abies balsamea
grand fir Abies grandis
Pacific silverfir Abies amabilis
subalpine (alpine) fir Abies Iasiocarpa
western larch Larix occidentalls
tamarack Larix laricina
eastern white pine Pinus strobus
jack pine Pinus banksiana
lodgepolepine Pinus contorta
ponderosapine Pinusporidemsa
red pine Pinus resinosa
westernwhitepine Pinus monticola
whitebark pine Pinus albicau/is
black spruce Picea mariana
Engelmannspruce Picea engelmannii
red spruce Picea rubens
Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis

5—14
Table 5—7. Nomenclatureof commercial softwoodlumber—con.
.
Commercial species orspecies
group names under American Treename used
Softwood LumberStandard inthis handbook Botanicalname
North Species—con. white spruce Pkaglauca
btoothaspen Populusgrandidentata
quakingaspen Populus tremuloides
black cottonwood Populus trichocarpa
balsampoplar Populus balsamifera
Southern Pine lobloitly pine Pinustaeda
longloafpine Pinus palustris
shortleaf pine Pinus echinata
slash pine Pinuseliottii
Spruce—Pine—Fir black spruce Picearnariana
Engelmannspruce Piceaengelmannii
red spruce Picea rubens
balsam fir Abies balsamea
subalpine (alpine) fir Abies lasiocarpa
jack Dine Pinus banksiana
lodgepolepine Pinus contorta
Spruce—Pine—Fir(South) black spruce Picea mariaria
Engelmannspruce Picea engelmannii
red spruce Picearubens
Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis
whitespruce Piceaglauca
balsam fir Abies balsamea
jackpine Pinusbanksiana
lodgepolepine Pinuscontorta
red pine Pinusresinosa
WesternCedars incense cedar Ubocedrusdecuirens
western redcedar Thujaplicata
Port-Orford-cedar Chamaecypanslawsoniana
yellow-cedar Chamaecypadsnootkatensis
Western Cedar (North) western redcedar Thujapilcata
yellow-cedar Chamaecypansnootkatensis
Western Woods Douglas-fir Pseudotsugamenziesii
California red fir Abiesmagnifica
grand fir Abiesgrandis
noble fir Abiesprocera
Pacific silverfir Abiesamabilis
subalpinefir Abieslasiocarpa
whitefir Abiesconcolor
Hemlock mountain Tsugamertensiana
western hemlock Tsuga hetemphylla
wesl:emlarch La,ixoccidentalis
Engelmannspruce Piceaengelmannii
Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis
lodgepolepine Pinuscontorta
ponderosapine Pinusponderosa
sugar pine Pinus lambertiana
westernwhitepine Pinus monticola
White Woods California redfir Abies magnifica
grand fir Abies graridis
noble fir Abies procera
Pacific silverfir Abies emabilis
subalpinefir Abies lasiocarpa
whitefir Abies concolor
mouintainhemlock Tsugamertensiana
western hemlock Tsugaheferophyifa
Engelmannspruce Picea engelmannhi
Sitka spruce Picea sitchensis
lodgepolepine Pinus contorta
ponderosapine Pinusponderosa
sugar pine Pinus Iambertiana
western white pine Pinusmonficola

5—15
Someprimarymanufacturersandwholesalers set up distribu- area, these yardsmay stock,orhave availableto them,a
tion yards in lumber-consuming areas to distributeboth different and widervariety ofhardwoods.
hardwood and softwoodproducts more effectively. Retail
yards thaw inventoryfrom distributionyardsand, in wood- Geography has less influence where consumer demands are
producingareas, from local lumberproducers. The wide more specific. Forexathple,wherelong construction lurriber
range ofgrades and species coveredin the grade rules may (6 to 8 m (20 to 26 ft)) is required, West Coast species are
not be readily availablein most retail outlets. often marketedbecausetheheight ofthe trees in several
species makeslong lengths apracticalmarket item. Ease of
Transportation is a vital factor in lumberdistribution. Often, preservative treatability makestreatedSouthernPine con-
the lumbershippedby water is green becauseweight is not a a
struction lumberavailablein wide geographic area.
major factor in this type ofshipping. On the other hand,
lumberreachingthe East Coastfrom the PacificCoastby rail StructuralLumber for Construction
is usually kiln-driedbecauserail shippingratesare basedon
Dimensionlumberis the principalstress-gradedlumber
weight.A shorterrail haul places southemand northeastern available in a retail yard. It is primarilyframinglumberfor
speciesin a favorableeconomicposition in regardto ship- joists, rafters,and studs. Strength,stiffness,and uniformity
ping costs in this market. ofsize are essential requirements. Dimensionlumberis
stockedin almostall yards, frequently in only one or two of
Changingtransportationcosts have influenced shiftsin mar- thegeneral purposeconstruction woods such as pine,fir,
ketdistributionof species and products. Truckshave become
a majorfactorin lumbertransportfor regional remanufacture hemlock, or spruce.Standard38- by 89-mm (nominal2- by
plants,forretail supply from distributionyards, and for much 4-in.) andwider dimension lumberis found in SelectSruc-
constructionlumber distribution. tural,No. 1, No. 2, and No. 3 grades. Standard38- by
89-mm (nominal 2- by 4-in.) dimension lumbermay also be
The increased production capacity offoreign hardwoodand available as Construction, Standard,Utility, and STUD
softwood manufacturing and the availability ofwatertrans- grades. STUDgrade is also available in widerwidths.
porthas broughtforeign lumberproductsto the U.S. market, Dimension lumberis often found in standard38-, 89-, 140-,
particularlyin coastal areas.
184-, 235-, and 286-mm (nominal2-, 4-, 6-, 8-, 10-, and
12-in.) widths and 2.4- to 5.4-m (8- to 18-ft) lengths in
Retail Yard Inventory multiplesof0.6 m (2 ft). Dimensionlumberformedby
The smallretail yards throughoutthe United Statescarry structural end-jointingproceduresmay be available. Diinen-
softwoodsfor construction purposesand often carry small sion lumberthicker than standard38 mm (nominal2 in)
stocks ofone ortwo hardwoodsin gradessuitable forfinish- and longerthan 5.4 m (18 ft) is not commonlyavailable in
ing or cabinetwork. Specialordersmust be made for other many retail yards.
hardwoods. Trim items such as mouldingin either softwood Otherstress-graded products generally available are posts and
or hardwoodare available cutto standard size and pattern.
Millworkplants usuallymakeready-for-installation cabinets, timbers; some beamsand stringersmay also be in stock.
and retail yards carry or catalogmany common styles and Typicalgrades in these productsare Select Structural, No. I,
and No. 2.
sizes. Hardwoodflooring is availableto the buyer only in
standardpatterns.Most retail yards carry stress gradesof
lumber. Yard Lumber for Construction
Boards are the mostcommonnon-stress-graded general
The assortment ofspecies in generalconstruction items purposeconstruction lumberin the retail yard. Boardsare
carriedby retail yardsdependsto agreat extentupongeo- stockedin one or more species, usuallyin standard 19 mm
graphiclocation, and both transportationcosts and tradition (nominal1 in.) thickness.Commonwidths are standard 38,
are importantfactors.Retail yardswithin,or close to, a 64, 89, 140, 184, 235, and 286 mm (nominal2, 3, 4, 6, 8,
major lumber-producing region commonly emphasize local 10, and 12 in.). Gradesgenerallyavailablein retail yardsare
timber. For example,a local retail yard on the Pacific No. 1 Common, No. 2 Common, and No. 3 Common
NorthwestCoast may stock only green DouglasFir and (Construction, Standard, No. 1, No. 2, etc.). Boards are sold
cedar in dimensiongrades, thy pine and hemlockin boards square edged, dressed (surfaced) and matched (tonguedand
andmoulding,and assortedspecial items such as redwood grooved), or with a shiplapped joint.Boards formedby end-
posts, cedarshinglesand shakes, and rough cedar siding. jointing ofshorter sections may constitute an appreciable
The only hardwoodsmay be walnutand "Philippinema- portionofthe inventory.
hogany"(the commonmarket nameencompassing many
species, includingtanguile, red meranti, and white lauan). Select Lumber
Retailyards locatedfarther from amajor softwoodsupply, a
such as inthe Midwest, may draw from severalgrowing Completionof construction projectusually depends on the
availability oflumberitemsin fmishedorsemi-fmished
areas andmay stock spruce and Southern Pine, forexample. form.The followingitemsoften may be stocked in only a
Becausethey are locatedin a major hardwoodproduction few species, finishes, or sizes depending on the lumberyard.

5—16
Finish—Finishboards usuallyare availablein a local yard No. 3; for northern white-cedar, Extra, Clear, 2nd Clear,
in one or two species,principallyin grade C&BTR.Cedar Clearwall, and Utility.
and redwoodhave different grade designations: grades such
as Clear Heart,A, or B are used in cedar;ClearAll Heart, Shingles that containonly heartwoodare more resistantto
Clear, and B grade are typicalin redwood.Finish boardsare decay thanare shingles that containsapwoOd. Edge-grained
usually standard 19 mm (nominal 1 in.) thick, surfaced on shingles are less likelyto warp and split than flat-grained
two sides to 19mm (3/4 in.); 38- to 286-mm (2- to 12-in.) shingles, thick-butted shingles less likelythan thin-butted
widths are usually stocked, in even increments. shingles,and narrow shingles less likelythan wide shingles.
The standardthicknessvalues ofthin-buttedshinglesare
Siding—Sidingis specifically intendedto cover exterior describedas 4/2, 5/2-1/4, and 5/2 (four shingles to 51 mm
walls. Beveledsiding is ordinarilystocked only in white (2 in.) ofbutt thickness,five shingles to 57 mm (2-1/4in.)
pine,ponderosapine,westernredcedar, cypress, or redwood. ofbuttthickness,and five shingles to 51 mm (2 in.) ofbutt
Drop siding, also known as rustic or barn siding, is usually thickness). Lengths may be 406, 457, or 610mm (16, 18, or
stocked in the same speciesas is beveledsiding. Sidingmay 24 in.). Random widths and specified("dimension"thingle)
be stockedas B&BTR or C&BTRexceptin cedar, where widthsare available in western redcedar, redwood,and
Clear, A, and B gradesmay be available, and redwood, cypress.
whereClear All Heart, Clear, and B gradesmay be found.
Verticalgrain (VG) is sometimes part ofthe grade designa- Shingles are usually packedfour bundlesto a square.A
tion. Drop siding is also sometimesstockedin sound knot- square ofshingles will coverroughly9 m2 (100 ft2) o:roof
tedC and D gradesof Southern Pine, DouglasFir, and area whenthe shingles are appliedat standard weather
hemlock. Drop sidingmay be surfaced andmatched,or exposures.
shiplapped. Knottygrades ofcedar (SelectTightKnot Shakes are hand splitor hand split and resawnfromwestern
(STK) andredwood (Rustic)are commonly available. redcedar. Shakes are ofa singlegrade and mustbe 100%
Flooring—Flooringis made chieflyfrom hardwoods, such clear.In the caseofhand split andresawnmaterial,shakes
as oak and maple, andtheharder softwoodspecies, such as aregraded from thesplitface.Hand-splitshakes aregraded
Douglas-fir, western larch, and Southern Pine. Often, at least from thebest face. Shakesmust be 100% heartwood.The
one softwoodand one hardwoodare stocked. Flooringis standardthicknessof shakes rangesfrom 9.5 to 32 mm (3/8
usually 19 mm (3/4 in.) thick. Thicker flooring is available to 1-1/4 in.). Lengthsare 457 and 610 mm (18 and24 in.),
for heavy-dutyfloors. Thinnerflooringis available, espe- with a special"Starter—FinishCourse" length of381 mm
cially for re-covering old floors. Vertical- and flat-grained (15 in.).
(also calledquartersawn andplainsawn) flooring is manufac-
tured from both softwoods andhardwoods. Vertical-grained Important Purchase Considerations
flooringshrinks and swells less than flat-grained flooring, is
more uniformin texture,andwears more uniformly, and the Some pointsto considerwhenorderinglumberortimbers
edgejoints have less tendencyto open. arethefollowing:
Softwoodflooring is usuallyavailablein B&BTR,C Select, 1. Quantity—Lineal measure, boardmeasure, surface meas-
or D Selectgrades. Inmaple, thechiefgradesare Clear, ure, numberofpieces ofdefmitesize and length.Consider
No. 1, and No. 2. The gradesin quartersawn oak are Clear that the boardmeasuredependson the thicknessand
and Select, and in plainsawn,Clear, Select, and No. I widthnomenclature usedand that the interpretation of
Common. Quartersawn hardwoodflooring has the same these must be clearlydelineated. In other words, such
advantages as does vertical-grained softwoodflooring. In featuresasnominalor actualdimensions and pattrnsize
addition, the silveror flaked grainofquartersawn flooringis must be considered.
frequently preferred to the figure ofplainsawn flooring. 2. Size—Thickness in millimetersor inches—nominal or
actualifsurfaced on faces; widthin millimeters or
Casing and Base—Casingand base are standard items in inches—nominal or actualifsurfaced on edges; length in
themore importantsoftwoodsand arestocked in mostyards
in at least one species. The chiefgrade, B&BTR,is de- metersor feet—maybenominalaveragelength,limiting
signed to meetthe requirements ofinteriortrim for dwell- length, or a singleuniformlength.Oftenatrade cLesigna-
ings. Many casingand base patternsare surfaced to 17.5 by tion, "random"Jength, is used to denote a nonspccified
57 mm (11/16by 2-1/4 in.); other sizes include 14.3 mm assortment oflengths. Suchan assortmentshould contain
(9/16 in.) by 76 mm (3 in.), by 83 mm (3-1/4 in.), and by critical lengths as well as a range. The limits allowedin
89mm(3-1/2 in.).Hardwoodsfor thesame purposes,such makingthe assortmentrandom can be establishedatthe
as oak and birch, may be carriedin stock in theretail yard or time ofpurchase.
obtainedon specialorder. 3. Grade—As indicated in gradingrules oflumbermanufac-
turing associations. In softwoods that are in compliance
Shingles and Shakes—Commonlyavailableshingles are with the American Softwood LumberStandard, each
sawn from westernredcedarand northern white-cedar. For
westernredcedar,the shingle gradesare No. 1, No. 2, and piece oflumbermay be grade stamped with its official
grade species identification, aname or numberidentif'ing

5—17
 theproducingmill, thedrynessat thetime ofsurfacing, 10. Reinspection—Procedures forresolution ofpurchase
and a symbol identifjingthe inspectionagencysupervis- disputes. The AmericanSoftwoodLumberStandardpro-
ing the grading inspection. The grade designation videsfor procedures to be followedin resolutionof
stampedon a piece indicatesthe quality at the time the manufacturer—wholesaler—consumer conflicts over quality
piecewas graded.Subsequent exposure to unfavorable or quantity ofALS lumbergrades. The dispute maybe
storage conditions,improperdrying,or carelesshandling resolved by reinspectingthe shipment.Time limits, li-
may cause the materialto fall belowits originalgrade. ability, costs, and complaintproceduresare outlinedin
the grade rules ofboth softwoodandhardwoodagencies
Workingorrecuttinga gradedproduct to a patternmay underwhichthe disputed shipment was graded and
changeor invalidate the originalgrade.The purchase purchased.
specification shouldbe clear inregardto regrading or ac-
ceptance ofworkedlumber. In softwood lumber, grades
for dry lumbergenerallyare determined after kiln drying
Commonly Used Lumber
and surfacing. However, this practiceis notgeneralfor Abbreviations
hardwoodFactorylumber, wherethe grade is generally The following standardlumberabbreviations are commonly
based on quality and size prior to kiln drying. To be cer-
tain the product grade is correct, refertothe gradingrule used incontractsand other documents forpurchaseand sale
oflumber.
by number and paragraph.
4. Speciesor speciesgroup ofwood—Suchas DouglasFir, AAR Association ofAmericanRailroads
SouthernPine, Hem—Fir. Somespecieshave been AD air dried
grouped for marketing convenience; othersare sold under ADF after deducting freight
a varietyofnames.Be sure thespecies or species group
is correctlyand clearlydescribedon the purchase AF alpinefir
ALS American LumberStandard
specification.
AST antistaintreated;at shiptackle (westernsoftwoods)
5. Product—Suchas flooring, siding, timbers,boards.
Nomenclaturevariesby species,region, andgrading AV or avg average
association. To be certain the nomenclature is correctfor AW&L all widths and lengths
theproduct,referto thegradingruleby numberand B1S see EB1S, CB1S, andE&CB1S
paragraph. B2S see EB2S, CB2S, andE&CB2S
6. Conditionof seasoning—Such as air dry, kiln dry. Soft- B&B, B&BTR B and Better
wood lumber less than 114 mm (nominal5 in.) in thick- B&S beamsand stringers
ness dried to 19% moisturecontentor less is defmedas BD board
dry by the AmericanSoftwoodLumberStandard. Kiln- BDFT board feet
dried lumber is lumberthat has been seasonedin a cham-
berto a predetermined moisturecontentby applyingheat. BDL bundle
Green lumberis lumberless than 114 mm (nominal BEV bevel or beveled
5 in.) in thickness,which has a moisturecontent in ex- BH boxed heart
cess of 19%.Ifthe moisturerequirement is critical, the B/L, BL billoflading
level ofmoisturecontent and the methodby whichit will BM board measure
be achievedmust be specified. BSND bright sapwood, no defect
7. Surfacing and working—Rough (unpianed), surfaced BTR better
(dressed, planed),or patternedstock. Specif,'condition. CB center beaded
Ifsurfaced, indicatecode (S4S, SiS1E). Ifpatterned, list CBIS center bead on one side
patternnumberwith referenceto appropriate grade rules. CB2S centerbead ontwo sides
8. Grading rules—Official gradingagency nameand nameof cc cubicalcontent
officialrules under whichproductis graded,productiden- cftorCu. ft. cubic foot or feet
tification, paragraphandpage numberofrules, and date of
rules or official rule edition may be specified by the cost and freight
buyer. CIF cost, insurance, and freight
CIFE cost, insurance,freight, and exchange
9. Manufacturer—Name ofmanufacturer ortradenameof
CG2E center grooveon two edges
specific product or both. Most lumberproducts are sold
withoutreference to a specific manufacturer. Ifproprietaiy C/L carload
namesor qualityfeatures ofa manufacturer are required, CLG ceiling
this must be stipulatedclearlyon the purchaseagreement. CLR clear

5—18
CM center matched FLU, Fig flooring
Corn Common FOB free on board (named point)
CONST construction FOHC free ofheart center
caulking seam FOK free ofknots
CSG casing FRT, Frt freight
CV center V FT, ft foot,feet
CV1S center V on one side FT. SM feet surface measure
CV2S center V ontwo sides G girth
DB Cig double-beaded ceiling (E&CB1S) GM grade marked
DBPart double-beaded partition(E&CB2S) G/R groovedroofing
DET double end-trimmed HB,H.B. hollowback
DF Douglas-fir HEM hemlock
DF-L Douglas-fir plus larch H-F mixedhemlockand fir (Hem—Fir)
DIM dimension Hrt heart
DKG decking H&M hitand miss
D/S,DS,D/Sdg drop siding H orM hitor miss
D1S,D2S see S1S and S2S IC incense cedar
D&M dressedand matched IN, in. inch, inches
D&CM dressedand center matched md industrial
D&SM dressedand standardmatched Iwp Idaho whitepine
D2S&CM dressedtwo sides and centermatched J&p joists andplanks
D2S&SM dressedtwo sides and standard matched JTD jointed
E edge KD kiln dried
EB1S edge bead one side KDAT kiln-driedafter treatment
EB2S, SB2S edge beadon two sides L western larch
EE eased edges LBR, Lbr lumber
EG edge (verticalor rift) grain LCL less than carload
EM end matched LGR longer
EV1S, SV1S edge V one side LGTH length
EV2S, SV2S edge V two sides Lft, Lf linealfoot, feet
E&CB1S edge and centerbead one side LIN, Lin lineal

E&CB2S, edge and centerbead two sides LL longleaf

DB2S, BC&2S LNG,Lng lining
E&CViS, edge and centerV one side LP lodgepole pine
DV1S,V&CV1S
M thousand
E&CV2S, edge and centerV two sides
DV2S, MBM, MBF, thousand(feet) board measure
V&CV2S M.BM
ES Engelmannspruce MC,M.C. moisture content

Fb,F, F, F,F allowable stress(MPa (lb/in2)) in bending; tension, MERCH, Merch merchantable
compressionand shearparallelto grain; MapleFlooring Manufacturers Association
and incompressionperpendicular to grain,
MG medium grain ormixedgrain
respectively
FA facial area MR mountain hemlock
Fac factory MLDG, Mldg moulding
FAS free alongside (vessel) Mft thousandfeet
FAS Firstsand Seconds M-S mixed species
FASIF Firsts and Seconds one face MSR machinestress rated
FBM, FtBM feet board measure N nosed
PG flat orslash grain NBM net board measure
NOFMA National Oak Flooring Manufacturers Assoiiation
FJ fingerjoint; end-jointed lumber usingfinger-joint
configuration No. number

5—19
N1E or N2E nosed one or two edges S&E side and edge (surfacedon)
Ord order S1E surfacedone edge
PAD partially air-dried S2E surfacedtwo edges
PAR,Par paragraph SIS surfacedone side
PART, Part partition S2S surfaced two sides
PAT, Pat pattern 545 surfacedfour sides
Pcs. pieces S1S&CM surfacedone side and center matched
PE plainend S2S&CM surfaced two sides and center matched
PET precision end-trimmed S4S&CS surfaced four sidesand caulkingseam
W ponderosapine SIS1E surfaced one side, one edge
P&T posts andtimbers SIS2E surfaced one side, two edges
PIS,P2S see S1S and S2S S2S1E surfaced two sides, one edge
RDM random S2S&SL surfaced two sides and shiplapped
REG,Reg regular S2S&SM surfaced two sides and standard matched
Rig. roofing TBR timber
RGH, Rgh rough T&G tonguedand grooved
R/L, RL randomlengths TSO treating service only (nonconforming to standard)
RJW, RW randomwidths UTIL utility
RES resawn VU vertical (edge) grain
SB1S singlebeadoneside VIS see EVIS, CV1S,andE&CV1S
SDG, Sdg siding V2S see EV2S, CV2S,andE&CV2S
S-DRY surfaceddry; lumber 19% moisture contentper WC western cedar
ALS for softwood
WCH WestCoast hemlock
SE square edge WCW WestCoastwoods
SEL, Se! Selector Select grade wider
WDR, wdr
SE&S square edge and sound WF whitefir
SG slashorflat grain WHAD wormholes (defect)
S-GRN surfaced green; lumber unseasoned, >19% WHND wormholes (no defect)
moisturecontent per ALS for softwood
WT weight
SGSSND sapwood, gum spots and streaks,no defect
WTH width
SIT. SPR Sitka spruce
WRC western redcedar
S/L, SL, S/Lap shiplap
surface measure WW whitewoods (Engelmann spruce, any true firs,
SM
any hemlocks, any pines)
Specs specifications
SP sugar pine
SQ square
ss
SRB
squares
stress-ratedboard
Reference
USDC. [Current edition].American softwoodlumber
STD, Std standard standard.Prod. Stand. PS—20—94.Washington,DC: U.S.
Std.lgths. standardlengths Department ofCommerce.
STD. M standard matched
SS Sitka spruce
SSE sound square edge
SSND sap stain, no defect (stained)
STK Selecttight knot
STK stock
STPG stepping
STR,STRUCT structural
SYP SouthernPine

5—20
 I Chapter
Lumber Stress Grades and
Design Properties
David E. Kretschmann and David W. Green

umbersawn from a log,regardless ofspecies and

Contents size, is quitevariablein mechanical properties.
Responsibilitiesand Standards for StressGrading 6—2 Piecesmaydiffer in strength by several hundred
percent. For simplicity and economyin use, pieces oflumber
AmericanLumberStandardCommittee 6—2 ofsimilarmechanical properties are placedin categories
calledstress grades,whichare characterized by (a) one or
NationalGradingRule 6—3 more sortingcriteria, (b) a set ofproperties for engineering
Standards 6—3 design,and(c) a unique grade name.
VisuallyGraded Structural Lumber 6—3 This chapterbriefly discusses the U.S. Department oC Com-
merceAmerican Softwood LumberStandardPS2O(1994)
Visual Sorting Criteria 6—3
sorting criteria fortwo stress-grading methods, and the phi-
Procedures forDerivingDesignProperties 6—5 losophyofhowproperties forengineering design are derived.
The derivedproperties are then used in one oftwo design
Machine-Graded Structural Lumber 6—7 formats: (a) the loadand resistance factor design (LRFD),
whichis basedon areferencestrength at the 5th percentile
Machine SortingCriteria 6—7 5-mm bendingstress (AF&PA 1996), or (b) the allowable
Procedures for DerivingDesignProperties 6—8 stress design(ASD), which is based on a design stress at the
lower5th percentile 10-year bendingstress. The properties
QualityControl 6-10 depend on the particularsortingcriteriaand on additional
factors that are independent ofthe sortingcriteria. De sign
AdjustmentofProperties forDesignUse 6—il
properties are lowerthanthe average properties ofclear,
Shrinkage 6-11 straight-grained wood tabulated in Chapter4.
SizeFactor 6-11 From oneto six designproperties are associatedwith a stress
MoistureAdjustments 6—12 grade: bending modulus ofelasticity foran edgewiseloading
orientation and stress in tension and compression parallelto
DurationofLoad 6—12 thegrain, stress in compression perpendicular tothe grain,
stress in shearparallelto the grain, and extreme fiber stress
Treatment Effects 6-13 in bending. As istrueofthepropertiesofany structurai
Temperature Effects 6-14 material,the allowable engineering designpropertiesmust be
eitherinferredor measurednondestructively. Inwood, the
References 6—14 propertiesare inferredthroughvisualgrading criteria, nonde-
structive measurement suchas flatwisebendingstiffnass or
density, or a combination ofthese properties. These nonde-
structive tests provideboth a sortingcriterionand a means
ofcalculating appropriate mechanical properties.
The philosophies containedin this chapterare used by a
numberoforganizations to developvisual andmachinestress
grades. References are madeto exactprocedures and the
resultingdesignstresses,but these are not presentedin
detail.

6—1
 American LumberStandard. Under the auspices ofthe ALSC
Responsibilities and is theNationalGrading Rule, whichspecifiesgradingcharac-
Standards for Stress Grading teristics for different gradespecifications.

Anorderly, voluntary, but circuitous system ofresponsibili- Organizations that write and publishgrading rule books
tieshas evolvedin theUnited States for the development, containing stress-grade descriptions are calledrules-writing
manufacture, and merchandising ofmost stress-graded lum- agencies. Grading rules that specify American Softwood
ber. The system is shown schematically in Figure 6—I. LumberStandard PS 20—94 must be certifiedby the ALSC
Stress-grading principles are developed from research fmdings BoardofReviewfor conformance with this standard.
and engineering concepts,often withincommittees and Organizations that write gradingrules, as well as independ-
subcommittees ofthe American Society forTestingand entagencies, can be accreditedbytheALSC Boardof
Materials. Reviewto providegradingand grade-marking supervision
and reinspection services to individual lumbermanufacturers.
American Lumber Accredited rules-writing and independentagenciesare listed
in Table 6—1. The continued accreditation ofthese organiza-
Standard Committee tions is under the scrutinyofthe ALSCBoard ofReview.
Voluntaryproduct standards are developed underprocedures Most commercial softwood species manufactured in the
publishedby the U.S. DepartmentofCommerce. The De- UnitedStates are stress graded underAmericanLumber
partmentofCommerce NationalInstitute ofStandards and Standardpractice. Distinctive grade marksforeach species or
Technology (NIST),working with rules-writingagencies,
lumberinspectionagencies,lumberproducers, distributors species groupingare providedby accredited agencies. The
andwholesalers,retailers, end users,and members ofFederal principles ofstress gradingare alsoappliedto several hard-
wood species underprovisions ofthe American Softwood
agencies, work throughthe American LumberStandard
Committee (ALSC) to maintaina voluntaryconsensus LumberStandard. Lumberfound in the marketplacema be
softwood standard, calledthe American Softwood Lumber stress graded undergrading rules developedin accordance
Standard(PS 20—94). The PS 20—94 Standardprescribes the
ways in which stress-grading principles canbe used to Table 6—1.Sawn lumber grading agenciesa
formulate gradingrules designatedas conforming to the
Rules-writing agencies
Northeastern LumberManufacturersAssociation
(NELMA)
Northern Softwood LumberBureau (NSLB)
(1) Formulation of stress grading principles Redwood Inspection Service (RIS)
University staffmembers
Government researchers Southern Pine Inspection Bureau (SPIB)
Industry R&Dstaff West Coast Lumber Inspection Bureau (WCLIB)
Consumer representatives Western Wood Products Association (WWPA)
'1r
National LumberGradesAuthority (NLGA)
1(2) Product standards
I American LumberStandard Committee Independentagencies
__1 and its Board of Review California LumberInspection Service
I National Grading Rule Committee Pacific Lumber Inspection Bureau, Inc.
National Institute of Standards and Technology
Renewable Resource Associates, Inc.
Review and adoption Timber Products Inspection
Alberta Forest Products Association
(3) Formulation and publication of Canadian Lumbermen'sAssociation
stress-grading rules Canadian Mill Services Association
Rules-writing agencies - _______
Canadian Softwood Inspection Agency, Inc.
Cariboo Lumber Manufacturers Association
Central Forest Products Association
(4) Grading agency accreditation
American LumberStandard Committee ConiferousLumber Inspection Bureau
Council of Forest Industriesof British Columbia
Interior LumberManufacturers Association
(5)Grademarksupervision and reinspection MacDonald Inspection
Rules-writing agencies Maritime LumberBureau
Independent inspection agencies Newfoundland LumberProducersAssociation
Northern Forest Products Association
Ontario LumberManufacturers Association
(6) Manufactureand marketing of American
standard stress-graded lumber Pacific LumberInspection Bureau
Sawmills QuebecLumber Manufacturers Association

Figure 6—1. Voluntarysystem of responsibilities for aFor updatedinformation, contact American Lumber
stressgrading under the American Softwood Lumber Standard Committee, P.O. Box 210, Germantown,
Standard. MD 20874.

6—2
with methods approvedby the ALSC orby someother Standards
stress-grading rule, or itmay not be stress graded. Only
those stress gradesthat meet the requirements ofthe volun- Table6—2 also shows associatedminimumbending strength
tary American SoftwoodLumberStandardsystem are dis- ratios to providea comparative index ofquality.The
cussed in this chapter. strength ratio is the hypothetical ratio ofthe strengthofa
piece oflumber with visiblestrength-reducing growthcharac-
National Grading Rule teristicsto its strengthifthose characteristics were absent.
Formulas for calculating strengthratios are given in Ameri-
Stress grading underthe auspices ofthe ALSC is appliedto can Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM)standard
many sizes and several patternsoflumberthat meet the D245. The corresponding visual description ofthe c.imen-
American Softwood LumberStandard provision. However, sion lumbergradescan be found in the gradingrule booksof
most stress-gradedlumberis dimensionlumber(standard38 therules-writingagencieslisted in Table 6—1. Designprop-
to 89 mm (nominal2 to 4 in.) thick)and is governedby erties will vary by species.The designproperties for each
uniformspecifications underthe NationalGrading Rule. The species and grade are publishedin the appropriate rule books
NationalGrading Ruleprovidesguidelinesforwritinggrad- and in the NationalDesignSpecfIcationfor Wood
ingrules for lumberin this thicknessrange and specifies Construction(AF&PA 1997).
gradingcharacteristics fordifferent grade specifications.
American Softwood LumberStandarddimension lumberin
this thicknessrange is requiredto conform to the National Grouping of Species
Most speciesare grouped togetherand the lumberfromthem
Grading Rule, except forspecialproductssuch as scaffold treatedas equivalent. Speciesare usually groupedwhenthey
planks. Graderules for other sizes, such as nominal5-in. have about the same mechanical properties, when th wood
(standard1 14-mm) or larger structural timbers may vary oftwo or more species is very similarin appearance, or for
betweenrules-writing agencies orspecies.
marketing convenience. Forvisual stress grades, ASTM
The NationalGrading Rule establishes the lumberclassifica- D2555 contains procedures forcalculating clear wood prop-
tions and grade namesforvisuallystress-graded dimension erties for groups ofspecies to be usedwith ASTM 1)245.
lumber(Table6—2)and alsoprovidesforthe gradingof ASTMD1990contains proceduresfor calculating design
dimensionlumberby a combination ofmachine and visual properties for groups ofspecies tested as full-sized members.
methods.Visualrequirements for this type oflumber are The propertiesassignedto a group by such procedureswill
developedby therespective rules-writing agencies for often be different from those ofany species that makeupthe
particularspecies grades. group. The group willhave a unique identity, with nomen-
clatureapprovedbythe Board ofReview ofthe ALSC. The
identities, properties, and characteristics ofindividual species
ofthe group arefound in thegrade rules for anyparticular
Table 6—2. Visual grades described in National species or species grouping. In the case ofmachine tress
Grading Rule grading, the inspectionagencythat supervises the grading
certifies by testingthat the design propertiesin that grade
Bending areappropriate forthe species or species groupingarLdthe
strength
Lumber classificationa Grade name ratio (%) gradingprocess.

Light framingb Construction 34 Foreign species

Standard 19
9 Currently,the importation ofstructurallumberis governed
Utility
by two ALSCguidelinesthat describe the application ofthe
Structurallight framingb Select Structural 67 American LumberStandardand ASTM Dl990 procedures
1 55 to foreign species. The approval process is outlinedin
2 45 Table 6—3.
3 26
Studc Stud 26
Structural joists and planksd Select Structural 65
Visually Graded
1 55 Structural Lumber
2 45
3 26 Visual Sorting Criteria
2Contact rules-writing agenciesfor additional information. Visual gradingis the originalmethodfor stress grading. It is
bStandard 38 to 89 mm (nominal 2 to 4 in.) thick and wide. basedon the premisethat mechanical properties oflumber
Widths narrower than 89 mm (4 in.) may have different differ from mechanical properties ofclearwoodbecausemany
strength ratio than shown. growth characteristicsaffectproperties andthese characteris-
CStandard 38 to 89 mm (nominal 2 to 4 in.) thick, tics canbe seen andjudgedby eye. Growthcharacteristics are
38 mm in.) wide. used to sort lumberinto stress grades. The typicalvisual
dStandard 38 to 89 mm (nominal 2 to 4 in.) thick,
140 mm in.) wide. sortingcriteriadiscussedhere are knots, slope ofgrain,

6-3
 Table 6—3. Approval process for acceptance of design values forforeign species

I Rules-writing agency seeks approval to include speciesin grade-rulebook.

2 Agency developssamplingand testing plan, followingAmerican LumberStandard Committee (ALSC) foreign
importation guidelines,which must then be approved by ALSC Board of Review.
3 Lumberis sampledand tested in accordancewith approved sampling and testing plan.
4 Agency analyzes data by ALSC Board of Reviewand ASTM D1990 procedures and other appropriatecriteria
(if needed).
5 Agency submits proposed design valuesto ALSC Board of Review.
6 Submission is reviewedby ALSC Board of Reviewand USDA Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
7 Submission is available for comment by other agenciesand interested parties.
8 ALSC Board of Reviewapproves(or disapproves) design values,with modification (if needed) based on all
available information.
9 Agency publishesnew design values for species.

checksand splits, shake,density, decay,heartwoodand restrictedthan knotsaway from the edge. In simplysup-
sapwood, pitch pockets,and wane. ported structural members subjectedto bending, stresses are
greaterin the middle ofthe length and at the top and bottom
Knots edgesthan at rriidheight. Thesefacts are recognizedin some
Knotscauselocalizedcrossgrainwith steepslopes.A very grades by differing limitationson the sizes ofknots in
different locations.
damaging aspect ofknots in sawn lumberisthat the continu-
ity ofthe grain around the knot is interruptedby the sawing Knotsin glued-laminated structural membersare not con-
process. tinuous as in sawn structural lumber, and differentmethods
In general, knotshave a greatereffecton strength in tension are used for evaluating their effecton strength(Ch. 11).
than compression; in bending, the effectdepends on whether
a knot is in thetensionor compression sideofa beam (knots Slope of Grain
alongthe centerline have little or no effect).Intergrown (or Slope ofgrain (crossgrain)reducesthe mechanicalproperties
live) knots resist (or transmit)some kindsof stress,but oflumberbecausethe fibersarenot parallelto theedges.
encasedknots (unlessvery tight) or knotholes resist (or Severely cross-grained piecesare also undesirable because
transmit)little or no stress. On the other hand, distortionof they tendto warp with changes in moisture content. Stresses
grain is greater around an intergrown knot than aroundan causedby shrinkage during dryingare greaterin structural
encased(ordead) knot ofequivalent size. As a result,overall lumberthan in small, clear straight-grained specimensarid
strength effectsare roughly equalized, and often no distinc- areincreased in zones ofslopingor distortedgrain. To pro-
tion is made in stress gradingbetween intergrownknots, vide a margin ofsafety, the reductionin designproperties
dead knots, and knotholes. resulting from cross grain in visuallygradedstructural lum-
beris considerably greaterthan that observedin small, clear
The zone ofdistortedgrain (cross grain)around aknot has specimens that containsimilar cross grain.
less "parallelto piece" stiffness than does straight-grained
wood; thus, localizedareas oflow stifThessare often associ- Checks and Splits
atedwith knots. However,such zonesgenerallyconstitute Checksareseparations ofthe wood that normallyoccur
only a minorpart ofthe total volumeofa piece oflumber. across or through the annual rings,usuallyas a result of
Because overallstiffness ofa piecereflects the character of
all parts, stiffnessis not greatly influencedby knots. seasoning. Splitsare a separationofthe wood throughthe
piecetothe opposite surface or to an adjoining surface caused
Thepresenceofaknot has agreater effecton most strength by tearingapart ofthe wood cells.As opposedto shakes,
checks and splitsare ratedby only the areaofactualopening.
propertiesthan on stiffness. The effecton strength depends Anend-splitis considered equalto an end-checkthat extends
approximately on the proportionofthe cross section ofthe
piece oflumberoccupiedby the knot, knot location, and throughthe full thickness ofthe piece.The effectsofchecks
distributionofstress in the piece.Limits on knot sizes are and splits on strength and the principlesoftheirlimitation
thereforemadeinrelationto the widthofthe face and loca- are the same as those for shake.
tiononthe face in whichtheknot appears. Compression
members are stressedabout equallythroughout, and no Shake
limitationrelated to location ofknots is imposed. In tension, Shake is aseparation or a weaknessoffiberbond,betweenor
knots alongthe edgeofa membercause an eccentricity that throughthe annualrings,that is presumedto extend length-
inducesbendingstresses, and they shouldtherefore be more wise without limit. Because shakereducesresistanceto shear

6-4
in memberssubjected to bending, gradingrules therefore members (ASTM Dl990 in-gradetestingprocedure) or
restrict shakemost closelyin those parts ofa bendingmem- (b) appropriate modification oftest resultsconductedon
berwhere shearstresses are highest. In memberswith limited smallclear specimens (ASTM D245 procedure for small
cross grain,which are subjectedonly totensionor compres- clearwood). Design properties for the major commerial
sion, shakedoes not affectstrengthgreatly. Shake maybe softwooddimension lumberspeciesgiven in currentdesign
limitedin a grade becauseofappearance and becauseit specification and codesin theUnitedStates havebeen de-
permits entrance ofmoisture, whichresultsin decay. rived from full-size membertestresults. However, design
properties for most hardwooddimension and structuraltim-
Density bers (largerthan standard 89-mm-(nominal 4-in.-,actual
Strengthis relatedto the mass perunit volume (density)of 3-1/2-in.-) thick"timbers")ofall species are still derived
clear wood.Propertiesassignedto lumberare sometimes usingresultsoftests on smallclear samples.
modifiedbyusingthe rate ofgrowthand percentage oflate-
wood as measuresofdensity.Typically, selectionfor density Procedurefor Small Clear Wood
requires that the rings per unit lengthandthe percentage of The derivationofmechanical propertiesofvisuallygraded
latewood be within a specifiedrange. It is possible to elimi- lumberwas historicallybasedon clear woodpropertieswith
nate somevery low-strength pieces from agrade by exclud- appropriate modifications for the lumber characteristics al-
ing those that are exceptionally low in density. lowedby visual sortingcriteria. Sortingcriteriathat influ-
ence mechanical properties are handledwith "strengthratios"
Decay forthe strengthproperties and with "quality factors" for the
Decayin most forms shouldbe prohibitedorseverelyre- modulusofelasticity.
strictedin stress grades becausethe extentofdecay is difficult
to determine and its effecton strength is often greaterthan From pieceto piece,there is variationin both the clear wood
visualobservation would indicate.Decayofthepockettype properties andthe occurrence ofgrowth characteristic:.
The influence ofthis variability, on lumberproperties. is
(for example,Fomespini) can be permittedto someextentin handleddifferently for strength properties thanformodulusof
stress grades, as can decay that occursin knots but does not
extendinto the surroundingwood. elasticity.

Strength Properties—Eachstrength property ofapiece of

Heartwood and Sapwood lumber is derivedfrom the productofthe clear wood strength
Heartwooddoes not needto be takeninto account in stress for the species andthe limitingstrength ratio. The strength
gradingbecauseheartwoodand sapwoodhavebeen assumed ratio is thehypothetical ratio ofthe strength ofa piec of
to have equalmechanical properties. However, heathvood is lumberwith visiblestrength-reducing growthcharacteristics
sometimes specifiedin avisual grade becausethe heartwood to its strength ifthose characteristics were absent. Tlie true
ofsome speciesis more resistantto decaythan is thesap- strengthratio ofapiece oflumberis neverknown and must
wood; heartwoodmayberequired ifuntreatedwood will be be estimated. Therefore, thestrengthratio assignedto a
exposed to a decay hazard.On the otherhand, sapwoodtakes growthcharacteristic servesas a predictor oflumberstrength.
preservativetreatmentmore readily thanheartwoodand it is Strength ratio is expressed as a percentage, rangingflom
preferable for lumberthat will betreatedwith preservatives. 0 to 100.
Pitch Pockets Estimatedstrength ratios for cross grain and density]iave
been obtained empirically; strength ratios forother growth
Pitch pockets ordinarily have so little effect on structural characteristics havebeen derived theoretically. For example,
lumberthat they can be disregarded in stress gradingifthey to account fortheweakening effectofknots, theassumption
are smalland limitedin number.The presenceofa large is made that the knot is effectivelyahole throughthe piece,
number ofpitch pockets,however, may indicateshake or
weaknessofbondbetweenannualrings. reducingthe cross section, as shownin Figure6—2. For a
beamcontainingan edgeknot, the bendingstrengthratiocan
be idealizedas theratio ofthebendingmomentthat can be
Wane resistedby abeam with a reducedcross sectionto that ofa
Wanerefersto bark or lack ofwood onthe edgeor corner of beamwith a full cross section:
a pieceoflumber, regardless ofcause (excepteasededges).
Requirements ofappearance, fabrication, or ample bearing or
nailing surfaces generallyimpose stricterlimitations onwane SR=l_(k/h)2
than does strength. Wane is thereforelimited in structural
lumberon those bases. whereSRis strengthratio,kknot size, and hwidth cfface
containingthe knot. This is the basic expression for the effect
Procedures for Deriving ofa knot at theedgeofthevertical face ofabeamthat is
deflected vertically. Figure 6—3 shows how strength ratio
Design Properties changeswith knot size according to the formula.
The mechanical propertiesofvisuallygradedlumbermay be
established by (a)tests ofarepresentative sample offull-size

6—5
 safety) assignedto that grade.In visual grading,according to
k ASTM D245, this is handledby using a near-minimum
clear wood strength as abase value arid multiplyingit by the
minimumstrengthratio permittedin the grade to obtain the
grade strengthproperty. The near-minimumvalue is called
the 5% exclusionlimit. ASTM D2555 providesclear wood
strength dataandgives amethodfor estimating the 5%
exclusionlimit.
For example,supposea 5% exclusionlimit for the clear
wood bendingstrengthofa species in the green condition
is 48 MPa (7,000 lb/in2). Supposealso that amongthe
B characteristics allowedin a grade oflumber, one characteristic
Figure 6—2. Effectof edge knot:A, edge knotin lumber (a knot, for example)providestheloweststrengthratio iii
and B, assumed loss of crosssection(cross-hatched bending—assumed in this example as 40%. Using the num-
area). bers,the bendingstrengthfor the grade is estimatedby
multiplying the strengthratio (0.40) by 48 MPa
100
(7,000 lb/in2), equaling 19 MPa (2,800 lb/in2) (Fig. 6—4).
The bendingstrength in thç green conditionof95% ofthe
pieces in this species in a grade that has a strengthratio of
80 40% is expectedto be l9 MPa lb/in2). Similar
0 procedures are followedfor other strength properties, using
60 theappropriate clear wood property value and strengthratio.
Additional multiplyingfactors are then appliedto produce
Dl 40 properties for design, as summarized later in this chapter.
a)
Ci)
20 Modulus ofElasticity—ModulusofelasticityE is a meas-
ure ofthe ability ofa beamto resist deflectionor ofa column
to resist buckling. The assignedE is an estimateofthe
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 average modulus, adjustedfor sheardeflection, ofthe lumber
k/h grade whentested in staticbending. The averagemodulusof
elasticityfor clear woodofthe species,as recordedin ASTM
Figure 6—3. Relation between bending strengthratio and D2555,is used as abase. The clear wood average is multi-
size of edge knot expressed as fraction of face width. plied by empirically derived "qualityfactors"to representthe
k is knotsize; h, width of facecontaining the knot. reductionin modulusofelasticity that occurs by lumber
grade forpieces tested in an edgewiseorientation.This
procedure is outlined in ASTM D245.
Strengthratios for all knots, shakes,checks, and splits are
derivedusing similar concepts.Strength ratio formulas are Forexample, assume aclear wood average modulusofelas-
given in ASTM D245. The same referencecontains guide- 6
ticity of 12.4 GPa(1.8 x 1 lb/in2) for the example shown
lines formeasuringvariousgrowthcharacteristics. earlier. The limitingbending strengthratio was 40%.
ASTM D245 assigns a quality multiplyingfactor of0.80
Anindividual pieceoflumberwill oftenhave several charac- for lumberwith this bending strengthratio. The modulus
teristicsthat can affectany particularstrength property. Only ofelasticity for that gradewould be theproduct oftheclear
thecharacteristicthat gives theloweststrengthratio is used wood modulusand the quality factor; that is,
to derivethe estimatedstrengthofthepiece. In theory, a 12.4 x 0.8 9.9 GPa (1.8 x 0.8 1.44 x 106 lb/in2).
visual stress grade containslumberranging from pieceswith
the minimum strength ratio permittedin the grade up to Actualmodulusofelasticity ofindividual pieces ofa grade
pieceswith the strengthratiojustbelow the next higher varies from the averageassumedfordesign(Fig. 6—5). Small
grade, Inpractice,there are often pieces in agrade with individual lots oflumbercanbe expectedto deviatefrom the
strengthratios ofa highergrade. This is a resultofgrade distributionshown by this histogram. The additionalmulti-
reduction for appearance factors such aswanethat do not plyingfactors used to derive final designvalues ofmodulus
affect strength. ofelasticity arediscussedlater in this chapter.
The range ofstrengthratios in agrade andthe natural varia- In-Grade Procedure
tion in clear wood strength give rise to variationin strength themechanical properties ofspecified grades of
Toestablish
betweenpieces in the grade. To accountforthis variationand lumberfrom tests offull-size specimens, a representative
to ensuresafety in design, it is intendedthat theactual
strength ofat least 95% ofthe pieces in agrade exceedthe sampleofthe lumberpopulationis obtainedfollowingpro-
cedures in ASTMD2915 and D1990.The specimens are
design properties(before reduction for duration ofloadand tested using appropriate proceduresgiven in ASTM Dl98

6-6
 UC
oc"J
Machine-Graded
50 Clear wood 5% exclusion limit
0
C,) Structural Lumber
40 6.'. Machine-graded lumberis lumberevaluatedby a machine
C)
C) using a nondestructive test followedby visual gradingto

4
C) C
3ç C) evaluate certain characteristics that the machinecannotor
C)
C
may not properly evaluate. Machine-stress-rated (MSR),
C) machine-evaluated-lumber (MEL), and E-rated lumberare
C
C
0) C
threetypesofmachine-graded lumber. Machine-graddlum-
2. ci) ber allows for bettersortingofmaterial for specific açplica-
tions in engineeredstructures. The basic components ofa
0 C)
machine-grading systemare as follows:
ci) 0
xQ. C)
uJ OxW 1. sortingand prediction ofstrengththroughmachine-
0 20 40 60 80 100
measured nondestructive determination ofproperties
Strengthratio (%)
coupledwith visualassessment ofgrowthcharacteristics,
Figure 6—4. Example of relation betweenstrength
and strengthratio. 2. assignment ofdesignpropertiesbasedon strength
prediction, and
20 3. qualitycontrol to ensurethat assignedproperties are
being obtained. The qualitycontrolproceduresensure
16
a. proper operation ofthemachineusedto makethe
> nondestructive measurements,
(.)
C
C) b. appropriatenessofthe predictive parameter—bending
C-
a) 8 strength relationship,and
U-
c. appropriateness ofproperties assignedforten;ion
4
and compression.
0 The MSRandMEL systemsdiffer in grade names, quality
4.13 6.89 9.65 12.41 15.17 17.93 control, and coefficient ofvariation (COV)forE values.
(0.6) (1.0) (1.4) (1.8) (2.2) (2.6) Gradenamesfor MSRlumberare a combination ofthe
Modulus of elasticity in edgewisebending design bending stress and averagemodulusofelasticity,
(GPa(x106 lb/in2)) whereas grade namesfor MELlumberstart with an M desig-
nation. For quality control, MSR requirespieces to be tested
Figure 6—5. Histogram of modulus of elasticity
observed in a single visualgrade, from pieces daily for at least one strength propertyand bendingmodulus
selected over a broad geographical range. ofelasticity in an edgewise orientation, whereas MELre-
quires dailytension qualitycontroland edgewisebending
strengthand stiffnesstesting. Finally, MSRgrades are
or D476 1. Becausethe range ofquality with any one specific assigneda COV = 11%on E, whereas MELgradesare
grade may be large, it is necessary to assessthe grade quality assigneda COy 15% on E. Grade namesfor awide range
index (GQI)ofthe sampledmaterial in relationto the
ofmachine-graded lumber commonly available acrossNorth
assumedGQI. In the North American In-GradeProgram, Americaare given in Table6—4. Notall grades are available
in all sizes or species.
GQI was the strengthratio calculatedaccording to formulas
in ASTMD245. The sampleGQI and theassumedGQI are
comparedto see ifadjustmentto the test data is necessary.
Machine Sorting Criteria
Anaverage valuefortheedgewise modulusofelasticity or a The most commonmethod of sortingmachine-gradedlum-
near-minimum estimateof strength propertiesis obtained ber is modulusofelasticityE. Whenused as a sortingcrite-
using ASTM D1990 procedures. The grade GQI is also used rionfor mechanical properties oflumber, E can be measured
as a scalingperimeterthat allowsfor modeling ofstrength in a varietyofways.Usually,theapparentE, ordeflection
and modulusofelasticity with respectto grade. Theseprop- relatedto stiffuess, is actuallymeasured. Becauselumberis
ertiesare furthermodifiedfor design use by consideration of heterogeneous, the apparentE depends on span, orientation
service moisture content, durationofload, and safety. (edge- or flatwise inbending), load speedoftest (staticor
dynamic), andmethodofloading(tension, bending, concen-
trated,or uniform). Any ofthe apparentE values canbe used,
as long as the gradingmachineis properly calibrated,to

6—7
 Table 6—4. Common grades for machine-gradedlumbera
Fb E F F11
Grade name (MPa (lb/in2)) (GPa(x106 lb/in2)) (MPa (lb/in2)) (MPa (lb/in2))

MSR
1350f—1.3E 9.3 (1,350) 9.0 (1.3) 5.2 (750) 11.0 (1,600)
1450f—1.3E 10.0 (1,450) 9.0 (1.3) 5.5 (800) 11.2 (1,625)
1650f—1.5E 11.4 (1,650) 10.3 (1.5) 7.0 (1,020) 11.7 (1,700)
1800f—1.6E 12.4 (1,800) 11.0 (1.6) 8.1 (1,175) 12.1 (1,750)
1950f—1.7E 13.4 (1,950) 11.7 (1.7) 9.5 (1,375) 12.4 (1,800)
2100f—1.8E 14.5 (2,100) 12.4 (1.8) 10.9 (1,575) 12.9 (1,875)
2250f—1.9E 15.5 (2,250) 13.1 (1.9) 12.1 (1,750) 13.3 (1,925)
2400f—2.OE 16.5 (2,400) 13.8 (2.0) 13.3 (1,925) 13.6 (1,975)
2550f—2.IE 17.6 (2,550) 14.5 (2.1) 14.1 (2,050) 14.0 (2,025)
2700F— 18.6 (2,700) 15.2 (2.2) 14.8 (2,150) 14.4 (2,100)
2.2E
2850f—2.3E 19.7 (2,850) 15.9 (2.3) 15.9 (2,300) 14.8 (2,150)
MEL
M—10 9.7 (1,400) 8.3 (1.2) 5.5 (800) 11.0 (1,600)
M—11 10.7 (1,550) 10.3 (1.5) 5.9 (850) 11.5 (1,675)
M—14 12.4 (1,800) 11.7 (1.7) 6.9 (1,000) 12.1 (1,750)
M—19 13.8 (2,000) 11.0 (1.6) 9.0 (1,300) 12.6 (1,825)
M—21 15.9 (2,300) 13.1 (1.9) 9.7 (1,400) 13.4 (1,950)
M—23 16.5 (2,400) 12.4 (1.8) 13.1 (1,900) 13.6 (1,975)
M—24 18.6 (2,700) 13.1 (1.9) 12.4 (1,800) 14.5 (2,100)

aForestProducts Society 1997. Other grades are available and permitted.

Fb is allowable 10-yearload durationbending stress parallel to grain.
E is modulus of elasticity.
F is allowable 10-yearload durationtensile stress parallel to grain.
F11 is allowable 10-yearload durationcompressivestress parallelto grain.

assign the gradedpiece to a "not to exceed"grade category. Procedures for Deriving

Most grading machinesin the United States are designed to
detectthe lowestflatwisebendingEthat occursin any Design Properties
approximately 1.2-rn (4-ft)span and the average flatwiseEfor Allowable Stress for Bending
the entirelength ofthe piece. A stressgrade derived formachine-graded lumberrelates
Anothermethodof sortingmachine-gradedlumberis using design strength to a nondestructive parameter. For this ex-
density measurementsto estimateknot sizes and frequency. ample, it will be considered to be E. Because E is an imper-
fect predictorofstrength, lumbersortedsolelyby average E
X-ray sources in conjunction with a seriesofdetectors are falls into one offour categories, one ofwhichis sortedcor-
used to determine density information.Densityinformation
is thenused to assign thegradedpiece to a "not to exceed" rectlyand three incorrectly (Fig. 6—6).
grade category. Consider, for example, themost simple case (sometimes
In the United States and Canada,MSR and MEL lumberare referredto as "go" or "no go") where lumberis sortedinto
alsosubjectedto a visual override becausethe size ofedge two groups: one with sufficient strengthand stiffness for a
knots in combination with E is abetter predictorofstrength specific application, the other without.In Figure 6—6a,a
than is E alone. Maximumedge knots are limitedto a regressionline relatingE andstrength is used as the
specified proportionofthe cross section, depending on prediction model.The "accept—reject"groups identifiedby
grade level.Other visual restrictions, whichare primarily theregression sort canbeclassifiedinto four categories:
appearance ratherthan strengthcriteria, are placedon checks, • Category 1—Material that hasbeen acceptedcorrectly,
shake,skips (portionsofboard "skipped"by the planer), that is, pieceshave sufficient strength and stiffliess as de-
splits, wane, and warp. fined
• Category 2—Material thathas beenacceptedincorrectly,
that is, pieces do not have sufficientstrength

6—8
 To minimizethe materialthat falls into category2, adjust-
ments are madeto the propertyassignmentclaimsmade
aboutthe sortedmaterial.An appropriate model is one that
minimizes the material in category2 or at least reduces itto
a lowerrisk level. Additionalgradingcriteria(edge-knot
limitations, for example) are also addedto improve1;he
efficiency ofthe sortingsystemrelative to the resource and
C the claimedproperties.
0
Cl)
Commonly, a lowerconfidenceline isusedas the prediction
model (Fig. 6—6b). The numberofpiecesthat fall into cate-
gory 2 is now low compared with the regressionline model.
Furthermore, the probabilityofapiece (and thus thenumber
ofpieces)falling into category2 is controlled by the confi-
dence line selected.
Accept———*.
In actualMSR systems,the lumberis sorted (graded) into E
classes. In the UnitedStatesandCanada,the number of
grades has increased as specific marketneedshave developed
for MSR lumber. Today, individual grading agencieslist as
many as 13 Eclassifications and morethan 20 different
grades.The grades are designatedbythe recommended
extreme fiberstress in bendingFb and edgewisemodulusof
elasticity E. For example,"21OOF—1 .8E" designates an
MSR grade with a designstress Fb = 14 MPa (2,100 lb/in2)
and E 12.4 GPa (1.8 x 106 lb/in2).
Intheory,any F—Ecombination canbe marketedthat canbe
supported by test data. In practice, a mill will usuallypro-
duceonly a few ofthepossibleexistingF—Eclassifications
depending on the potentialofthe timberbeing harvested,
mill production capabilities,andproduct or market demand.
When a mill has determined the grades it would like to
produce(based ontheirlumberresource and marketiagis-
sues),grade boundary machinesettings are used to separate
thelumberinto F—E classifications. A qualification ample
E sort oflumberis testedby a gradingagency for strength and
stiffliess, to verif'that the propermachine settingsaiebeing
Figure 6—6. Schematic E sort:(a) using a regression used. After initial qualification, additionalqualitycontrol
line as the predictorshowing four categories:
1—acceptedcorrectly; 2—accepted incorrectly; tests are performed duringproduction.
3—rejected correctly; and 4—rejected correctly;
(b) usinga lowerconfidence line as the predictorand Figure6—7 illustrates how Fb—E classifications have been
showingthe relatively low proportionof material un developedhistorically for species groups. Datafor a particular
the accepted incorrectlycategory (lower right). species group are collected, the relationship ofE and MOR is
evaluated, and a lowerconfidence line is established forthe
species, as illustratedin Figure 6—6b. Usingthe lower
• Category 3—Material that has beenrejectedcorrectly confidence line ofthis relationship, an MORvaluecorre-
becauseit does not havesufficient strength sponding to the "minimumE" assignedto the grade is
determined. The "minimumE"' assignedto the grade repre-
• Category 4—Materialthathas beenrejectedcorrectly sentsthe 5th percentile ofthe E distribution. The 5th percen-
becauseit doesnothave sufficient stiffliess tile value is expectedtobe exceededby 95% ofthe riecesin
agrade or class.In this example,for a grade withan assigned
Thus, the sort shown in Figure6—6ahas workedcorrectlyfor E of 13.8 GPa (2.0 x 10 lb/in2), the "minimumE" is
categories 1, 3, and 4 but incorrectly for category2. Piecesin 11.3 GPa (1.64 x 10 lb/in2). The correspondingMOR value
category2 presenta problem. Thesepieces are accepted as from the lowerconfidence line prediction model,approxi-
having sufficient strengthbut in reality they do not, and they matelya 5th percentile MORvalue, is 34.8 MPa
are mixed with the acceptedpieces ofcategory 1. The num- (5.04 x i03 lb/in2). This value is then adjusted by a factor
berofproblempieces that fallin category2 depends Oflthe (2.1) for assumed 10-year durationofloadand safetyto
variabilityin the prediction model. obtain Fb. This factor appliedto an estimated5th percentile

6—9
 Modulus ofelasticity(xl 06lb/in2)
2.0 2.2
Quality Control
48.26(7) Quality controlproceduresare necessary to ensure that
stresses assigned by amachine-grading systemreflectthe
nj
C actualproperties ofthe lumbergraded.Theseprocedures
41.37 must check for correctmachine operation. Verification ofthe
c)
0 relationships betweenbending and other propertiesmay also
be requiredby therules-writing agency, particularlyfor fber
0c 34.47 stress in tensionF1.

Daily oreven more frequentcalibration ofmachine operation

27.58 may be necessary. Depending uponmachineprinciple,cali-
brationmay involveoperating the machineon a calibrat:on
bar ofknownstiffuess, comparing gradingmachine E values
to those obtained on thesame pieces oflumberby calibrated
laboratory test equipment, determining ifmachine-predicted
20.68(3)
density matchesa calibrationsample density,or in some
instances, usingtwo or more procedures. Machineoperation
13.79 (2) shouldbe certified for all sizes oflumberbeingproducec.
12 13 14 15
Modulus of elasticity (GPa) Machine settingsmay needto be adjustedto producethe
same grade material from different widths.
Figure 6—7. Typicalassignment of Fb—E values for MSR
lumberin United States (solid lines are minimum E for Qualitycontrolproceduresofthe MSR prediction model
the Fb—E classification and bending strengths (E—bending strength relationship) have beenadoptedin
predicted by minimum Evalues). Canada and the UnitedStates. Daily,ormore frequently,
lumber production is representatively sampledand proof-
loaded, usually in bending,with supplementary testing in
MOR valueof34.8 MPa (5.04 x i03 lb/in2)yields an Fbof tension.The pieces are proof-loadedto at least twicethe
16.5 MPa (2.40x i03 lb/in2) for the 2.OE grade; in other design stress (Fb or F1) forthe assignedFb —Eclassification.
words, a 2400f—2.OEMSR grade. Inbending,the piecesareloaded on a random edgewith the
maximum-edge defectwithinthe maximummoment area
Design Stresses for Other Properties (middleone-third span in third-pointloading)or as near to
in tensionand compression arecommonly devel- that point as possible.In tension,the pieces are tested pith
Properties a 2.4-rn (8-ft) gaugelength.
oped from relationshipswith bendingrather than estimated
directly by the nondestructive parameterE. In Canada and Ifthenumberofpiecesin thesamplefailing theproof-test
theUnited States, therelationships betweenthe5th percen- load indicates ahigh probabilitythat the populationfrom
tile 10-yearbending stress andthose intensionand compres- whichthe pieces came does not meet the minimumgrade
sion are baseduponlimitedlumbertesting for thethree criteria, a secondsampling and prooftest are conducted
properties but supported by yearsofsuccessful experience in immediately. Ifthe second sample confirmsthe resultsofthe
construction with visual stress gradesoflumber. For tension, first sample, the MSR grading system is declared"out of
it is assumedthat the ratio ofdesignbendingstress Fbto control"and the operation is shut down to isolateand c:rrect
F
designtensile stress is between0.5 and 0.8, dependingon the problem. The lumberthat was incorrectly labeled is then
thegrade,whereas therelationship between Fb andfiber
F correctly labeled.
stressin design compressivestress is assumedto be
Cumulative machine calibration recordsare usefulfor detect-
F= [0.338 (2.lFb) + 2060.7]/1.9 ingtrends or gradual changein machine operation that might
coincide with use and wear ofmachine parts. The proof-test
Strength in shear parallelto the grain and in compression results are also accumulated. Standardstatisticalquality
perpendicular to the grain is poorlyrelatedto modulusof control procedures (such as controlcharts)are used to moni-
elasticity. Therefore,inmachine stress gradingthese tortheproduction processso that it can be modifiedas
properties are assumedto be grade-independent and are neededin response to changein the timberresource,andto
assignedthe same valuesas those for visual lumber grades, makethe output fit the assumedmodel.
exceptwhen predictedfrom specificgravity on amill-by-mill
basis. It is permissibleto assign higher allowable stress for Too many failures in one, or evenconsecutive,samples do
shear parallel to grain and compression perpendicular to grain not necessarily indicatethat the systemis out of control.
to specific gradesbasedon additional specific gravity Iftheprediction line is based on 95% confidence, it carl be
research.
expectedby chance alonethat 1 samplein 20 will not meet
the proof-load requirements. One or more out-of-control
samples may alsorepresent a temporaryaberration in

6—10
materialproperties(E—strength relationship). In any event, Table 6—5. Coefficients for equations to determine
this situation would call for inspectionofthe cumulative dimensional changeswith moisture content change
qualitycontrolrecordsfor trendsto determine ifmachine in dimension lumber
adjustmentmightbe needed. A "clean" record(ape;riod WIdth Thick ness
whenthe system does not go out ofcontrol)rectifiesthe a b
evaluation ofa systemthought to be out ofcontrol. Species a b pa
Redwood, 3.454 0.157 2.816 0.128 22
Adjustment of Properties westernred-
cedar, and
for Design Use northern
white cedar
The mechanicalproperties associated with lumber qualityare Other species 6.031 0.215 5.062 0.181 28
adjustedto give designunitstressesandamodulusofelas-
ticity suitableforengineering uses.First, a lowerconfidence °Mg is assumed green moisture content.
level is determinedfor the material,andthis valueis then
adjusted for shrinkage, size, durationofload, and in ASD,an Table 6—6. Exponentsfor adjustment ofdimension
additional factor ofsafety. Theseadjustment factors are dis-
lumber mechanical properties with change in sizea
cussed inthe followingtext (specific adjustments are given
in ASTM designations D245 and D1990). Exponent MOR UTS UCS
w 0.29 0.29 0.13
Shrinkage I 0.14 0.14 0
As describedin Chapter3, lumber shrinks and swells with
aMOR is modulus of rupture;
changesin moisture content. The amountofdimensional UTS, ultimatetensile stress; and
change depends on a numberoffactors, such as species and UCS, ultimate compressivestress.
ring angle. The AmericanSoftwoodLumberStandard,
PS 20, lists specificshrinkage factorsfrom green to :15%
moisture contentthatwere usedhistoricallyto setgreen Small Clear Procedure
lumberdimensions formost species (2.35%forthicknessand
2.80% for width). The standarddoes not providea meansof ASTM D245 providesonly a formulafor adjusting bending
adjusting lumberdimensions to any other moisture content. strength. The bendingstrengthfor lumberis adjustedto a
The standardalsodoes notprovide specific shrinkage factors new depthF,, other than2 in. (51 mm) usingthe fo:mula
for species such as redwood and thecedars, whichshrink less
than most species.Using the PS 20 recommendations and an
assumedgreen moisturecontentMg, we derive equations that
canbe usedwith most speciesto calculatetheshrinkage of
lumberas afunctionofpercentage ofmoisture contentM
F;
=LJ
Theequationis applicableto lumberofall annualring orien- whered0 is original depth (51 mm, 2 in.), d,, newdepth, and
tations. For dimensionlumber, the dimensionsat different F0 originalbendingstrength.
moisturecontentscan be estimatedwith the following equa-
tion: This formulais based on an assumedcenterloadand a span-to-
depth ratio of 14. A depth effectformula fortwo equalconcen-
trated loads applied symmetrical to the midspanpointsis given
d2 =d 1—(a—bM2)/100 in Chapter8.
l—(a—bM1)I100
In—Grade Test Procedures
whered1 is dimension(mm, in.) at moisture contentM1, ASTMDI 990 providesa formulafor adjustingbending, tension,
d2 dimension(mm, in.) at moisture contentM2, M1 moisture and compression parallelto grain. No size adjustments are made
content(%) at d1, M2 moisturecontent (%) at d2, and tomodulusofelasticity orforthicknesseffectsin bending,
a and b are variablesfrom Table6—5. tension, and compression. The size adjustmentsto dimension
lumber are basedon volumeusingthe formula
Size Factor
In general, a size effectcauses small members to havea =
greaterunitstrengththan that oflargemembers. There are LW2) LL2)
two proceduresfor calculating size-adjustment factors, small
clear and In-grade. wherePi is property value(MPa, lb/in2) at volume 1,
P2propertyvalue (MPa,lb/in2) at volume2, W1 width
(mm, in.) at P1, W2width (mm, in.) at P2, L1 length (mm, in.) at
P1, andL2length (mm, in.) at P2. Exponentsare defined in
Table 6—6.

6—11
 - —6 Table 6—7. Coefficients for moistureadjustment of
40 dimension lumbermechanical properties with change
Ce in moisture content8
a-
—
30 Property (MPa (lb/in2))
C)

Coefficients MOR UTS UCS

I.-
20 -
0 16.6 (2,415) 21.7 (3,150) 9.6 (1,430)
U) B1

V 10 - B2 0.276 (40) 0.552 (80) 0.2 34 (24)

0

0
I I I I I
110
0
aMOR is modulusof rupture; UTS, ultimate tensile stress;
and UCS, ultimate compressivestress.
7 9 11 14 16 18 20 23 25
Moisture content(%)

Figure 6—B. Modulus of ruptureas a function of

moisturecontentfor dimension lumber. Open dots P2=+I_B1(M_M2)
B2_M1)
I

represent the ASTM DI990 model, and solid dots

represent the moreprecisequadratic surface model whereM1 is moisturecontent 1 (%), M2 is moisture content
on which the ASTM Dl990 model was based.
2 (%), and B1, B2areconstantsfrom Table6—7.
ForE, thefollowingequationapplies:
Moisture Adjustments
For lumber102 mm in) thick that has been dried, E1 11.857_(O.0237M2)
strength properties have been shownto be relatedquadrati- ).857—(0.0237M1)
cally to moisture content. Two relationships for modulusof
rupture at any moisturecontent are shown in Figure6—8. whereE1 is property(MPa, lb/in2) at moisturecontent I and
Both models start with the modulusofelasticityofgreen £2 is property(MPa, lb/in2) at moisturecontent 2.
lumber. The curveswith solid dots representa precisequad-
ratic model fit to experimental results. In typical practice, For lumberthicker than 102 mm (4 in.), often no adjustment
adjustments are made to correspondto average moisture for moisture contentis madebecausepropertiesare assigned
contents of 15% and 12% with expectedmaximum moisture on the basis ofwood in the green condition.This lumber is
contents of19% and 15%, respectively,usingsimplified usually put in place without drying, and it is assumedthat
expressionsrepresentedby the open dot curves.Belowabout drying degradeoffsetsthe increase in strength normally
8% moisturecontent,some properties may decrease with associatedwith loss in moisture.
decreasing moisture contentvalues,and care shouldbe exer-
cised in these situations. Equationsapplicable to adjusting Duration of Load
propertiesto other moisturelevelsbetweengreen and 10%
moisture contentare as follows: Designmay be based on either design stressesand a durition
ofload factoror on ultimatelimit state designstressesand a
For MOR,ultimate tensile stress (UTS), and ultimate time effectsfactor. Both the duration ofloadand time effects
compressivestress (UCS),the following ASTMD1990 factor describethe same phenomenon. In allowable stress
equationsapply: design,design stressesare basedon an assumed10-year
For MOR 16.7 MPa (2,415 lb/in2) loading period(callednormalloading). Ifdurationofload-
ing, either continuously or cumulatively, is expectedto
UTS 21.7MPa (3,150 lb/in2) exceed 10 years, design stressesarereduced 10%. Ifthe
UCS 9.7 MPa (1,400 lb/in2) expecteddurationof loading is for shorterperiods, published
designstressescan be increasedusing Figure6—9. Ultimate
=P2 limit-state design stressesare based on a 5-mm loading
P1
period. Ifthe durationofloading is expectedto exceed
Thus, there is no adjustmentfor stresses belowthese levels. 5 min, limit-state designstresses are reducedby applyingthe
time effects factor. Intermittent loading causescumulative
For MOR> 16.6 MPa (2,415 lb/in2) effects on strength and shouldbe treatedas continuousload
UTS > 21.7 MPa (3,150 lb/in2) ofequivalent duration. The effectsofcyclicloads ofshort
durationmust alsobe consideredin design(see discussionof
UCS > 9.7 MPa (1,400 lb/in2) fatiguein Ch. 4). These durationofload modifications are
not applicableto modulusofelasticity.

6—12
 0.50
0 0.53
C)) 0.56 1.8
o 0.59 o (3,
0 10 minutes
0.62 1.6
0(5 C)
0
ceE 01.67
0.71 5'
650
0 1.4
day
0.77 v 0

00 0.83 .2
0.91 0
: 0
(5
1.2 VUntreated
ATreated
0
1.00
1.11
.2
. -J
1.0

0>0,
a)
0 (5(5 0.8
0 0 2 4 6 8 10
E >'>'
,- 00
,- log load duration (s)
Duration of load Figure 6—10. Load duration factor for material treated
with waterborne preservative.
Figure 6—9. Relation ofstrength to duration of load.

In many design circumstances there areseveral loadson the Treatment Effects

structure,some actingsimultaneously andeach with a differ-
entduration. When loadsofdifferenttime duration areap- Treatments havebeen shown to affectthe fmal strength of
plied,the load durationfactor corresponding to the shortest wood (Ch. 4 for detaileddiscussion). There is a 5°,b reduc-
time duration is used. Each increment oftime during which tion in E and a 15% reductionin strengthpropertiesof
thetotal load is constantshould be treatedseparately, and incisedand treateddimension lumberfor both dry- and wet-
themost severe condition governsthedesign.Eitherthe use conditions in the United States. In Canada,a 10% reduc-
design stress or the total designload (but not both) can be tion in E and a 30% reduction in all strength properties from
adjusted using Figure 6—9. incisingis appliedto dry-use conditions whereas 5D/ and
15% reductions are used for wet-use conditions. Tlie wet-use
For example,suppose a structure is expectedto support a factors are appliedin addition to the traditionalwet-use
load of4.8kPa(100 lb/ft2)on and offfor a cumulative dura- service factor. Reductions in energy-related properties are
tionof 1 year. Also, it is expectedto support its own dead about 1.5 to 2 timesthose reportedfor staticstrengthproper-
load of0.96 kPa (20 lb/fl2)for the anticipated 50-year life of ties. There is no difference in long-term durationof load
thestructure.The adjustments to be madeto arriveat an behaviorbetween treatedanduntreatedmaterial (Fig. 6—10).
equivalent10-yeardesignload are listedin Table6-8. Currentdesignstandards prohibitincreases in design stresses
The more severe designload is 5.36 kPa (112 lb/ft2'), and beyondthe 1.6 factor for short-term duration ofloadwhen
this load and the designstress for lumberwouldbe used to considering impact-type loading formaterial treatedwith
select members ofsuitablesize. Inthis case,it was conven- waterbome preservative.
ient to adjust the loads on the structure,althoughthe same
result can be obtainedby adjusting the design stress.

Table 6—8. Example of duration of load adjustments

. .
Equivalent 10-year
Time Total load Load design load
(year) (kPa (lblft2)) adjustmenta (kPa (lb/ft2))
1 4.8 (100) + 0.96 (20) = 5.7 (120) 0.93 5.36 (112)
50 0.96 (20) 1.04 1.0 (21)
aFigure 6—9.

6-13
 Table 6—9. Property adjustment factorsfor in-service temperature exposures
Factor
In-service T 3TC 3TC < T 52CC 52CC < T 65CC
Design values moisture content (T lOOT) (lOOT < T 125T) (125F < T 15OF)
F, E Wet or dry 1.0 0.9 0.9
Fb,FV,FC,FCI Dry 1.0 0.8 0.7
Wet 1.0 0.7 0.5

Temperature Effects Galligan, W.L.; Green, D.W.; Gromala,D.S.; Haskell,

J.H. 1980. Evaluation of lumberpropertiesin theUnited
As woodis cooledbelow normaltemperatures, its properties States andtheirapplication to structural research.Forest
increase. Whenheated, its properties decrease. The magni- ProductsJournal. 30(10): 45—5 1.
tude ofthe change depends upon moisturecontent. Up to
Gerhards,C.C. 1977. Effectofdurationand rate ofloading
65°C (150°F), the effectoftemperature is assumedby design on strengthofwood and wood based materials.Res. Pap.
codestobe reversible.For structural membersthat will be FPL—RP—283. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgricul-
exposedto temperaturesup to 65°C(150°F), designvalues ture, Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory.
are multipliedby the factorsgiven in Table 6—9 (AF&PA
1997).Prolongedexposureto heat can lead to a permanent Green,D.W. 1989. Moisturecontent and theshrinkageof
lumber. Res. Pap. FPL—RP—489. Madison, WI: U.S.
loss in strength (see Ch. 4).
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, ForestProducts
Laboratory.
References Green,D.W.; Evans, J.W. 1987. Mechanicalproperties
AF&PA. 1997. Washington,DC: AmericanForest & Paper ofvisuallygradeddimensionlumber. Vol. 1—Vol. 7.
Association. Springfield VA: NationalTechnical Information Service.
PB—88—l 59—371.
Nationaldesign specification forwood construction.
Design valuesforwood construction—a supplementto the Green,D.W.; Kretschmann, D.E. 1992. Properties and
national design specification for wood construction. grading ofSouthern Pine timbers.Forest ProductsJournal.
47(9): 78—85.
AF&PA. 1996. Load and resistance factor design manualfor
engineeredwood construction. Washington, DC: American Green,D.W.; Shelley,B.E. 1992. Guidelinesfor assigning
Forest & Paper Association. allowable properties to visuallygrade foreignspecies based
on test data from full sized specimens. Germantown, MD:
ASTM. 1998. West Conshohocken,PA: American Society American LumberStandards Committee.
for Testingand Materials.
Green,D.W.; Shelley,B.E. 1993. Guidelines for assigning
ASTM D198—97. Standardmethods ofstatic tests oftim- allowable properties to mechanically gradedforeign species.
bersin structural sizes. Germantown, MD: American LumberStandards Committee.
ASTMD245—93. Standard methodsfor establishing struc-
tural gradesforvisuallygradedlumber. Green, D.W.; Shelley, D.E.; and Vokey, H.P. 1989.
In-grade testingofstructural lumber. In: Proceedings of
ASTMD1990—97.Standardmethods for establishingal- workshop sponsored by In-gradeTesting Committee and
lowableproperties for visually-graded dimension lumber Forest Products Society. Proceedings47363. Madison,WI:
from Tn-gradetests offull-size specimens. Forest Products Society.
ASTMD2555—96.Standard methodsfor establishing clear Kretschmann, D.E.; GreenD.W. 1996. Modelingmois-
wood strengthvalues. ture content—mechanicalproperty relationships for clear
ASTMD2915—94. Standardmethodfor evaluating proper- SouthernPine. Wood and Fiber Science. 28(3): 320—337.
ties forstress gradesofstructural lumber. U.S. Department ofCommerce. 1994. American softwood
ASTMD4761—96. Standardmethods for mechanical prop- lumber standard. Prod. Stand. PS2O—94. Washington,DC:
ertiesoflumberand wood-base structural materials. U.S. Department ofCommerce.
ForestProductsSociety. 1997. Machine-graded lumber. Winandy, J.E. 1995. The influenceoftime—to—failure on
Madison, WI: Forest Products Society. WoodDesign the strength of CCA-treated lumber. Forest ProductsJournal.
Focus. 8(2): 1—24. 45(2): 82—85.

6—14
 I Chaptei 7I
Fastenings
LawrenceA. Soltis

he strengthand stability ofany structure cepend

Contents heavilyon the fastenings that hold its parts
Nails 7—2 together, One prime advantage ofwood as a
Withdrawal Resistance7—2 structural material is the ease with whichwood structural
LateralResistance 7—5 parts can bejoined together with a wide varietyoffasten-
ings—nails, spikes, screws, bolts, lag screws, drift pins,
Spikes 7—8
7—8 staples,and metal connectors ofvarioustypes. Forutmost
Staples rigidity, strength, and service, each type offastening requires
Drift Bolts 7—9 jointdesignsadaptedto thestrength properties ofwood
Wood Screws 7—9 along and acrossthe grain and to dimensionalchangesthat
Withdrawal Resistance 7—9 may occur with changes in moisture content.
LateralResistance 7—10
Lag Screws 7—11 Maximum lateralresistance andsafe design load values for
Withdrawal Resistance 7—11 small-diameter (nails, spikes, and wood screws)and large-
diameter dowel-type fasteners (bolts, lag screws,and drift
Lateral Resistance 7—12
Bolts 7—14 pins) were based on an empiricalmethodprior to 1 1. 9
Research conducted during the 1980s resultedin lateral
Bearing Stress of WoodUnder Bolts 7—14 resistance valuesthat are currentlybasedon ayield model
Loadsat an Angle to the Gram 7—14
theory.This theoreticalmethodwas adaptedfor the 1991
Steel Side Plates 7—15 editionofthe NationalDesignSpec/Icationfor Wood
Bolt Quality 7—15 Construction (NDS). Becauseliteratureand design proce-
Effect ofMemberThickness 7—15 duresexistthat are relatedto both the empiricaland theoreti-
Two-Member, Multiple-MemberJoints 7—15 cal methods, werefer to the empirical methodas pre-1991
Spacing, Edge, and End Distance 7—16 and the theoreticalmethod as post-1991 throughoul: this
EffectofBolt Holes 7—16 chapter. Withdrawal resistance methods have notchanged,
Pre-1991 AllowableLoads 7—17 so thepre- and post-1991 refer onlyto lateralresistance.
Post-1991 Yield Model 7—18 The information inthis chapterrepresents primarilyForest
ConnectorJoints 7—18 Products Laboratory research results.A more comprehensive
Parallel-to-Grain Loading 7—18 discussion offastenings is given in the American Sccietyof
Perpendicular-to-Grain Loading 7—18 Civil Engineers Manualsand Reportson Engineering
DesignLoads 7—20 Practice No. 84, MechanicalConnections in Wood Struc-
Modifications 7—21 tures. Theresearchresultsofthis chapterare often modified
Net Section 7—23 for structural safety, basedonjudgmentor experience, and
End Distanceand Spacing 7—23 thus information presentedin design documents may differ
PlacementofMultipleConnectors 7—23 from information presentedin this chapter. Additionally,
Cross Bolts 7—24 researchby others servesas abasis for somecurrentdesign
criteria. Allowable stress designcriteriaare presentedinthe
Multiple-FastenerJoints 7—24 NationalDesign Spec/icationfor Wood Constructwnpub-
Metal Plate Connectors 7—25 lishedby the AmericanForest and PaperAssociation; limit
FastenerHead Embedment 7—26 states designcriteriaare presented in the Standardfor Load
References 7—27 andResistance Factor Design (LRFD)for EngineeredWood
Constructionpublishedby the American Society of
Civil Engineers.

7—1
 Table 7—1. Sizes of bright common wire nails
Nails
Length Diameter
Nails are themost commonmechanicalfastenings usedin Size Gauge (mm (in.)) (mm (in.))
wood construction. There are many types, sizes,and forms of
nails (Fig. 7—1).The load equationspresentedin this chapter 6d 11-1/2 50.8 (2) 2.87 (0.113)
apply for bright, smooth, commonsteel wire nails driven 8d 10-1/4 63.5 (2-1/2) 3.33 (0.131)
into wood when there is no visible splitting.For nails other
than commonwire nails, the loads can be adjusted by factors 10d 9 76.2 (3) 3.76 (0.148)
9 82.6 (3-1/4) 3.76 (0.148)
given later in the chapter. 12d
16d 8 88.9 (3-1/2) 4.11 (0.162)
Nails in use resist withdrawalloads, lateral loads,or acom-
20d 6 101.6 4.88 (0.192)
bination ofthe two. Both withdrawaland lateralresistance (4)
areaffectedby thewood, thenail,andthe condition ofuse. 30d 5 114.3 (4-1/2) 5.26 (0.207)
In general, however, any variationin these factors has a more 40d 4 127.0 (5) 5.72 (0.225)
pronounced effecton withdrawal resistance thanon lateral 50d 3 139.7 (5-1/2) 6.20 (0.244)
resistance.The serviceability ofjointswith nailslaterally 60d 2 152.4 (6) 6.65 (0.262)
loadeddoes not dependgreatlyon withdrawalresistance
unless largejointdistortion is tolerable.
The diametersofvariouspenny or gauge sizes ofbright
common nails are given in Table 7—1. The pennysize des- Table 7—2. Sizes of smooth box nails
ignationshould be used cautiously. International nail pro-
ducerssometimesdo not adhereto the dimensions of Length Diameter
Table 7—1. Thus penny sizes, although still widely used, are Size Gauge (mm (in.)) (mm (in.)) —
obsolete. Specifyingnail sizes by length and diameter di-
3d 14-1/2 31.8 (1-1/4) 1.93 (0.076)
mensionsis recommended. Brightbox nailsare generallyof
the same length but slightly smallerdiameter(Table7—2), 4d 14 38.1 (1-1/2) 2.03 (0.080)
while cement-coatednailssuch as coolers,sinkers, and Sd 14 44.5 (1-3/4) 2.03 (0.080)
coatedbox nails are slightlyshorter (3.2 mm(1/8 in.)) and 6d 12-1/2 50.8 (2) 2.49 (0.098)
ofsmallerdiameterthan commonnailsofthesame penny 7d 12-1/2 57.2 (2-1/4) 2.49 (0.098)
size.Helicallyand annularly threadednails generally have
8d 11-1/2 63.5 (2-1/2) 2.87 (0.113)
smallerdiametersthan commonnails for the samepenny size
lOd 10-1/2 76.2 (3) 3.25 (0.128)
(Table 7—3).
16d 10 88.9 (3-1/2) 3.43 (0.135)
Withdrawal Resistance 20d 9 101.6 (4) 3.76 (0.148)
The resistanceofanail shank to directwithdrawalfrom a
piece ofwood depends on the density ofthe wood, the
diameterofthe nail, andthe depth ofpenetration. The surface
conditionofthe nail atthe time ofdrivingalsoinfluencesthe
initialwithdrawalresistance. Table 7—3. Sizes of helicallyand annularly
threaded nails
Size Length Dia meter
(mm (in.)) (mm (in.))

6d 50.8 (2) 3.05 (0.120)

8d 63.5 (2-1/2) 3.05 (0.120)
lOd 76.2 (3) 3.43 (0.135)

iJ
12d 82.6 (3-1/4) 3.43 (0.135)
16d 88.9 (3-1/2) 3.76 (0.148)
20d 101.6 (4) 4.50 (0.177)
30d 114.3 (4-1/2) 4.50 (0.177)

I
40d 127.0 (5) 4.50 (0.177)
50d 139.7 (5-1/2) 4.50 (0.177)
60d 152.4 (6) 4.50 (0.177)
Figure 7—1. Various types of nails: (left to right) bright 70d 177.8 (7) 5.26 (0.207)
smoothwire nail, cement coated, zinc-coated, annularly 80d 203.2 (8) 5.26 (0.207)
threaded, helicallythreaded, helicallythreaded and 90d 228.6 (9) 5.26 (0.207)
barbed,and barbed.

7—2
Forbright commonwire nails driven into theside grain of Effect of Seasoning
seasoned wood or unseasonedwood that remainswet, the With practicallyall species,nailsdrivenintogreenwood
results ofmany tests have shownthat the maximum with- and pulled before any seasoning takes place offeraboutthe
drawal load is given by the empiricalequation same withdrawal resistance asnails driven into seasoned
wood and pulled soon afterdriving.However, ifcommon
p=54.12G512DL (metric) (7—la) smooth-shank nailsare driven into green wood that is al-
lowedto season, or into seasoned wood that is subjectedto
p=7,850G512DL (inch—pound) (7—ib) cycles ofwettingand dryingbefore the nails arepulled,they
losea major part oftheirinitial withdrawalresistance.The
wherep is maximum load (N, lb), L depth (mm, in.) of withdrawalresistance for nailsdriveninto wood that is
penetrationofthe nail in the memberholding the nail point, subjected to changesin moisturecontentmay be as low as
G specific gravity ofthewood basedon ovendiyweight and 25% ofthe valuesfornails tested soonafter driving. On the
volume at 12% moisture content (see Ch. 4, Tables 4—2 to other hand, ifthe wood fibersdeteriorate orthe nail corrodes
4—5), andD diameterofthe nail (mm, in.). (TheNDS and undersome conditions ofmoisturevariationand time, with-
LRFD use ovendryweightand volume as a basis.) drawal resistance is erratic; resistance maybe regainedor
evenincreased over the immediate withdrawalresistance.
The loadsexpressed by Equation (7—1)represent average
data.Certainwood species give test valuesthat are some- b
However, such sustained performance shouldnot reliedon
what greateror less than the equationvalues.A typical load— in thedesignofa nailedjoint.
displacement curve fornail withdrawal(Fig.7—2)shows In seasoned wood that is not subjected to appreciablemois-
that maximumload occurs atrelativelysmall values of ture content changes, the withdrawalresistance ofnails may
displacement. also diminish due to relaxationofthe wood fibers'vithtime.
Althoughthe equationfornail-withdrawal resistance indi- Underall these conditions ofuse, the withdrawal resistance
catesthat the dense, heavywoods offergreaterresistance to ofnailsdiffers among species and shows variation within
nail withdrawalthan do the lowerdensityones, lighter individual species.
species shouldnot be disqualified for uses requiring high
resistanceto withdrawal. As a rule, the less dense species do Effect of Nail Form
not split asreadily as thedenserones,thus offering an oppor- The surface condition ofnails is frequentlymodifiedduring
tunity for increasingthe diameter, length,and numberofthe the manufacturing process to improve withdrawalresistance.
nails to compensate for the wood's lowerresistance to nail Suchmodification is usually done by surface coatin,, surface
withdrawal. roughening, ormechanical deformation ofthe shank.Other
factors that affectthe surface condition ofthe nail arethe oil
The withdrawal resistance ofnail shanks is greatlyaffected by filmremaining on the shank aftermanufacture or corrosion
such factorsas type ofnail point, type of shank, time the nail
remainsinthe wood, surfacecoatings, and moisturecontent resulting from storage underadverseconditions; butthese
factors are so variable that their influence on withdrawal
changesinthe wood. resistance cannotbe adequately evaluated.

Surface Modifications—Acommon surface treatmentfor

Displacement (in.) nails is the so-called cement coating. Cementcoatings,
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 contraryto what the name implies, do not includecementas
700 160 an ingredient; they generally area composition ofresin
appliedto the nail to increase theresistanceto withdrawal
600 by increasing the frictionbetween the nail and the wood. If
120 properly applied, they increase theresistance ofnailsto
500 - withdrawal immediately after the nailsare driveninto the
6d smoothbox nail softerwoods.However, in the denserwoods(suchas hard
- 400
-
diameter 80
maple, birch, or oak), cement-coated nailshave practically no
advantage over plain nails, becausemost ofthe coalingis
300 31.Bmm(1-1/4in.) removedin driving. Some ofthe coatingmay also be re-
200 —
penetration depth
Douglas-fir
f movedin the sidememberbeforethe nail penetrates the
40 main member.
12% moisture content
—
100 0.54 specific gravity Good-quality cementcoatings are uniform,not stickyto the
_-mm(0.O98-in.) I I
0
touch,andcannotbe rubbedoffeasily. Different techniques of
applying the cement coatingand variations in its ingredients
0 0.3 0.6 0.9 1.2
may cause largedifferences in the relative resistance to with-
Displacement (mm) drawal ofdifferentlots ofcement-coated nails. Some nails
Figure 7—2. Typicalload—displacementcurvefor may showonly a slight initial advantage over plain nails. In
directwithdrawal of a nail. the softerwoods, the increase in withdrawal resistance of

7—3
cement-coatednails is not permanentbut drops offsignifi- Nails with deformedshanks are sometimeshardened by heat
cantlyafter amonth or so. Cement-coated nailsare used treatments for use where drivingconditions are difficultorto
primarilyin constructionofboxes, crates, and other obtain improvedperformance, such as in pallet assembly.
containersusuallybuiltfor rough handlingandrelatively Hardenednails are brittle and care shouldbe exercised to
short service. avoid injuries from fragments ofnails broken during driving.
Nails that have galvanized coatings,such as zinc, are in- Nail Point—A smooth, round shank nail with a long, sharp
tendedprimarilyforuses where corrosion and stainingresis- point will usually have a greaterwithdrawalresistance,
tanceare important factors in pennanence and appearance. If particularlyin the softerwoods, than the commonwire nail
thezinc coatingis evenly applied, withdrawalresistance may (which usually has a diamond point). However,sharppoints
be increased,but extreme irregularities ofthe coatingmay accentuatesplitting in certainspecies, which may reduce
actuallyreduce it. The advantage that uniformly coated withdrawalresistance. A blunt or flat point withouttaper
galvanized nailsmay have over nongalvanized nails in resis- reduces splitting, but its destruction ofthe wood fibers%hen
tance to initial withdrawalis usuallyreducedby repeated drivenreduceswithdrawal resistance to less than that ofthe
cycles ofwettingand drying. commonwire nail. A nail tapered at the end and terminating
in a blunt pointwillcause less splitting.In heavier woods,
Nails have also been madewith plasticcoatings. Theuseful- such a tapered,blunt-pointed nail will provide about the
ness and characteristics ofthese coatings are influenced by the same withdrawalresistance,but in less densewoods, its
qualityandtype ofcoating, the effectiveness ofthe bond resistance to withdrawalis less than that ofthe common nail.
betweenthe coatingand base fastener, and the effectiveness of
thebond betweenthecoating and wood fibers. Someplastic Nail Head—Nailheadclassificationsincludeflat, oval,
coatings appearto resist corrosionor improve resistance to countersunk, deep-countersunk, andbrad. Nails with all
withdrawal, while othersoffer little improvement. types ofheads,exceptthe deep-countersunk, brad, and some
ofthe thin flathead nails, are sufficiently strong to withstmd
Fastenerswith properlyappliednylon coatingtend to retain theforce requiredto pull them from most woods in direct
theirinitialresistanceto withdrawal compared with other withdrawal. The deep-countersunk and brad nails are usually
coatings, whichexhibit amarked decrease in withdrawal drivenbelow the wood surface and are not intendedto carry
resistance within the first monthafter driving. largewithdrawalloads.In general, the thicknessand diame-
ter ofthe headsofthe common wire nails increase as the size
A chemically etchednail has somewhat greaterwithdrawal ofthe nail increases.
resistancethan some coatednails, as the minutelypitted
surfaceis an integralpart ofthe nail shank.Underimpact The development ofsomepneumaticallyoperatedportable
loading,however,the withdrawalresistance ofetched nails is nailershas introduced nailswith speciallyconfigured heath,
little differentfromthat ofplain or cement-coated nailsunder such as T-nailsand nailswith a segmentofthe head cut off.
various moisture conditions.
Corrosion and Staining
Sand-blastednails perform inmuch the same manneras
chemicallyetchednails. In the presenceofmoisture, metalsused for nails may cor-
rode when in contact with woodtreatedwith certain preserva-
ShapeModifications—Nailshanks may be varied from a tive orfife-retardant salts (Chs. 14 and 17). Use ofcertain
smooth, circularform togive an increase in surface area metalsor metal alloyswill reduce the amountofcorrosion.
without an increasein nail weight.Specialnails with barbed, Nails ofcopper,siliconbronze,and 304 and 316 stainless
helicallyor annularly threaded, andother irregular shanks steel haveperformed wellin wood treatedwith ammoniacal
(Fig. 7.-i) are commercially available. copperarsenate and chromated copper arsenate. The choice of
metals for use with fire-retardant-treated woodsdepends upon
The form and magnitudeofthe deformations along the shank theparticular fire-retardant chemical.
influencethe performanceofthe nailsin various wood spe-
cies. In wood remainingat a uniform moisture content, the Staining causedby the reactionofcertainwood extractives
withdrawalresistanceofthese nailsis generally somewhat (Ch. 3) and steel in the presenceofmoistureis a problem if
greaterthan that ofcommonwire nails ofthe same diameter. appearanceis important, such as with naturallyfmished
Forinstance, annular-shanknails haveabout 40% greater siding. Use ofstainless steel, aluminum,or hot-dipped
resistance to withdrawalthan commonnails. However, under galvanized nails can alleviate staining.
conditionsinvolvingchanges in moisture contentofthe
wood, some specialnail forms provide considerably greater In general, thewithdrawalresistance ofcopperand other
withdrawalresistance than the common wire nail—about four alloy nails is comparable with that ofcommonsteel wire
timesgreater for annularly and helicallythreadednails ofthe nails whenpulled soonafter driving.
same diameter.This is especiallytrue ofnails driveninto
greenwood that subsequentlydries.In general,annularly Driving
threadednails sustainlarger withdrawalloads,and helically The resistance ofnailsto withdrawal is generallygreatest
threadednailssustain greaterimpactwithdrawal work values whenthey are drivenperpendicular to the grain ofthe wood.
than do the other nail forms. Whenthe nail is driven parallelto the wood fibers (that is,

7—4
intothe endofthe piece)withdrawal resistance inthe softer However, this improvedstrengthofa clinched-nail jointdoes
woodsdrops to 75% or even50% oftheresistance obtained notjustify the useofgreen lumber, becausethejointsmay
whenthe nail is drivenperpendiculartothe grain. The differ- loosen as the lumberseasons. Furthermore, laboratorytests
ence betweenside- and end-grainwithdrawal loadsis less for were madewith singlenails, and the effectsofdrying, such
densewoodsthan for softerwoods. Withmost species, the as warping,twisting, and splitting, may reducethe efficiency
ratio betweenthe end- and side-grain withdrawal loads of ofajoint that has more than one nail. Clinching ofnails is
nailspulled aftera time interval, or after moisture content generallyconfined to such construction as boxes and crates
changeshave occurred, is usually somewhat greaterthanthat and other containerapplications.
ofnailspulled immediately after driving.
Nails clinched acrossthe grain haveapproximately 20%
Toe nailing, a commonmethodofjoining wood framework, more resistance to withdrawalthan nailsclinchedalongthe
involves slantdrivinganail orgroup ofnailsthroughthe grain.
end or edge ofan attachedmemberand into a mainmember.
Toe nailing requires greater skill in assembly than does Fastening of Plywood
ordinaryend nailing but providesjoints ofgreater strength The nailingcharacteristics ofplywood arenot greatlydiffer-
and stability. Tests show thatthe maximum strengthof entfromthose ofsolid wood exceptforplywood'sgreater
toenailedjoints under lateral and upliftloads is obtainedby resistance to splitting whennails are drivennearan edge.
(a) usingthe largestnail that will not cause excessivesplit- The nail withdrawalresistanceofplywoodis 15% to 30%
ting, (b) allowing an end distance (distance from the endof less than that ofsolid wood ofthe same thickness.The
theattachedmembertothepoint ofinitial nail entry)of reasonis that fiber distortionis less uniformin plywoodthan
approximately one-thirdthe length ofthe nail, (c) drivingthe in solid wood. Forplywood less than 12.5 mm (1/2-in.)
nail at a slope of30° with the attachedmember,and
thick,the greatersplitting resistance tends to offsetthe lower
(d) buryingthe full shank ofthe nail but avoiding excessive withdrawalresistance compared with solid wood. The with-
mutilationofthe wood from hammerblows. drawal resistance per unit length ofpenetration decreasesas
The results ofwithdrawaltests with multiplenail joints in thenumberofplies perunitlength increases.The direction
whichthe piece attachedis pulleddirectlyaway from the ofthegrainofthefaceply has little influenceon thewith-
drawal resistance fromthe face nearthe endor edgecfapiece
main member showthat slant driving is usuallysuperiorto
ofplywood. The directionofthegrain ofthe face ply may
straight drivingwhen nails are driven into chywood and influence the pull-through resistance ofstaples ornails with
pulled immediately, and decidedly superior whennailsare
driven into green or partiallydry wood that is allowedto severely modifiedheads,such as T-heads. Fastenerdesign
information forplywoodis available from APA—The
season for a monthormore. However,the loss in depth of
penetrationdue to slant driving may, in sometypes of EngineeredWood Association.
joints, offsetthe advantagesofslantnailing.Cross slant
drivingofgroupsofnails throughthe side grain is usually Allowable Loads
somewhat more effectivethanparallelslantdriving through Theprecedingdiscussion dealt with maximum withdrawal
theend grain. loads obtainedin short-timetest conditions.For design,
these loads mustbe reducedto accountfor variability, dura-
Nails driven into lead holes with a diameterslightlysmaller tion-of-load effects, andsafety. A valueofone-sixth tie aver-
(approximately 90%)thanthe nail shank havesomewhat agemaximum loadhas usually been acceptedas theallow-
greaterwithdrawalresistance than nailsdrivenwithoutlead able load for long-time loadingconditions.For normal
holes.Leadholes also preventor reducesplittingofthe durationofload,this valuemay be increasedby 10%. Nor-
wood,particularlyfor densespecies. mal duration ofloadis defined as a loadof 10-year duration.

Clinching Lateral Resistance

The withdrawalresistance ofsmooth-shank, clinchednails is
considerably greater than that ofunclinchednails. The point Pre-1991
ofa clinched nail is bent over wherethenail protrudes Test loads atjoint slips of 0.38 mm (0.015 in.)
throughthe side member.The ratio betweenthe loadsfor (approximate proportional limit load) for bright common
clinchedand unclinchednails varies enormously, depending wire nails in lateralresistance driveninto the side grain
upon the moisturecontent ofthe wood whenthe nail is (perpendicular to the woodfibers) ofseasoned woodare
driven and withdrawn, the species ofwood,the size ofnail, expressed by the empirical equation
and the directionofclinchwith respecttothe grain ofthe
wood. p=KD3'2 (7—2)

In dryorgreen wood, a clinchednail provides 45% to 170% wherep is lateralloadpernail, K a coefficient, and D diame-
more withdrawalresistance than an unclinchednail when ter ofthe nail. Valuesofcoefficient Kare listedin Table 7—4
withdrawn soonafter driving.In green woodthat seasons for ranges ofspecific gravity ofhardwoods and softwoods.
after a nail is driven,a clinched nail gives 250% to 460% The loads given by the equationapply only wherethe side
greaterwithdrawalresistance than an unclinched nail. member and the member holdingthe nail point are of

7—5
Table 7—4. Coefficients for computing test loads for Slip in joint (in.)
fasteners in seasoned wood8 (pre-1991) 0 0.12 0.24 0.36
1.80 400
Lateral load coefficientK (metric (inch—pound))
Specific 320
gravity 1.35
rangeb Nailsc

Hardwoods
Screws Lag screws z
0.90
240 .
0.33—047 50.04 (1,440) 23.17 (3,360) 26.34 (3,820) 0
-J 160
0.48—0.56 69.50 (2,000) 31.99 (4640) 29.51 (4,280) 0.45
80
0.57—0.74 94.52 (2,720) 44.13 (6,400) 34.13 (4,950)

0.29—0.42
Softwoods
50.04 (1,440) 23.17 (3,360) 23.30 (3,380) -C.05x
fastener
.
Slip injoint
6
(mm)
0

0.43—0.47 62.55 (1,800) 29.79 (4,320) 26.34 (3,820) diameter

0.48—0.52 76.45 (2,200) 36.40 (5,280) 2951 (4,280)
Figure 7—3. Typicalrelation between lateral
Wood with a moisture content of 15%. load and slip in the jointand 5% offset definition.
bSpecifjc gravity based on ovendry weight and volume
at 12% moisture content.
eCoefficients based on load at joint slip of 0.38 mm Theyield mode equations(Table7—5) are enteredwith the
(0.015 in.) dowel bearingstrengthand dimensions ofthe wood members
andthe bendingyield strengthanddiameterofthe fastener.
The dowelbearing strength ofthe wood is experimentally
approximatelythe same density. The thicknessofthe side
membershouldbe about one-halfthe depth ofpenetration of determinedby compressing a dowelinto a wood member.
thenail in the memberholding thepoint. The strengthbasis is the load representing a 5% diameter
offseton the load—deformationcurve (Fig. 7—3).Dowel
The ultimatelateralnail loads forsoftwoodsmay approach bearingstrengthFe (Pa, lb/in2) is empiricallyrelatedto
3.5 times the loads expressedby the equation, and for hard- specific gravityG by
woodsthey may be 7 times as great. The joint slip at = 1l4.5G'84 (metric) (7—3a)
maximum load, however, is more than 20 times 0.38 mm
(0.015in.). This is demonstratedby the typical load—slip = 16,600G184 (inch—pound) (7—3b)
curve shown in Figure 7—3. To maintaina sufficient ratio
betweenultimate load and the load at 0.38 mm (0.015 in.), wherespecific gravityis basedon ovendry weightand
thenail shouldpenetrate into thememberholding the point volume.
by not less than 10 times the nail diameterfor densewoods
(specificgravitygreaterthan 0.61) and 14 timesthe diameter Spacing
for low density woods (specificgravity less than 0.42). For Enddistance,edge distance, and spacingofnails shouldbe
species having densities betweenthese two ranges,the such as to preventunusualsplitting.As a general rule,nails
penetrationmay be found by straightline interpolation. shouldbe drivenno closerto the edge ofthe side member
Post-1991 than one-halfits thicknessand no closerto the end than the
thickness ofthe piece. Smaller nails can be driven closerto
The yield model theory selects the worst case ofyield modes theedgesor ends than largerones becausethey areless iikely
based on differentpossibilitiesofwood bearing and nail to split the wood.
bending. It does not accountfor nail headeffects. A descrip-
tionofthevarious combinations is given in Figure 7—4.
Mode I is a wood bearingfailurein either the mainorside Grain Direction Effects
The lateral loadfor side-grain nailingapplieswhetherthe
member;mode II is a rotationofthe fastenerinthejoint
without bending; modesIll andIV are a combination of load is in a directionparallel to the grain ofthe piecesjoined
wood bearingfailureand one or more plastichingeyield or at rightangles to it. When nails are drivenintothe end
formations in the fastener. Modes Im and II havenot been grain (parallel with the wood fibers),limited data on soft-
observedin nail and spike connections. The yieldmodel wood species indicatethat their maximum resistance to
theoryis applicableto all types ofdowelfasteners(nails, lateraldisplacementis abouttwo-thirdsthat for nails driven
screws,bolts, lag screws), and thus the wood bearingcapac- into the side grain. Although the averageproportionallimit
ity is describedby amaterialpropertycalledthe dowel loadsappearto be aboutthe same for end- and side-grain
bearingstrength. nailing, the individual results are more erraticfor end-grain
nailing, and the minimumloads approachonly 75% of
corresponding valuesforside-grainnailing.

7—6
 (a) (b)

L}
________ ________ ______
I HI __ (Not applicable)
H I- I I-
Mode'm ModeIs Mode II Mode 1

-I -I ..:..
\ __I-I__
__ •t

Mode
I

m ModeIlls
•-I 1.

ModeIV
I
(Notapplicable)

ModeWm Mode Ills ModeIV

Figure 7—4. Various combinations ofwood-bearing and fastener-bendingyieldsfor (a) two-member connections
and (b) three-memberconnections.

Moisture ContentEffects One theoretical model, whichconsiders the nail to be a beam

Nails driveninto the side grain ofunseasonedwood give supported on an elasticfoundation (thewood),describesthe
maximum lateral resistance loads approximately equalto initialslopeofthe curve:
those obtainedin seasonedwood, but the lateralresistance
loads at 0.38 mm (0.015 in.)joint slip are somewhat less. 5= +L2)—
(J1 J)2] (7-4)
To preventexcessivedeformation, lateral loadsobtainedfor P[2(L1 (K1
seasonedwood shouldbe reducedby 25%forunseasoned
wood that will remain wet or be loadedbeforeseasoning whereP is the lateral load and S is thejoint slip. The factors
takes place. L1, L2, J1, .12, K1, and K2 (Table 7—6) are combinationsof
Whennails are driven into greenwood, their lateralpropor- hyperbolic and trigonometric functionsofthe quantities ?a
and A2b in whicha and b are the depth ofpenetraticnofthe
tional limitloads afterthe wood has seasonedare alsoless nail in members 1 and 2, respectively.For smooth round
thanwhen they are driven into seasonedwood andloaded.
The erraticbehaviorofa nailedjointthat has undergoneone nails,
or more moisturecontentchangesmakesit difficult to estab-
lish a lateral load for a nailedjointunder these conditions.
Structural joints should be inspectedat intervals, and if it is
?=2
4!
J
r
1

(7—5)
irED3
apparentthatthe jointhas loosenedduring drying, thejoint
shouldbe reinforcedwith additionalnails. wherek0 is elasticbearingconstant, Dnail diameter,andE
modulusofelasticityofthe nail. For seasonedwood,the
Deformed-Shank Nails elasticbearingconstantk0(N/mm3, lb/in3) has been shown to
Deformed-shank nailscarry somewhat highermaximum be relatedto average species specific gravity G ifno lead hole
lateralloads than do the same pennyweight common wire is used by
nails, but both perform similarlyat smalldistortionsin the k0 = 582G (metric) (7—6a)
joint. It should be noted that the same pennyweightde-
formed-shank nail has adifferentdiameter than that ofthe =2,144,000G (inch—pound (7—6b)
common wire nail. These nails often havehigherbending
yield strengththan commonwire nails, resultingin higher Ifapreboredleadhole equalto 90% ofthe nail diameteris
lateral strengthin modesIII and IV. used,

Lateral Load—Slip Models Ic =869G (metric) (7—7a)

A considerable amount ofwork has been done to describe, by Ic0

= 3,200, 00(Xi (inch—pound) (7—7b)
mathematical models, the lateral load—slip curve ofnails.
Thesemodels have become important becauseoftheir need Otherempirically derived models attemptto describethe
as input parameters for advanced methods ofstructural entireload—slip curve.One such expressionis
analysis. P = A 1og10(1+B5) (7—8)

where the parameters A and Bare empirically fitted.

7—7
Table 7—5. The5% offset lateral yield strength (Z) Table 7—6. Expressions for factors in Equation (7—4)
for nailsand screwsfora two-member joint
Factor Expression8
Mode Z value for nails Z value for screws
Is
DtF DteFm
L1
? sinhA.1acoshA,1a—sthA1a
•2
cos?1a
Ills, kiDpFem smh2 ?1a— sm
l+2Re ?sinh22b cosh?.2b—sin72b cos2b
Ills sinh2?2b—sin2?2b
k2DcPm k3DçF
2+R 2+Re ,I s21a+Sin21a
k1 sinh2?1a —sin2 ?a
D2 T2FmF,b
'
D2 /l.75IP'Yb
3(1+R) 2
?sinh2?2b+sin22b
k2 sinh2?2b —sin2 A.2b
Definitions
K1 ?sinh1a coshAa + sin1a cos1a
D nail,spike, or screw diameter,mm (in.) (for sinh2?.1a —sin2 ?c1a
annularlythreadednails, D isthread-rootdiameter;
for screws,D is eitherthe shank diameterorthe root
diameterifthe threadedportionofthe screw is in the
K2 ? sirih2b cosh?%2b + sin ?2b cos?2b
Ic2 sinh2?2b —sin2 22b
shearplane)
Fern dowelbearingstress ofmain member
(memberholding point), kPa (lb/in2) = kdand k2 = k02d, wherek and 1c2 are the
Fe, dowelbearingstress ofside member, kPa (lb/in2) foundation moduliofmembers I and 2, respectively.
Fyb bending yield stress ofnail, spike, or screw,kPa
(lb/in2)
p penetrationofnail or spike in main member,mm (in.) The withdrawaland lateralresistanceequationsand limita-
t,thicknessofside member,mm (in.) tions given forcommonwire nails are also applicableto
Z offsetlateral yield strength spikes, except that in calculatingthe withdrawalloadfor
Re = Fem/Fes spikes, the depth ofpenetrationis taken as the length ofthe
spike in the memberreceivingthe point, minustwo-thirds
thelength ofthepoint.
2b(1+2Re)D2
k1
=—l+2(1+Re)÷ 3I;;p2
Staples
Differenttypesofstaples havebeen developed with various
I2(l+R) + 2Jjb(2+Re)D2 modifications in points, shank treatment and coatings,
k2
=—l+.j Re 31mt gauge,crownwidth,and length. Thesefastenersare available
in clipsormagazinesfor use inpneumaticallyoperated
portable staplers. Most factors that affectthe withdrawal and
12(l+Re) + P,,b(2+Re)D2 lateralloadsofnails similarlyaffectthe loads on staples.The
Ic3 withdrawal resistance, for example, varies almostdirectly
=_l+iI Re 2Femt2s with the circumference anddepth ofpenetrationwhenthe
type ofpoint and shank are similar to nails. Thus, Equation
(7—1)has been usedtopredict the withdrawalloadfor one
legof astaple,but no verificationtests have been done.
The load in lateralresistance variesapproximately asthe 3/2
Spikes powerofthe diameterwhenother factors,such as qualityof
Commonwire spikes are manufactured inthe same manner metal,type ofshank, anddepth ofpenetration,are similar to
as commonwire nails. They have either a chiselpoint or a nails. The diameterofeach leg ofa two-leggedstaple must
diamondpoint and are made in lengthsof 76 to 305 mm therefore be about two-thirds the diameterofanail to provide
(3 to 12 in.). For correspondinglengthsin the range of76 to acomparable load. Equation (7—2) has beenusedto predict
152 (3 to 6 in.),they have larger diameters(Table7—7)than thelateralresistance ofstaples.However,yieldmodel
common wire nails, and beyondthe 60d size they are usually theoryequations havenot yetbeen experimentally verified
designated by diameter. forstaples.

7—8
Table 7—7. Sizes of common wire spikes
Length Diameter
Size (mm (in.)) (mm (in.))
lOd 76.2 (3) 4.88 (0.192)
12d 82.6 (3-1/4) 4.88 (0.192)
16d 88.9 (3-1/2) 5.26 (0.207) Core or
•root
20d 101.6 (4) 5.72 (0.225) diameter
30d 114.3 (4-1/2) 6.20 (0.244)
40d 127.0 (5) 6.68 (0.263) A B C

50d 139.7 (5-1/2) 7.19 (0.283) Figure 7—5. Common typesof wood screws:
60d 152.4 (6) 7.19 (0283) A, flathead; B, roundhead; and C, ovaihead.
5/16 in. 177.8 (7) 7.92 (0.312)
3/8 in. 215.9 (8-1/2) 9.53 (0.375) shouldbe taken as less than, that for aboltofthe sme
diameter. Bolt design values are based on the thicknessof
themain member in ajoint. Thusthe depth ofpenetration
In addition to theimmediateperformance capability ofsta- ofthe driftbolt must be greater than or equalto themain-
memberthicknesson whichthe boltdesignvalue is based.
ples andnails as determinedby test, factors such as corro- However,the drift bolt shouldnot fully penetrate its joint.
sion, sustainedperformanceunderserviceconditions, and
durabilityin varioususes shouldbe considered in evaluating
therelative usefulness ofa stapledconnection. Wood Screws
Drift Bolts i
The commontypesofwood screwshaveflat, oval, or round
heads. The flathead screw is most commonly used a flush
surface is desired. Ovaihead and roundhead screws are used
A drift bolt(or drift pin) is a long pin ofiron or steel,with for appearance, and roundhead screws are usedwhencounter-
or without head or point. It is driven into a bored hole
sinkingis objectionable. The principalparts of a screw are
through one timber and into an adjacent one, to preventthe thehead, shank, thread, and core (Fig. 7—5).The root diame-
separationofthe timbersconnected andto transmitlateral ter for most sizes ofscrews averages about two-thirds the
load. The hole in the secondmemberis drilledsufficiently shank diameter. Woodscrews are usually made ofsteel,
deep to preventthe pin from hittingthe bottom. brass, othermetals, oralloys,and may have specific finishes
The ultimatewithdrawalload ofa round driftboltorpin such as nickel, blued, chromium, or cadmium. They are
from the side grain ofseasonedwood is given by classified according to material,type, fmish,shapeofhead,
and diameter orgauge ofthe shank.
p= 45.5 1G2DL (metric) (7—9a)
Currenttrendsin fastenings for wood also include tapping
p =6, 600G2DL (inch—pound) (7—9b) screws.Tappingscrews havethreadsthe full length ofthe
shank and mayhave someadvantage for certain specific uses.
wherep is the ultimate withdrawalload (N, lb), G specific
gravitybased onthe ovendry weight andvolumeat 12% Withdrawal Resistance
moisturecontentofthe wood,D diameterofthe driftbolt
(mm, in.), and L length ofpenetrationofthe bolt (mm, in.). Experimental Loads
(TheNDS and LRFDuse ovendry weightand volume as a Theresistance ofwood screw shanks to withdrawal from the
basis.) side grainofseasonedwood variesdirectlywith the square of
This equation providesan average relationship forall spe- thespecificgravityofthewood. Within limits,thewith-
cies, andthe withdrawalloadfor some species may be above drawalloadvariesdirectlywith the depth ofpenetration of
or below the equationvalues. It also presumesthat thebolts the threaded portion and the diameter ofthe screw,provided
aredriven into preboredholes havinga diameter3.2 mm the screw does not fail in tension. The screw will fail in
(1/8 in.) less than the boltdiameter. tension when its strength is exceededby the withdrawal
strengthfrom the wood. The limitinglength to cause a
Data are not available on lateralresistance ofdriftbolts. The tension failure decreases as the density ofthewood increases
yield model should provide lateral strengthprediction,but since the withdrawal strength ofthe wood increases with
themodelhas not beenexperimentally verified fordrift bolts. density. The longer lengths ofstandard screws are therefore
Designershave used bolt dataand designmethodsbased on superfluous in densehardwoods.
experience. This suggests that the load for a driftbolt driven
into the sidegrain ofwood shouldnot exceed, and o:rdinarily

7—9
The withdrawalresistance oftype A tapping screws,com- Fastening of Particleboard
monlycalled sheet metal screws,is in general about 10% Tappingscrewsare commonly used in particleboardwhere
greaterthan that forwood screwsofcomparable diameter and withdrawal strength is important. Care must be taken when
length ofthreadedportion.The ratio betweenthe withdrawal
resistance oftappingscrewsandwood screws variesfrom tightening screwsin particleboardto avoid strippingthe
threads.The maximumamountoftorquethat can be applied
1.16 in denser woods, such as oak, to 1.05 in lighter woods, to a screw before thethreads in theparticleboard arestripped
such as redwood. is given by
Ultimatetest values for withdrawal loadsofwood screws T= 3.16+0.0096X (metric) (7--Ila)
insertedinto the side grain of seasoned wood may be
expressed as T 27.98+1.36X (inch—pound) (7-1Ib)

p= l08.2SG2DL (metric) (7—1Oa) where T is torque(N—m, in—lb) andXis density ofthe

particleboard (kg/rn3,lb/ft3). Equation(7—11) is for 8-gauge
p= 15,700G2DL (inch—pound) (7—lob) screws with a depth ofpenetrationof 15.9 mm (5/8 in.). The
maximum torqueis fairlyconstant for lead holes of0 to 90%
wherep is maximumwithdrawalload (N, lb), G specific oftherootdiameterofthescrew.
gravitybased on ovendiy weightandvolumeat 12% mois-
tare content,D shank diameterofthe screw (mm, in.),and L Ultimate withdrawal loadsP (N, ib) ofscrewsfrom particle-
length ofpeneirationofthe threadedpart ofthe screw (mm, boardcan bepredictedby
in.). (TheNDS and LRFD use ovendiy weightand volume
as a basis.) Thesevalues are basedon reachingultimate load P= KD"2(L—D/3)514G2
in 5- to 10-mm.
where D is shank diameter ofthe screw (mm, in.),L depth of
This equationis applicablewhen screw lead holeshave a embedment ofthethreadedportion ofthe screw (mm, in.),
diameter ofabout 70% ofthe root diameter ofthe threads in and G specific gravityofthe boardbased on ovendrywe:ght
softwoods, and about 90% in hardwoods. and volumeat currentmoisture content. For metricmeas-
urements, K= 41.1 forwithdrawal from the face ofthe board
The equationvalues are applicable to the screw sizes listed and K= 31.8 forwithdrawalfrom the edge; for inch—pound
in Table7—8. (Shankdiametersarerelatedto screwgauges.) measurements, K = 2,655 for withdrawal from the face and
K= 2,055 for withdrawal from theedge. Equation(7—12)
Forlengthsand gauges outside these limits, theactual
values are likelyto be less than the equationvalues. applieswhenthe settingtorque is between 60% to 90% ofT
(Eq. (7—11)).
The withdrawalloads ofscrewsinsertedin the end grain of Withdrawal resistance ofscrewsfrom particleboardis not
wood are somewhaterratic, but when splitting is avoided,
significantly different for leadholes of50% to 90% ofthe root
they shouldaverage75% ofthe load sustainedby screws diameter.A highersettingtorque will produce a somewhat
insertedin the side grain.
higherwithdrawal load,butthere is only a slight differerce
Lubricating the surfaceofa screw with soap or similarlubri- (3%) in valuesbetween60% to 90% settingtorques
cant is recommendedto facilitateinsertion, especially in (Eq. (7—11)).A modesttightening of screws in many cases
densewoods, and it will have little effect on ultimate with- provides an effective compromise betweenoptimizing with-
drawal resistance and strippingthreads.
drawal resistance.
Equation (7—12) can alsopredictthe withdrawalofscrews
from fiberboard with K= 57.3 (metric)or 3,700(inch—
Table 7—8. Screw sizes pound) forthe face and K = 44.3 (metric)or 2,860 (inch—
pound)for the edge oftheboard.
appropriate for Equation (7—10)
Screw length Lateral Resistance
(mm (in.)) Gauge limits Pre-1991
12.7 (1/2) ito 6 The proportional limit loads obtainedin tests of lateral
resistance for wood screws in the sidegrain ofseasonedwood
19.0 (3/4) 2toll aregivenby theempirical equation
25.4 (1) 3to12
38.1 (1-1/2) 5to14 p=KD2 (7—13)
50.8 (2) 7to16 wherep is lateral load, D diameter ofthe screw shank, and
63.5(2-1/2) 9 to 18 Ka coefficient depending on theinherent characteristics ofthe
wood species. Valuesofscrew shank diameters for various
76.2 (3) 12 to 20 screw gauges are listedin Table 7—9.

7—10
 Table 7—9. Screwshankdiameters Screws should alwaysbe turned in. They shouldnever be
for various screw gauges startedordrivenwith a hammerbecausethis practicetears
Screwnumber Diameter the wood fibersand injures the screw threads,seriously
or gauge (mm (in.)) reducing the load carrying capacity ofthe screw.

4 2.84 (0.112) Post-I 991

5 3.18 (0.125) Screw lateral strength is determinedby the yield mcdel
6 3.51 (0.138) theory(Table 7—5). Modes I, III, and IV failuresmay occur
7 3.84 (0.151) (Fig. 7—4).The dowelbearingstrengthvaluesare based on
thesame specific gravityequationusedto establish valuesfor
8 4.17 (0.164) nails (Eq. (7—3)). Furtherdiscussion ofscrew lateral strength
9 4.50 (0.177) is found in ASCEManualNo. 84, Mechanical Conections
10 4.83 (0.190) in Wood Structures.
11 5.16 (0.203)
12
14
5.49 (0.216)
6.15 (0.242) Lag Screws
16 6.81 (0.268) Lag screwsare commonly usedbecauseoftheirconvenience,
18 7.47 (0.294) particularly whereitwould be difficultto fastena bolt or
whereanut on the surface wouldbe objectionable. Com-
8.13 (0.320)
20
monlyavailablelag screws range from about 5.1 to 25.4 mm
24 9.45 (0.372) (0.2 to 1 in.) in diameter and from 25.4 to 406 mm (I to
16 in.) in length. The length ofthe threadedpart varieswith
thelength ofthescrewand rangesfrom 19.0 mm (3/4 in.)
with the 25.4-and 31.8-mm(1- and 1-1/4-in.) screws to half
ValuesofKare basedonrangesofspecific gravity ofhard- thelength for all lengths greaterthan 254 mm (10 in.). Lag
woods and soflwoodsand are given in Table 7—4. They screws have ahexagonal-shaped headandaretightenedby a
apply to wood at about 15% moisturecontent. Loadscom- wrench(as opposed towood screws, whichhave aslotted
puted by substitutingthese constantsin the equationare headand are tightenedby a screw driver).The following
expectedto have a slip of0.18 to 0.25 mm (0.007 to equations for withdrawal and lateralloads are based on lag
0.010 in.), dependingsomewhat on the species and density screws havingabase metal average tensile yield strength of
ofthewood. about 310.3 MPa (45,000 lb/in2) and an averageultimate
Equation(7—13) applieswhen the depth ofpenetration ofthe tensile strengthof530.9 MPa (77,000 lb/in2).
screw into the block receivingthe point is not less than
seventimes the shank diameterand whenthe sidemember Withdrawal Resistance
and the main member are approximately ofthe same density.
The thicknessofthe side membershouldbe about one-half The resultsofwithdrawal tests have shownthat the maxi-
thedepth ofpenetrationofthescrewin thememberholding mum directwithdrawal load oflag screws from the side grain
thepoint. The end distanceshould be no less than the side ofseasonedwood maybe computed as
member thickness, and the edge distances no less than one-
halfthe sidememberthickness. p= 125.4G312D314L (metric) (7—14a)

This depth ofpenetration(seventimesshank diameter)gives p= 8,100G312D314L (inch—pound) (7—14b)

an ultimate load ofabout four timestheload obtainedbythe
wherep is maximum withdrawalload (N, lb), D shank
equation. For a depth ofpenetrationofless than seventimes
theshankdiameter,theultimateload is reducedabout in diameter(mm, in.), G specific gravity ofthe wood basedon
proportionto the reductioninpenetration,and the load at the ovendiyweight and volume at 12% moisture content, andL
proportionallimit is reducedsomewhatless rapidly. When length (mm, in.) ofpenetrationofthethreadedpart. (The
thedepth ofpenetrationofthescrewin theholdingblock is NDS and LRFDuse ovendryweightand volume a; abasis.)
fourtimesthe shankdiameter,themaximum load will be Equation(7—14)was developedindependently ofEquation
less than three timesthe load expressed bythe equation, and (7—10) but gives approximately the same results.
theproportionallimitloadwillbe approximately equal to Lagscrews, like wood screws,requirepreboredholes ofthe
that given by the equation. When thescrewholds metal to propersize (Fig. 7—6). The leadhole for the shank shouldbe
wood,the load canbe increasedby about 25%. the same diameteras theshank. The diameterofthelead
Forthese lateralloads, the partoftheleadhole receivingthe hole forthe threadedpart varieswith the densityofthe wood:
shank should be the same diameteras the shank or slightly Forlow-density softwoods, such as the cedarsand white
smaller; that part receivingthe threadedportion shouldbe pines, 40% to 70% ofthe shank diameter; forDouglas-firand
thesame diameteras theroot ofthethread in dense species SouthernPine, 60% to 75%; and for densehardwoods,such
or slightly smallerthan the root in low-density species. as oaks,65% to 85%. The smallerpercentage in each range
appliesto lag screws ofthe smallerdiameters andthe larger

7—11
 Table 7—10. Multiplication factors for
loads computed fromEquation (7—15)
Ratio of thickness of
side member to shank
diameterof lag screw Factor
2 0.62
2.5 0.77
3 0.93
3.5 1.00
4 1.07
4.5 1.13
5 1.18
5.5 1.21
6 1.22
6.5 1.22
Figure 7—6. A, Clean-cut, deep penetration ofthread
made by lag screw turned into a lead holeof proper
size, and B, rough, shallowpenetration ofthread
made by lag screwturned into oversized lead hole. Table 7—11. Multiplication factorsfor
loads applied perpendicular to grain
computed fromEquation (7—15) with
lagscrewin side grain ofwood
percentage to lag screwsoflarger diameters. Soap orsimilar
lubricants shouldbe usedon the screw to facilitate turning, Shank diameter
and lead holes slightlylarger thanthose recommended for of lag screw
maximum efficiencyshould be usedwith long screws. (mm (in.)) Factor

In determining thewithdrawalresistance, the allowable 4.8 (3/16) 1.00

tensilestrengthofthe lag screw atthe net (root) section 3.4 (1/4) 0.97
shouldnotbe exceeded. Penetrationofthe threadedpart to a 7.9 (5/16) 0.85
distance abOut seventimesthe shank diameterin the denser 9.5 (3/8) 0.76
species (specificgravitygreater than 0.61)and 10 to 12 times 11.1 (7/16) 0.70
theshankdiameterin the less dense species (specificgravity 12.7 (1/2) 0.65
less than 0.42) will developapproximately the ultimate 15.9 (5/8) 0.60
tensilestrengthofthe lag screw.Penetrations at intermediate 19.0 (3/4) 0.55
densitiesmay be found by straight-line interpolation. 22.2 (7/8) 0.52
The resistance to withdrawalofa lag screw from the end- 25.4 (1) 0.50
grain surface ofa piece ofwood is about three-fourths as great
as itsresistance towithdrawalfromtheside-grain surface of
thesame piece. memberis seventimesthe diameterin the harder woodsand
11 times the diameterin the softer woods.For other thick-
Lateral Resistance nesses, the computed loads should be multipliedby the
factors listed in Table 7—i 0.
Pre-1991
Theexperimentally determinedlateralloadsfor lag screws The thicknessofa solid wood side membershould be about
insertedin the side grain and loadedparallel to the grain ofa one-halfthe depth ofpenetrationin the main member.
piece ofseasonedwood can be computed as Whenthe lag screw is insertedin the sidegrain ofwood and
theload is appliedperpendicular to thegrain, theload given
p=KD2 17—15'' by the lateralresistance equationshould be multipliedby the
wherep is proportionallimit lateral load (N, lb) parallel to factorslisted in Table 7—11.
thegrain,K a coefficient depending on thespecies'specific Forother anglesofloading,theloads may be computed from
gravity,andD shank diameterofthe lag screw (mm, in.). theparallel and perpendicular valuesby theuse ofthe
Values ofKfora numberofspecific gravity ranges can be Scholten nomograph for determining the bearingstrength of
foundin Table 7—4. Thesecoefficients are basedon average
wood at various anglesto the grain (Fig. 7—7).
results for several ranges ofspecific gravity for hardwoods and
softwoods. The loads given by this equationapply whenthe
thicknessofthe side memberis 3.5 times the shank diameter
ofthelagscrew, and thedepth ofpenetration inthemain

7—12
 Y
P Load or stress parallelto grain
Q Loador stress perpendicularto grain
N Load of stress at inclination 0
withdirection of grain

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Allowable load or stress for /9 Q, and N in units, tens, hundreds, or thousands
Figure 7—7. Scholten nomograph for determining the bearing stressofwoodat various
anglesto the grain. Thedashed lime ab refers to the example givenin the text.

The nomographprovidesvalues as given by the Hankinson The spacings, endandedge distances, and net sectionfor lag
equation, screwjoints shouldbe the same as those forjoints with bolts
(discussed later) ofa diameterequaltothe shank diameter of
N= PQ thelag screw.
(7—16)
Psin2 0+Qcos20
Lag screws shouldalwaysbe insertedby turningwith a
whereP is load or stress parallelto the grain, Q load or wrench, not by driving with a hammer.Soap, beeswax, or
stress perpendicular to the grain, andNload or stress at an other lubricants appliedto the screw,particularlywith the
inclination9with the directionofthe grain. denser wood species, will facilitateinsertion and prvent
damage to the threads but willnot affect performance ofthe
Example: P, the load parallelto grain, is 6,000 lb, and Q, lagscrew.
the load perpendicularto the grain, is 2,000lb. The load at
an angle of40°to grain,N, is foundas follows: Connect Post-1991
with a straightline 6,000lb (a) on line OXofthe nomograph
Lag screw lateral strength is determinedbythe yield model
0
with the intersection (b) on line Yofa verticalline through
theorytable similarto theprocedurefor bolts.ModesI, III,
2,000lb. The point where line ab intersectsthe line repre- and IV yield may occur (Fig. 7—4).The dowelbearing
sentingthe given angle 40° is directly abovethe load,
3,300 lb.
Valuesfor lateralresistance as computed by the preceding Table 7—12. Permitted increases
methods are basedon complete penetration ofthe unthreaded in loads when lagscrew unthreaded
shank into the side memberbut not intothe main member. shank penetratesfoundation member
Whenthe shank penetrates the main member,the permitted Ratio of penetration of Increase
increasesin loads are given in Table 7—12. shank into foundation in load
memberto shank diameter (%)
When lag screws are usedwith metal plates,the lateral loads
parallelto the grain may be increased 25%, providedthe 1 8
plate thicknessis sufficientso that the bearing capacity ofthe 2 17
steel is not exceeded. No increase shouldbe madewhenthe
3 26
appliedload is perpendicular to the grain.
4 33
Lagscrews shouldnot be used in end grain,becausesplit-
ting may developunder lateralload. Iflagscrewsare so 5 36
used, however, the loads shouldbe takenas two-thirdsthose 6 38
forlateral resistance whenlag screws are insertedinto side
7 39
grain andthe loads actperpendiculartothe grain.

7—13
strengthvalues are based on the same parallel-andperpen- 100 -
dicular-to-grain specific gravityequationsusedto establish
valuesforbolts. 0 80 -
0
0
Bolts Cl)
60 -
o.
Bearing Stress of Wood Under Bolts C)C)
o • 40 -
The bearing stress under a bolt is computed by dividingthe —C)j
OW
load on a bolt by the productLD, whereL is the length ofa 0
boltin the main member and D is thebolt diameter. Basic Ce 20 -
parallel-to-grain and perpendicular-to-grain bearing stresses
have beenobtainedfrom tests ofthree-member wood joints I I I I I
whereeach side memberis halfthe thicknessofthe main 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
member.The sidememberswere loadedparallelto grain for LID ratio
both parallel-and perpendicular-to-grain tests. Priorto 1991,
bearing stress was based on test resultsat the proportional Figure 7—8.Variation in bolt-bearing stress at the pro-
limit; since 1991, bearingstress is based on test results at a portionallimit parallel to grain with LID ratio. CurveA,
relation obtained from experimental evaluation; curve B,
yield limit state, which is defmed as the 5% diameteroffset modified relation used forestablishing designloads.
on the load—deformationcurve (similarto Fig. 7—3).
The bearingstress at proportionallimit load is largestwhen -
theboltdoes not bend, that is, forjoints with smallLID 100
values. The curves ofFigures 7—8 and 7—9showthe reduc-
tion in proportionallimit bolt-bearingstress as LID in- 0 80 —
.0_
creases.Thebearing stress at maximum loaddoes not de-
crease as LID increases, but remainsfairlyconstant, which
meansthat the ratio ofmaximumload to proportional limit
.
o
(l)
CI)(I)
.22
60 -
A-i
A-2
B-i
N
N

load increases as LID increases. To maintaina fairly constant B-2

ratio betweenmaximumload and design load for bolts,the
relationsbetweenbearingstress andL/D ratio have been o 40 -
adjustedas indicated in Figures 7—8 and 7—9. 00)
o -
Ce 20 -
The proportionallimit bolt-bearingstress parallelto grain for
smallLIDratios is approximately 50% ofthe smallclear
I I I I
crushingstrength for softwoods and approximately 60% for
hardwoods.Forbearing stress perpendicular to the grain,the 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
ratio between bearingstress at proportionallimitload and LID ratio
the small clear proportionallimit stress in compression Figure 7—9. Variation in bolt-bearing stress at the
perpendicular to grain dependsuponboltdiameter proportiona''imitperpendicular to grain with LID ratio.
(Fig. 7—10) for small LID ratios. Relations obtained from experimental evaluation for
materials with average compression perpendicular
Species compressive strengthalsoaffectsthe LID ratio rela- stress of 7,860 kPa (1,140lb/in2) (curveA—I) and
tionship, as indicated in Figure 7—9. Relatively higher bolt 3,930 kPa (570lb/in2) (curveA—2). Curves B—I and B—2,
proportional-limitstress perpendicular to grain is obtained modified relations used for establishing design loads.
with wood low in strength (proportionallimit stress of
3,930kPa (570 lb/in2)than with material ofhigh strength
(proportionallimit stress of 7,860 kPa (1,140 lb/in2)). This Forperpendicular-to-grain loading,(a) multiplythe species
effectalsooccursfor bolt-bearing stressparallel tograin, but compression perpendicular-to-grain proportional limit stress
not to thesame extentas forperpendicular-to-grain loading. (Tables 4—3, 4—4, or4—5)by the appropriate factor from
The proportionallimitboltload for a three-member joint Figure7—10, (b) multiplythis product by the appropriate
factor from Figure7—9, and (c) multiplythis productby LD.
with sidemembershalfthe thicknessofthe mainmember
may be estimatedby the followingprocedures. Loads at an Angle to the Grain
Forparallel-to-grainloading,(a) multiplythespecies small For loadsappliedat an angleintermediatebetweenthose
clear compressive parallelstrength(Tables 4—3, 4—4, or 4—5) parallelto the grain and perpendicular to the grain, the bolt-
by 0.50for softwoodsor 0.60 for hardwoods, (b) multiply bearingstress may be obtainedfrom the nomographin
this productby the appropriate factorfrom Figure 7—8 for the Figure 7—7.
LID ratio ofthe bolt, and (c) multiply this product by LD.

7-44
 Bolt diameter (in.)
0 Cl)
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 0)
C
100

0
CO
C).... Ce
C)
.0
0
80
oc
0CC
2.2 .0—
0 U) 60
2.0
•V5 1.8 o
.C
00)
0) 40
C
0)
CCC

00
1.6 0
0 20
0
o. 1.4
Ce

1.2
.2 0 2 4 6
•E
a) 1.0 0 16 32 48 64 UD ratio
8 iD 12
0.
Bolt diameter (mm)
Figure 7—11. Variation in the proportional limit bolt-
Figure 7—10. Bearing stress perpendicular to the grain bearing stress parallel to grain with LID ratio. Curve A,
as affected by bolt diameter. bolts with yield stress of 861.84 MPa (125,000lb/in2);
curveB, bolts with yield stress of 310.26 MPa
(45,000lb/in2).

Steel Side Plates

When steel side plates are used, thebolt-bearingstress paral- 1.6 -
UD=2.67
lel to grain atjointproportionallimit is approximately 25% 5.0
greaterthan that forwood side plates. The jointdeformation
at proportionallimit is much smallerwith steel side plates. 1.2 1
___
UD ____
4.00
Ifloads at equivalent jointdeformation are compared, the C)

load forjoints with steel side plates is approximately 75% .C 0 0.8

greaterthan that for wood sideplates. Pre-1991 design crite-
ria includedincreases in connection strengthwith steel side •.
CC C)

plates;post-1991 designcriteriaincludesteel side plate .2.o -

behaviorin theyieldmodel equations. 0.4

Forperpendicular-to-grain loading,thesame loads are ob-

tainedforwood and steel sideplates.
cr I I
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.50
Side member thickness/main member thickness
Bolt Quality
Figure 7—12. Proportional limit load related to side
Both the propertiesofthe wood and the quality ofthe bolt member thickness forthree-memberjoints. Center
arefactorsin determiningthestrengthofa bolted joint. The member thickness was 50.8 mm (2 in.).
percentages given in Figures7—8 and7—9for calculating
bearingstress apply to steel machinebolts with a yield stress
of 310 MPa (45,000lb/in2). Figure 7—11 indicatesthein- load for a mainmemberthat is twicethe thicknessofthe side
crease in bearingstress parallel to grain forbolts wiith ayield memberis used.Post-1991 design values includemember
stress of862 MPa (125,00 lb/in2). thicknessdirectly in the yield model equations.

Effect of Member Thickness Two-Member, Multiple-Member Joints

The proportionallimitload is affectedbythe ratio ofthe In pre-1991 design,theproportional limitload was taken as
sidememberthicknesstothe mainmemberthickness halftheloadfor a three-member jointwith a main member
(Fig. 7—12). thesame thicknessas the thinnestmember for two-member
Pre-1991 designvaluesforbolts are based onjoints with the joints.
sidememberhalf thethicknessofthe main member. The Forfour or more membersin ajoint, theproportionallimit
usual practicein designofboltedjoints is to takeno increase load was takenas the sum ofthe loadsforthe individual
in designloadwhen thesidemembers aregreaterthanhalf shearplanesby treatingeach shearplaneas an equivalent
thethicknessofthemain member.When thesidemembers two-member joint.
are less than halfthe thicknessofthe mainmember, a design

7—15
Post-1991 designforjoints with four or more members also
resultsin values per shear plane. Connectionstrength forany
number ofmembersis conservatively foundby multiplying
thevalueforthe weakestshear planeby thenumberof
shearplanes.

Spacing, Edge, and End Distance

The center-to-centerdistance along the grain shouldbe at
least fourtimes thebolt diameter for parallel-to-grain load-
ing. The minimumcenter-to-centerspacingofbolts in the
across-the-grain directionfor loadsactingthroughmetal side
plates andparallelto the grain need only be sufficient to
permitthe tighteningofthe nuts. For wood side plates,the
spacing is controlled by the rules applyingto loadsacting
parallelto grain ifthe designload approaches the bolt-
bearingcapacity ofthe sideplates. When the design loadis Figure 7—13. Effect of rate offeed and drill speed on the
less than thebolt-bearingcapacityofthe sideplates, the surface conditionof bolt holesdrilled in Sitka spruce.
spacingmay be reducedbelowthat requiredto develop their A, holewas boredwith a twistdrill rotatingat a
peripheral speed of 7.62 mlmin (300 inlmin); feed rate
maximumcapacity. was 1.52 mlmin (60 in/mm). B, holewas bored with the
same drill at a peripheral speed of 31.75 rn/mm
When ajoint is in tension, the bolt nearest the end ofa (1,250 in/mm); feed rate was 50.8 mmlmin (2 in/mm).
timbershouldbe at a distancefrom the end ofat least seven
timesthe bolt diameterfor softwoods and five timesfor
hardwoods. When thejoint is in compression, the end mar- Deformation (in.)
gin may be fourtimes the bolt diameterfor both softwoods 0 0.010 0.020 0.030
and hardwoods. Any decreasein these spacings and margins 20 4.5
willdecreasethe load in about thesame ratio.
Forbolts bearingparallelto thegrain,the distance from the 16
edge ofa timberto the centerofaboltshouldbe at least 1.5
times the bolt diameter.This margin, however, will usually 3.0
be controlledby (a)the common practiceofhaving an edge 12
0
C,,

marginequalto one-halfthe distance betweenbolt rows and x

(b)the arearequirementsat thecriticalsection. (The critical (5
0
section is that sectionofthe member taken at right anglesto —'8
thedirectionof load, which gives themaximum stress in the 1.5 10
memberbasedon thenet arearemaining afterreductions are
madeforboltholes at that section.) For parallel-to-grain 4
loadingin softwoods,the net arearemainingat the critical
sectionshouldbe at least 80% ofthetotal areain bearing
under all the bolts in the particularjointunder consideration; 0
0 3.0 4.5
in hardwoodsit should be 100%. Deformation (mm)
Forbolts bearingperpendicularto thegrain,themargin Figure 7—14. Typical load—deformationcurves
betweenthe edgetoward whichthe boltpressureis acting showing the effectof surface conditionof bolt holes,
and the center ofthe boltor bolts nearestthis edgeshouldbe resulting from a slow feed rate and a fast feed rate,
at least fourtimes theboltdiameter. The margin at the on the deformation in ajointwhensubjected to
oppositeedge is relatively unimportant. loading under bolts.Thesurface conditionsofthe bolt
holes were similarto those illustratedin Figure7—13.
Effect of Bolt Holes
The bearingstrengthofwood underbolts is affectedconsid- accompanying the loadare also less with a smootherbolt-
erablyby the size and type ofboltholes into whichthe hole surface (Fig. 7—14).
bolts are inserted. A bolt hole that is too largecauses
nonuniformbearingofthe bolt; ifthe bolt hole is too small, Rough holes are caused by using dull bits and improperrates
the wood will split when theboltis driven.Normally,bolts offeed and drill speed. A twist drill operatedat a peripheral
shouldfit so that they can be insertedby tappinglightly speedofapproximately 38 rn/mm (1,500 inlmin)produces
with a wood mallet. In general,the smootherthe hole, the uniformlysmooth holes at moderatefeed rates. The rate of
feed depends upon the diameter ofthe drill and the speedof
higherthe bearingvalues will be (Fig. 7—13). Deformations

7—16
rotationbut should enable the drill to cut rather thantear the Parallelto Grain—Thestartingpoint forparallel-to-grain
wood. The drill should produce shavings, not chips. bolt valuesis the maximum green crushingstrengthfor the
species or group of species. Procedures outlined inASTM
Proportional limit loads forjoints with boltholes the same D2555 are used to establish a 5% exclusionvalue. The
diameteras the bolt willbe slightlyhigher than forjoints
with a 1.6-mm(1/16-in.) oversizedhole. However, ifdrying
t
exclusionvalue is dividedby a factor of 1.9 to adju to a
10-year normalduration ofloadandprovidea factor ofsafety.
takes place after assemblyofthejoint, the proportional limit a
This value is multipliedby 1.20 to adjustto seasoned
load for snug-fitting bolts willbe considerably less dueto strength. The resulting value is called the basic bolt-bearing
the effects ofshrinkage. stress parallel to grain.

Pre-1991 Allowable Loads The basicbolt-bearing stress isthen adjustedfor the effects of
L/Dratio.Table 7—13 givesthe percentage ofbasic stress for
The following proceduresare used to calculateallowable bolt three classes ofspecies. Theparticularclass for the species is
loads forjoints with wood sidemembers,each halfthe determined from the basic bolt-bearing stress as indicated in
thicknessofthe main member. Table 7—14. The adjustedbearing stress is furthermultiplied

Table 7—13. Percentageof basic bolt-bearing stressused for calculating allowable bolt loads
Ratio LID adjustmentfactor by classa
of bolt
length to Parallel to grain Perpendicularto grain
diameter
(UD) 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
1 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
2 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
3 100.0 100.0 99.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
4 99.5 97.4 92.5 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
5 95.4 88.3 80.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
6 85.6 75.8 67.2 100.0 100.0 100.0 96.3
7 73.4 65.0 57.6 100.0 100.0 97.3 86.9
8 64.2 56.9 50.4 100.0 96.1 88.1 75.0
9 57.1 50.6 44.8 94.6 86.3 76.7 64.6
10 51.4 45.5 40.3 85.0 76.2 67.2 55.4
11 46.7 41.4 36.6 76.1 67.6 59.3 48.4
12 42.8 37.9 33.6 68.6 61.0 52.0 42.5
13 39.5 35.0 31.0 62.2 55.3 45.9 37.5

aClass determinedfrom basic bolt-bearingstress according to Table 7—14.

Table 7—14. LiD adjustment classassociated with basic bolt-bearing stress

Basic bolt-bearing stress for speciesgroup (MPa (lblin2))
LID adjustment
Loading direction Softwoocls Hardwoods (Table7—13)
Parallel <7.93 (<1150) <7.33 (<1,063) 1

7.93—10.37(1,150—1,504) 7.33—9.58 (1,063—1,389) 2

>10.37 (>1,504) >9.58 (>1,389) 3

Perpendicular <1.31 (<190) <1.44 (<209) 1

1.31—2.00 (190—290) 1.44—2.20 (209—319) 2
2.00—2.59(291—375) 2.21—2.84 (320—412) 3
>2.59 (>375) >2.84 (>412) 4

7—17
by a factor of0.80to adjust to wood side plates. The allow- strength. Empirical equations for these relationships are as
able bolt load in poundsis then determinedby multiplying follows:
by theprojectedbolt area,LD. Parallelto grain
Perpendicularto Grain—The startingpoint for perpendicu- = 77.2G (metric) (7— l7a)
lar-to-grainboltvalues is the average green proportional
limit stress in compressionperpendicular to grain. Proce-
dures in ASTM D2555 are used to establish compression F =ll,200G (inch—pound) (7—17b)

perpendicular valuesforgroupsofspecies. The average pro- Perpendicular tograin

portionallimit stress is dividedby 1.5 for ring position = 2l2.OG5D°5
(growthrings neitherparallelnor perpendicular to loaddur- (metric) (7--18a)
ingtest) and a factor ofsafety. This value is then multiplied = 6,1 00G145D°5
by 1.20 to adjustto a seasonedstrengthand by 1.10 to (inch—pound) (7—18b)
adjust to a normalduration of load. The resultingvalue is where Fe is dowelbearingstrength(MPa, lb/in2), G specific
calledthe basic bolt-bearingstress perpendicular to grain.
gravity basedon ovendry weight and volume,and D bolt
Thebasic bolt-bearingstress is then adjusted for the effects of diameter(mm, in.).
bolt diameter (Table 7—15) and L/Dratio (Table 7—13).
The allowablebolt load is then determinedby multiplying
the adjustedbasic bolt-bearingstress by theprojectedbolt
Connector Joints
area, LD. Several types ofconnectors havebeen devisedthat increase
jointbearingand shear areasby utilizingrings or plates
around bolts holdingjointmembers together.The primary
Post-1991 Yield Model load-carrying portions ofthesejoints are the connectors;tie
The empiricaldesign approach used prior to 1991 was based bolts usually serveto prevent transverse separationofthe
a
on a tabularvalue for single bolt in awood-to-wood, three- members but do contribute some load-carrying capacity.
memberconnectionwherethe sidemembers are each a The strengthofthe connector jointdependsonthe type and
minimumofone-halfthe thicknessofthe mainmember.The size ofthe connector, the species ofwood, the thicknessand
single-boltvaluemust then be modifiedfor any variation widthofthe member, the distance ofthe connector from the
from these referenceconditions. The theoretical approach,
endofthe member, the spacingofthe connectors, the dfre-
after 1991, is more generaland is not limited to these tionofapplication oftheload with respectto thedirectionof
reference conditions. thegrain ofthe wood,and other factors.Loads forwood
Thetheoreticalapproachis based on work done in Europe joints with steel connectors—split ring (Fig. 7—15) and shear
(Johansen 1949) and is referredto as the European Yield plate (Fig. 7—16)—are discussedin this section.These
Model (EYM). The EYM describes a number ofpossible connectors require closelyfittingmachinedgroovesin the
yield modesthat can occur in a dowel-type connection wood members.
(Fig. 7—4). The yield strengthofthese differentmodesis
determinedfrom a static analysis that assumes the wood and Parallel-to-Grain Loading
thebolt are both perfectlyplastic. The yieldmode that re-
sults in the lowestyield load for a given geometry is the Tests have demonstrated that the densityofthe wood is a
theoreticalconnectionyield load. controlling factor inthe strength ofconnectorjoints. For
split-ring connectors, both maximum load and proportional
Equationscorrespondingto the yieldmodesfor a three- limit loadparallelto grain vary linearlywith specificgravity
memberjoint are given in Table 7—16.(Equations for two- (Figs. 7—17 and 7—18). For shear plates, the maximum load
memberallowablevalues are given inthe AF&PANational and proportional limit loadvary linearlywith specificgravity
Design Spec?fIcationfor Wood Construction) The nominal for the less densespecies (Figs. 7—19 and 7—20). In the
single-boltvalue is dependenton thejointgeometry higherdensity species,the shear strengthofthe bolts be-
(thickness ofmain and sidemembers),bolt diameterand comesthe controlling factor.Theserelationswere obtained
bendingyield strength, dowel bearing strength, and direction for seasonedmembers,approximately 12% moisture content.
ofloadto thegrain. The equations are equallyvalidfor wood
or steel side members,which is taken into account by thick- Perpendicular-to-Grain Loading
nessand dowelbearingstrengthparameters. Theequations
are also valid for variousload-to-grain directions, whichare Loads forperpendicular-to-grain loading havebeen estab-
taken into account by the K9 and Feparameter. lishedusing three-member joints with the side members
loadedparallel to grain. Specific gravityis agoodindicator
The dowelbearingstrength is amaterialproperty not gener- ofperpendicular-to-grain strength oftimberconnector joints.
ally familiarto structuraldesigners.The dowelbearing Forsplit-ring connectors, theproportionallimit loads per-
strength ofthe wood members is determinedfrom tests that pendicularto grain are 58% ofthe parallel-to-grain propor-
relate species specificgravityand doweldiameter to bearing tional limit loads. Thejoint deformationat proportional
limit is 30% to 50% more than for parallel-to-grainloading.

7—18
Table 7—15. Factors for adjusting basic bolt-
bearing stressperpendicular to grain for bolt
diameter when calculating allowable bolt loads
Bolt diameter Adjustment
(mm (in.)) factor

6.35 (1/4) 2.50

9.53 (3/8) 1.95
12.70 (1/2) 1.68
15.88 (5/8) 1.52
19.05 (3/4) 1.41
22.23 (7/8) 1.33
25.40 (1) 1.27
31.75 (1-1/4) 1.19
38.10 (1-1/2) 1.14
44.45 (1-3/4) 1.10
50.80 (2) 1.07
63.50 (2-1/2) 1.03
>76.20 (>3 or over) 1.00 Figure 7—15. Joint with split-ring connector showing
—
connector, precutgroove, bolt,washer, and nut.

Table 7—16. The5% offset yield lateral strength

(Z) forthree-member boltedjoints —
Zvalueforthree-
Mode memberboltedjoint

DtmF
Mode Irn
K9
2DtF,
Mode I,
K9
2k4Dts1m
Mode Ills
(2+R)K9
2D2 J2JmF,b
Mode IV
K9 3(1+Re)
Definitions
D nominalbolt diameter,mm(in.)
Fern dowelbearing
kPa strenthofmain (center)
member, (lb/in)
Fes dowelbearingstrengthofside members,
kPa (lb/in2)
Fb bending yield strength ofbolt, kPa (lb/in2)
K 1+9/360
trn thickness ofmain (center)member,mm (in.)
t9 thicknessofside member,mm (in.)
Z nominal single bolt design value
9 angleofloadto grain (degrees)
Re = Fern/Fee
Figure 7—16. Jointswith shear-plate connectors
2P,b(2+Re)D2 with (A) woodside plates and (B) steelside plates.
k4 = —1+
112(l+Re)
Re 3Fem s

7—19
 30
25
150

120
—
Bolt diameter(mm(in.))
19.0 (3/4)
15.9(5/8)
35

30

z 78 0
C')
F z
25 .0
15 .. 90
20 0
C')

x
0 52
-J 10 0 0 60
-J 15
-J
26 0
5 10 -J
30
5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.
Specificgravity 0
0 0.1 0.2
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Figure 7—17. Relation between load bearing parallel Specificgravity
to grain and specificgravity (ovendry weight,
volumeat test) for two 63.5-mm (2-1/2-in.) split Figure 7—19. Relation between load bearing parallel
rings with a single 12.7-mm (1/2-in.) bolt in air-dry to grain and specificgravity (ovendry weight,
material. Center member was thickness101.6 mm volume at test) for two 66.7-mm (2-5/8-in.)shear
(4 in.) and side member thicknesswas 50.8 mm (2 in.). plates in air-dry material with steel side plates.
Center member thickness was 76.2 mm (3 in.).

60
250
60
50 250 Bolt diameter(mm(in.))
200
19.0 (3/4) 50
z 40
0
C') 200 15.9 (5/8)
V
150 z
0 100
30
150 40(
-J 20 30
0
-J V
50 100
10 20 3
0 50 10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Specificgravity 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Figure 7—18. Relation between loadbearing parallel
to grain and specificgravity (ovendry weight, Specific gravity
volume at test) for two 101.6-mm(4-in.) split rings 7—20. Relation between load bearing
and a single 19.1-mm-(314-in.-) diameter bolt in Figure parallel
to grain and specificgravity(ovendry weight,volume
air-dry material. Center member thickness was at test) for two 101.6-mm (4-in.) shear plates in
127.0 mm (5 in.) and side member thickness
was 63.5 mm (2-1/2 in.). air-dry material with steel side plates. Center
member thickness was 88.9 mm (3-1/2 in.).

Forshear-plateconnectors,theproportionallimitand proportionallimit. For split rings, the proportionallimit

maximum loads vary linearlywith specific gravity load is reducedby approximately half. For shearplates, the
(Figs. 7—21 and 7—22). The wood strength controls thejoint design loadsare approximately five-eighths ofthe propor-
strength for all species. tional limit test loads. Thesereductionsagain accountfor
materialvariability, areductionto long-timeloading,and a
Design Loads factor ofsafety.

Designloads for parallel-to-grain loadinghave beenestab- Design loads are presentedin Figures7—17 to 7—22. In
lished by dividingultimate test loads by an average factor of practice, fourwood species groupshavebeen established,
4. This gives valuesthat do not exceed five-eighths ofthe based primarily on specific gravity, and designloads as-
proportionallimit loads.The reductionaccountsforvariabil- signed for each group. Speciesgroupings for connectors are
ity inmaterial,a reduction to long-timeloading,and a factor presentedin Table 7—17. The corresponding design loads
ofsafety. Designloads fornormaldurationofloadare (for long-continued load) are given in Table 7—18.The
10% higher. NationalDesign Specflcationfor Wood Construction
Forperpendicular-to-grain loading,ultimate load is given gives design valuesfor normal-duration load for these and
less consideration and greaterdependence placed on loadat additional species.

7—20
 / //
50 Bolt diameter (mm(in.)) 12 Table7—17. Species groupingsfor connector loadsa

z
40

30
— ———
19.0 (3/4)
15.9 (5/8)
19.0 or 15.9
(3/4or 5/8) // 8
10

0
C.)
Con-
nector

Group 1 Aspen
Western
S pecies orspecies group

Basswood
Balsam fir
Cottonwood
Whitefir
redcedar
0 20
-J 4o Eastern hemlock Eastern white pine PondErasapine
Sugarpine Western whitepine Engelrnann
10 2 sprtJce

0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 Group2 Chestnut Yellow-poplar Baldcypress
Yellow-cedar Port-Orlord-cedar Western
Specificgravity hemlock
Figure 7—21. Relation between load bearing Red pine Redwood Red spruce
perpendicular to grain and specific gravity Sitka spruce Whitespruce
(ovendry weight,volumeat test) fortwo 66.7-mm
(2-5/8-in.) shear plates in air-dry material with Group3 Elm, American Elm,slippery Maple, soft
steel side plates. Center memberthickness
was 76.2 mm (3 in.). Sweetgum Sycamore Tupelo
Douglas-fir Larch, western SouthernPine

90 Bolt diameter(mm(in.)) 20 Group4 Ash, white Beed, Birch

19.0 (3/4) Elm,rock Hickory Maple, hard
72 —— —
—15.9(5/8) 16 Oak
19.0or 15.9
(3/4 or 5/8) .0
z aGroup 1 woods provide theweakest connectorjoints;
54 12% group 4woods, thestrongest.
0
0 36
-J o
o 1
0 tabulated valuesshouldbe used. The amountby whichthe
-J loads shouldbe reducedto adaptthem to other conditions of
18 4 use depends uponthe extentto whichthe exposure favors
decay,the requiredlife ofthe structure orpart,the frequency
0 and thoroughness ofinspection, the original costand the cost
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 ofreplacements, the proportionofsapwoodanddurability of
Specificgravity theheartwoodofthe species (ifuntreated), andthe tharacter
and efficiency ofanytreatment. Thesefactors shouEdbe
Figure 7—22. Relation between loadbearing perpen- evaluatedforeach individual design.Industryreco:rnmenda-
dicularto grain and specificgravity (ovendry
weight,volume attest) fortwo 101.6-mm (4-in.) tions for theuse ofconnectors whenthe conditionofthe
shear plates in air-dry material with steel side plates. lumberis other than continuously wet or continucuslydry
Center member thickness was 88.9 mm (3-112 un.). aregiven intheNationalDesign Spec(flcation for Wood
Construction.

Ordinarily, before fabrication ofconnector joints, members

Modifications a
shouldbe seasoned to moisturecontentcorresponding as
Somefactors that affectthe loadsofconnectors weretaken nearly as practicalto that whichthey will attain it. service.
into accountin derivingthe tabular values. Other varied and This is particularly desirable for lumberforrooftnissesand
extreme conditions requiremodification ofthe values. other structural units usedin dry locations and in which
shrinkage is an important factor.Urgentconstruction needs
Steel Side Plates sometimes result inthe erection ofstructures andstructural
units employing green orinadequately seasonedlumber with
Steel side plates are often used with shear-plate connectors. connectors. Becausesuch lumbersubsequently dries out in
The loadsparallelto grain havebeen found to be approxi- most buildings, causing shrinkage and opening thejoints,
mately 10% higher than those with wood side plates.The adequate maintenance measures must be adopted. The
perpendicular-to-grain loadsareunchanged. maintenance forconnector joints in green lumber should
include inspection ofthe structural units andtighteningof
Exposureand Moisture Condition of Wood all bolts as needed during the time the units are coming
Theloadslistedin Table 7—18 apply to seasonedmembers to moistureequilibrium, whichis normallyduring the
used wherethey will remain dry. Ifthe wood will be more or firstyear.
less continuouslydamp or wet in use, two-thirdsofthe

7—21
Table 7—18. Design loadsfor one connector in a jointa
Load (N (Ib))

Minimum thickness of
wood member (mm(in.)) Group 1 woods Group 2woods Group 3woods Group 4woods
Withtwo
connectors Minimum AtO° A190° AtO° At90° AtO° At90° At0° At90°
Withone in opposite widthall angle angle angle angle angle angle angle angle
connector ces,one members to to to to to to to to
Connector only boftb (mm (in.)) grain grain grain grain grain grain grain grain

Split ring
63.5-mm (2-1/2-in.) 25(1) 51(2) 89 (3-1/2) 7,940 4,693 9,274 5,471 11,032 6,561 12,769 7,673
diameter, 19.0mm (1,785) (1,055) (2,085) (1,230) (2,480) (1,475) (2,875) (1,725)
(3/4 in.) wide, with
12.7-mm (1/2-in.)
bolt
101.6-mm (4-in.) 38 (1-1/2) 76(3) 140 (5-1/2) 15,324 8,874 17,726 10,275 21262 12,344 24,821 14,390
diameter, 25.4 mm (3,445) (1,995) (3,985) (2,310) (4,780) (2,775) (5,580) (3,235)
(1 in.) wide, with
19.0-mm (3/4-in.)
bolt

Shear plate
66.7-mm (2-5/8-in.) 38(1-1/2) 67(2-5/8) 89(3-1/2) 8,407 4,871 9,742 5,649 11,699 6,784 11,854 7,918
diameter, 10.7mm (1,890) (1,095) (2,190) (1,270) (2,630) (1,525) (2,665) (1,780)
(0.42 in.)wide,with
19.0-mm (3/4-in.)
bolt
101.6-mm (4-in.) 44(1-314) 92(3-518) 140 (5-1/2) 12,677 7,362 14,701 8,518 17,637 10,231 20,573 11,943
diameter,16.2mm (2,850) (1,655) (3,305) (1,915) (3,965 (2,300) (4,625) (2,685)
(0.64 in.)wide,with
19.0-mm or22.2-mm
(3/4- or 7/8-in.) bolt

alheloads apply to seasoned timbers indry, inside locationsfora long-continuedload. It is also assumedthatthejointsare properlydesigned
withrespecttosuchfeatures as centeringofconnectors,adequateend dIstance,and suitable spacing.Group 1 woods providethe weakest
connectorjoints, group4woods the strongest.Species groupingsare given inTable 7—17.
bA three-member assembly withtwo connectorstakes double the loads indicated.

Grade and Quality of Lumber Thickness of Member

The lumberforwhichthe loadsfor connectors are applicable The relationshipbetweenthe loads for the differentthick-
shouldconform tothe generalrequirements in regardto nessesoflumberis basedontest resultsfor connectorjoints.
qualityofstructural lumbergiven in the gradingrule books The least thicknessofmembergiven in Table7—18 forthe
oflumbermanufacturers'associations for various commercial various sizes ofconnectors is the minimumto obtain opti-
species. mum load. The loadslistedfor eachtype and size ofconnec-
tor arethe maximum loads to be usedfor all thicker lumber.
The loads for connectors were obtainedfrom tests ofjoints The loads forwood members ofthicknesses less than those
whosemembers were clear and free from checks, shakes, and listed canbe obtained by the percentage reductionsindicated
splits. Cross grain at the jointshould not be steeperthan in Figure7—23.Thicknessesbelow those indicatedby the
I in 10, and knots in theconnectorarea shouldbe accounted curvesshould not be used.
for as explainedunderNet Section.
Loads at Angle with Grain When one member contains a connector in only one face,
loadsforthicknessesless than those listed in Table 7—18 can
The loadsfor the split-ring and shear-plate connectors for be obtainedby thepercentage reductionsindicatedin Figure
anglesof00 to 900 between directionofloadand grain may 7—23 usingan assumedthicknessequalto twice the actual
be obtainedby theHankinson equation(Eq. (7—16)) or by memberthickness.
the nomographin Figure7—7.

7—22
 ..-
Thickness of woodmember with connector in each face (in.)
C) 0 1 2 3 4 5
100 I I I
o0)
0 63.5-mm (2-1/2 rn) 101 .6
I_mm —.
(4 in)
diameter, diameter,
80 12.9-mm(1/2 19-mm (3/4-in.)
0
o
bolt
.D Splitring
60
.2
E
100
66.7-mm

?
0
80 -
diameter,
(25/8,/2
/
19-mm (3/4-in.)
bolt
diameter,
19- or 22.2-mm (7/8- or3/4-in.)bolt
Shear plate
1) 60
0 26 52 78 104 130
a)
Thickness of woodmemberwith connector in each face (mm)
Figure 7—23. Effect of thickness ofwood member on the optimum load
capacity ofa timber connector.

Width of Member there are noknots at or near the connector. In laminated

The widthofmemberlistedfor each type and size ofconnec- construction, therefore, the stress atthe net sectionis limited
tor is theminimumthat shouldbe used. Whenthe connec- to thecompressive stress for the member,accounting forthe
tors arebearingparallelto the grain,no increase in load effect ofknots.
occurs with an increase in width. Whenthey are bearing
perpendicular to the grain,the load increases about 10% for End Distance and Spacing
each 25-mm(1-in.)increase in widthofmemberoverthe
minimumwidthsrequiredfor eachtype and size ofconnec- The loadvalues in Table 7—18 apply when the distance of
tor, up to twicethe diameterofthe connectors. Whenthe theconnector from the end ofthemember(end distance e)
connector isplacedoffcenterand the loadis appliedcontinu- and the spacings between connectors in multiplejoints are
ouslyin one directiononly, the properload can be deter- not factors affectingthestrengthofthejoint(Fig. —24A).
mined by consideringthe widthofmemberas equalto twice Whenthe end distance orspacingforconnectors bearing
theedge distance (the distance betweenthe centerofthe parallelto the grain is less than that requiredto developthe
connector andthe edge ofthe membertowardwhichthe load full load,the properreducedloadmay be obtainedby multi-
is acting). The distance betweenthe centeroftheconnector plying the loads in Table 7—18 by the appropriate strength
and the oppositeedge should not, however, be less than ratio given in Table 7—19. For example,the load f r a
halfthepermissibleminimumwidth ofthe member. 102-mm (4-in.) split-ring connector bearing parallelto the
grain,whenplaced 178 mmor more (7 in. or more) fromthe
Net Section end of a Douglas-firtension memberthat is 38 mm
(1-1/2 in.) thick is 21.3 kN (4,780 ib). When the end dis-
The net sectionis the area remaining at the criticalsection tance is only 133 mm (5-1/4 in.), the strength ratio obtained
after subtracting the projectedarea ofthe connectors and bolt by direct interpolation between 178 and 89 mm (7 and
from the full cross-sectional area ofthe member. For sawn 3-1/2 in.) in Table 7—19 is 0.81, and the load equals
timbers,the stress in the net area (whetherin tension or 0.81 times 21.3 (4,780) or 17.2 kN (3,870 ib).
compression) shouldnot exceedthe stress for clearwood in
compressionparallelto the grain. In usingthis stress, it is Placement of Multiple Connectors
assumedthat knots do not occurwithin a length ofhalfthe
diameterofthe connector from thenet section. Ifknotsare Preliminaryinvestigationsofthe placementofconnectors in
presentin the longitudinal projectionofthe net section a multiple-connector joint, togetherwith theobservedbehav-
withina length from the criticalsectionofone-halfthe ior ofsingle-connector joints testedwith variables that simu-
diameterofthe connector, the area ofthe knotsshouldbe late those in a multiple-connector joint, are the basis for
subtractedfrom the area ofthe criticalsection. somesuggested designpractices.

In laminatedtimbers,knots may occur in the inner lamina- Whentwo or more connectors inthe same face ofa member
tions at the connector locationwithoutbeing apparentfrom are in a line atright anglesto the grain ofthe memberand
theoutside ofthemember.It is impracticalto assure that

7—23
 Cross Bofts
Crossbolts or stitchbolts placedat or near the end ofmem-
bersjoined with connectors orat pointsbetween connectors
willprovide additional safety. They may alsobe used to
reinforce members that have, throughchangein moisture
contentin service, developed splits to anundesirabledegree.

Multiple-FastenerJoints
When fastenersare used in rows parallelto the directionof
loading,total joint load is unequally distributedamong
fastenersin the row. Simplifiedmethods ofanalysishave
A B been developed to predict the load distributionamongthe
fastenersin a row. Theseanalysesindicatethat the load
distribution is a function of(a) the extensionalstiffliess EA of
thejointmembers,whereE is modulusofelasticityandA is
grosscross-sectional area,(b) the fastenerspacing, (c) the
numberoffasteners, and (d) the single-fastener load-
defonnation characteristics.

Theoretically, the two end fasteners carry amajorityofthe

load. For example, in a row ofsix bolts, the two end bolts
will carry more than 50% ofthe total jointload. Adding
bolts to a row tends to reduce the load on the less heavily
loaded interiorbolts. The most even distributionofbolt
C D loadsoccursin ajointwherethe extensional stiffliess ofthe
mainmemberis equaltothat ofboth splice plates. Increas-
Figure 7—24. Types ofmultiple-connector joints:
A, jointstrengthdepends on end distance eand ing the fastenerspacingtends to put more ofthejointload
connectorspacings; B,joint strength depends on e, ontheend fasteners. Load distributiontends to be worse for
clearc, and edge a distances; C, jointstrengthdepends stifferfasteners.
on end e and clear c distances; D, jointstrength The actualload distribution in field-fabricated joints is diffi-
depends on end e, clearc, and edge a distances. cult to predict. Small misalignmentoffasteners,variations in
spacingbetweenside and mainmembers,and variationsin
are bearingparalleltothe grain (Fig. 7—24C), the clear dis- single-fastener load—deformation characteristics can cause the
load distribution tobe differentthan predictedby the
tance c betweenthe connectors shouldnotbe less than theoretical analyses.
12.7 mm (1/2 in.). Whentwo or more connectors are acting
perpendicularto the grain and are spacedon aline at right Fordesign purposes, modification factorsfor application
anglestothe length ofthe member(Fig. 7—24B), the rules to arow ofbolts, lagscrews,or timberconnectors have
for the width ofmemberand edgedistances used with one been developed basedon the theoreticalanalyses. Tables
connector are applicabletothe edgedistances formultiple aregiven inthe NationalDesignSpecflcationfor
connectors. The clear distance cbetweenthe connectors Wood Construction.
shouldbe equaltothe clear distance fromthe edge ofthe
membertoward which theload is actingto the connector A designequationwas developedto replace thedoubleently
nearestthis edge. required in the NationalDesignSpecificationfor Wood
Constructiontables. This equationwas obtainedby alge-
In ajointwith two or more connectors spacedon a line braic simplification ofthe Lantos analysis that these tables
parallelto the grain and with the load actingperpendicular to are basedon
thegrain (Fig. 7—24D), theavailabledata indicatethat the
load for multipleconnectors isnot equalto the sum ofthe
loads for individual connectors. Somewhatmore favorable = rn(l—m2") ____ (7—19)
resultscan be obtainedifthe connectors are staggeredso that n[(1+RMrnn)(1+m)_1÷rn2nJ
1—rn
they do not act along the same line with respectto the grain
ofthetransverse member.Industryrecommendations for where C8 is modification factor, n numberoffastenersin a
variousangle-to-grainloadingsand spacingsare given in the
National Design Spec/Icationfor Wood Construction.
/
row,RMthe lesserof(E,A) / (E4m) or(EmAm) (E,A,), Em

7—24
 Table 7—19. Strength ratiofor connectors forvariouslongitudinal spacings and end distancesa

Connector Spacing End distanceb (mm (in.))

diameter Spacingc strength Tension Compression End distance
(mm (in.)) (mm (in.)) ratio member member strength ratin
Split-ring
63.5 (2-1/2) 171 .4+ (6-3/4+) 100 139.7+ (5-1/2+) 101 .6+ (4+) 100
63.5 (2-1/2) 85.7 (3-3/8) 50 69.8 (2-3/4) 63.5 (2-1/2) 62
101.6 (4) 228.6+ (9+) 100 177.8+ (7+) 139.7+ (5-1/2+) 100
101.6(4) 123.8 (4-7/8) 50 88.9 (3-1/2) 82.6 (3-1/4) 62

Shear-plate
66.7 (2-5/8) 171.4+ (6-3/4+) 100 139.7+(5-1 /2+) 101.6+ (4÷) 100
66.7 (2-5/8) 85.7 (3-3/8) 50 69.8 (2-3/4) 63.5 (2-1/2) 62
101.6 (4) 228.6+ (9+) 100 177.8+ (7+) 139.7+ (5-112+) 100
101.6 (4) 114.3 (4-1/2) 50 88.9 (3-1/2) 82.6 (3-1/4) 62

aStrength ratio for spacings and end distancesintermediate to those listed may be obtained by interpolation
and multipliedby the loads in Table 7—18 to obtain design load. The strengthratio applies only to those
connectorunits affected by the respectivespacings or end distances. The spacings and end distances
should not be less than the minimum shown.
bEnd distance is distance from center of connectorto end of member (Fig. 7—24A).
eSpacing is distance from centerto center of connectors(Fig. 7—24A).

E
modulusofelasticityofmainmember, modulusofelastic-
Metal Plate Connectors
ity ofsidemembers,Am gross cross-sectional area ofmain
member, A. sum ofgrosscross-sectional areas ofsidemem- Metal plate connectors,commonlycalledtrussplates, have
become a popularmeansofjoining, especially in trussed
bers, m = u —Vu2—1, u = 1 + y(s/2)(liEmAm + 1/ EA),
raftersandjoists. These connectors transmitloads by means
spacingbetween adjacentfastenersin arow,
s center-to-center
ofteeth,plugs, or nails, whichvary frommanufacturerto
and 'y load/slipmodulusforasingle fastenerconnection.
manufacturer. Examples ofsuchplates are shown in
For102-mm (4-in.)split-ringor shear-plate connectors,
Figure 7—25.Plates are usually madeoflight-gauge galva-
= 87,560 kN/m (500,000 lb/in) nizedsteeland havean area and shapenecessary totransmit
theforces on the joint. Installationofplatesusuallyrequires
For64-mm (2-1/2-in.)split ring or 67-mm(2-5/8-in.) split a hydraulic pressor otherheavy equipment, althoughsome
ring or shearplate connectors, plates can be installed by hand.
= 70,050 kN/m (400,000 lb/in) Basic strengthvaluesfor plate connectors are deteimined
from load—slip curves from tensiontests oftwo btLtted wood
Forbolts or lagscrewsinwood-to-woodconnections, members joined with two plates. Sometypicalcurves are
shownin Figure 7—26. Designvaluesare expressed as load
= 246.25 D'5 (metric) pertooth, nail, plug, or unit area ofplate. The sinallestvalue
= 180,000D'5 (inch—pound) as determined by two different meansis thedesign load for
normal duration of load: (1)the averageloadofat least five
Forbolts or lagscrewsinwood-to-metalconnections, specimens at 0.38-mm(0.015-in.) slip from plate to wood
= 369.37 D'5 member or0.76-mm(0.030-in.) slip from memberto mem-
(metric) ber is divided by 1.6; (2) theaverage ultimate load of at least
= 270,000D15 (inch—pound) five specimens is dividedby 3.0.
whereD is diameterofboltor lag screw. The strength ofa metal platejoint may alsobe controlled by
thetensileor shear strengthoftheplate.

7—25
Figure 7—25. Some typical metal plate connectors.

Slip, member to member (in.) Fastener Head Embedment

The bearingstrengthofwood underfastenerheadsis impor-
40
tant in such applications as the anchorageofbuildingframe-
work to foundation structures. When pressuretends to pull
'30 theframing member awayfrom thefoundation, thefastening
loadscould cause tensile failureofthe fastenings,withdrawal
20 ofthe fastenings from the framingmember,or embedment of
0 thefastenerheadsinthemember.The fastenerheadcould
-J evenbe pulledcompletelythrough.
10
The maximum load for fastenerhead embedment is relatedto
thefastenerheadperimeter, while loads at low embedments
0 0.5 1.0 1.5
(1.27 mm (0.05 in.)) are relatedto the fastenerhead bearing
Slip, member to member(mm) area.Theserelationsfor severalspecies at 10% moisture
curvesfor two
7—26. Typicalload—slip contentare shownin Figures 7—27 and 7—28.
Figure
types of metal plate connectorsloaded in tension.

7—26
 Fastener perimeter(in.) ASTM. (currentedition). Philadelphia, PA: American

. 60
0 .0
0
x
Society for Testing and Materials.
ASTMFl667. Specification for drivenfasteners:nails,

.
0
a)
E
45
0
0
C
spiker, staples.
ASTMD2555—96. Standardmethodsfor establLshingclear
wood strengthvalues.
0 a)
.2 30 0E ASTMF547. Standardterminologyofnails for use with
E .0
E wood and wood-base materials.
a)
E ASTM D5652—95. Standardtestmethodsfor bolted con-
E nectionsin wood and wood-base products.
J150 x
ASTMD1761—88. Standardtest methods for mechanical
Fastener perimeter (mm) fasteners inwood.

Figure 7—27. Relation between maximum Anderson, L.O. 1959. Nailingbetter wood boxes and
embedment loadand fastener perimeter for crates. Agric. Handb. 160. Washington,DC: U.S Depart-
several species ofwood. mentofAgriculture.
Anderson, L.O. 1970. Wood-frame house construction.
Agric.Handb. 73 (rev.). Washington,DC: U.S. I)epartment
Fastenerheadbearingarea (in2) ofAgriculture.
.0
-
z 35
30
C.)
0
x
Cramer, C.O. 1968. Load distributionin multiple-bolt
tensionjoints. Proc. Pap. 5939. Journalof Structural
Division,American Society ofCivilEngineers. 94(ST5):
C
11011117.
25
E
a,
E
V
a)
.0 Doyle, D.V.; Scholten, J.A. 1963. Performance ofbolted
a, 20
E 15 E joints in Douglas-fir. Res. Pap. FPL 2. Madison. WI: U.S.
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products
a)
E
Laboratory.
10
C%
q
0 Eckelman,C.A. 1975. Screwholdingperformancein
0
Cs
(a
0(a hardwoodsandparticleboard. Forest Products Journal.
-jO
0 5 10 15 0
25(6): 30—35.
Fastener head bearing area (cm2) Fairchild, I.J. 1926. Holdingpower ofwood screws.
Technol.Pap. 319. Washington, DC: U.S. NationalBureau
Figure 7—28. Relation between loadat 1.27-mm ofStandards.
(0.05-in.)embedment and fastener bearing area
for several species. ForestProductsLaboratory. 1962. Generalobservations
on the nailing ofwood. FPL Tech.Note 243. Madison, WI:
U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest
Products Laboratory.
ForestProductsLaboratory. 1964. Nailingdensehard-
References woods. Res. Note FPL—037. Madison, WI: U.S. Depart-
AF&PA. 1997. Nationaldesignspecification forwood ment ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
construction. Washington, DC: American Forest & Paper Laboratory.
Association. Forest ProductsLaboratory. 1965. Nail withdrswal
ASCE. 1995. Standardfor loadand resistance factor design resistance ofAmerican woods. Res. Note FPL—RN---033.
(LRFD) for engineeredwood construction. Washington, DC: Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest
American Society ofCivilEngineers. Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
ASCE. 1996. Mechanicalconnections in wood structures. Goodell, H.R.; Philipps, R.S. 1944. Bolt-bearing strength
Washington, DC: AmericanSocietyofCivil Engineers. ofwood andmodified wood: effectofdifferent methods of
drillingboltholes in wood and plywood. FPL Rep. 1523.
Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest
Service, Forest Products Laboratory.

7—27
Johansen,K.W. 1949. Theory oftimber connections. Scholten, J.A.; Molander, E. G. 1950. Strength ofnailed
Zurich, Switzerland: Publications ofInternational Associa- joints in frame walls. Agricultural Engineering. 31(11):
tionforBridge and Structural Engineering. 9: 249—262. 551—555.

Jordan, CA. 1963. Responseoftimberjoints with metal Soltis, L.A.; Wilkinson, T.L. 1987. Bolted connection
fastenersto lateral impactloads. FPL Rep. 2263. Madison, design. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—54. Madison, WI:
WI: U.S. DepartmentAgriculture,Forest Service,Forest U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest
Products Laboratory. Products Laboratory.
Kuénzi, E.W. 1951. Theoretical designofa nailed orbolted Stern, E.G. 1940. A study of lumberand plywoodjoints
jointunderlateral load. FPL Rep. 1951. Madison, WI: U.S. with metal split-ringconnectors.Bull. 53. State College,
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products PA: Pennsylvania EngineeringExperimentStation.
Laboratory.
Stern, E.G. 1950. Nails in end-grainlumber. Timber News
Kurtenacker, R.S. 1965. Performance ofcontainer fasteners and Machine Woodworker. 58(2138): 490—492.
subjectedto static and dynamicwithdrawal. Res. Pap. FPL
29. Madison,WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest Trayer, G.W. 1932. Bearingstrengthofwood under bolts.
Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory. Tech. Bull. 332. Washington, DC: U.S. Departmentof
Agriculture.
Lantos,G. 1969. Load distributionin a row offasteners
subjectedto lateral load. Madison, WI: Wood Science. TrussPlateInstitute. {n.d.]Design specification for metal
1(3): 129—136. plate connected wood trusses. TPI—78. Madison, WI: Truss
Markwardt,L.J. 1952. How surface condition ofnails Plate Institute.
affects their holding power in wood. FPL Rep. D1927. Wilkinson, T.L. 1971. Bearingstrength ofwood under
Madison,WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest embedment loading offasteners.Res. Pap. FPL 163. Madi-
Service, ForestProducts Laboratory. son, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Service,
Markwardt,L.J.; Gahagan, J.M. 1930. Effect ofnail Forest Products Laboratory.
points on resistanceto withdrawal.FPL Rep. 1226. Wilkinson, T.L. 1971. Theoreticallateral resistanceof
Madison,WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest nailedjoints. ProceedingsofAmerican SocietyofCivil
Service, ForestProducts Laboratory.
Engineering. Journal ofStructural Division. ST5(97):
Markwardt, L.J.; Gahagan, J.M. 1952. Slant drivingof (Pap. 8121): 1381—1398.
nails. Does it pay? Packing and Shipping. 56(10):
Wilkinson, T.L. 1978. Strength of bolted wood joints wfth
7—9,23,25.
McLain, T.E. 1975. Curvilinearload-slip relationsin
o
variousratios memberthicknesses.Res.Pap. FPL 314.
Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest
laterally-loaded nailedjoints. Fort Collins, CO: Department Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
ofForestryand WoodScience,ColoradoState University.
Thesis. Wilkinson, T.L. 1980. Assessmentofmodification factors
for a row of bolts or timberconnectors.Res. Pap. FPL 37o.
NPA. 1968. Screw holding ofparticleboard.Tech. Bull.3. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest
Washington, DC: NationalParticleboard Association. Service, Forest ProductsLaboratory.
Newlin, J.A.; Gahagan, J.M. 1938. Lag screw joints: their
behavior and design. Tech. Bull. 597. Washington, DC: Wilkinson, T.L. 1991. Dowel bearing strength. Res. Paper
FPL—RP—505.Madison, WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgricul-
U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
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Perkins, N.S.; Landsem, P.; Trayer, G.W. 1933. Modem
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Service. Laboratory.

Scholten, J.A. 1944. Timber-connector joints, theirstrength Wilkinson, T.L.; Laatsch, T.R. 1970. Lateral and with-
and design. Tech. Bull. 865. Washington,DC: U.S. drawalresistance oftapping screws inthree densities of
Department ofAgriculture. wood. Forest ProductsJournal.20(7): 34—41.
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hardwoods. SouthernLumberman. 181(2273): 208—210.

7—28
 I Chap
ter'8 I
Structural Analysis Equations
LawrenceA. Soltis

Contents quations for deformation and stress, whichare the

basisfor tensionmembersand beamand column
DeformationEquations 8—1 design,are discussedin this chapter. The firsttwo
sections cover taperedmembers,straightmembem, and
Axial Load 8—1 specialconsiderations such as notches,slits, and size effect.
A third sectionpresentsstability criteria formemberssubject
Bending 8—1 to bucklingand for members subjectto special conditions.
CombinedBendingand Axial Load 8—3 The equationsare basedon mechanicsprinciples and arenot
given in the designcode formatfound in Allowable Stress
Torsion 8—4 DesignorLoad and Resistance FactorDesignspecifications.
Stress Equations 8—4
Axial Load 8—4
Deformation Equations
Equations fordeformation ofwood members are presented as
Bending 8—4 functions ofappliedloads,moduliofelasticityand rigidity,
CombinedBendingandAxial Load 8—7 and memberdimensions. They may be solvedto determine
minimum requiredcross-sectionaldimensions to nieet de-
Torsion 8—8 formation limitations imposed in design.Averagemoduliof
StabilityEquations 8—8 elasticityand rigidityare given in Chapter4. Consideration
must be given to variabilityin materialpropertiesand uncer-
Axial Compression 8—8 taintiesin applied loadsto controlreliabilityofthe design.
Bending 8—9 Axial Load
InteractionofBucklingModes 8—10
The deformation ofan axiallyloadedmemberis notusually
References 8—il an importantdesignconsideration. More important consid-
erationswill be presentedin later sections dealingwith
combined loads or stability. Axial loadproducesachangeof
length given by

AE
where is changeoflength,L length, A cross-sectionalarea,
E modulusofelasticity (EL whengrain runs parallelto mem-
ber axis), andP axial forceparallelto grain.

Bending
Straight Beam Deflection
The deflectionof straight beamsthat are elastically stressed
and havea constantcross sectionthroughouttheirlength is
given by

8—1
 kWL3 kWL Tapered Beam Deflection
+
Figures 8—1 and 8—2 are usefulin the design oftapered
(8—2)
El GA'
beams. The ordinates are based on designcriteriasuch as
where is deflection, Wtotal beamload actingperpendicular span, loading, difference inbeam height (h— ho) as required
to beamneutral axis, L beam span, kband k, constantsde- by roofslopeor architectural effect, and maximum allowable
pendentupon beam loading,supportconditions, and loca- deflection, togetherwith materialproperties. Fromthis, the
I
tionofpoint whose deflection is to be calculated, beam valueofthe abscissacan be determinedand the smallest
moment ofinertia,A' modifiedbeamarea, Ebeam modulus beamdepth h0 can be calculated for comparison with that
ofelasticity(for beams havinggrain directionparallelto their given by the design criteria. Conversely, the deflectionofa
axis, E = EL), and G beam shear modulus(for beamswith beamcan be calculated ifthe value ofthe abscissais known.
flat-grained verticalfaces,G GLT, and for beamswith edge- Tapered beams deflect as aresult ofshear deflection in addi-
grained verticalfaces,G = Gm). Elasticpropertyvaluesare tion to bending deflections (Figs. 8—1 and 8—2), and this
given in Tables 4—1 and 4—2 (Ch. 4). shear deflection A, can be closelyapproximated by
The first term on the right side ofEquation(8—2)gives the 3WL
bending deflectionand the secondterm the shear deflection. A= for uniformly distnbutedload
Valuesof/c and Ic, forseveralcasesofloading and support are 2OGbh0
given in Table 8—i. (8-5)
3PL
I formidspan-concentrated load
The momentofinertia ofthe beamsis given by lOGbh0

I= 12
forbeamofrectangular cross section The final beamdesignshould consider the total deflection as
the sum oftheshear and bendingdeflection, and itmay be
(8-3) necessaryto iterateto arrive at final beamdimensions. Equa-
tions (8—5) are applicable to eithersingle-taperedordouble-
= for beamofcircularcross section
64 tapered beams. As with straight beams, lateral or torsional
restraintmaybenecessary.
whereb is beam width, h beam depth, and dbeam diameter.
The modifiedarea A' is given by Effect of Notches and Holes
5
The deflection ofbeamsis increased ifreductionsin cross-
A = bh for beamofrectangular cross section sectiondimensions occur,such as by holes or notches.The
deflection ofsuch beamscan be determined by considering
(8 them ofvariable cross section along their length and appro-
= ird2 forbeamofcircularcross section priately solving thc generaldifferential equationsofthe elas-
40 tic curves, EI(d2y/dx2) i,to obtain deflectionexpressions
or by the application ofCastigliano'stheorem.(Thesepro-
Ifthebeamhas initial deformationssuch as bow (lateral ceduresare given in most texts on strengthofmaterials.)
bend) ortwist, these deformationswill be increasedby the
bendingloads. It may be necessaryto providelateral or
torsionalrestraintsto hold such membersin line. (See
Interaction ofBucklingModessection.)

Table 8—1. Values of kb and k5 for several beam loadings

Loading Beam ends Deflection at kb k
Uniformly distributed Both simply supported Midspan 5/384 1/8
Both clamped Midspan 1/384 1/8

Concentratedat midspan Both simply supported Midspan 1/48 1/4

Both clamped Midspan 1/192 1/4

Concentratedat outer Both simply supported Midspan 11/768 1/8

quarter span points
Both simply supported Load point 1/96 1/8

Uniformly distributed Cantilever,one free, one clamped Free end 1/8 1/2

Concentratedat free end Cantilever,one free, one clamped Free end 1/3 1

8—2
 0.9

0.8 -

0.7

0.6 -
ho

ho 11
ti
L,2

W=Total loadon beam

L

k
(uniformly distributed)
= Maximum bending deflection
E= Elastic modulus of beam
L,2 'I
0.8

0.7

0.6

0.5
Lu

-
C,)

I(
0.5
b= Beam width
hh0 U.'
C,)

.? 0.4
Single taper
< 0.4 -

0.3 -

0.2 -
V
Double taper
0.3

0.2

0.1 P= Concentrated midspari load

0.1 = Maximum bending deflection
E= Elastic modulus of beam
I I I
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
1

Figure 8—1. Graph for determining tapered beam size Figure 8—2. Graph for determining tapered be2m size
based on deflection under uniformly distributedi load. on deflection under concentrated midspan loaci.

Effect of Time: Creep Deflections Water Ponding

In addition to the elasticdeflectionspreviously discussed, Pondingofwateron roofs alreadydeflected by other loads
wood beams usuallysag in time; that is, the deflection
increases beyond what it was immediately after the loadwas
cancause largeincreases in deflection. The total deflection
due to design load plus ponded watercan be closlyesti-
i
first applied.(See the discussionofcreepin TimeUnder matedby
Load in Ch. 4.)
A= (8-6)
Greentimbers,in particular, willsag ifallowedto dry under lSIScr
load, although partiallydried material will also sag to some
extent. In thoroughlydried beams,smallchangesin deflec-
tion occur with changesin moisture contentbut with little
where A is deflectiondue to design load alone, S beam
spacing, and Ser critical beam spacing(Eq. (8—31)).
permanent increase in deflection. Ifdeflection underlongtime
load with initially green timber is to be limited, it has been
customary to designfor an initial deflectionofabout halfthe Combined Bending and Axial L.oad
valuepermittedfor longtimedeflection. Ifdeflection under
longtimeload with initially dry timber is to be limited, it Concentric Load
has been customary to design foran initialdeflection ofabout Additionofaconcentric axial loadto abeam underloads
two-thirds the valuepermittedfor longtimedeflection. acting perpendicular to the beamneutralaxiscauses increase
in bending deflection for added axial compression and
decrease in bendingdeflectionfor addedaxial tension.

8—3
The deflectionunder combined loading at midspanfor 8
pin-endedmembers can be estimatedcloselyby
7
A= A0
(8—7)
1±P/P01
6
wherethe plus sign is chosenifthe axial loadis tensionand
theminus sign ifthe axial load is compression, A is mid- 5
span deflectionunder combined loading, A0 beam midspan
P
deflectionwithout axial load,P axial load, and aconstant
4
equalto the bucklingload ofthe beam underaxial compres-
sive load only (see Axial Compressionin StabilityEqua-
tions section.) based on flexuralrigidityabout the neutral 3
axis perpendicularto the directionofbending loads.This 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
constantappearsregardlessofwhetherP is tension or com- b/h
pression.IfP is compression, it must be less than Pcr to
avoid collapse. When the axial load is tension, it is conser- Figure 8—3. Coefficient for determining torsional
vativeto ignore the PIP1,-term. (Ifthe beam is not supported rigidity of rectangular member (Eq. (8 —11)).
against lateraldeflection, itsbuckling loadshouldbe checked
using Eq. (8—35).)
Eccentric Load
Stress Equations
The equationspresentedhere are limitedby the assumption
Ifan axial loadis eccentrically appliedto apin-endedmem- that stress and strain are directly proportional (Hooke's law)
ber, it will inducebending deflections and change in length and by the fact that local stresses inthe vicinityofpoints of
given by Equation(8—1). Equation(8—7)can be appliedto supportorpointsofload application are correct only to the
find the bendingdeflectionby writing the equationinthe extentofbeing statically equivalent to the true stress distri
form bution(St. Venant's principle). Local stress concentrations
mustbe separately accounted for ifthey are to be limitedit.
+60 (8—8) design.
1±

where bis theinducedbendingdeflection at midspan and Axial Load

o theeccentricityofP from thecentroid ofthecross section. Tensile Stress
Concentricaxial load(alongthe linejoining the centroidsof
Torsion thecross sections) producesa uniformstress:
The angleoftwist ofwood members aboutthe longitudinal
axis can be computed by
P
(8—12)
A

GK
TL
(8—9)
area.
J
where is tensilestress, P axial load, andA cross-sectional

where 0 is angle oftwist in radians, Tapplied_torque, L

Short-Block CompressiveStress
memberlength, G shear modulus(use ...JGLRGLT , or ap-
Equation(8—12) can also be used in compression ifthe
proximateG by ELI16 ifmeasuredG is not available), and K memberis short enoughto fail by simple crushingwithout
across-section shape factor. For a circularcrosssection, deflecting laterally. Suchfibercrushingproducesa local
K is thepolar momentofinertia: "wrinkle"causedby microstructuralinstability. The member
as a wholeremainsstructurally stable and able to bear load.
K=—
32
(8—10)
Bending
whereD is diameter.For arectangularcross section, The strengthofbeams is determined by flexuralstresses
causedby bendingmoment,shear stressescausedby shear
load, and compression acrossthe grain atthe end bearings
K=!!b_ (8_il) and load points.

whereh is larger cross-sectiondimension, b is smallercross-

section dimension,and ci is given in Figure 8—3.

8-4
Straight Beam Stresses Tapered Beam Stresses
Thestressdueto bendingmomentfor a simpiy supported Forbeams ofconstantwidththat taper in depth at a slope
pin-endedbeam is a maximum at the top and bottomedges. less than 25°, the bendingstress can be obtainedfium Equa-
The concaveedge is compressed, and the convex edge is tion (8—13) with an error ofless than 5%. The shear stress,
under tension. The maximum stress is given by however, differs markedly from that found inunifo:rmbeams.
It can be determined fromthebasic theorypresentedby Maki
M and Kuenzi (1965). The shear stress atthe taperededge can
fb (8—13)
reach amaximum value as greatas that atthe neutral axisat
a reaction.
wherefiis bendingstress, Mbendingmoment,and=Zbeam
sectionmodulus(for a rectangularcross section, Z bh2/6; Considerthe exampleshownin Figure 8—4, in which con-
for a circularcross section, Z = nD3/32). centrated loads farther to the righthaveproduceda support
reaction Vatthe left end. In this casethe maximumstresses
This equationis also used beyond the limits ofHooke's law occur at the cross sectionthat is doublethe depth ofthe
with M as the ultimate moment at failure. The resulting beam atthe reaction. For other loadings, the locationofthe
pseudo-stress is calledthe "modulusofrupture,"valuesof cross section with maximumshear stress at the taperededge
which are tabulated in Chapter4. The modulusofrupture will be different.
has beenfound to decreasewith increasingsize ofmember.
(See SizeEffectsection.) For the beam depicted in Figure8—4, the bendingstress is
alsoa maximum at the same cross sectionwherethe shear
The shear stress due to bending is a maximum at the cen- stress is maximumat the tapered edge. This stress situation
troidalaxis ofthe beam, wherethe bendingstress happens to alsocausesa stress inthe directionperpendicular1:othe
be zero.(This statementis nottrueifthe beam is tapered— neutralaxisthat is maximum atthe taperededge. The effect
see followingsection.)In wood beamsthis shear stress may ofcombined stressesat apointcanbe approximately ac-
producea failurecracknearmid-depthrunningalongthe axis countedforby an interaction equationbasedonthe ilenky—
ofthemember.Unlessthebeamis sufficiently shortand von Misestheory ofenergy due to the change ofshape. This
deep, itwill fail inbendingbeforeshearfailurecan develop; theoryappliedby Norris(1950)to wood resultsin
but wood beamsarerelatively weak in shear,and shear
strengthcan sometimesgovern a design. The maximum
2
j.2 f2
shear stress is (8—15)

(8:14) wheref is bending stress,f, stress perpendiculartD the

A
neutral axis, andf, shear stress. Values ofF, F,, and F, are
wheref, is shear stress, Vverticalshearforce on cross sec- corresponding stresseschosenat designvaluesor maximum
tion,A cross-sectional area,and k= 3/2 for arectangular valuesin accordance with allowable or maximum values
cross sectionork=4/3 for a circularcross section. being determined for the taperedbeam. Maximumstressesin

Values of h0/h
114
1 7/8 3/4 2/3 1/2
—x

8/9cr

Particular taperedbeam where M=

h= ÷ xtan e —x1
—
2bh0

Figure 8—4. Shear stress distributionfor a tapered beam.

8—5
thebeam depictedin Figure8—4 are given by 1/rn
R1 [ 361.29 1
—=1 I (metric) (8—18a)
3M R2 [h1Li(1+mai/L1)J

=
=
ff
2bh
tanO
tan28
(8—16)
R1

R2
rI
= 56
11/rn
I

Lh1L1(1+mai/Li)J
I (mch—pound) (8—I 8b)

Example:Determinemodulusofrupture for a beam 10 in

Substitutionofthese equationsinto the interactionEquation deep, spanning18 fi, and loadedat one-third span points
(8—15) will result in an expression forthe momentcapacity compared with a beam 2 in. deep, spanning28 in., and
Mofthebeam. Ifthetaper is on thebeamtensionedge, the loadedatmidspanthat had amodulusofruptureof
values ofj andfare tensilestresses. 10,000 lb/in2. Assume m = 18. Substitutingthe dimensions
into Equation(8—18) produces
Example: Determine the moment capacity (newton-meters)
of atapered beam ofwidthb = 100mm, depth 56
=
h0 200 mm, and taper tan 8 1/10. Substitutingthese R1=10000[ 11/18
dimensionsintoEquation(8—16) (with stresses in pascals) [2, 160(1+ 6)]
results in 7,330 lb/in2
fr =375M Application ofthe statistical strengththeory to beams under
= 37.5M uniformlydistributed loadresultedin the followingrelation-
ship betweenmodulus ofruptureofbeamsunder uniformly
f=3.75M distributedloadand modulusofrupture ofbeams under
concentrated loads:
Substituting these into Equation(8—15) and solving for M
results in 1/18
R (l+l8a/ic)kLç
I (8—19)
M= R 3.876kL
+ +
3.75[104/ 1O2/ l/F] where subscripts u and c referto beamsunderuniformly
whereappropriate allowableor maximum values ofthe F distributed and concentrated loads, respectively, and other
stresses(pascals)are chosen. terms are aspreviouslydefined.

Shearstrengthfor non-split, non-checked, solid-sawn, and

Size Effect glulambeamsalso decreases asbeam size increases. A rela-
The modulusofrupture(maximumbendingstress)ofwood
beams depends on beam size and methodofloading,and the
t
tionshipbetweenbeam shear andASTM shear block
strength¶ASTh4, including astress concentration factorforthe
strength ofclear, straight-grained beamsdecreases as size re-entrant cornerofthe shearblock,Cf. andthe sheararea A,
increases. These effects were foundtobedescribable by is
statistical strengththeory involving"weakestlink" hypothe-
ses and can be summarizedas follows: For two beams under = 1.9CfrAs (metric) (8—20a)
two equal concentrated loads appliedsymmetrical to the A"5
midspan points, the ratioofthe modulusofrupture ofbeam
1 to the modulusofruptureofbeam 2 is given by = L3Ct (inch—pound) (8—20b)

= [h2L2(1+ma2/L2)li/rn (8—17) t
where is beamshear(MPa,lb/in2), Cf stress concentration
R2 [h1L1(1+mai/Li)] factor,¶ASTM ASTM shear block strength (MPa, lb/in2), and
A sheararea (cm2, in2)
where subscripts I and 2 refer to beam 1 andbeam 2, R is
modulusofrupture, h beamdepth, L beam span,a distance This relationship was determinedby empiricalfit to test
between loadsplaceda/2 each sideofmidspan,and m a data. The shearblock re-entrant cornerconcentration factor is
constant. For clear, straight-grained Douglas-firbeams, approximately 2; the shear area is defmedas beam width
m 18. IfEquation(8—17) is used forbeam 2 size (Ch. 4) multipliedby the length ofbeam subjectedto shear force.
loaded at midspan,then h2 = 5.08 mm (2 in.),
L2 = 71.112 mm (28 in.), and a2 0 and Equation(8—17) Effect of Notches, Slits, and Holes
becomes In beamshavingnotches,slits, or holes with sharp interior
corners, large stress concentrationsexist at the corners. The
local stressesincludeshearparallelto grain and tension

8—6
 -

IE 1a
______________

T
-
-
0.007
0.006
0.005
Combined Bending and Axial Load
Concentric Load
Equation (8—7)givesthe effecton deflection ofadding an end
load to a simplysupported pin-endedbeamalreadybent by
a- 0.004
I
•

transverse loads. The bendingstress in the memberis modi-

0 0003 fiedbythe same factor as the deflection:
x 0,002

0 • 0••001 fb = 1 (8—22)
±P/F
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 wherethe plus sign is chosenifthe axial load is tensionand
a/h theminus sign is choseniftheaxial load is compression,fi
is net bendingstress from combined bending and axial load,
Figure 8—5. Coefficients A andB for crack-
initiation criterion (Eq. (8—21)). fbo bending stress without axial load, P axial load, and Pcr
the buckling load ofthe beamunder axial compressive load
only (see Axial Compression in the StabilityEquations
perpendicularto grain. As a result,even moderately low section), basedon flexural rigidityabout the neutralaxis
loads can cause a crackto initiate at the sharp cornerand perpendicular to the directionofthe bending loads. This
is not necessarily theminimum buckling load ofthe mem-
propagate along the grain.An estimateofthe crack-initiation ber. IfP is compressive, the possibility ofbucklingunder
load canbe obtainedbythe fracture mechanicsanalysis of
combined loading must be checked. (See Interaction of
Murphy(1979) for a beam with a slit, but it is generally
more economicalto avoid sharpnotchesentirelyinwood Buckling Modes.)
beams, especially largewood beams, since thereis a size The total stress under combined bending and axial loadis
effect: sharpnotches cause greaterreductions in strength for obtainedby superposition ofthe stresses given by
larger beams. A conservative criterion for crackinitiation for
a beamwith a slit is Equations(8—12) and (8—22).
Example: Suppose transverse loadsproducea bending stress
+ =1 (8—21) fibtensileonthe convex edge and compressive on the con-
B(2J] cave edgeofthe beam. Then the additionofatensileaxial
force P at the centroids ofthe end sections willproducea
where h is beam depth, b beam width,M bending moment, maximum tensilestress on the convex edge of
and Vvertical shearforce,and coefficients A and Barepre-
a
sented in Figure 8—5 as functions ofa/h, where is slit ftmLx —
- fbo
depth. The value ofA dependson whetherthe slitis on the l÷P/P
tension edge orthe compressionedge. Therefore,use either
A or A as appropriate.The valuesofA andB aredependent and amaximum compressive stress onthe concave edgeof
upon species; however,the valuesgiven inFigure8—5 are P
conservative formost softwood species. fbO
fcmax
1+P/PrA
Effects of Time: Creep Rupture,
Fatigue, and Aging where a negative resultwould indicatethat the stress was in
See Chapter4 fora discussion offatigueand aging.Creep
facttensile.
ruptureis accounted for byduration-of-load adjustment in the Eccentric Load
setting ofallowablestresses, as discussedin Chapters4
and 6. Iftheaxial load is eccentrically applied, thenthebending
stressfbo should be augmentedby ±PE0/Z,where Co is
Water Ponding eccentricityofthe axial load.
Pondingofwater on roofs can cause increasesinbending Example: Inthe preceding example, let the axial load be
stressesthat can be computedby the same amplification eccentric towardthe concave edge ofthe beam. Then the
factor (Eq. (8—6))used with deflection. (See WaterPonding maximum stresses become
in theDeformation Equationssection.)
ftmax fbO1O/Z÷1'
H-P/P A

fcmax
- fbo Pc0/Z P
i÷pp

8—7
Torsion 5

For a circularcross section, the shearstress inducedby

torsion is
4
(8—23)

3
where Tis appliedtorque and D diameter.For a rectangular
cross section,

(8-24) 2
fS1Jth2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
b/h

where T is appliedtorque,h larger cross-section dimension,

I
Figure 8—6. Coefficient for computing maximum shear
stressin torsion of rectangular member (Eq. (8 —24)).
and b smaller cross-section dimension,and f3 is presented
in
Figure 8—6. 1.0
FPL fourth-powerformula

Stability Equations 0.8 -

Axial Compression 0.667—

For slendermembers underaxialcompression, stability is

theprincipaldesign criterion. The following equationsare for j Eulesforrna
concentrically loadedmembers. For eccentrically loaded
columns,see InteractionofBuckling Modes section. ::
Long Columns
A columnlong enoughtobuckle beforethe compressive
stress P/A exceedsthe proportional limitstress is called a
"long column." The critical stress at bucklingis calculated
by Euler's formula:
3.85 Lj
r EL
12

Figure 8—7. Graph for determining critical buckling

stress ofwoodcolumns.
fcr
(/2 (8—25)

whereEL is elasticmodulusparallelto the axis ofthe mem- where F is compressive strength andremainingterms are
r
ber, L unbracedlength,and leastradiusofgyration (for a defmedas in Equation (8—25).Figure 8—7 is agraphical
rectangularcross section with b as its least dimension, representation ofEquations (8—25) and (8—26).
r=b /Ji, and for a circular cross section, r = d/4).
Equation(8—25) is based on apinned-endcondition but may
Short columns can be analyzedby fitting anonlinearfunction
to compressivestress—strain dataand using it in place of
be used conservatively for square ends as well. Hooke's law. One such nonlinearfunctionproposedby
Ylinen(1956) is
Short Columns
Columnsthat buckle at a compressivestress P/A beyondthe
proportional limit stress are called "short columns."Usually
theshort column range is exploredempirically, and appro-
c=
f[c —(1—c)
iog[i
—
-J]
(8—27)

priatedesignequationsare proposed.Material ofthis nature whereE is compressivestrain,fcompressive stress,c a

is presentedin USDA Technical Bulletin 167 (Newlin and
Gahagan1930). The fmal equationis a fourth-power para-
constantbetween0 and 1, and EL and are as previouslyF
defmed. Usingthe slopeofEquation(8—27) in place ofE. in
bolic functionthat can be writtenas Euler's formula(Eq. (8—25)) leads to Ylinen's buckling
equation

fcr (8—26)
cr
- F +fe - +fe - (8-28)
2c 2c ) c

8—8
 F
where is compressivestrengthandfe buckling stress given
Bending
by Euler's formula(Eq. (8—25)). Equation(8—28) can be
made to agree closelywith Figure 8—7 by choosing Beams are subjectto two kindsofinstability: lateral—
c = 0.957. torsional buckling and progressive deflection underwater
ponding, both ofwhichare determined by member;tiffness.
Comparing the fourth-power parabolicfunction
Equation(8—26) to experimental dataindicates the function Water Ponding
is nonconservative forintermediateL/rrange columns.Using Roofbeamsthatareinsufficiently stiffor spaced too farapart
Ylinen's buckling equationwith c = 0.8 results in a better fortheirgiven stiffness canfail by progressive deflection
approximation ofthe solid-sawn and glued-laminated data. underthe weight ofwaterfrom steadyrain oranothercon-
tinuoussource. The criticalbeam spacingS. is given by
Built-Up and Spaced Columns
Built-up columnsofnearly square cross sectionwith the mit4Ei
lumbernailed or bolted togetherwill not supportloads as Cr (8—31)
pL4
great as ifthe lumberwere gluedtogether.The reasonis that
shear distortionscan occur in the mechanical joints. I
whereE is beammodulusofelasticity, beammomentof
inertia, p density ofwater (1,000kg/rn3, 0.0361 lbIin3),
Ifbuilt-upcolumns areadequately connected and theaxial L beamlength, and m = 1 for simplesupportor m 16/3 for
load isnearthe geometriccenterofthe cross section, Equa- fixed-end condition.To preventponding, the beam spacing
tion (8—28) is reducedwith a factorthat depends on the type must be less than SCr.
ofmechanicalconnection. The built-upcolumn capacityis

fcr =Kf
F +fe
2c
— frF +fe2 — fe
ill 2c )
I (8—29)
Lateral—TorsionalBuckling
Since beamsare compressed on the concave edge whenbent
underload,they can buckleby acombination oflateral
deflection andtwist.Becausemost woodbeams are rectangu-
lar in cross section, the equations presentedhere are for
whereF, fe, andc are as defmedfor Equation(8—28).K is rectangularmembers only. BeamsofT, H, or other built-up
thebuilt-upstabilityfactor,whichaccounts forthe efficiency cross section exhibita more complexresistanceto :wisting
ofthe connection; for bolts, Kf = 0.75, and for nails, andare more stable thanthe followingequations would
Kf = 0.6, providedboltand nail spacing requirements meet predict.
design specification approval.
Long Beams—Longslender beamsthat are restrained
Ifthebuilt-upcolumn is ofseveralspacedpieces,the spacer against axial rotationat theirpoints ofsupportbut are other-

-
blocksshouldbe placedclose enoughtogether,lengthwise in wise free to twist and to deflectlaterally will bucklewhenthe
the column,so that the unsupportedportionofthe spaced maximum bendingstressJ equals or exceedsthe following
memberwillnot buckle at the same orlower stress thanthat critical value:
ofthecompletemember."Spacedcolumns" aredesigned
with previouslypresentedcolumn equations, considering fbcr
— 7C2EL
(8—32)
each compression memberas anunsupportedsimplecolumn; a
the sum ofcolumnloads for all the membersis taken as the
column load for the spacedcolumn. a
where is the slenderness factorgiven by

Columns With Flanges

Columns with thin, outstandingflangescan fail by elastic
a=j (8—33)

instabilityofthe outstandingflange,causingwrinkling ofthe

flangeand twisting ofthe columnat stressesless than those
where EI is lateralflexuralrigidityequal to EL h//12,
for generalcolumninstabilityas given by Equations(8—25) h is beam depth,b beam width, GKtorsionalrigidfty de-
and (8—26).For outstanding flangesofcross sections such as fmed in Equation(8—9), and Leeffective length determined by
I, H, +, andL, the flange instability stress can be estimated type ofloadingand supportas given in Table 8—2. Equation
by (8—32) is validfor bendingstressesbelowthe proportional
limit.
fcr = 0.044E (8—30) Short Beams—Short beamscan buckle atstresses beyond
theproportional limit. In view ofthe similarityof
t
where Eis columnmodulusofelasticity, thickness ofthe Equation (8—32) toEuler's formula(Eq. (8—25)) forcolumn
outstandingflange, and b widthofthe outstanding flange. If buckling, it is recommendedthat short-beam bucklingbe
thejoints betweenthecolumnmembers aregluedandrein- analyzedby usingthe column bucklingcriterionin
forcedwith glued fillets,the instability stress increases to as
much as 1.6 times that given by Equation(8—30).
a
Figure8—7 appliedwith in place ofLir on the abscissa

8—9
Table 8—2. Effective length for checking lateral— 10
torsionalstability of beamsa
8
Effective
Support Load length Le
6
Simple support Equal end moments L
Concentratedforce at 4
0.742L
center
l—2h/L 2
Uniformly distributed force o.887L
1—2JilL
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
Cantilever Concentratedforce at end 0781 t
1—2JilL Figure 8—8. Increase in buckling stress resultingfrom
attached deck; simplysupported beams.To apply
Uniformly distributed force 0.489L this graph, divide theeffective length by 9.
1—2JilL

aThese values are conservativefor beamswith a

width-to-depthratio of less than 0.4. The load is Interaction of Buckling Modes
assumed to act at the top edge of the beam.
Whentwo ormore loadsare actingand each ofthemhas a
criticalvalueassociatedwith a mode ofbuckling, the cortibi-
nation can producebucklingeven though each load is less
and fbcr/Fb in placeof fcr/Fon the ordinate.Here Fb is than its own critical value.
beam modulusofrupture.
The generalcaseofa beamofunbracedlength le includes a
Effect of Deck Support—The most common form ofsup- primary(edgewise) moment M1, alateral (flatwise) moment
portagainst lateraldeflectionis a deckcontinuously attached M2, and axial loadP. The axial load creates a secondary
to thetop edge ofthe beam. Ifthis deck is rigidagainstshear momenton both edgewise and flatwisemoments due to the
in theplane ofthe deckand is attachedto thecompression deflectionundercombined loadinggiven by Equation(8--7).
edgeofthe beam, the beam cannotbuckle. In regionswhere In addition,theedgewisemomenthas an effect like the
the deckis attachedto the tensionedgeofthe beam, as where secondary moment effectonthe flatwise moment.
a beam is continuousover a support,the deckcannotbe
countedon to preventbucklingand restraintagainst axial The following equationcontains two momentmodification
rotation shouldbe providedat the support point. factors,one on the edgewise bendingstress and one onthe
flatwisebending stress that includes the interactionofbiaxial
Ifthedeck isnot very rigid againstin-plane shear, as for bending. The equationalso containsa squaredterm for axial
examplestandard38-mm(nominal2-in.) wood decking, loadtobetter predictexperimental data:
Equation(8—32) and Figure 8—7 can still be used to check
stability exceptthat now the effective length is modified by
dividingby 0, as given in Figure 8—8. The abscissa ofthis
J6 (e1/ d1)f(1.234 — 0.234O)
r
figureis a deck shearstiffness parameter givenby c) (8--35)
Jj+6(e2/d2)f(1.234—0.23402) <1.0
= SGDL2 (8—34) 1 c2I;"b2
EJ
flexural rigidityas in Equation (8—33), wherefis actual stress in compression, edgewisebending, or
where
Sbeam
EI is lateral shear ofdeck(ratioof
flatwisebending(subscripts c, bl,orb2, respectively), F
GD
spacing, in-plane rigidity bucklingstrength in compressionorbending (a single prime
shearforce per unit length ofedgeto shear strain), and denotesthe strengthis reducedfor slenderness), e/d ratio of
L actual beam length. This figure appliesonly to simply eccentricity ofthe axial compression tomemberdepth ratio
supportedbeams. Cantileverswith the deckon top havetheir for edgewise or flatwisebending (subscripts I or2, respec-
tensionedge supportedand do not derivemuch supportfrom tively), and 0. moment magnification factorsfor edgewise
thedeck. and flatwisebending, given by

8—10
 New Foundland: Annual conference, Canadian Society for
= 1— +—-- (8—36) CivilEngineering: 1—18 (June).
Sc,.J
Murphy,J.F. 1979. Using fracture mechanicsto predict
failure ofnotchedwood beams. In: Proceedings offirstinter-
= (8—37) nationalconference onwood fracture; 1978, Aug. 1'.—16;
l_(i..+fbl+6(el/dI)fCIJ
F,'ç Banff,AB. Vancouver, BC: ForintekCanada Corporation:
159: 161—173.
0.822E
F"=
ci (8—38) Newlin, J.A.; Gahagan, J.M. 1930. Tests oflarge timber
(lid)2 columns andpresentation ofthe Forest Products Laboratory
column formula. Tech. Bull. 167. Madison, WI: U.S.
0.822E
F"—
c2
— (8-39) Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,ForestProducts
(1e2/d2)2 Laboratory.
Newlin,J.A.; Trayer,G.W. 1924. Deflectionofbeams
F"= l.44Ed2 with specialreference to shear deformations. Rep. 180.
(8-40)
bi
l d1 Washington, DC: U.S. NationalAdvisoryCommitteeon
Aeronautics.
where1e is effectivelength ofmemberand Sand are Norris,C.B. 1950. Strengthoforthotropic materialssub-
previouslydefinedponding beamspacing. jected to combined stresses. Rep. 1816. Madison, WI: U.S.
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products
References Laboratory.
ASTM. [currentedition]. Standardmethodsfor testingclear Rammer, D.R.; Soltis,L.A. 1994. Experimental shear
strengthofglued-laminated beams. Res. Rep. FPL-•RP—527.
specimensoftimber. ASTM Dl43—94. West Consho- Madison, WI, U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest Serv-
hocken,PA: AmericanSociety for Testingand Materials.
ice, Forest Products Laboratory.
Bohannan, B. 1966. Effectofsize on bendingstrength of
wood members.Res. Pap. FPL—RP—56.Madison, WI: U.S. Rammer, D.R.; Soltis, L.A.; Lebow, P.K. 1996. Experi-
mental shear strength ofuncheckedsolid sawn Douglas-fir.
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Res. Pap. FPL—RP—553. Madison, WI: U.S. Depailmentof
Laboratory.
Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest ProductsLaboralory.
Gerhardt,T.D.; Liu, J.Y. 1983. Orthotropicbeams under
normaland shearloading.Journal ofEngineering Mechanics,
ASCE. 109(2): 394—410. Soltis, L.A., Rammer, D.R. 1997. Bendingto sheer ratio
approach to beam design. Forest Products Journal. 47(1):
Kuenzi, E.W.; Bohannan, B. 1964. Increases in deflection 104—108.
and stress causedby pondingofwater on roofs.Forest Prod-
ucts Journal. 14(9): 421—424. Trayer,G.W. 1930. The torsion ofmembers having sec-
tions common in aircraft construction. Rep. 334.
Liu,J.Y. 1980. Shear strengthof wood beams: A Weibull Washington, DC: U.S. NationalAdvisory Committee on
analysis. Journal ofStructuralDivision,ASCE. 106(ST1O): Aeronautics.
2035— 2052.
Trayer, G.W.; March, H.W. 1931. Elastic instabi]ity of
Liu,J.Y. 1981. Shear strengthoftapered wood beams. members havingsections common in aircraftconstruction.
Journal ofStructuralDivision,ASCE. 107(5T5): 719—731. Rep. 382. Washington,DC: U.S. National Advisory'
Liu,J.Y. 1982. A Weibullanalysis ofwood membe:r bend- Committee on Aeronautics.
ing strength. Transactions,American Society ofMechanical Ylinen, A. 1956. A methodofdeterminingthe buckling
Engineers. JournalofMechanical Design. 104: 572—579. stress and the requiredcross-sectional area for centrally
Liu,J.Y. 1984. Evaluationofthe tensor polynomial loadedstraight columns in elastic and inelasticrange.
strengththeory for wood. JournalofComposite Materials. Publication ofthe International Association for Bridge and
18(3): 216—226. (May). Structural Engineering. Zurich. Vol. 16.
Liu,J.Y.; Cheng,S. 1979. Analysis of orthotropic beams. Zahn,J.J. 1973. Lateralstabilityofwood beam-and-deck
Res. Pap. FPL—RP—343. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of systems. Journal ofthe Structural Division, ASCE.
Agriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory. 99(ST7): 1391—1408.
Maki, A C.; Kuenzi, E.W. 1965. Deflectionand stressesof Zahn,J.J. 1986. Designofwood membersunder ccmbined
tapered wood beams. Res. Pap. FPL—RP—34.Madison, WI: loads. Journal ofStructural Engineering, ASCE. 112(ST9):
U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest 2109—2126.
Products Laboratory. Zahn,J.J. 1988. Combined-load stability criterion for wood
Maihorta, S.K.; Sukumar, A.P. 1989. A simpliedproce- beam-columns. JournalofStructural Engineering, ASCE.
dure for built-upwood compression members.St. Johns, 114(STII): 2612—2628.

8—il
 INTffIIIJI
Adhesive Bonding of
Wood Materials
Charles B. Vick

dhesive bondingofwood components has played

Contents an essential role in the development and growthof
Adhesion to Wood 9—i e forestproductsindustry and has been a key
SurfaceProperties ofWoodAdherends 9—2 factor in the efficient utilization ofour timberresource. The
Extractiveson Surfaces 9—3 largestuse ofadhesives is in the constructionindustry.By
far, the largest amounts ofadhesives are used to marnifacture
Knife-andAbrasive-Planed Surfaces 9—3
buildingmaterials,such asplywood,structural flakeboards,
Veneer Surfaces 9—4 particleboards, fiberboards, structural framingand timbers,
Surfaces ofWoodand NonwoodComposite Products 9—5 architectural doors, windowsand frames,factory-laminated
PhysicalPropertiesofWoodAdherends 9—6 wood products, and glassfiber insulation. Adhesives are
Density and Porosity 9—6 used in smaller amounts to assemblebuildingmaterialsin
residential and industrial construction, particularlyirL panel-
MoistureContentand Dimensional Changes 9—7
izedfloor andwall systems. Significantamounts arealso
Adhesives 9—9 used innonstructuralapplications, such as floor coverings,
Composition 9—9 countertops, ceiling and wall tile, trim, and accessories.
Health and Safety 9—10
Adhesives can effectively transferand distribute stres;es,
Strength and Durability 9—10
Adhesive Selection 9—12 therebyincreasing the strengthandstiffnessofthe composite.
Effective transfer ofstress from one member to another de-
BondingProcess 9—15 pends on the strength ofthe links in an imaginary chain ofan
MoistureContentControl 9—15 adhesive-bonded joint. Thus,performance ofthe bonded
Surface Preparation 9-16 jointdepends on how well we understandand controlthe
AdhesiveSpreading 9—16 complexity offactors that constitutethe individual links—
Assemblyand Pressing 9—16 wood, adhesive, andthe interphasing regionsbetwee:ni—
whichultimately determinethe strengthofthe chain.
Post-CureConditioning 9—18
Bonded Joints 9—18
Edge-GrainJoints 9—18
Adhesion to Wood
End-GrainJoints 9—18 The AmericanSociety for Testing andMaterials(ASTM)
End-to-Edge-Grain Joints 9—19 a
defmes an adhesive as substance capableofholding
materials together by surface attachment. An adherend is a
ConstructionJoints 9—19
substrateheldto another substrate by an adhesive.Adhesion
Testing and Performance 9—20 is the state in which two surfaces are held togetherby interfa-
AnalyticChemicaland Mechanical Testing cial forces, whichmay be valence forces, interlocking action,
ofPolymers 9—20 orboth. Valence forces are forces ofattraction produced by
Mechanical TestingofBondedAssemblies 9—20 the interactions ofatoms,ions, and molecules that exist
Short- and Long-Term Performance 9—21 withinand atthe surfaces ofboth adhesive and adherend.
ProductQuality Assurance 9—22 Interlocking action, also calledmechanical bonding,means
References 9—23 surfaces areheld together by an adhesive that has penetrated
theporoussurface while it is liquid,then anchoreditelf
during solidification. The extentto whichvalence forces and
interlocking actiondevelopbetween adhesive polymersand
wood adherends is uncertain, but both are generallyacknowl-
edgedas essential forthe most effective bonding.Bondingto
poroussurfaces,such as wood, paper,and textiles,was

9—1
thought to be primarilymechanical,but now there is intermolecular forces ofattraction betweenadhesive and wood
evidencesupporting bondingby primaryvalenceforces. In canbecome effective. Aswillbe discussedlater, woodadher-
contrast, bondingtohard metal surfaces was believedto ends, as well as other materials, differ widelyin theirattrac-
involve only valence forces, but this is no longerthe ac- tive energies, bulk properties, surface roughness, and surface
cepted view.Metal surfaces roughenedby chemical etching chemistry. Woodsurfaces may appearto be smoothand flat,
or mademicroscopically porouswith a layerofoxide are but on microscopic examination, theybecome peaks,val-
capable ofmechanicalinterlocking with an adhesive topro- leys, and crevices,litteredwith loosefibers and other debris.
duceexceptionally strong and durable bonds. Suchsurface conditions cause gas pocketsand blockagesthat
preventcomplete wetting by the adhesive and introduce
Mechanicalinterlockingis probablytheprimarymechanism stress concentrations whenthe adhesivehas cured. Thus, the
by which adhesives adhereto porousstructures, such as liquid adhesive must havehigh wettability, coupled with a
wood, Effective mechanical interlocking takes placewhen viscositythat will producegood capillary flow to penetrate
adhesives penetrate beyondthe surface debris and damaged soundwood structure,while displacingand absorbingair,
fibersinto sound wood two to six cells deep. Deeperpenetra- water, and contaminants atthe surface. Pressure is normally
tion into the fmemicrostructure increases the surface area of used to enhancewettingby forcing liquidadhesiveto flow
contact betweenadhesive andwood formore effective me- overthe surfaces, displace air blockages, and penetrate to
chanicalinterlocking.The most durable structural bonds to soundwood.
wood are believedto developnot only when an adhesive
penetrates deeply into cell cavities,but alsowhen an adhe- Wetting ofasurface occurs whenthe contact angle (the angle
sivediffusesinto cell wallsto makemolecular-level contact betweenthe edgeofa drop ofadhesive andthe surface of
with the hemicellulosics and cellulosics ofwood.Ifan adhe- wood)approaches zero. The contact angle approaches zero
sivepenetratesdeeply enoughinto soundwood andbecomes whenthe surface has high attractive energy,the adhesive has
rigid enoughupon curing,the strengthofthe bond can be anaffinity for the adherend, and the surface tension ofthe
expectedto exceedthe strength ofthe wood. adhesiveis low. Ifa drop ofadhesive spreads to a thin film
approaching zero contact angle, the adhesive has spreadwell
Physical forces ofattraction composed ofthree intermolecular andmadeintimate contact with the surface. The differences in
attraction forcesare believedto be important to the formation wettabilities ofvariouswood surfacesare illustrated by a
ofbonds betweenadhesive polymersand molecular structures simplewater drop test in Figure9—1.
ofwood.Generally called van der Waal's forces, these in-
dude dipole—dipoleforces, which are positively andnega- Theprocessofadhesion is essentially completed aftertransi-
tively chargedpolar moleculesthat have strong attractions for tionoftheadhesive from liquidto solid form. After the
other polar molecules; Londonforces, whichinclude the viscosity of a liquid adhesive has increased and the adhesive
weaker forces ofattraction that nonpolarmolecules have for has solidified to the point wherethe film effectively resists
each other; and hydrogenbonding,a specialtype ofdipole— shearand tensile forces tending to separate the surfaces, the
dipole force that accounts for strong attractions between surfaces are effectively bonded. An adhesive filmchanges
positively chargedhydrogen atoms ofone polar molecule and from liquidto solid form by one ofthree mechanisms, al-
theelectronegative atom ofanothermolecule. Hydrogen thoughtwo may be involvedin some curing mechanisms.
bonding forcesare important in the interfacial attraction of This transition can be aphysical change as in thermoplastic
polar adhesivepolymersforthe hemicellulosics andcellu- a
adhesives or it canbe chemical change as in thermosetting
losics,which are rich with polar hydroxylgroups.These adhesives. In thermoplastics, the physical changeto solid
physical forcesofattraction, sometimes referredto as specific formmay occurby either(a) loss ofsolventfrom the adhe-
adhesion,are particularlyimportantin wetting ofwater sivethroughevaporation and diffusioninto the wood, or
carriersand adsorptionofadhesivepolymersonto the mo- (b) cooling ofmoltenadhesive on a coolersurface. Inther-
lecularstructures ofwood. mosets, the solid form occurs throughchemicalpolymeriza-
tion into cross-linked structuresthat resist softeningon
Covalentchemicalbonds form whenatoms ofnonmetals heating. Most thermosetting wood adhesives containwater
interact by sharing electrons to form molecules.The simplest as a carrier; therefore, water alsomust be evaporatedand
example ofapurely covalent bond is the sharingofelectrons absorbedby the wood so that the adhesive can cure
by two hydrogen atomsto form hydrogen.Thesecovalent completely.
bonds are the strongestofchemicalbonds;they are more
than 11 times the strength ofthe hydrogen bond. Even
though covalentchemicalbonds betweenadhesive polymer Surface Properties of
andthe molecularstructureofwood seem apossibility,there Wood Adherends
is no clear evidencethat such bonds constitute an important
mechanism in adhesive bonding to wood. Becauseadhesives bondby surface attachment, the physical
andchemical conditions ofthe adherend'ssurface is
Fortwo wood adherends to be held togetherwith maximum extremely important to satisfactory jointperformance.
strength, a liquidadhesivemust wet and spread freelyto Woodsurfaces should be smooth, flat, and free ofmachine
makeintimatecontact with both surfaces. Molecules ofthe marks and other surface irregularities, including planer skips
adhesive must diffuseover andinto each surface to make and crushed,torn, and chippedgrain. The surface shouldbe
contactwith the molecularstructureofwood so that free ofburnishes, exudates,oils, dirt, and other debris.

9—2
Figure 9—1. A simplewaterdrop test showsdifferences in the wettabilityofa yellow birch veneer surface.
Three drops were applied to the surface at the same time, then photographed after30 s. Thedrop on the left
retains a large contactangle on the aged, unsandedsurface; the drop in the centerhasa smaller contactangle
and improved wettabilityafterthe surface is renewed by two passes with 320-grit sandpaper; the dropon the right
showsa small contactangle and good wettability afterfourpasseswith thesandpaper.

Overdryingand overheating deteriorates thephysicalcondi- abilityto wet, flow, and penetrate. In contrast, normal
tion ofthe wood surfaces by forcing extractives to diffuseto polymerization ofan acidicadhesive, such as urea-
thesurface, byreorientingsurface molecules,andby irre- formaldehyde, canbe retarded by an alkaline wood ;urface,
versiblyclosingthe larger microporesofcell walls.Wood whichwouldcompromise the integrity ofthe adhesivefilm
surfaces canbe chemically inactivatedwith respectto adhe- and bond.
sion by airborne chemical contaminants, hydrophobic and
chemically active extractives from the wood,oxidation and A simplewatertestcan revealmuch aboutthe state ofinacti-
pyrolysisofwood bondingsites from overdrying, and im- vation ofa wood surface andhow difficultitmay be to wet
pregnationwith preservatives, fire retardants, and other andbond with adhesive.As a first test, place a small drop of
chemicals. Unfortunately, someofthese surface conditions water on the surface and observe how it spreads and absorbs.
are difficultto detect. Physical deterioration and chemical Ifthe drop remainsa beadanddoes notbegin to sp:ead
contamination interfere with essential wetting,flow, and within 30 s, the surface is resistantto adhesivewetting
penetration ofadhesive but can also interfere with the cure (Fig. 9—1).Anotherwater drop test can be used to estimate
andresultingcohesivestrengthofthe adhesive. thedegree ofsurface inactivation ofveneer. Placea drop of
water in anareaonthe earlywood ofa flat-grain surface that
doesnot have checks orsplits in the areaofthe drop. Good
Extractives on Surfaces wettability is indicated ifthe drop is absorbed within
Extensiveresearchindicatesthat extractives onwood surfaces 20 min.Ifthe drop has spread out but somewater still re-
aretheprincipalphysicaland chemical contributors to surface mainsonthe surface after 40mm, then bondingproblemsare
inactivation, hence to poor wettabilityby adhesives. This is likelyto occur. Ifafter 40 mm the water drop still retains
particularlytrue for resinousspecies,such as the southern much ofits originalshapewith little spreading, then bond-
pines and Douglas-fir. Whensubjectedtohigh temperatures ing problems from surface inactivation is a certainty.
during processing, extractives diffusetothe surface where
they concentrateand physicallyblock adhesivecontact with Knife- and Abrasive-Planed Surfaces
wood. Furthermore, resinous andoilyexudates are hydro-
Wood shouldbe surfaced orresurfacedwithin24 h iDefore
phobic;thatis, they repel water. Most wood adhesives
containwater as a carrier; therefore, they do not properly wet, bondingto remove extractives and other physicaland chemi-
flow, andpenetrate extractive-covered surfaces. The acidity of cal contaminants that interfere with bonding. Surfacing also
extractives ofsome SoutheastAsian hardwoods and oak removes any unevenness that mayhave occurred from
species can interfere with the chemical cure ofadhesives. The changes in moisture content. Paralleland flat surfaces allow
acidmay accelerate the cureofan alkalinephenolicadhesive, the adhesive to flow freely and form a uniformly thin layerof
causingthe adhesive to gelprematurelyand reducing its adhesive that is essential to the bestperformance ofwater-
basedwoodadhesives.

9—3
Experience and testinghave proventhat a smooth, knife-cut
surface is bestforbonding.Surfaces madeby saws usually
arerougherthan those madebyplanersandjointers.How-
ever,surfaces sawn with specialbladeson properly set •.*.L'! '.
straight-line ripsaws are satisfactory for both structural and
nonstructuraljoints. Precisionsawing ofwoodjoints rather
thantwo-stepsawing andjointing is commonplace in furni-
ture manufacture forpurposesofreducingcostsforlabor,
equipment, and material.Unlessthe saws and feedworksare
wellmaintained,however,joints madewith sawedsurfaces
willbe weakerand less uniform in strength than those made
with sharp planer orjointer knives. Dull cutting edgesof
planerorjointer knivescrushand burnishthe wood surface.
The crushed and burnished surface inhibits adhesive wetting
andpenetration. Ifthe adhesive does notcompletely penetrate
crushed cells to restore their originalstrength, a weakjoint
results.Anothersimplewater test can be used to detect a
surface that has been damagedduring machining. Wipea
verywetrag over aportionofthe surface. Afterwaiting for a
minute, removeany remaining water by blottingwith a
paper towel. Then comparethe roughness ofthe wet and dry
surfaces. Ifthe wetted area is much rougherthan the dry area,
then the surfacehas been damaged in machining. This dam-
agewill significantly reducethestrength ofadhesive-bonded
joints.
Abrasiveplaningwith grit sizes from 24 to 80 causes surface
and subsurface crushingofwoodcells. Figure 9—2 shows
cross sections ofbondlines betweenundamaged, knife-planed
Douglas-fir lumbercompared with surfaces damaged by
abrasive planing.Suchdamaged surfaces are inherently weak
and result in poorbondstrength. Similardamagecan be Figure 9—2. (A) Cross sectionofa bonded jointbetween
causedby dull planer knives or saws. There is some evi- two undamagedDouglas-fir surfaces that wereplaned
dence that sandingwith grits finerthan 100 may improve an with a sharp knife (120X). Thewoodcells are open, and
abrasive-planed surface. However, abrasive-planing is not their walls are distinct.The dark area at the centerof
recommendedfor structuraljoints that willbe subjected to micrograph is theadhesive bondline. (B) Cross section
high swellingand shrinkagestressesfrom water soaking and ofa bondedjoint betweentwo damaged Douglas-fir
surfaces abrasively planed with 36-gritsandpaper.
drying.Ifabrasive-planing is to be used before bonding, then Thecells in and adjacent to the bondline are crushed.
belts must be kept clean and sharp, and sanding dust must
beremovedcompletely from thesandedsurface. and their walls are indistinct.

Veneer Surfaces Adhesive overnenetration into lathe checksusually is not a

The wood properties ofveneerareessentiallyno different
problemifthe adhesive spread rate is adjustedcorrectly.
from those oflumber; however, manufacturing processes, Sliced veneer is producedin long stripsby moving a squared
including cutting, drying, and laminatinginto plywood, can a
log,called a fitch, against knife. As in rotary cutting, the
drastically changephysicaland chemical surface properties of veneeris forcedby the knife awayfrom the fitch at a sharp
veneer.Specialknowledgeand attention to these characteris- angle, causing fine checkingofthe veneeronthe knife side.
ticsare requiredto ensuregood wetting, flow,and penetra- This checked surface will show imperfections in a finished
tionofadhesive. surface, so the loose side shouldbe bonded and the tight side
finished. For book-matched face veneers, wheregrain patterns
Rotarycuttingproducescontinuous sheets offlat-grain veneer ofadjacent veneers are nearmirrorimages, halftheveneers
by rotatinga log by its ends againsta knife. As the knife will be loosely cut and must be finished, so the veneer must
peels veneerfrom the log,theknife forcesthe veneeraway be cutastightlyas possible. Generally, hardwoodface ye-
from the log at a sharpangle, thereby breakingor checking neers are sliced to revealthe most attractivegrain patterns.
theveneer onthe knife side. The checkedsideis commonly
calledthe loose side, and the opposite side withoutchecking Sawn veneeris produced in long narrowstripsfrom flitches
is called the tightside. When rotary-cut veneer is used for that havebeen selected and sawn for attractivegrainpatterns.
faces in plywood,the loose side shouldbe bonded with the The two sides ofsawii veneerare free from knife checks,so
tightsidepresentedto view. Otherwise, open checks in the either surface may be bondedor exposedto view with satis-
faces produceimperfections in any finishthat may be applied. factoryresults.

9—4
Veneeris dried promptly after cutting, using continuous, then only epoxy, polyurethane, and other isocyanate-based
high temperaturedryersthat are heated eitherwith steam or adhesives maybe sufficiently compatible with metaLsand
hot gases from wood-residue orgas-fifedburners. Drying plastics. Even then, cleaning or specialpreparation ofthe
temperaturesrange from 170°C to 230°C (330°F to 446°F) nonwood surfaces maybe requiredto remove contaminants
for shortperiods.Dryingveneerto very low moisturecontent and chemically activate the surfaces. Composite materials are
levels at very high temperatures and dryingatmoderate becoming more common asmanufacturers learntobond
temperatures for prolonged periodsinactivates surfaces, dissimilar materials to gain extraordinary composite proper-
causing poorwettingofveneer, hence poor bonding ofthe tiesor costadvantages not availablefrom a singlecompo-
plywood. Residuesdepositedon veneersurfaces from incom- nent. Composite materials in whichnonpolartherm oplastics
plete combustion ofgasesand fuel oils can cause serious are successfully bondedtopolar wood materials with the aid
adhesionproblemsin plywoodproduction. ofcouplingagentsarebecomingcommonplace.
Veneer selected for its attractive appearance, or for use in Metals are stronger and stifferthanwood and ifbondedwell
sandedgradesofplywood, shouldbe uniformin thickness, enough to effectively transfer stresses betweenmetal and
smooth, flat, free from deepchecks, knots, holes,anddecay, wood, the mechanical properties ofwood can be enhanced by
andhave face grain suitable forthe intended face grade. For the metal so that the resultantcompositeperformsas a single
plywoodofthe lowergrades, defectrequirements are not as material. Metal has a much higherenergy surface than does
restricted. For example, loosely cut veneerwith frequentdeep wood.On exposure to air, oxides ofthe metal quickly form,
checksand largedefectsis suitable forstructural plywood, and with moisture, gases, and debrisadsorbedfrom the air,
butmore adhesiveis requiredthan fortightly cut veneer. thesurfaces quickly develop a low energy,weak boundary
Higherspread ratescompensate for overpenetrationofadhe- layer.To restore the high energysurfaces, a seriesofcleaning
sive into looselycut veneer.Whenrotary-cutveneeris procedures are required to prepare the surfaces for stiuctural
bonded into plywood, the tight side is usually bondedto the bonding. Stepsin surface preparation include cleaningwith
loose side, except that in one bondline, the loose side must liquidor vapor organic solvents, abradingby sandblasting,
bebonded tothe loose side. This orientation permitsthe face alkalinewashing,chemicaletching, andprimingwith adhe-
veneerto be presentedwith its tight side facingoutward for sive solutions or couplingagents.
sanding andappearance.
Plastics are organicpolymersthat may be eitherthermoplas-
tic (softenonheating)orthermosetting (cross-linked and
Surfaces of Wood and Nonwood resistsofteningonheating).Thermoplastics genera[ly are not
Composite Products as strong and stiffas wood,but thermoset materials ap-
proximate and evenexceedthemechanical properties of
The surfacesofwood productssuch as plywood, structural wood.Whenplastics containfibrousreinforcing materials,
flakeboard, particleboard, fiberboard, and hardboard generally such as fiberglass, strength and stiffness ofthe composite
have poorwettabilityrelativeto that offreshlycut, polar materials greatlyexceedsomeofthe mechanical properties of
wood surfaces. Surfaces ofthesematerials mayhavea glazed wood.In so doing, reinforcedplastics that are effectively
appearanceindicating theyhave beeninactivated bypressing bondedtowoodoffer stronger andmore cost-effective struc-
at high temperatures. Duringhot pressing,resinousextrac- tural composites. The surfaces ofplastics generallyare low
tivesmigratetothe surface, adhesives onthe outer surfaces of
energy,nonpolar, and hydrophobic. Traditional aqueous-
particles andfibers cure, andcaul releaseagentsremainon basedwood adhesives are polar and hydrophilic, Sc' they do
productsurfaces—all ofwhichinactivate orblock suifaces not bond well to plastics. Epoxies,polyurethanes, and iso-
from being wettedbywater-based wood adhesives. Further-
cyanate-based adhesives are capable ofbonding many plastics
more, the strengthofbonds to the surfaces oftheseproducts to wood.Adhesionto plasticsurfaces occursprimarilyby
is limitedbythe strengthwith whichsurface flakes, particles, physical intermolecular attraction forces and, in some cases,
and fibersare bound to the inner flakes, particles,andfibers
hydrogen bonding. Abradingandchemicaletchingofplastic
oftheproduct.A much lowerbond strengthcan be expected surfaces providesomemechanical interlocking, thereby
tothesurfaces ofproductsofparticulate structure thanto increasing adhesion. Couplingagentsare particularLyuseful
productsofnatural wood structure.Adhesionto composite forchemically bridgingdissimilar materials.They have
panel productshavingpoorwettability (Fig. 9—1) can be molecules that are ofeitherunlike or like functionalities that
improvedby lightlysandingwith 320-gritsandpaper. How- arecapable ofreactingwith both theadhesive andthesurface
ever, too much sanding can changea flat surface to an uneven ofthe adherend. Treatment ofplasticsurfaces with in inert
surface and perhaps producetoo much loose-fiber debristhat
would interfere with adhesion. gas, including oxygenplasmaactivated by radio-frequency
energy, cleansand activates surfaces for enhanced adhesion.
Metal foils and plasticfilms are commonly laminated to Grafting ofmonomersonto cleanedplasticsurfaces bymeans
woodpanelsusuallyby productmanufacturers. Although ofplasmapolymerization createsapolar surface that ismore
compatible with adhesives.
high cohesivestrengthis not requiredofadhesives to support
these materialsin an indoorenvironment, adhesives still Chemical treatment ofwoodwith preservatives, fireretar-
must be reasonably compatible with both the wood and
dants, and dimensional stabilizers interfereswith adhesionto
nonwoodsurfaces.Ifa bondofgreaterstructural integrity is thetreatedwood.Typesofchemical treatmentand adhesives,
requiredto bond wood toheavier,rigid metalsandplastics,

9—5
conditions ofjointassemblyand adhesive cure, and pre-
bonding chemical surface treatments havevaried, interacting,
and evenstrong effects on the strength and durability of
bonds.Certain combinations ofthese factors can leadto
excellent bonds, despite the interference fromchemical
treatments.

Lumbertreatedwith chromatedcopper arsenate (CCA) pre-

servatives dominatesthe treatedwood market;however, very
little ofthe CCA-treatedwood is used in adhesively bonded
lumberproducts.Commercialadhesivesdo not adhereto
CCA-treated wood well enoughto consistentlymeet rigor-
ous industrial standards for resistance to delamination in
acceleratedexteriorservicetests. Analytical studieshave
shown that cellular surfaces ofCCA-treated woodarethor-
oughly coveredwith microscopic-size deposits ofmixtures of
chromium, copper,and arsenic oxides that are physicochemi-
cally fixed to cell walls. The presence ofthese insoluble
metallicdeposits is so pervasivethat intermolecular forces of Figure 9—3. Surface of cell lumen of CCA-treated
attractionthat normallyactbetweenpolar wood and adhesive Southern Pine covered with chemically fixed
arephysicallyblocked(Fig. 9—3). A new hydroxymethylated deposits ofinsoluble mixture of chromium, copper,
resorcinol (HMR)couplingagentgreatly improves adhesion and arsenic oxides.
to CCA-treatedwood when HMR is applied as a dilute
aqueous primeron lumbersurfaces beforebonding. The
HMRphysicochemicallycouplesphenol-resorcinol, epoxy, hydroxyl groupsofhemicelluloses and lignin ofwood.For
emulsion polymer—isocyanate,polymericmethylene every acetylgroup reacted, one hydroxyl group isblocked
diphenyl disocyanate,and melamine-urea adhesives to treated from hydrogen bondingwith a water molecule,and the result
wood so that bonds can meet rigorous industrial standards is loweraffinity ofacetylated wood for water. Reduced wet-
for strengthand durability. tability from feweravailable hydroxylgroups meanspoorer
adhesionofaqueous-based woodadhesives. Adhesionis
Woodpreservatives other than CCA,evennonacidicwater- reducedto varyingdegreesamong thermoplastic andtherno-
borne preservatives including emulsiontypes, interfere with setting adhesives in proportionto theircompatibilitywith
adhesionofhot-pressedphenolicplywoodadhesives, particu- theamount ofnonpolar, hydrophobic acetate groups formed
larly as levels of chemical retentioninthe wood increase. in theacetylated wood.Onlyroom-temperature-curing resor-
Generally,preservatives containing boron, copper, and zinc cinolic adhesives and an acid-catalyzed phenolichot-press
interfere with the cure ofphenolic resins,although assembly adhesive havebeen found to developdurable bondsto acety-
conditionscan be optimizedto improvebonding.Certain lated wood.All other wood adhesives developpoorerbonds
alkylammonium andfluoride-based salt preservatives have to acetylated wood than to untreatedwood.
demonstrated limitedinterference with adhesion.
Themost commonfire-retarding chemicals used for wood are
inorganic salts based on phosphorous,nitrogen,and boron.
Physical Properties of
Theseacid salts release acid at elevatedtemperatures to Wood Adherends
decrease flammable volatilesand increase char in wood,
thereby effectively reducingflamespread. A few salts release Density and Porosity
acid attemperatureslower than fire conditions,and in the
presence ofelevatedtemperature and moisture service condi- The bondability ofwood is not only affected by the surface
tions, increasingacidityleads to destructive hydrolysis ofthe properties ofwood adherends but also by wood'sphysical
wood. The acidity ofthe fire-retardant-treated wood, particu- properties, particularlydensity,porosity,moisturecontent,
larly at the elevatedtemperatureandmoistureconditions of and dimensionalmovement.
hot-presscuring, also inhibits the cure andbond formation of Woodsubstancewithout void volumehas a densityap-
alkalinephenolicadhesive. By primingtreated-wood surfaces
with certainalkalineaqueoussolutions beforebondingand proximating 1.5 g/cm3(93.6 lb/fl3), regardlessofthe wood
selecting resins ofappropriate molecular-size distribution, species. But density varies greatlybetween wood species,
and evenwithina species, becausespecies vary in void
strong and durable bonds can be madeto certainfire-
retardant-treated woods. volume and thickness of cell walls. High densitywoodshave
thick walls and small lumen volumes,whereaslow density
Acetylationis a chemicalmodification ofwood that drasti- woodshavethinwalls with large lumen volumes.The
cally reducesmoisture-related dimensional changes and rate strengthofwood is directlyrelatedto its densitybecause
ofbiodeterioration. Aceticanhydrideis reacted with the thick-wafled cells are capable ofwithstanding much greater
stress than are thin-walled cells.Woodcells are an integral

9—6
part ofthe wood—adhesive interphasing region;therefore, the wood,porosityvaries according to the grain direction. It is
adhesive bond must be at least as strong as the wood ifthe most porous on end-grain surfaces,beingmany times greater
strength capability ofthe wood adherend is to be fully than on radialortangential surfaces. Adhesives penetrate
utilized. deeply into open fibers and vesselsalongthe grain, so deeply
that overpenetration occurs whenpressureis appliedto end-
The strengthofadhesive bondsto wood increases with wood grain surfaces. This is a primaryreasonwhy it is so difficult
densityup to a range of0.7 to 0.8 g/cm3 (43.7 to 49,9 lb/ft3) to form strong,load-bearing bondlinesin buttjoints. Across
(moisturecontent 12%). Above this level,jointstrength thegrain, porosity is limitedbecauseoffewerpathways in
decreases. Although strength increases with wood density, whichadhesive can flow, so overpenetration underpressure
wood failure decreasesgradually up to adensity range generallyis not a problemwith a properly formulated
of0.7 to 0.8 g/cm3 (43.7to 49.9 lb/ft3), then decreases more adhesive.
rapidly above 0.8 g/cm3 (49.9 lb/ft3). As wood densityin-
creases,high strengthjoints with high wood failureare more The porosity ofhardwoods and softwoods, both as species
difficultto achieveconsistently. (Woodfailure meansrupture groups and as species within a group,varies greatly, which
ofwood fibersduringstrengthtests ofadhesive bondsto dramatically affectsthe amount and direction ofadhesive
a
wood.It is usuallyexpressedas percentage ofthe total flow.Highly porous softwoods, such as the southernpines,
bondedareaofthejoint.) havefiber lumens that are interconnected by open pits. Pits
are the smallopenings betweenfibersthat permitlateral
High density woodsare difficultto bond for several reasons. transferoffluids in living trees. They form a complexcapil-
Becauseofthicker cellwalls and less lumen volume,adhe- lary systemthat also allows adhesives to penetrate deeply,
sivesdonot penetrate easily,so importantmechanical inter- even in tangential andradial directions. The relatively large
lockingofadhesivesis limitedto one or two cells deep. vessels in hardwoods have no end walls,so adhesivecan
Much greaterpressureis requiredto compress stronger, penetrate indefmitely along the end grain. The remaining
stiffer,high density wood to bring contactbetweenwood fibershaverelatively few pits for lateral transferofadhesive,
surface and adhesive. Higherconcentrations ofextractives exceptthat hardwoods, such as the red oaks,haveradially
that may interfere with the cure ofadhesives are common in oriented rays that canallow excessive flow andoveJpenetra-
high density species,particularlydomesticoaks andim- tion.Although adhesives for hardwoods and softwcods
portedtropicalhardwoods. The severestressesproducedby generally differ by chemical type according to productmar-
high density speciesas they change dimensions with changes kets, adhesives must be specifically formulated for hardwoods
in moisturecontent also contribute heavily to bonding or softwoods, including specific species withinthe groups,or
difficulties. haveadjustable workingproperties forspecific manufacturing
situations.
Densityis perhaps a crude indicator,but as previouslynoted,
it is usefulforestimatingthebondabilityofagreat varietyof
wood species.Table 9—1 categorizes commonly used domes- Moisture Content and
tic and imported species according totheirrelative easeof Dimensional Changes
bonding.The categoriesfor domesticwoods are based on the
average strength ofside-grain joints oflumber as determined Water occursnaturallyin livingtrees—asfree wattr in cell
in laboratory tests and industrial experience. The laboratory lumens and as adsorbedwater within cell walls. Total water
tests includedanimal,casein, starch, urea-formaldehyde, and contentofwood can range well above200% (based.on oven-
resorcinol-formaldehyde adhesives. Thecategories for im- dry weight), but whenthe free water is removedfrom cell
portedwoods arebased on information found in the literature lumens by drying, approximately 30% remainsbound within
on bond strength, speciesproperties, extractives content, and cell walls.Waterhas strong molecularattractionto wood,
industrial experience.In most cases,the amountofdata primarilythrough hydrogen bondingwith hydroxy1 groups
availablefor categorizing importedwoods is not equivalent ofwood cellulosics. Therefore, cellwalls remainsLturated
to that for domestic woods.However,a species that bonds with moisture(calledthe fibersaturationpoint) until the
poorlywith one adhesive may developmuch betterbonds moisture contentofthe surrounding air fallsbelowthat of
with anotheradhesive. A similartype ofadhesivebut with saturated cell walls. Actualmoisture contentat fibersatura-
somewhat differentworking, penetration, curing, andeven tion (roughly30%)varies, depending on species, tree, tem-
strength properties can often dramatically improve bond- perature,and pressure. This isthe criticalpoint at which
ability ofa given species.Adhesivesupplierswill quite wood begins to shrink.Ifwood has dried belowthe fiber
often adjust adhesive formulations to solve specific saturation point, then regainsmoisture,the wood will swell.
adhesionproblems. Thesedimensional changes differ with thethree prncipal
directions, or grain directions in wood, that is, longitudinal,
The void volumeofwood,which can range from 46%to radial, andtangential, with intermediatechanges vurying
80% oftotal volume,stronglyaffectsthe depth and direction with the anglebetweenthe principaldirections.Longitudinal
that an adhesive flows. To attain the highestjoint strength, dimensional change along the grain is least and amounts to
theadhesive must penetrateandmechanically interlock less than 1% in dryingfrom fiber saturation point 1:0 oven-
several cells deep into sound,undamagedcell structure.In thy. Dimensional changeis greatestacross the grain,but the

9—7
 Table 9—1. Categories ofselected wood species according to ease of bonding
U.S. hardwoods U.S. softwoods Imported woods
Bond easilya
Alder Fir Balsa Hura
Aspen White Cativo Purpleheart
Basswood Grand Courbaril Roble
Cottonwood Noble Determab
Chestnut, American Pacific
Magnolia Pine
Willow, black Eastern white
Westernwhite
Redcedar, western
Redwood
Spruce, Sitka
Bond welic
Butternut Douglas-fir Afromosia Meranti (lauan)
Elm Larch, westernd Andiroba Light red
American Pine Angelique White
Rock Sugar Avodire Yellow
Hackberry Ponderosa Banak Obeche
Maple, soft Redcedar, eastern Iroko Okoume
Sweetgum Jarrah Opepe
Sycamore Limba Peroba rosa
Tupelo Mahogany Sapele
Walnut, black African Spanish-cedar
Yellow-poplar American Sucupira
Wallaba
Bond satisfactorilye
Ash, white Yellow-cedar Angelin Meranti (Iauan), dark red
Beech, American Port-Orford-cedar Azobe Pau marfim
Birch Pines, southern Benge Parana-pine
Sweet Bubinga Pine
Ye'low Karri Caribbean
Cherry Radiata
Hickory Ramin
Pecan
True
Madrone
Maple, hard
Oak
Redb
Whiteb
Bond with difficulty
Osage-orange Balata Keruing
Persimmon Balau Lapacho
Greenheart Lignumvitae
Kaneelhart Rosewood
Kapur Teak
aBond very easily with adhesives ofa wide range of propertiesand under a wide range of bonding conditions.
bDjffiCult to bond with phenol-formaldehyde adhesive.
cBond wellwith a fairlywide range of adhesives under a moderately wide range of bonding conditions.
dwood from butt logs with high extractivecontentis difficult to bond.
eBond satisfactorilywith good-qualityadhesivesunder well-controlled bonding conditions.
Satisfactory results require careful selection of adhesivesand very close control of bonding conditions;
may require special surfacetreatment.

9—8
amounts differ with the direction; dimensional change varies overpenetration ofthe adhesive. Furthermore, high iiapor
with and within species. As a rule ofthumb,tangential pressure buildsinternallyas waterboils, and on release of
dimensional change is abouttwice that oftheradial direc- platen pressure, sudden releaseofinternalpressureactually
tion; but again, there are variations by species. (See Oh. 3 separates laminatesalongthe bondlines, calledblows.Even
for adetaileddiscussion ofwoodmoisturerelations.) ifblows do not occur, excess moisturewithin therniosetting
adhesives can prevent complete cross-linking with accompa-
Dimensional changesthat accompany changes in moisture nyingweakened adhesive film andbond. Appropriate mois-
contenthavebroad-rangingand significant consequences on ture contentlevels ofwood for bondingby hot-press methods
performance ofbondedjoints. As wood inbondedassemblies arewellknown,as aretargetmoisture contentlevelsfor
swells and shrinks, stressesdevelopthat can be greatenough satisfactory service ofwood productsthroughout the United
to rupture adhesive bond andwood. Rupturesmay develop States. However,controlofmoisturecontent in bonding
whenadjacentpieces ofwood in a bondedjointdiffer in grain wood materialsis not easily achieved. This is discussedin
directionand shrinkage coefficients, forexample, radialgrain theMoistureContentControl section.
bonded to tangentialgrain, or in the worst case,longitudinal
grainbonded to either tangential or radialgrain.Even if Adhesives
moisturecontent levels in adjacent pieces are equal, but
changing, stressescouldbe severe.Moreover, ifmoisture
contentin one piece is at equilibriumwith surrounding air, Composition
that is, stable,but the other piece with differinggrain direc- Organicpolymersofeithernatural or synthetic orig:Ln are the
tion is shrinkingas it approachesequilibriummoisture major chemical ingredients in allformulations ofwood
content(EMC), then resultantstresses wouldbe coni- adhesives. Accordingto ASTM, a polymer is a compound
poundedand almost sure to rupture eitherthe adhesive bond formed by the reaction ofsimplemolecules having functional
or thewood,whicheveris weaker. Somewood adhesives are groupsthat permit theircombination to proceedto higher
elasticenough to yield to stressesso that fracturedoes not molecularweights under suitable conditions. Polysaccharides
occur.Structural wood adhesives have greatermoduli of and proteinsare high molecularweightnaturalpolymers
elasticity thanwood and can effectively transferstresses from derived from plants and animals.Animal,blood, hide,
one adherendtothe other without failure. Flowever, if casein, starch, soybean,dextrin, andcellulosicadhesivesare
stresses are greatenoughfrom extraordinary moisture content all derivedfrom the naturalpolymers found inthese indicated
changes within adjacentpiecesofwood ofdiffering shrinkage sources. They havebeen used as adhesives for centuries and
coefficients, then fracture ineitherwood or apoor bondis are still in use today, although they havebeen replaced
almostinevitable.Severe stresseson bondlinescan be mostly by adhesives made with synthetic polymers. The first
minimizedby bondingpieces ofwood with compatible grain woodadhesives basedonsyntheticpolymers were produced
directions oflow shrinkage coefficients at auniformmoisture commercially duringthe 1930s. This markedthe beginning
contentequivalentto that whichthe bonded assembly will offundamental changes in composition ofadhesive;from
encounter in service. naturalto synthesized polymers.These adhesives could not
The amountofmoistureinwood combined with water in only be stronger, more rigid, andmore durable than wood,
but alsohavemuch greaterresistance to waterthan adhesives
adhesivewill greatly influence the wetting,flow,penetration, from naturalpolymers.
and even cureofaqueous wood adhesives. In general, these
adhesives bond satisfactorily acrossmoisturecontentlevels Synthetic polymersare chemically designedand formulated
ranging from 6% to 14% and evenbelowand abovethis intoadhesives to performagreatvarietyofbonding func-
range whenadhesives are formulated for specialized process- tions.Whetherthe base polymer is thermoplastic orthermo-
ing. The optimummoisturecontentrange for bonding a settinghas amajor influenceon how an adhesivewill per-
specific productwith a specific adhesive is determined from form in service. Thermoplastics are long-chain polymers
practical experience andproductperformance. Aqueousadhe- that soften and flow on heating, then hardenagain by cool-
sives tend to dry out when appliedto wood below 5% mois- ing. They generallyhave less resistance to heat, moisture,
ture content. Woodabsorbswater from the adhesive so and long-term staticloadingthan do thermosetting poly-
quicklythat adhesive flow and penetrationinto the wood is mers. Common wood adhesivesthat are basedon i;hermo-
drasticallyinhibited,even under high pressure. Woodmay plasticpolymers includepolyvinylacetate emulsions, elas-
become so dry below 3% moisturecontentthat it temporar- tomerics,contacts,and hot-melts. Thermosettingpolymers
ily resists wetting by the adhesive becauseinsufficient water makeexcellent structural adhesives becausetheyundergo
remainsboundto the wood to establish intermolecular attrac- thy
irreversible chemicalchange, and on reheating, do not
tion forceswith water inthe adhesive. soften and flow again. They form cross-linkedpolymersthat
havehigh strength, have resistance to moistureand other
Whenwood containsexcess amounts ofmoisture, then less
chemicals, and are rigid enoughto supporthigh, long-term
water and adhesivecan be absorbedby the wood. This leads static loadswithout deforming. Phenolic, resorcinolic,
to excessiveadhesivemobility,followedby squeeze-out melamine, isocyanate, urea, and epoxyare examples oftypes
whenpressure is applied. Control ofmoisture content is ofwoodadhesivesthat arebasedon thermosetting polymers.
particularlycriticalto bondingin hot presses because
excessmoistureincreasesadhesive mobility,followedby

9—9
 A formulation ofwood adhesiveconsistsofamixtureof cured state do not presenttoxicityproblems.A notable
severalchemically activeand inert materials that vary in exception is urea-formaldehyde adhesive, whichcan release
proportionwith the basic adhesive polymer,whichenhances low concentrations offormaldehyde from bondedwoodprod-
performance, whether itbeworkingcharacteristics, strength ucts undercertainserviceconditions.Formaldehyde is a
properties,shelflife, or durability. Solvents disperse or toxic gas that canreact with proteinsofthe body to cause
dissolve adhesivepolymers,act as carriers ofpolymerand irritationand, in some cases, inflammation ofmembranesof
additives, aidwetting,andcontrol flow and penetrationof eyes, nose, and throat.It is a suspected carcinogen, based on
theadhesive.Wateris used as thecarrierfor most wood laboratory experiments with rats. Considerable researchhas
adhesives, primarilybecausewater readily absorbs into ledto new adhesive formulations with significantly reduced
wood, is inexpensive, and is free oftoxicity problems. Adhe- levels offormaldehyde emissions inboth manufacturing
sive polymerscan be broughtinto intimate, evenmolecular, operations and bondedwood products. Phenol-formaldehyde
contactwith wood by water as the carrier. Organic solvents adhesives, whichare usedtomanufactureplywood, flake-
areusedwith elastomericand contact adhesives, although board,and fiberglass insulation, also containformaldehyde.
water-based adhesive systemshave lowertoxicity andflam- However, formaldehyde is efficiently consumed in the curing
mability. Fillersofboth organic and inorganic origins con- reaction, and thehighlydurablephenol-formaldehyde, resor-
tributeto rheologicalcontrolofthe fluid system, particularly cinol-formaldehyde, andphenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde
inreducingthe spreading andpenetratingofthe adhesiveinto polymersdo not chemically break down in serviceto release
wood. Reinforcingfibers, mostlyinert and oforganicorigins, toxic gas.
can enhance an adhesive film's mechanical properties, espe-
cially toughness,impactresistance,and shrinkage. Extenders Diisocyanates are highly reactivechemicals that polymerize
arefiller-like organicmaterials that may havesufficient rapidlyon contact with strong alkali, mineral acids, and
chemicalactivityto improve adhesionto a smalldegree,but water.Polymeric methylene diphenyl diisocyanate(PMDI)
they are used primarilyto control flow and other working adhesives developstrong and durablebonds to wood,so
characteristics, withoutexcesssacrifice ofadhesion capabil- theyare now widely used to manufacturecompositewood
ity, as is the case with most fillers. products. They are potentiallyhazardous ifmishandled,but
the low vaporpressure ofPMDI adhesives coupledwith
Certainchemicalsand polymericsystemsplasticizeadhesive adequateventilation to removeairbornePMDI on dust parti-
polymers, and othersare used to enhance tackiness. Plasti- cles,permits manufacturing plantsto operate safely. Properly
cizers,such as dibutylphthalate,are used to softenbrittle cured PMDI adhesives are not considered hazardous in
vinyl acetate homopolymer in polyvinylacetate emulsion bondedwood products.
adhesives, whichfacilitates diffusion ofadhesive and forma-
tion ofa flexibleadhesivefilm fromthe emulsion at and Construction and contact adhesives containorganicsolvents
belowroom temperature. Phenolicpolymersare used as that havelow flash points. Ifthese adhesivesare used in
tackifiersand adhesionpromoters inneopreneand nitrile unventilated areas whereconcentrations build to dangerously
rubbercontact adhesives. Reactive polymeric fortifiers, such high levels,explosions can occur with an ignition source..
as melamine-formaldehyde, can be substituted in limited Someadhesive producers now offerless flammable formula-
proportions in urea-formaldehyde adhesives to improve tions based on chlorinated solvents. Organic solvents in
resistance to moistureandheat. Phenol-formaldehyde maybe these adhesives are toxic,but by following the manufac-
substituted forresorcinol-formaldehyde to reduce adhesive turer's handling and use instructions, coupledwith adequate
costs,without sacrificingadhesive strengthand durability. ventilation, harmfuleffectscan be avoided.

Catalysts are chemicalsused to accelerate the rate ofchemical Healthand safetyregulations requirethat toxic and hazardous
reactionofpolymeric components. Acids, bases, salts, perox- chemicals be identified andvisibly labeled to warn oftheir
ides, and sulfur compounds are a few examples ofcatalysts. dangers. Material safetydata sheets (MSDS) or instructions
Catalysts do not become apart ofthe reactedcompound; are providedwith adhesive productsto adviseofproper
they simplyincrease therate ofreaction. Hardeners are added handling procedures, protectivegear and clothing, and proce-
to base polymersas reactivecomponents, and they do be- dures for dealing with spillsand fire, as well as to offer guid-
come apart ofthe reactedcompound. Examples are an amine ance for first-aidand professional treatmentofinjuries. The
hardeneraddedto epoxyand formaldehyde addedto resorci- statements made inthis section concerning safetyofadhe-
nol—allproducecross-linkingreactionsto solidit'the adhe- sives andeffectson the health ofthe user are general andnot
sive. Otherchemicals,such as antioxidants, acid scavengers, meantto be all inclusive. The usershould consultthe
preservatives, wettingagents, defoamers, even colorants, may MSDS and follow the manufacturer'sinstructions and pre-
be added to control or eliminatesome ofthe less desirable cautions beforeusingany adhesive.
characteristics ofcertain adhesive formulations.
Strength and Durability
Health and Safety The abilityofan adhesive to transferload from one member
Wood adhesivescontainchemicals that are toxicto peopleif ofan assemblyto anotherand to maintainintegrityofthe
they are exposed to sufficient concentrations for prolonged assembly under the expectedconditions ofservice will
periods. Generally, it is acceptedthat wood adhesives in a governthe choice ofadhesive for agiven application.

9—i 0
In buildingconstruction, adhesives that contribute strength transferload faster than does woodas serviceconditions
and stiffness during the life ofthe structure are considered worsen, particularlywith regardto moisture, are considered
structural. They generally are stronger and stifferthan the interioradhesives. Between exteriorand interioradhesives
wood members. Structural bonds are criticalbecausebond arethe intermediate adhesivesthat maintainstrengthand
failurecouldresult in seriousdamageto the structure, even rigidityin short-term watersoakingbutdeterioratefasterthan
loss oflife. Examples ofstructural applications include wood during long-term exposure to water andheat. &dhe-
glued-laminated beams, prefabricatedI-joists, and stressed- sivesthatare the weakest, least rigid, and least resistant to
skin panels. Adhesivesthat are strongest,most rigid, and severeserviceconditions are thosemost tolerant ofwide
most resistantto deterioration in service, unfortunately, are variations inwood surface, assembly,and curing conditions.
those leasttolerant ofwide variations inwood surface condi-
Semistructural adhesives impartstrength and stiffness to an
tion, wood moisture content, and assemblyconditions in- adhesive-bonded assembly, and in some instances, they may
cludingpressures,temperatures, and curingconditions. be as strong and rigid as wood.However,semistructural
Examples ofrigid structuraladhesives includephenolic, adhesives generallydo not withstandlong-term static load-
resorcinol,melamine,urea, and casein (Table 9—2).
ing withoutdeformation. They are capableofshort-i;erm
Adhesives are furthercategorized in Table 9—2 as to how exposure to waterbut not long-term saturation,hence their
wellthey transfer loadrelativeto wood as the serviceenvi- limitedexterior classification. Examples are cross-linking
ronmentbecomes more severe. Structural adhesives that polyvinyl acetate andpolyurethane adhesives. Another
maintaintheir strength and rigidityunder the most severe example ofthe semistructural adhesive application is the
cyclicwater-saturation and drying are considered fullyexte- nailed—glued assemblywherefailure ofthe bond would not
rior adhesives. Rigid adhesives that lose their ability to cause seriousloss ofstructural integrity becausethe load
wouldbe carriedby mechanical fasteners.

Table 9—2. Wood adhesives categorized according to their expected structuralperformance

atvarying levelsof environmental exposure a,b
Structural integrity Service environment Adhesive type

Structural Fully exterior Phenol-formaldehyde

(withstands long-term Resorcinol-formaldehyde
water soaking and drying) Phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde
Emulsion polymer/isocyanate
Melamine-formaldehyde
Limited exterior Melamine-urea-formaldehyde
withstarids short-term Isocyanate
watersoaking) Epoxy
Interior Urea-formaldehyde
(withstands short-term Casein
high humidity)
Semistructural Limited exterior Cross-linked polyvinyl acetate
Polyurethane
Nonstructural Interior Polyvinyl acetate
Animal
Soybean
Elastomeric construction
Elastomeric contact
Hot-melt
Starch

aAssignment of an adhesivetype to only one structural/service environmentcategory does not

exclude certain adhesiveformulationsfrom falling into the next higher or lower category.
bpriming wood surfaceswith hydroxymethylated resorcinol coupling agent improves resistanceto
delamination of epoxy, isocyanate,emulsion polymer/isocyanate, melamineand urea, phenolic, and
resorcinolicadhesivesin exterior service environment, particularly bonds to CCA-treated lumber.

9—11
Nonstructural adhesives typically support the deadweightof hydrophilicity. As the adhesivewets, it must have flow
thematerialbeing bonded and canequalthestrength and properties that enable it to spreadover surfaces ofvariable
rigidityofwood in the dry condition. However,on exposure roughness and to penetrate wood structures that differ in
to water or high humidity, nonstructuraladhesivesquickly porosity,with respectto grain orientationat the bondline.
losetheirloadtransfer ability. Examples are adhesives used The adhesivemust makemolecularcontact with the ligno-
for bondingwalltiles andfixtures. cellulosics ofwoodand penetrate deeplyenoughto mechani-
cally interlockwith the wood's cell structure. Metals and
Elastomeric construction adhesives are categorized as non- plastics cannotbe penetrated, so these materialsgenerally
structural. However,they areused normallyfor field assem- cannotbe bondedwith aqueous wood adhesives. However,
bly ofpanelizedfloor and wall systemsin the light-frame nonaqueous, 100% solids adhesives, includingepoxy, isocy-
construction industry. Nails are used in the assemblyso that anate, and polyurethane, are capableofsound bondsto non-
iffailuredid occur inthe adhesive bond,thestructural load wood and wood materials.
would be carried by nails. The adhesive enablesthe nailed
assembly to act as a compositewith increased stiffness. With The structural integrity expectedofthe adhesive bond under
nails providingstructuralsafety inthis application, elas- anticipated service loadsinthe presence ofexpectedenvi-
tomeric adhesivescould be includedinthe semistructural ronmental exposureconditions shouldbe one ofthe foremost
category. a
considerations. To intelligently select an adhesivefor given
bondedassembly, it is necessary to have an approximation of
Some adhesiveslisted in Table 9—2 could be includedeasily thenature,direction, level, and durationofloadingthat the
in more than one categorybecause they can be formulated for assemblyand bondlines must withstand. Furthermore, it is
a broadrange ofapplications. Isocyanate and polyurethane essential toknow the range and duration oftemperatureand
adhesivesare examples. Polymericmethylene diphenyl moisture contentlevels to whichbondlineswill be sub-
diisocyanates oflow molecularweightdevelophighlydura- jected. For example, prolonged exposureto high moistute
blebondsin structuralflakeboards, although flakeboard contentlevels will significantly reducethe load-canying
productsdeteriorate from swelling and shrinkage stresses. abilityofany adhesive in a woodjoint. Failureto give full
One-partpolyurethane adhesives havehighlydurable adhe- consideration to these factors could risk structural failure f
sive films, but as molecularweightincreases, adhesionto the bonded assembly, evenseverepersonalinjury.
porouswood generallydecreases and bondsbecome increas-
ingly susceptible to deterioration from swelling and shrink- There maybeneed fortradeoffsbetweenbonding require-
age stresses. Polyurethaneadhesives liberate carbon dioxide ments ofadhesives and theirresistance to stress, duration of
on reactionwith water. As a result, they foam, and in thick load, and service environment. Adhesivesthat are the strong-
bondlines, polyurethane bonds become more deformable est, mostrigid, and durableare generallythose least tolerant
under static loading.Two-partpolyurethanes can be formu- ofbondingconditions,includingwood moisture content.,
lated forrigidity,dependingon the degreeofstructural surface roughness,cleanliness, inactivation, grain orientation,
loading required. bondline thickness, and pressureand temperature ofcure.
Adhesives that are the weakest, leastrigid, and least resistant
Adhesive Selection to service conditions arethose most tolerant ofbonding
conditions. Many adhesives are positionedbetweenthese
Adhesiveselectionbeginsby consideringthe types ofwood extremes ofbonding requirements andperformance
adhesives, along with theirstrength and durability, prepara- (Tables9—2 and 9—3).
tion and use characteristics, and typicalapplications,as
shownin abbreviatedform in Table 9—3. Theirrelative Whena group ofadhesives with suitable performance cap-
strengthand durability are categorizedinto levels ofstruc- bilities for aparticularbondedassemblyhas been deter-
tural integrity(Table 9—2) and were discussedpreviously. mined,the useralsomust choose withinthat group an adhe-
Adhesive selectionfor a wood productmanufacturer may sive that can be mixed,applied, and cured with available
beginas a cooperative effortbetweenthe manufacturer and an equipmentor consider the cost ofpurchasingequipmentto
adhesivesupplier. Together, they completely reviewthe meet specific workingproperties ofanother adhesive.Impor-
product,its intendedservice environment, and all production tant workingproperties must be consideredwhen making
processes andequipmentbeforechoosing an appropriate cost decisions. The working life ofan adhesiveis the time
adhesive.Whateverthe approachto adhesiveselectionmight betweenmixing and the end ofits usefullife when itbe-
be, the followinggeneraldiscussionshouldbe helpful. comestoo viscous to properlywet and flow over a surface.
A broadarray ofadhesivetypes, with significant variations Ifan adhesive requiresmixingwith a hardeneror catalyst,
withineach type, are availablefor bonding wood materials, then mixing and application equipmentappropriatefor the
even for bondingwood to nonwoodmaterials. The selection working life must be considered. Giventhe consistency ofan
process beginswith determining whichadhesives are com- adhesive, specific types ofapplication equipmentare re-
patiblewith the physicaland chemicalproperties ofthe quired. Dependingon the size ofthe spreadingoperation,the
adherends, particularlytheir surface properties. The polar, equipment can range from brush to roll-spreader to extruder
aqueous wood adhesivemust be capable ofwettingthe usu- to sprayto meter-mixed extrusion.Wood adhesives, includ-
ally polar wood surface, within its normal variations in ing phenolic, melamine, urea, and isocyanateadhesives,

9—12
Table 9—3. Working and strength properties of adhesives,with typical uses
Type Form and color Preparationand application Strength properties Typicaluses
Naturalorigin

Animal, protein Solidand liquid; brownto Solidformadded to water, High dry strength; low Assembly offurniture and
white bondline soaked,and melted; adhesivekept resistanceto water and stringed instrumentr;
warmduring application; liquid damp atmosphere repairs ofantique furniture
formapplieddirectly; both
pressed atroom temperature;
bonding processmust beadjusted
forsmall changes intemperature
Blood, protein Solidand partiallydried Mixed with cold water, lime, High dry strength;moderate Interior-typesoftwocd
whole blood; dark red to causticsoda, and other chemi- resistanceto waterand plywood, sometimssin
black bondline cals; appliedatroom temperature; dampatmosphereand to combinationwithso'jbean
pressed either atroom tempera- microorganisms adhesive; mostly replaced
ture or 120°C (250°F) and higher byphenolicadhesive
Casein, protein Powderwith added Mixed with water; applied and High drystrength; moderate Interiordoors; discoitinued
chemicals;whiteto tan pressed atroom temperature resistanceto water, damp use in laminated timbers
bondline atmospheres,and interme-
diate temperatures;not
suitable for exterior uses

Soybean,protein Powderwith added Mixed with cold water, lime, Moderateto low dry Softwood plywood f)r
chemicals;whiteto tan, causticsoda, andotherchemi- strength;moderateto low interior use, nowreplaced
similarcolorin bondline cals; appliedand pressed atroom resistancetowaterand byphenolicadhesive. New
temperatures,but more frequently damp atmospheres;moder- fast-setting resorciriol-
hotpressedwhen blendedwith ate resistancetointermedi- soybean adhesivesfor
blood adlasive atetemperatures flngerjointing oflumber
beingdeveloped
Lignocellulosic Powder orliquid; may be Blendedwith extenderand tiller by Good drystrength;moderate Partial replacemeni for
residuesand blendedwith phenolic user; adhesivecured in hot-press togoodwetstrength;dura- phenolic adhesivein
extracts adhesive;dark brown 130°Cto 150°C (266°Fto 300°F) bility improvedbyblending composite and plood
bondline similar to phenolicadhesive with phenolicadhesive panel products
Synthetic origin
Cross-linkable Liquid, similarto polyvinyl Liquid emulsion mixed with High dry strength; improved Interiorand exterior doors;
polyvinyl acetate acetate emulsionsbut catalyst; cure atroom tempera- resistancetomoisture and moulding and architectural
emulsion includes copolymers ture orat elevatedtemperaturein elevatedtemperatures, woodwork; cellulosic
capable ofcross-linking hotpress and radio-frequency particularly long-term overlays
with aseparate catalyst; press performancein moist
whiteto tan with colorless environment
bondline

Elastomeric Viscous liquid, typically Liquid applieddirectlyto both Strength develops immedi- On-the-jobbondingof
contact neopreneorstyrene- surfaces, partially dried after ately uponpressing, in- decorativetops to kitchen
butadine elastomers in spreadingand before pressing; creases slowly overa period counters; factory lamination
organic solventorwater roller-pressing at room tempera- ofweeks; dry strengths ofwood, paper,meLal, and
emulsion; tan toyellow ture producesinstant bonding much lower than thoseof plastic sheetmaterials
conventionalwood adhe-
sives; low resistance to
waterand damp atmos-
pheres; adhesive film readily
yields under static load
Elastomeric Putty likeconsistency, Mastic extruded inbeadtofram- Strength develops slowly Lumberto plywood in floor
mastic synthetic or natural ing members bycaulking gun or overseveral weeks; dry and wall systems; laminat-
(construction elastomers inorganic likepressure equipment; nailing strengthlowerthan conven- ing gypsumboard and rigid
adhesive) solventorlatexemul- requiredtohold materialsinplace tional wood adhesives; foaminsulating;assembly
sions;tan, yellow, gray during setting and service resistanttowaterand moist ofpanel system in manu-
atmospheres;tolerant ofout facturedhomes
door assemblyconditions;
gap-filling;nailing required to
ensure structural integrity
Emulsion poly- Liquidemulsion and Emulsionand hardenermixed by High dry and wetstrength; Laminatedbeams icr
mer/isocyanate separateisocyanate user reactive on mixingwith very resistanttowaterand interior and exterior use;
hardener;white with controllablepot-lifeand curing damp atmosphere;very laminationof plywoodto
hardener colorless time; cured atroom and elevated resistanttoprolonged and steel metals andptastics;
bondline temperatures;radio-frequency repeatedwetting and drying; doors and architectural
curable; high pressure required adheresto metals and materials
plastics

9—13
 Table 9—3. Working and strengthproperties ofadhesives, with typical uses—con.
Type Form andcolor Preparationand application Strength properties Typical uses
Epoxy Liquid resin and hardener Resin and hardenermixed by High dry and wet strengthto Laminatingveneer and
supplied astwoparts; user; reactive with limited pot-life; wood, metal,glass, and lumber in cold-molded
completely reactive curedat room orelevatedtern- plastic;formulations for wood boathulls; assembly
leaving nofree solvent; peratures;only lowpressure wood resistwaterand damp ofwood components in
clear to amber; colorless requiredforbond development atmospheres;delaminate aircraft; lamination of
bondline with repeatedwetting and architectural railings and
drying; gap-filling posts; repair oflaminated
wood beams and architec-
tural building components;
laminatingsports equip-
ment;general purpose
homeand shop
Hotmelt Solid blocks, pellets, Solid form melted forspreading; Developsstrength quickly on Edge-bandingofpanels;
ribbons, rods, orfilms; bond formedon solidification; cooling; lower strengththan plastic lamination; patchhg;
solvent-free;whitetotan; requiresspecial application conventionalwood adhe- film and paperoverlays;
near colorless bondline equipmentforcontrolling melt and sives; moderate resistance furniture assembly; general
flow to moisture; gap-filling with purposehome and shop
minimal penetration
Isocyanate Liquid containing isomers Adhesive applieddirectly by High dry and wetstrength; Flakeboards;strand-wood
andoligomers of spray; reactivewithwater; re- very resistantto water and products
methylene diphenyl quires hightemperatureand high damp atmosphere;adheres
diisocyanate; light brown pressureforbest bond develop- to metals and plastics
liquid and clear bondline' mentin flake boards
Melamine and Powder with blended Mixed with water; cured in hot High dy and wet strength; Melamine-urea primary
melamine-urea catalyst; may be blended press at 120°Cto150°C (250°Fto very resistanttowaterand adhesivefor durable bonds
up to40% with urea; white 300°F); particularlysuited for fast damp atmospheres in hardwoodplywood; end-
totan; colorless bondline curing in high-frequencypresses jointing and edge-gluingcf
lumber; and scarfjoining
softwood plywood
Phenolic Liquid, powder, and dry Liquid blendedwith extendersand High dry and wetstrength; Primary adhesive for
film; dark red bondline fillers by user; film inserted very resistantto waterand exterior softwood plywood,
directly between laminates; damp atmospheres;more flakeboard,and hardboard
powder applied directlyto flakes resistantthanwood to high
in composites; allformulations temperaturesand chemical
cured inhot press at 120°Cto aging
150°C (250°Fto300°F) upto
200°C (392°F) in flakeboards
Polyvinyl Liquid readyto use;often Liquid applieddirectly; pressed at High dry strength; low Furniture; flush doors;
acetate polymerizedwith other room temperaturesand inhigh- resistanceto moisture and plastic laminates; panelized
emulsion polymers; white totan to frequency press elevated temperatures;joints floorand wall systems in
yellow; colorless bondline yield under continued stress manufacturedhousing;
general purpose in home
and shop
Polyurethane Low viscosity liquid to Adhesiveapplieddirectly toone High dryand wetstrength; General purposehome ard
high viscosity mastic; surface, preferably towater- resistanttowaterand damp shop; constructionadhesie
supplied as one part;two- misted surface; reactivewith atmosphere; limited resis- for panelizedfloorand wall
part systems completely moisture on surface and in air; tance toprolongedand systems; laminating
reactive; colorvaries cures atroom temperature; high repeatedwetting and drying; plywoodto metal and
fromclearto brown; pressure required, but mastic gap-filling plastic sheet materials;
colorless bondline required only pressurefrom specialty laminates; instal-
nailing lation ofgypsum board
Resorcinol and Liquid resin and powdered Liquid mixed with powdered or High dry and wetstrength; Primary adhesives for
phenol- hardenersupplied as two liquid hardener;resorcinol adhe- very resistantto moisture laminated timbers and
resorcinol parts; phenol may be sives cure at room temperatures; and damp atmospheres; assembly jointsthat must
copolymerized with phenol-resorcinolscure attern- more resistantthan wood to withstand severe service
resorcinol; darkred peraturesfrom21°Cto 66°C high temperatureand conditions.
bondline (70°F to 150°F) chemical aging.
Urea Powder and liquid forms; Powder mixed with water, hard- High dry and wet strength; Hardwood plywood; furni-
may be blended with ener, filler, and extender byuser; moderatelydurable under ture; fiberboard; particle-
melamine orother more some formulations cure atroom damp atmospheres; moder- board; underlayment;flush
durable resins; whiteto temperatures,others requirehot ateto lowresistanceto doors; furniture cores
tan resin with colorless pressing at120°C (250°F); temperatures in excess of
bondline curablewith high-frequency 50°C (122°F)
heating

9—14
must be cured athigh temperatures and requireexpensive, control ofwood moisture contentbeforeand during the
heatedpresses. Someofthese can be cured withinminutesin bonding process. Moisturecontentstrongly affectsthe final
expensive high frequency heatedpresses.Cold presses or strength and durability ofjoints, development ofsurface
clamps are satisfactory forroom-temperature-curing adhe- checks in the wood, and dimensional stability ofthe bonded
sives, althoughthe long curingtime in production can be a assembly. Large changesin the moisturecontentcompared
constraint. Even after hot or coldpressing, adhesive bonds with that at the time ofbonding will cause shrinkingor
must remain undisturbeduntil most ofthe curinghas swelling stressesthat can seriouslyweakenboth wood and
occurred. joints and can cause warping, twisting, and surface irregulari-
ties. Wood shouldnot be bonded at high moisture content,
There are other importantconsiderations, particularlyin particularly high density hardwoods that havelargecoeffi-
furniture and interiormiliwork, whereappearance is all- cients ofshrinkage, unless the in-service moisturecontentis
important. Adhesive color, ability to absorb stains and also expectedto be high. The wood should be dry enough so
finishes, and freedom from bleedingand staining are critical that even ifmoistureis addedduringbonding,the moisture
factors. Theurea-formaldehyde and polyvinyl acetateadhe- contentis at about the level expectedforthe assembly
sives used in the furniture industry are formulated to give a in service.
tanor colorlessjointwith goodacceptanceofstain.
Determining the propermoisture content forbondingde-
Ease and simplicity ofuse can alsobe important factors. pends primarilyonthe amount ofmoisturethat is contained
One-partadhesives, like liquidanimal,polyvinylacetate, in thewood and adhesive andwhether or not the adhesive
hot-melt,and phenol-formaldehyde film,are the simplestto curingprocess involves heating. For example, ifboardsare
use becausethere is no chancefor error in weighing and bondedat roomtemperature, the fmal moisturecontentis
mixingcomponents. Water-dispersed and film adhesives are controlled mainly bythe moisturecontent ofthe wood.In a
easy to clean up, whereasfilms are the least messy.Two-, lumberlaminate, thenumber ofbondlinesare so few that a
three-,or multiple-part adhesives requirecareful measuring waterborneadhesive adds only 1% to 2%to the total mois-
and mixing ofcomponents. They often requirespecial sol- ture content ofthe laminate. However, ifseveral piecesof
vents for cleanup after bonding. Frequently, adhesives are veneerarebondedatroom temperature, the moistureadded
toxic to the skinor giveofftoxic fumes. Formaldehyde by the adhesive in many bondlinescansignificantly increase
hardenerforresorcinol, phenol, melamine, and ureaadhesives themoisture contentofthewood well abovethetarget in-
is an irritantto many people. Aminehardeners in some servicelevel. Thus, thicknessofthe laminates, numberof
epoxyadhesivesare strong skin sensitizers. laminates, density ofthe wood,water contentofthe adhe-
sive, quantity ofadhesive spread, and hot or cold pressing
The costofan adhesiveand relatedapplication equipment all have a cumulative effecton the moisture contentofthe
must be balancedagainstcomparable costfactors forsubsti- wood. During hotpressing,a moderateamountofwater
tuted adhesives. In recentyears,the cost oforganicsolvents
evaporates from the laminateas it isremovedfrom the press.
andthe cost ofrecoveringvolatiles to preventair pollution However,to minimizeplasticflow ofthe hot and moist
have increased. Substitutedwater-based systemscanbe wood and prevent steam blisters orblows, the totaJ. moisture
cheaperdue to low cost ofthe solvent;however, grain raising contentofthe assemblyshouldnot exceed 10% duringhot
ofthewood and slowerdiyingmust be considered because of pressing.A lumbermoisture contentof6% to 7%, assuming
their effects onperformance and overallcost. 1% to 2% willbe addedby aqueous adhesives, is satisfactory
for coldpressing offurniture and interiormiliwork.Lumber
Bonding Process being laminated for exterioruse shouldcontain 10% to
12% moisturebeforebonding.A moisturecontent f3% to
The bondingprocessinvolves a great numberoffactors that 5% inveneer at thetime ofhot pressingis satisfactory for
determine how successfullyan adhesivebondwill ultimately hardwoodplywood intendedfor furniture and interiormill-
performin service. The betterthese factors are understood work and for softwood plywood intendedfor construction
and controlled, the fewerbondingproblemswill be encoun- and industrial uses.
tered,along with theirattendant expense. It is not necessary
to be an adhesive experttomanufactureacceptable bonds, Lumberthat has beenkiln dried to the approximate average
although more knowledgeis always helpful. However,it is moisture contentintendedforbondingmay still be at differ-
essentialthat the userfollow the instructions ofthe adhesive entmoisturecontentlevelsbetweenboards and withinindi-
supplierduringthe entire bondingprocess.The supplierhas vidual boards. Large differences in the moisture content
extensive technicalknowledgeofan adhesive'scomposition, between adjacentboardsbondedtogetherresultin consider-
working characteristics, and performance properties, which is able stress on the commonjoint as the boards equalize
reinforced bythe experience ofcustomers. towarda common moisturecontent. Best resultsare achieved
whendifferences are not greaterthan about 5% forlower
Moisture ContentControl density species and2% for high densityspecies.

After adhesive selection, the next most important factor The moisturecontentofwood in bonded productsshouldbe
contributing to trouble-free service ofadhesive bonds is targetedto the EMCthat the productwill experiencein

9—15
 •8% average moisture content Adhesive Spreading
Regardless ofmethod,the purposein spreadingadhesive is
to distribute an adequate amountofadhesive ofuniform
thickness over thebondingarea, so that underpressure, the
adhesive will flow into a uniformlythin layer. Assuming
that the spreader is capable ofapplyingadhesive uniformly
andthat surfaces are smooth, flat, and parallel,then adhesive
will flow ideally ifuniformpressure is applied. The amount
ofadhesive neededwilldependon thewood species,mois-
ture content, type ofadhesive,temperatureand humidityof
theair,assemblytime, and whetheradhesivewillbe applied
.11% average to one orboth surfaces. Adhesives canbe spreadby hand
moisture content with brush,roller, orbead-extruder, but in manufacturing,
adhesives are appliedby machines,such as roll-spreader,
Figure 9—4. Average equilibriummoisturecontent for extruder, curtain-coater, orspray. Instead ofapplyinga uni-
wood in buildinginteriorsin regions ofthe United form film, extruders apply continuous, uniformly spaced
States. beadsofdiscreetdiameterandflow rate. Whenpressureis
applied to both adherends,the adhesiveis squeezedinto a
uniformlythin layer.An extruder ofthis type is usedto
service. These conditionsvary in the UnitedStates; regional apply adhesive to veneerinthe manufactureoflaminated
averageEMCvalues ofwood inbuildinginteriors are shown veneer lumber (LVL)(Fig.9—5).A pressurizedextruderi;
in Figure9—4. The averagemoisture contentfor most ofthe used in the field to apply a singlebead ofelastomericcon-
United States is 8%. The average increases to 11% along the struction adhesive tojoists for a plywoodfloor system
Atlantic and Gulfcoastal regions; in the arid southwest, the (Fig. 9—6).
EMC is relatively low at 6%. The moisture contentofwood
exposedtooutdoor air generally is higherand more variable Assembly and Pressing
andaveragesnear 12% andrangesfrom 7% to 14% in most
ofthe UnitedStates. Duringwinter in thenorthern states, Control ofconsistency afterthe adhesivehas been spread and
heating ofindoorair that is normallydry lowers wood EMC until pressureis appliedis a balancingact ofavariety of
to 4% to 5%. Furniture manufactured in thesoutheastat factors.The relationships betweenadhesiveconsistency and
11% EMC, then sold or movedto northernstates where bonding pressure asthey affectformation ofstrongbondsare
EMC drops to 4%, usuallywill experience some splitting, illustratedin Figure 9—7. Adhesive consistencystrongly
delamination ofjoints, or othernoticeableappearance defects. affects adhesive wetting, flow, and penetration, particularly
Manufacturers ofbondedwoodproductsmustbe awareof thetransferofadhesive to an unspread wood surface, when
these regionaland seasonal variations, then conditionthe pressureis appliedto the assembly. Adhesiveconsistency
wood andbondit at moisture contentlevels that are consis- depends upontype ofadhesive,type ofsolvent, and propor-
tent with regionalserviceconditions. tion of solvent in the mixture,age ofadhesive mixture,
amountofadhesive spread,species ofwood, moisturecon-
Surface Preparation tent ofwood,temperature ofwood,temperatureandhumidity
ofsurrounding air, and thecriticallyimportantevaporation
The physical and chemicalconditionofwood and nonwood and absorptionofsolventduringthe assemblytime. Assem-
surfaces was describedin aprevioussectionwhere emphasis bly time is the time between spreadingadhesiveon wood
was placedon understandingthe relationships betweensur- surfaces and applyingpressureto the assembly. Whenthe
face condition and adhesive bondperformance. Wood surfaces adhesive-spread surfaces remainopenbeforeassembly (open
arebestpreparedformaximumadhesive wetting, flow, and assembly), then consistency ismost affectedby evaporative
penetrationby removingall materials that might interfere capacityofthe surrounding air and absorbency ofthe wood's
with bond formation to sound wood. Ideally,wood should surface.Whenthe assembly is closedand before applying
be knife-planedwithin24 h ofadhesivespreading. However, pressure(closed assembly), consistency is most influenced
othersurfacing methods havebeen usedsuccessfully for by absorbency factors andleast affected by evaporation. Cold-
certain types ofbondedjoints, including sawingfor furniture setting waterbomewood adhesives lose water by absorption
andmiliwork,knife-cuttingfor veneer, and abrasive-planing and evaporation so that consistencysteadilyincreases until
forpanels.All must produce smooth, flat, parallel surfaces, they eventually set. Thermosettingwaterborneadhesivesalso
free from machiningirregularities, such as burnishes, skips, dry out,but despitewater loss,they flow to some extentin
and crushed,torn, and chippedgrain. Properlyplanedflat thepresence ofheat, thenhardenwith additionalheating.
surfaces help ensure that alayerofadhesive ofuniformthick-
ness can be uniformlyspreadover the adherend. Pressure servesseveral usefulpurposes: it forcesentrapped air
from thejoint; itbrings adhesiveintomolecularcontactwith
thewoodsurfaces;it forcesadhesive to penetrateinto the
wood structure formore effective mechanical interlocking;

9—16
 Starved
joints

0)
C,)

0
Poor adhesive
transfer and
thick loints

Figure 9—5. An extruder applies continuous andi

uniformly sized and spaced beads of adhesive to veneer
for laminating into LVL. Adhesive consistency
Figure 9—7. An illustrationof the relationships
betweenadhesiveconsistency and bonding prssure
as they affect bond formation by a thermosetting
adhesive.

wood. High pressures up to 1,700 kPa (247 lb/in) are re-

quiredforthe highest density woods that are difficultto
compress. Flat,well-planed surfaces ofsmallarea can be
bondedsatisfactorily at lowerpressures; however, because
high pressuretendsto squeezeadhesive into the wood or out
ofthejoint,adhesives ofgreaterconsistency are rquired for
denser woods (Fig.9—7).Greaterconsistency can be achieved
with longerassemblytime, whichallows increased absorp-
tion ofliquidsolventby the wood and evaporatiDn into the
air. Careis required, regardless ofwood density, to ensure
that the assembly time is not excessive, lest the adhesive dry
out orevenprecure beforepressure is applied. Prixiried or
precured adhesive willresult in inadequate transferofadhe-
siveto an opposite unspreadsurface,and thebondline will
be thick and weak (Fig. 9—7).
Lumberjoints shouldbe kept under pressureunlil they have
Figure 9—6. A pressurized extruder appliesa single
bead of elastomeric constructionadhesive to floor joists enoughstrengthto withstandhandling stressesthat tend to
for assembly ofa plywood floor system. separate the pieces ofwood.When cold-pressing lumber
undernormalbonding conditions,this stage can be reached
in as little as 15 mm or as long as 24 h, dependingon the
it squeezesthe adhesive into a thincontinuous film; and it temperature ofthe roomand the wood,the curingcharacteris-
holds the assemblyin position while the adhesivecures. But tics oftheadhesive,and thethickness, density,and absorp-
ifpressureis too high, theadhesive canoverpenetrate porous tive characteristics ofthe wood. Whenhot pressing, the time
woodsand cause starved joints that are inferior in bond underpressure varieswith temperature ofplatens, thickness
strength (Fig. 9—7). The strongestjoints result when the and species ofwood, andadhesiveformulation. [n actual
consistency ofthe adhesive permitsthe use ofmoderately practice, hot-pressingtimesvary from 2 to 15 iran and up
high pressures thatare consistentwith the recommended to 30 mm forvery thick laminates. The time under pressure
pressuresfor the density ofthe wood. can be reducedto less than 3 mm with high frequency
heating. Highfrequency concentrates energyin the conduc-
Low pressuresnear 700 kPa (100 lb/in2)are suitable for low tive bondlineto rapidlycure the adhesive.It is commonly
density wood becausethe surfaces easilyconform to each used forbonding lumber, formingend- and edge-grain
other, thus ensuringintimate contactbetween adhesive and joints, patching, scarfing, flngerjointing plywood,and in

9—17
manufacturing variouspanelproducts. Careful control of
powerand press time is essentialto prevent formation of
steam that could lead to steam blows and even arcing.

It has been observed that bondlines ofstructural adhesives

that withstandthe highestofstressesfrom mechanical load-
ing and dimensionalchangesgenerallyhave bondime thick-
nesseswithin the range of0.076 to 0.152mm (0.003to
0.006 in.). Belowthis range, the bondlines are too thin to
effectively transferstresses from one adherend tothe other,
particularly stressesfrom moisture-induced dimensional
changes. Abovethis range,bond strength becomesprogres-
sivelyweakeras bondlinethicknessincreases. Structural B
wood adhesivesare brittle, so they fracture more in thicker
bondlines than in thinner ones. These adhesives also contain Figure 9—8. Edge-grainjoints: A, plain;
B, tongue-and-groove.
solvents, and because solventis lost while curing, the
thicker adhesive film shrinks and fractures more than the
thinnerand may contain more voidsfrom entrapped solvent
gases. Thick bondlinesresult from inadequate pressure, Bonded Joints
eitherfrom low appliedpressureor from rough, uneven,
poorly mated surfaces. Whenunevensurfaces arejoined, Edge-Grain Joints
pressurewill not be uniformalong the bondline. As a result,
the adhesive will be squeezed out from the areas ofvery high Face-grainjoints (wide surface ofa board) are commonly seen
in structural laminated lumberproducts, whereadhesive
pressure, and the areas oflittle to no pressurewill havevery bondsare stronger than the wood.Edge-grain joints (narrow
thick bondlines. Both starved and thick bondlines produce
weakjoints. surface ofaboard) (Fig. 9—8)can be almostas strong as the
wood in shear parallelto the grain, tensionacross the grain,
and cleavage.The tongue-and-groove joint (Fig. 9—8)and
Post-Cure Conditioning other shapededge-grain joints have a theoreticalstrength
In theprocessofbondingedge-grainjoints, thewood in the advantage because ofgreatersurface area thanthe straight,
jointabsorbsmoisture from theadhesive,then swells.Ifthe edge-grain joints, but they do not producehigher strength.
bondedassemblyis surfacedbeforethis excess moisture is The theoreticaladvantage is lost, wholly or partly, because
the shapedsidesofthe two matingsurfaces cannotbe ma-
evaporatedorabsorbeduniformly, more wood is removed
along the swollenjointthan elsewhere. Later,whenthe chinedprecisely enoughto produce the perfect fit that will
addedmoisture evaporates, the wood in thejoint shrinks distribute pressureuniformly over the entirejointarea. Be-
beneath the surface. These sunken bondlinesbecome very cause ofpoor contact, the effective bondingareaandstrength
can actuallybe less in a shapedjointthan on a flat surface.
conspicuous undera high-glossfinish. This is a particularly
important consideration whenusing adhesives that contain The advantage ofthetongue-and-groove and other shaped
relatively large amountsofwater.Redistribution ofmoisture joints is that the parts can be more quicklyaligned in clamps
addedby the adhesivecan be accomplished by conditioning or presses. A shallow-cut tongue-and-groove isjust as useful
the bonded assemblyfor 24 h at 70°C (158°F), 4 days at in this respect as a deepercut, and less wood is wasted.
50°C(122°F), or at least 7 days at room temperature before
surfacing. In each case, the relative humiditymust be ad- End-Grain Joints
justed to preventdrying the wood belowthe target moisture It is practicallyimpossible to make end-grainbuttjoints
content.
(Fig. 9—9) sufficiently strong to meet the requirements of
After bonding, plywood-typeconstructions shouldbe condi- ordinary servicewith conventional bonding techniques. Even
tioned to the averagemoisture contentexpectedin service. with specialtechniques, not more than about 25% ofthe
The best conditioningis accomplished by controllinghu- tensile strengthofthe wood parallel-to-grain can be obtained
midityon time schedules. Ifbondedproductscured atroom in a buttjoint. To approximatethetensile strength ofclear
temperature are exposedto excessivelylow moisturecontent, solid wood,a scarfjoint or fingerjointmust closely approach
warping,checking, and openingofjointswill increase sig- theparallel-to-grain directionofthe edge-grainjoint
nificantly. Softwood plywoodis very dry afterhot pressing, (Fig. 9—8). The surface area ofthis edge-grain joint shouldbe
so panels may be sprayed with water andtightly stacked to at least 10 times greaterthanthecross-sectional area ofthe
allow moistureto diffuseuniformly. This practicerestores piece,becausewood is approximately 10 times strongerin
some ofthe panel thicknesslost by compression duringhot tension than in shear. In plywoodscarfs and fingerjoints, a
pressingand apparentlyminimizeswarpingin service. slope of 1 in 8 is typical for structuralproducts.For non-
structural, low-strength joints, these requirements need
not be met.

9—18
 B

Figure 9—9. End-grain joints: A, butt; B, plain

scarf; C, verticalstructuralfingerjoint;
D, horizontal structuralfingerjoint;
E, nonstructural fingerjoint. 0 H

Fingerjoints can be cut with the profile showing either on the

wide face (verticaljoint) or on the edge (horizontal joint)
(Fig. 9—9).There is greater area for designing shapesof
fingers in the verticaljoint, but a longer cuttinghead with
more knives is needed. When the adhesiveis cured by high
frequencyheating,the cure is more rapid with thevertical Figure 9—10. End-to-edge-grainjoints: A, plain; B, miter;
than with the horizontaljoint. A nonstructuralfingerjoint,
C, dowel; D, mortise and tenon; E, dado tongueand
with fingersmuch shorterthan in the two structural finger- rabbet; F, slip or lock corner; G, dovetail; H, blocked;
joints, is shown in Figure 9—9. I, tongue-and-groove.
A scarfjointis shownin Figure 9—9. Slopes of 1 in 12 or
flatter producethe highest strength. This is alsotrue in
surfaces, for example, dowels, mortiseand tenons,rabbets
fmgerjoints, but the tip thicknessmust be smalland no
greater than 0.8 mm (0.031 in.). A thicknessof 0.4 to (Figs. 9—10), so that edgegrain ofthe interlocking piece is
0.8 mm (0.016 to 0.031 in.) is about the practicalminimum bondedto the edgegrain ofthe adjoining piece. Thejoint
formachinedtips. Sharpertips can be createdwith dies, areais enlargedas well.All end-to-edge-grain joints should
whichare forcedinto the endgrain oftheboard. be protectedfrom appreciable changesin moistur content in
service.
A well-manufactured endjointofeitherscarf; fmger, or lap
type can haveup to 90% ofthetensile strength ofclearwood Construction Joints
andexhibit behaviormuch like that ofclearwood,.However,
testresultsindicatethat thecycles-to-failure for awell- Elastomericconstruction adhesives are commonly used in
manufactured endjointare somewhat lowercompared with thelight-frame construction industry for fieldassemblyof
theresultsof similartests for clear wood. panelizedfloor andwall systems. Structural panelsare
bonded to floor joists and wall studs with mastic adhesives
that havethe uniquecapability ofbridging gaps isp to
End-to-Edge-Grain Joints 6.5 mm (0.25in.) betweenrough and poorlyfitting surfaces
Plain end-to-edge-grain joints (Fig. 9—10) are difficult to (Fig. 9 —11). Withoutany premixing, the adhesive is ex-
design to carry appreciable loading. Furthermore, internal truded in abead alongframingmembers with a hand-held
stresses developin the members in service from unequal caulkinggun or a pressurizeddispensersimilarto that shown
dimensional changes with moisturecontentchanges. in Figure 9—6. Nails or screwsprovidetheonly pressurefor
Suchstressescan be great enoughto cause failure.As a bonding,and they hold materialsin positionwhile the
result, it is necessaryto designthese joints with interlocking adhesive sets. Elastomerics arealso uniquelytolerantofthe

9—19
 30 years.Therefore, heavyreliancemust be placedon
short-term tests to predict long-term performance. As the
relationships between chemical structure and mechanical
performance, particularly long-term performance, are better
understood, the greaterthe reliancewill be on short-term
testing.

Analytic Chemical and

Mechanical Testing of Polymers
The molecularstructuresofadhesive polymersare chemically
characterized spectroscopically by nuclearmagnetic reso-
nance, eitherin the liquidorsolid state.Molecular-size
distributions ofpolymersare determined by gel permeatior
chromatography. Rates ofchemical reactionare studied by
differential scanning calorimetry. The rheologicalproperties
Figure 9—11. Gap-fillingconstruction adhesive in
field-assembled plywood floorsystem. ofcuring andcured adhesives arecharacterized by dynamic
mechanical analysisand torsional-braid analysis. Sophisti-
catedfracture mechanics techniques are used to measure
toughness ofadhesive bonds as they fail in a cleavage mode.
temperature and moisture contentvariations at field construc-
tionsites. Although they do not deliver the strengthand High magnification microscopes, including scanningelectron
durabilityofconventional structural adhesives, elastomerics microscope, transmission electronmicroscope, and atomic
force microscope, enable scientists to visuallyanalyzesur-
are strong and flexibleenoughto give long-term performance
faces ofadhesives and adherends before, during, and after
under most conditions ofinstallation and service.
fracture. Much can be learned from measurements ofchemi-
Construction adhesivesenable a nailed floor systemto act to cal, mechanical, and rheological properties ofpolymersand
somedegreeas a composite assembly with increased stiff- adhesives as they existapartfrom adherends. Until such data
ness. Greaterstiffness permits joists to be longerand spaced can be correlated with performance, there isno substitutefor
more widely,with one layerofplywood subflooringreplac- testingperformance inbondedassemblies preparedwith
ingtwo. Floors are less bouncy with fewersqueaks and nail specific adhesives and materials, and tested underspecific
pops. However,structural design ofthe compositeassembly loadingmodes, environmental conditions, and duration of
is based only on theincreasedstiffness ofnailedpaneland loading. Whenadhesives are formulatedthrougha blend of
scientific analysis and art offormulation, they are tested for
framingmaterials.Structural credit for strength is not
allowedfor the adhesive in the engineering design. strengthand durability in the laboratoryand field,usually by
industry- and government-accepted standard methodsoftest
and productspecifications.
Testing and Performance
Anadhesiveis expectedto hold materials togetherand Mechanical Testing of
transferdesign loads from one adherend to the other withina Bonded Assemblies
given serviceenvironmentforthe life ofthe structure. The
purposeoftestingperformanceis to ensure that adhesive Responsesofadhesive-bonded assemblies to mechanical
bondswill not deteriorate before theycan meet these expecta- loadingare defmed in terms ofseveralcommonly used
tions.A variety ofmethods are available to testbonding modesofapplyingstress to joints. In all test modes, specific
performance, particularly forbondedassemblies. Generally, materials,conditions ofmaterials and test, and testing proce-
these testing methods attemptto predicthow bondedjoints duresare completely specified to ensure repeatabilityto
are likelyto performin a specificloading mode (shear, ten- enablevalid comparisons ofdata. Most test methods,specifi-
sile, creep) in an assemblyat specific temperature and mois- cations, and practicesfor adhesives and bondedassemblies
ture conditions for a specific time. areconsensus standards publishedeach yearin theAnnual
BookofASTMSiandardsby the AmericanSocietyfor Test-
Most performance tests are shortterm. They are based on ing and Materials (AS1'M). Several trade associationshave
chemical, mechanical, and rheological laboratory tests of their own specifications and performance standards that apply
adhesive polymersand their adhesivesand bonds. Intermedi- to their specific wood products. The Federalgovernmentalso
ate-term tests ofproductsthat are conducted in pilot opera- has specifications that are used by the GeneralServices
tions and field experimentsare integrated with short-term Administrationto purchaseproducts.
laboratorytests in an effort to extrapolate these data into
long-term performance. Long-term tests ofbondedassemblies Fourbasic stressingmodes—shear, tensile, cleavage,and
under actualenvironmental exposures are conducted, but peel—are commonly usedto test bondedwood assemblies
these supportingdatamay not be available for 10 to with variations ofthese to determine strength levels during
impact,flexure, fatigue, and creepunder long-term stress.

9—20
The followingdescribes thebasic stressmodes in adhesive- adhesive film, then bond strengthand probablydurability is
bondedjoints: lackingin the bond. Thus, a consistentlyhigh level ofwood
• failure,above75% in some standards and above 85% in
Shear, resulting from forcesappliedparallelto the others, meansthat shearstrengthassociated with these aver-
bondline
age wood failures are good estimates ofthe load-carrying
• Tensile, resultingfrom forcesappliedperpendicular tothe capability ofthejoint. High levels ofwood failurcand shear
bondline strengthin a wet andhot environmentmightindicatethat
the adhesive bondis as strong as thewood. Ifcycles of
• Cleavage, resultingfrom separationalong abondlineby a alternate dryingwere included with cyclesofwet andhot
wedge or othercrack-opening type offorce conditions, then high wood failure would indicateevenmore
• Peel,resultingfrom forces appliedto a bondline that tend durable bonds. High wood failure in sheartests ofwater-
to progressively separate aflexiblememberfrom arigid saturatedbonds is also a strong indicatorofbond durability,
member or another flexiblemember particularly with durabletypes ofadhesives. Woodfailureis
considered a validmeasure ofbond strengthonly to solid
As the names imply, impact,fatigue, and creepare tests that wood,notto reconstituted productsmade ofbondedwood
havemore to do with the rate atwhich basic modesand particles.
variations are applied. Impactloads are sudden, much faster
relativeto the controlled slowrates ofshear ortensilestress- High shearstrength andwood failurein themselves arenot
sufficient indicators ofthe durability ofa structural bond.
ing. Fatigueis the loss in strengthfrom repeated loading and Delamination is an indicatorofhow wellthe bondedjoint
reflects deterioration ofbondsfrom mechanical ratherthan
environmental stresses,althoughthe latter may be imposed withstands severe swelling and shrinkingstresses in the
duringfatiguetesting.Creep loads are statically appliedbut presence ofhigh moistureand heat. Delamination is the
areofprolongeddurationthat canlast from a few days to separation betweenlaminates becauseofadhesive failure,
eitherin the adhesive orat theinterface between ndhesive and
years,usuallyat extreme conditions ofenvironmental expo- adherend. Ifstrengthofadhesionis not as strong as the wood
sure. The flexuretest appliesa bendingforceto a simple
beam atmidspan,perpendicularto the bondline. In a lami- in resistingforces tendingto separate laminates, then de-
lamination occurs. Ifadhesiondoes resist delaminating
natedbeam, the test directsa largeproportionofthe shear
forcesto bondlinesbetweenthe laminates. forces, thenthe wood will fail adjacenttothe bondline, but
not withintheadhesive.The stressingmodes inilucedby
The commonmeasuresused to estimate potentialperform- stressesfrom moisture-related dimensional changesare com-
ance ofbondedwoodjoints are strength, wood failure, and binations oftensileand shearforceswith cleavage actingat
delamination. Best performance produces abond strength jointedges. Delamination ofadhesives in structural lami-
that is greater than that ofthe wood, wood failure that is natedwood productsexposed to the cyclic delamination test
more than 75% over the bonded area,anddelamination ofthe in ASTMD2559—97 (ASTM 1997) cannot exceed 5% in
joint that is less than 5% for softwoodsand 8% forhard- softwoods and 8% in hardwoods.
woods,under severeservice conditions. Theseperformance
valuesreflecthow wood adherend, adhesive bond, and envi- Short- and Long-Term Performance
ronmentalexposure have interacted inresponseto loading.
In the shortterm,the mechanical properties ofwood, adhe-
Bond strength is tested most commonly in shear parallelto sives, andbondedproductsvary with the specific environ-
thegrain. Becausemost wood adhesives exceedtheshear mentalexposure. In most cases,all propertiesdecreaseas the
strengthofwood in this direction, the maximum potential temperature and moisture levels increase. Strength and stiff-
strength ofthe adhesive may not be realized, particularly for ness may returnto their originallevels ifthe yieldpoints of
moderateto lower densityspecies.Bonds in structural as- thematerials have not been exceeded while under load. The
semblies are expectedto exceedthe strengthofthe wood,so propertiesofrigid thermosetting adhesives like resorcinol-
in traditionaldesignofjoints,adhesivestrengthhas been formaldehyde,phenol-formaldehyde, melamine-lbrmaldehyde,
ignored. Adhesives not as strong as wood simply have not andurea-formaldehyde change less than do woodproperties
been used in designbecausemethodsfor determining allow- underequivalent temperature and moisturechanges. There-
ablemechanical propertiesofadhesives for engineering de- fore, evaluating short-term performance ofproductsmade
sign hadnot been developed. One such methodnow exists with these adhesives is simplya matter oftestingbonds at
as a consensus standard—ASTM D5574—97 (ASTM 1997). roomtemperaturein dry and wet conditions.Thermoplastic
Exceeding the strengthofwood is an essential performance adhesives like casein, polyvinylacetate, and elastomerics,
criterion; therefore, the amountofwood that fails in ajointis whoseproperties change more rapidlythan those ofwood
estimatedas apercentage ofthe areaofthe bondedjoint. with changesin moisture andheat, are tested dry, dry after
This is an important indicatorofbond strength, oftenmore water soaking, andafterprolonged exposureto highhumid-
importantthan the measuredshear strengthofthe bond. The ity environments. In addition,somespecificatic'ns require
higherthewood failureandthe deeperthe fracture into the testingofbondedstructural and nonstructural productsat
grain ofthe wood, the strongerand more durable the bond. elevatedtemperatures such as occurin roofs or enclosed
particularlywith durable types ofadhesives. Ifwoodfailureis shippingcontainers. A short-term dead-load test at elevated
shallowwith only wood fibersremainingattachedto the temperatures may alsoberequired. Specifications for

9—21
adhesives for structural productslike laminated beams and
plywoodrequire conformance to high minimum strength and
wood failure valuesafterseveraldifferentwater exposure tests.
Adhesive bonds in laminated beamsmust also withstand
severecyclicmoisturecontentand temperature changes, with
only low levels ofdelaminationallowable.
In thelong term, wood, adhesives, andbonded products
deteriorate at arate determinedby the levels oftemperature,
moisture, stress and, in some instances, by concentrations of C)
C)
certain chemicalsandpresenceofmicroorganisms. Long-term Ce 40
performance is equatedwith the abilityofaproductto resist
C
C)
a
loss of measuredmechanical propertyover the time of C)
20
exposure. A durableproduct is one that shows no greater
loss ofpropertiesduringits life in servicethan wood ofthe
same speciesand quality. 0 4 6
Many adhesives inbondedproductshave decades ofdocu- Aging time (years)
mentedperformanceui many environments.Thus,it is
Figure 9—12. Relative rates of deterioration of bond
possible topredict with a high degreeofcertaintythe long- strength ofsmaI specimens exposed directlyto
term performance ofsimilarproducts. Well-designed and weather.
well-madejoints with any ofthe commonlyused woodwork-
ing adhesiveswill retain their strength indefinitely ifthe
moisture content ofthe wood does not exceedapproximately nonstructuralapplications or in structural applications wher.
15% and ifthe temperatureremainswithinthe range ofhu- used in conjunction with approvednailing schedules. Polyu-
man comfort. However, some adhesives deteriorate when rethaneadhesives that chemically cureand still remainflexi-
exposedeither intermittently or continuouslyto temperatures ble are amongthe most durable constructionadhesives.
greaterthan 38°C (100°F)for long periods. Low tempera-
tures seem to haveno significant effecton strength of New adhesives do not haveahistory oflong-term perform-
bondedjoints. ance in service environments, so accelerated laboratory expo-
sures that includecycles ofheat, moisture, and stress are
Products madewith phenol-formaldehyde, resorcinol- used to estimate long-term performance. However,laboratory
formaldehyde, and phenol-resorcinol-formaldehyde adhesives exposures cannotduplicate the actual conditions ofa service
haveproven to be more durablethan wood whenexposed to environment. Estimates oflong-term performance can be
warmand humid environments, water, alternatewetting and obtainedby exposingspecimens outdoorsfor up to 30 years.
diying,and eventemperaturessufficiently high to charwood. Outdoor exposures may be intensifiedby facing specimens
Theseadhesivesare entirelyadequatefor use in productsthat southat an angleperpendicular to the noondaysun and by
areexposedindefmitelyto theweather(Fig. 9—12). establishing exposuresites in regionswith the most extreme
Products well-madewith melamine-formaldehyde, of service environments, for example, southerncoastal and
melamine-urea-formaldehyde,and urea-formaldehyderesin arid southwestern regions. Only four long-term laboratory
adhesiveshaveproven to be less durable than wood. aging methods have beenstandardized, and none specifies
Melamine-formaldehyde is only slightlyless durable than minimum performance levels. Therefore, performance ofany
phenol-formaldehyde orresorcinol-formaldehyde, but itis new adhesiveorbondedproduct must be comparedwith the
still considered acceptable for structural products. Although performance ofestablished adhesives orproductstested in the
considered less durable,melamine-urea-formaldehyde is also same laboratory exposure.
acceptedin structural productsat amelamine-to-urea ratio of
60:40. Urea-formaldehyde resin is susceptible to deterioration Product QualityAssurance
by heatand moisture (Fig. 9—12). Afterthe short- andlong-term performance ofaproducthas
Productsbondedwith polyvinylacetate andprotein-based beenestablished, then maintenance ofthe manufacturing
adhesiveswill not withstandprolongedexposure to water or process to ensure that the productwill be madeand perform
repeatedhigh—low moisture contentcycling in bonds ofhigh at that level is themajorconcernofa quality-assurance pro-
density woods. However,ifthey are properly formulated, gram that consists ofthree parts:
these adhesives are durablein anormal interiorenvironment.
1. Establishing limitson bonding process factors
Someisocyanate, epoxy, polyurethane, andcross-linked that will ensureacceptablejoints and product.
polyvinylacetate adhesivesare durable enoughtouse on 2. Monitoring theproduction processesand quality
lowerdensityspecies evenunder exteriorconditions, but ofbond in joints and product.
exteriorexposuremust be limited formost ofthese. Some
elastomer-based adhesives maybe durable enoughfor 3. Detecting unacceptable joints and product,determining
limited exposureto moisturewith lower density species in thecause, and correcting theproblem.

9—22
The structural panel, laminated-beam, particleboard, mill- Blomquist, R.F.; Vick, C.B. 1977. Adhesivesfor building
work, and other industrialtrade associations have established construction. In: Skeist, I., ed. Handbookofadhesives, 2d
quality-assurance programsthat effectively monitorthejoint edition. NewYork, NY: VanNostrandReinhold Company.
and productperformance at the time ofmanufacture forcom-
pliancewith voluntaryproduct standards. Usually,product Bryant, B.S. 1977. Wood adhesion.In: Skeist,
1., ed.
Handbook ofadhesives, 2d edition.New York,NY: Van
performance is evaluated immediately aftermanufacture by Nostrand Reinhold Company.
subjectingspecimens from the productto a series ofswell—
shrink cycles. The treatments are more rigorousfor products Caster,R.W. 1980. Correlation betweenexteriorexposure
intendedfor exterior exposure. Forexample,exterior soft- and automatic boil test results. In: John, W.E.; Gillespie,
wood plywood is subjectedto two boil—dry cycles, while R.H., eds. Proceedingsofa symposium, Wood adhesives—
interiorplywood is subjectedto a single soak—dry cycle at research, application, needs. 1980 September23—25; Madi-
roomtemperature. Afterexposure, the specimens are exam- son, WI: Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,
inedfordelamination or evaluatedfor percentage wood fail- Forest Service, Forest ProductsLaboratory.
ure. The test results are comparedwith the minimumre-
quirementin the trade association'sstandards. Lengthy Christiansen, A.W. 1990. How overdryingwood reduces
its bonding to phenol-formaldehyde adhesives: a critical
experience andcorrelations between exterior performance and
acceleratedlaboratory tests have shownthatproductswith at reviewofthe literature. PartI. Physicalresponses.Woodand
least the minimumvalueswillprobablyperform satisfacto- Fiber Science. 22(4): 441—459.
rilyin service. Iftheproduct meetstherequirement, it is Christiansen, A.W. 1991. How overdryingwood reduces
certifiedby the association asmeetingthe standard for its bonding to phenol-formaldehyde adhesives: a critical
satisfactoryperformance. reviewofthe literature. Part II. Chemicalreactions.Wood
and Fiber Science.23(1): 69—84.
References Collett,B.M. 1972. Areviewofsurface andinterfacial adhe-
sion inwood scienceand relatedfields.Wood Science and
AITC. 1992. Inspection manual for structural glued lami-
nated timber, AITC 200—92. Englewood,CO: American Technology. 6(1): 1—42.
InstituteofTimber Construction. Gillespie,R.H. 1965. Acceleratedaging ofadhesives in
AITC. 1992. Americannationalstandardfor wood products— plywood-type joints. Forest ProductsJournal. 1i(9):
369—3 78.
structuralglued laminatedtimberANSI/AITC A190.1—
1992. New York,NY: American NationalStandards Gillespie, R.H. 1981. Wood composites.In: Oliver, J.F.,
Institute,Inc. ed. Adhesion in celluloseand wood-based composites. New
York: Plenum Press.
APA. 1983. U.S. product standard PS1—83 for construction
and industrialplywoodwith typicalAPA trademarks. Wash- Gillespie, R.H., ed. 1984. Adhesivesfor wood-research,
ington,DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, National applications, and needs. Park Ridge,NJ: Noyes Publica-
BureauofStandards. tions.
APA. 1988. Performance standards and policies for struc- Gillespie, R.H.; River, B.H. 1975. Durabilityof adhesives
tural-usepanels, APA PRP—108. Tacoma, WA: American inplywood: dry-heateffectsbyrate-process analysis. Forest
PlywoodAssociation. ProductsJournal.25(7):26—32.
ASTM. 1997. Annual book of ASTM standards,Vol. 15.06 f
Gillespie,R.H.; River, B.H. 1976. Durability adhesives
Adhesives.West Conshohocken, PA: American Society for in plywood. Forest Products Journal. 26(10): 21—25.
Testing and Materials.
Gillespie, R.H.; Countryman,P.; Blomquist, R.F. 1978.
ASTM D2559. Standardspecification for adhesives for Adhesives in building construction. Agric. Handb. 516.
structural laminated wood productsforuse underexterior Washington, DC: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest
(wetuse)exposureconditions. Service.
ASTMD5574.Standardmethods for establishingallow- Gollob, L.; Wellons, J.D. 1990. Wood adhes:Lon. In:
able mechanical properties ofwoodbondingadhesives for Skeist, I., ed. Handbook of adhesives, 3d ed. New York,
design ofstructural joints. NY: Van Nostrand ReinholdCompany.
Blomquist, R.F.; Christiansen,A.W.; Gillespie, R.H.; Hardwood Plywood& Veneer Association. 1995. Ameri-
Myers, G.E. eds. 1984. Adhesivebondingofwood and cannationalstandard forhardwoodand decorative plywood.
other structural materials.Clark C. Heritagememorialseries ANSI/HPVA HP—I—I994. NewYork, NY: American
onwood, Vol. 3. Educationalmodules for material science NationalStandards Institute,Inc.
and engineering (EMMSE).UniversityPark, PA:
Pennsylvania StateUniversity. Hoyle, R.J. 1976. Designingwood structures bondedwith
elastomeric adhesives. Forest Products Journal. 26(3):
28—3 4.

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Jarvi, R.A. 1967. Exteriorglues for plywood. Forest River, B.H. 1994. Fractureofadhesive-bondedwoodjoints.
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nology. New York,NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc.
Jokerst, R.W. 1981.Finger-jointedwood products.Res.
Pap. FPL—RP—382. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of River, B.H.; Okkonen, E.A. 1991. Delaminationofedge-
Agriculture,Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory. gluedwood panels—moistureeffects. Res. Note FPL—RN—
0259.Madison, WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest
Lambuth, A.L. 1977. Bondingtropical hardwoods with
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processingoftropical hardwoods. 1977 October; Merida, River, B.H.; Gillespie, R.H.; Vick, C.B. 1991. Wood as
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Selbo, M.L. 1975. Adhesive bonding of wood. Tech. Bull.
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Pizzi, A., ed. 1983. Woodadhesiveschemistry andtechnol- Vick, C.B.; Rowell, R.M. 1990. Adhesive bondingof
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Pizzi,A. 1994. Advanced wood adhesives technology. New formaldehyde adhesive. ForestProductsJournal.
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Pizzi,A.; Mittal,K.L. 1994. Handbook ofadhesive tech- Vick, C.B. 1994. Phenolic adhesive bonds to aspen veneers
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River, B.H. 1973. Mastic construction adhesivesin fire Journal.44(1): 33—40.
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Department ofAgriculture,Forest Service,Forest Products PRF bonds to CCA-treated Southern Pine. Forest Products
Laboratory. Journal.45(3): 78—84.
River, B.H. 1981. Behaviorofconstruction adhesivesunder Vick, C.B. 1996. Hydroxymethylated resorcinolcoupling
long-term load. Res. Pap.FPL—RP—400. Madison, WI: agentfor enhanced adhesionofepoxy andother thermosetting
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constructionadhesives. AdhesivesAge. (2) 16—21. Forest Products Society.

9—24
 I Chapter 1
Wood-Based Composites
and Panel Products
JohnA. Youngquist

ecausewoodproperties
Contents vary amongspecies,

Scope 10—2
1BI between treesofthe same species, andbetween
pieces from the same tree, solidwood cannotmatch
reconstituted wood in the range ofproperties that can be
Typesof Conventional Composite Materials 10—3 controlled in processing. When processing variablesare
Adhesive Considerations 10—3 properly selected, the endresult can sometimes surpass
nature's best effort. With solid wood,changesin properties
Additives 104 are studiedatthe cellularlevel. With reconstitutedwood
GeneralManufacturing Issues 1o—4 materials, changes inpropertiesare studied at the fiber,
particle,flake, orveneerlevel.Properties ofsuch niaterials
Standards for Wood—BasedPanels 10—4 canbe changed by combining, reorganizing, or stratifying
Product Standards 10—5
these elements.

Performance Standards 10-5 The basic elementfor compositewood productsmay be the

fiber, as it is in paper,but it can alsobe larger wood particles
Plywood 10—6 composed ofmany fibersand varyingin size and geometry.
GeneralDescription lo—6 These characteristics, along with controloftheir variations,
providethe chiefmeansby whichmaterials can be fabricated
Types ofPlywood 10—7 with predetermined properties.
ProcessingConsiderations 10—7
In any discussion ofthe strength properties ofwocd-based
Specifications 10—8 panelsand other adhesive-bonded wood composites, the first
consideration is the constituents from whichthese products
Gradesand Classification 10—9 are made(O'Halloranand Youngquist1984;Youngquist
SpecialtyPanels 10—13 1987, 1988). The basic wood elementsthat can be used in
theproduction ofwood-based panels are shownin Figure
Particle and Fiber Composites 10—13 10—1. The elementscan be made in a greatvariety ofsizes
GeneralProcessing Considerations 10—13 and shapesand can be usedalone or in combination. The
choice is almostunlimited.
OrientedStrandboard 10—13
Particleboard 10—14 Currently, the term compositeis beingusedto describe any
woodmaterialadhesive-bonded together. This product mix
Fiberboard 10—17 ranges from fiberboard to laminated beamsand components.
Table 10—1 shows a logicalbasis for classifying wood corn-
SpecialtyComposites 10—23 posites proposed by Maloney(1986).For the purposesof
Wood—NonwoodComposites 10—24 this chapter, these classifications were slightly mcdifiedfrom
those in the original versionto reflectthe latestproduct
developments. Composites are used for a numberofstruc-
Inorganic—BondedComposites 10—24

WoodFiber—ThermoplasticComposites 10—26 tural andnonstructuralapplications in productlines ranging

from panelsfor interior covering purposesto panelsfor exte-
References 10—30 nor uses and in furniture and support structures in many
different typesofbuildings.

10—1
Figure 10—1. Basic wood elements, from largestto smallest (Marra 1979).

Table 10—1. Classification ofwood-based Figure 10—2 provides a useful way to furtherclassifywood-
compositesa based composite materials. This figure presents an overview
Veneer-basedmaterial ofthemost common types ofproductsdiscussedin this
chapteras wellas a quick referenceto howthese composite
Plywood materials compareto solid wood from the standpointof
Laminatedveneer lumber (LVL) densityand general processingconsiderations. The raw
Parallel-laminated veneer (PLV) material classifications offibers, particles, and veneersare
shown onthe lefty axis. Specific gravity and density are
Laminates shown on the top and bottomhorizontalaxes (x axes). The
Laminated beams righty axis, wet and dry processes, describesin general
Overlayed materials terms the processing methodused to producea particular
Wood—nonwoodcompositesb product.Note that both roundwoodand chips can serve as
sources offiberforwet-process hardboard. Roundwood or
Composite material
Cellulosicfiberboard woodin the form ofawasteproduct from a lumberorplan-
Hardboard ing operation can be used for dry-processed products.For
medium-density fiberboard(MDF), resin is usually applied
Particleboard to the fiberafter the fiberis released from thepressurized
Waferboard refmer. The fiber is then dried,formedinto a mat, and
Flakeboard pressedinto the final product. For other dry-processed prod-
Oriented strandboard (OSB) ucts, the materialis fiberizedand dried and then adhesive is
COMPLYc added in a separate operation prior to hot pressinginto the
fmal composite product. Figure 10—3 shows examples of
Edge-adhesive-bondedmaterial somecompositematerials that are representedin schematic
Lumber panels form in Figure 10—2.
Components
I-beams
T-beam panels Scope
Stress-skin panels Although there is a broadrange ofwood compositesand
Wood—nonwood composites
many applications for such products, for the purposesofthis
chapter, wood composites are grouped into three general
Wood fiber—plastic composites categories: plywood, particle and fiber composites, and
Inorganic-bonded composites wood—nonwoodcomposites. Bookshave been writtenabout
Wood fiber—agricultural fiber composites each ofthese categories, and the constraints ofthis chapter
necessitate that the discussion be general and brief. Refer-
aMaloney 1986. ences are providedformore detailedinformation. Information
bpanelsor shapedmaterials combinedwith nonwood
materials such as metal, plastic, and fiberglass. on adhesive-bonded-laminated (glulam,timbers,and struc-
cRegistered trademarkof APA—The Engineered tural compositelumber, including laminated veneer lumber)
Wood Association. and adhesive-bonded members for lumber and panelproducts

10—2
 Specific gravity
0
f— Solidwood 11
O;1 0:2 0;3 0;4 O;5 O•6 0,7 O8 O;9 1.
Veneer Plywood

Wafer-
board

(U
a)
Cu
E
ii Oriented
strandboard

Particle-
()
U)
a)
00
0
I board

IMD-DI IHardbo
(1)
a) Insulation
_____________boa_j IMDF_WetI IHardboa_wet I
a)

Paper
I I
I I

0 200 400 600 800 1000

Density (kg/rn3)

Figure 10—2. Classification of woodicomposite boards by particle size, density, and process
type(Suchslandand Woodson 1986).

is presentedin Chapter11 ofthis handbook.Many compos- particleboard,andfiberboard. Thesetypes ofcomposites

ite materials,like fiberboard, MDF, andparticleboard, can be undergo similarprocessingsteps,which are discussedin
made from wood alone orin combination with agricultural generalterms forall the productsin the Particleand Fiber
fibers(Youngquist andothers 1993a, 1994; Rowell and Composites section. The firstand secondcategoriesofcom-
others 1997). positematerials are furthergenerally classified as conven-
tional composite materials.The third category,wood—
The first category,plywood, is coveredin some detail be- nonwoodcomposites, includes productsmadefrom combin-
cause the process formanufacturing this kind ofmaterial is ing wood fiberswith agriculturalfibers,with thermoplastics,
quitedifferentfrom that usedforother composite materials and with inorganicmaterials.
andbecausethereare many different classesandgrades of
plywood in the marketplace. The secondcategory, com-
positematerials,includesorientedstrandboard (C)SB), Types of Conventional
Composite Materials
Conventionalwood compositematerials fall into five main
categories based on the physicalconfiguration ofthe wood
used to makethe products:plywood, oriented strandboard,
particleboard, hardboard, and cellulosic fiberboard.Within
limits, the performance ofa conventional type ofcomposite
canbe tailoredto theend-useapplication ofthe oroduct.
Varyingthe physicalconfiguration ofthe wood mdadjusting
thedensity ofthecompositesarejust two ways to accom-
plish this. Otherways includevarying the resin type and
amountand incorporating additives to increase water or fire
resistance or to resist specific environmental conditions.

Adhesive Considerations
Figure 10—3. Examples of variouscomposite products. The conventionalwood-basedcompositeproductsdiscussed
From left to right: plywood, OSB, particleboard, MDF, in this chapterare typically made with a thermo settingor
and hardboard.
heat-curing resin oradhesivethat holds the lignocellulosic
(wood) fibertogether.The physicaland mechanical proper- Except fortwo major uncertainties, UF and PF systemsare
ties ofwood-based veneer, fiber, and particle panelmaterials expectedto continue to be the dominantwood adhesivesfor
aredeterminedby standardAmericanSociety for Testing and lignocellulosic composites. The two uncertainties are the
Materials (ASTM)test methods.Commonlyused resin— possibility ofmuch more stringent regulation offormalde-
bindersystemsincludephenol-formaldehyde, urea- hyde-containing productsand the possibilityof limitations
formaldehyde, melamine-fonnaldehyde, and isocyanate. to or interruptions in the supplyofpetrochemicals. One
result ofthese uncertainties is that considerable research has
Phenol-formaldehyde (PF) resins are typicallyused in the beenconductedin developing newadhesive systemsfrom
manufacture ofproductsrequiring somedegree ofexterior renewable resources.
exposuredurability, for example, OSB, softwoodplywood,
and siding. Theseresins require longerpress times and
higherpress temperatures than do urea-formaldehyde resins, Additives
whichresults in higher energyconsumptionand lowerline A numberofadditives are usedin the productionofconven-
speeds (productivity). Productsusing PF resins (oftenre- tional composite products.Oneofthe most notable additives
ferredto asphenolics)may have lowered dimensional stabil- is wax, which is used to provide finished productswith
ity becauseoflowermoisturecontentsin the finishedprod- resistance to aqueous penetration. In particle- andfiberboard
ucts. The inherentlydark color ofPF resins may renderthem
unsuitablefor decorative productapplications such as panel- products, wax emulsion providesexcellentwater resistance
and dimensional stabilitywhen the board is wetted. Even
ing and furniture. small amounts (0.5% to 1%) act to retard the rate ofliquid
water pickup.Theseimprovedwater penetration properties
Urea-formaldehyde (UF) resins are typicallyused in the areimportant for ensuring thesuccess ofsubsequent secon-
manufacture ofproductswheredimensional uniformity and
surface smoothness are ofprimaryconcern, for example, dary gluingoperations and for providingprotection upon
accidental wetting to the productduringand afterconstruc-
particleboardand MDF, Productsmanufactured with UF tion. The waterrepellencyprovidedby the wax has practi-
resins are designedfor interiorapplications. They can be
formulatedto cureanywherefrom roomtemperature to 150°C cally no effectupon dimensional changes or water adsorptic n
ofcomposites exposed to equilibrium conditions.Other
(300°F); press times andtemperaturescan be moderated additives used for specialty productsinclude preservatives,
accordingly. Urea-formaldehyde resins (often referredto as fire retardants, and impregnating resins.
urea resins)are more economical than PF resins and are the
most widely used adhesivefor composite woodproducts.
The inherently light color ofUF resins makethem quite
suitable forthe manufacture ofdecorative products.
General Manufacturing Issues
Successfulmanufacture ofany composite woodproduct
Melamine-formaldehyde(MF) resins are usedprimarilyfor requires control over raw materials. Ideally,raw materials are
decorative laminates,paper treating, and paper coating. They uniform, consistent, andpredictable. Wooddoes not offer
are typically more expensivethan PF resins. MF resins may these qualities but instead varieswidelybetween species.For
be blendedwith UF resins for certainapplications (melamine a
thepurposeofproducing compositeproduct,uniformity,
urea). consistency, and predictability are accomplished by reducing
separated portions ofthe wood into small, relativelyuniform
Isocyanate as diphenylmethane di-isocyanate (MDI) is and consistent particles, flakes, or fiberswhereeffectsof
commonly used in the manufactureofcomposite wood prod- differences will average out. Size reduction is sometimes
ucts; MDI is used primarilyin the manufactureofOSB. augmented by chemical treatments designedto weakenthe
Facilities that use MDI are requiredto take specialprecau- bondsbetweenthe components. The degreeofsize reduction
tionaryprotective measures. and the shapeof individual lignocellulosic components will
These adhesives have been chosenbased upontheir suitabil- depend on the application. Different composites tolerateor
demanddifferent sizes and shapes. Generallyspeaking, allthe
ity forthe particularproductunder consideration. Factors conventional compositeproductsdiscussedin this chapter
takenintoaccountincludethe materialsto be bondedto- are madeto conform to productor performance standards
gether,moisturecontent at time ofbonding,mechanical (Englishand others 1997).
property and durability requirements ofthe resultantcompos-
ite products,and ofcourse,resin system costs.
Somenatural optionsmay somedayreplaceorsupplement
Standards for Wood—Based
these syntheticresins. Tannins,which are naturalphenols, Panels
canbe modifiedand reacted with formaldehyde toproducea The generaltypesofstandards for panelproductsare product
satisfactory resin. Resinshave alsobeen developedby acidi- standards andperformance standards. Table 10—2 lists
fying spent sulfite liquor,which is generatedwhen wood is standards for commonconventional compositeproducts. The
pulpedfor paper.Inthe manufacture ofwet-process fiber- term adhesive,as used in the followingdescriptions ofprod-
board, lignin, which is inherent in lignocellulosic material, uctand performance standards,is synonymous with glue.
is frequentlyused as theresin (Suchslandand Woodson
1986).

10—4
Table 10—2. Standards forfrequently used panel products
Product category Applicablestandard Name of standard Source
Plywood PS 1—95 Voluntaryproduct standard PS 1—95 NIST 1995
Construction and industrialplywood
PS 2—92 Voluntaryproduct standard PS 2—92 NIST 1992
Performance standardfor wood-based
structural-usepanels
Oriented strandboard PS 2—92 Voluntaryproduct standard PS 2—92 NIST 1992
Performance standard for wood-based
structural-usepanels
Particleboard ANSI A208.1—1993 Particleboard NPA 1993
Hardboard ANSI/AHAAl35.4—1995 Basic hardboard AHA 1995a
ANSI/AHA A135.5—11995 Prefinished hardboard paneling AHA 1995b
ANSI/AHA A135.6—1990 Hardboard siding AHA 1990
Insulation board ASTM C208—94 Standard specificationfor cellulosic fiber ASTM current
insulatingboard edition
ANSI/AHAA194.1—1985 Cellulosicfiberboard AHA 1985
Medium-densityfiberboard ANSI A208.2—1 994 Medium-density fiberboard (MOF) NPA 1994

Product Standards encourages the development ofperformance standards in

preference to commodity-type standards. The Voluntary
Product standards maybe furtherclassified as manufacturing Standards and Accreditation Act of 1977 states tliat "aper-
methodstandards and laboratorytest standards. Probablythe formance standard does not limitthemanufacturer'sfreedom
best example ofa manufacturing methodstandard is Volun- to choose any methodofdesign or any form ofccnstruction
tary ProductStandardPS 1—95 for construction and indus- that achieves the desired level ofperformance" (A1,ourezk
trial plywoodNIST 1995). This standard specifiessuch 1977)
mattersas what wood species andgradesofveneermaybe
used,what repairsarepermissible,andhow repairsmust be The APA—The Engineered WoodAssociation (formerly
made. For panelsproducedaccording to prescriptive manu- American PlywoodAssociation) was the leadingproponent
facturing requirements, a comparison ofwood failure to ofperformance-type standards for panel products, and their
adhesivefailurein smalltest specimens ofplywoodis the earlywork formed the basisfor the performance sundardsin
performance testspecified. existencetoday (O'Halloran 1979, 1980; APA 1981).
Wood-based panels manufactured in conformance with per-
A goodexampleofa laboratorytestproduct standard is the formance standards (APA—The Engineered Wood Associa-
American NationalStandardformat-formed particleboard. tion 1995a, TECO 1991) are approvedby the three major
ANSI A208.1(NPA 1993).The American NationalStan- model codesby virtue ofapproval by the CouncilofAmeri-
dardsInstitute (ANSI)productstandards forboth particle- can BuildingOfficials throughthe issuance ofaaational
board and MDF are sponsored by the Composite Panel evaluation report. Thesewood-based panelscanbeusedfor
Association (CPA)in Gaithersburg,Maryland. The CPA is construction applications such as sheathingfor roofs, sub-
theassociation resultingfrom the 1997consolidation ofthe flooring, andwalls.
U.S.-basedNationalParticleboardAssociation and the
CanadianParticleboard Association.This standard states Similarly, wood-based panelsmay be used in light-frame
that in laboratorytests, specimens show certainminimally construction for many single-layer floorapplications.
acceptablephysicaland mechanical properties, identifiedby Plywood,OSB, and COM-PLY,, a proprietary product, are
numericvalues. The test valuesgive some indication of all span-rated for particularend uses.
product quality,but the tests on small specimens were not Under PS 1—95 (NIST 1995), plywoodpanels intendedfor
specifically developed to correlate with performance ofwhole structural usesmay be certifiedorratedusing eitherprescrip-
panelsin specific end-uses. tive orperformance-based criteria. StandardPS 2—92 (NIST
1992) is strictlyperformance basedbecauseit appliesto all
Performance Standards structural-use wood-based panels, including plywood, wafer-
Performance standards are written forpanelsinspecific a
board, and OSB; OSB is secondgenerationpanel, with
end-uses. Thesestandards focuson panelperformance in alignedfibers, that evolvedfrom the originalproductcalled
waferboard. The PS 2—92 standard is not a replacement for
laboratory tests developed to indicate panelperformance for
particularend-uses.Federal legislation (Abourezk 1977) PS 1—95, whichcontainsnecessary veneer-grade and

10—5
 performance standards for sheathing are markedwith grade
APA
THEENGINEERED
stampssuch as those shownin Figure 10—4a,b. Structural
flakeboards are usually marketedas conformingto a product
WOOD ASSOCIATION
o PS 1-95 standard forsheathingor single-layer subflooring or under-
EXPOSURE 1*0 layment and are graded as aperformance-rated product(PRP—
RATEDSHEATHING SHEATHING SPAN
) 108) similar to the grading for construction plywood. Volun-
e
O—*32116 15/32INCH-4-
0 SIZEDFOR SPACING -4————f)
) EXPOSURE1 €)-
15/32"
32116 RATING
C-D *- tary ProductStandardPS 2—92 is the performance standard
forwood-based structural-use panels, which include such
o ssAcI*.4_Q productsasplywood, OSB, and waferboard. Panels conform-
PS1-95 C-DO8 MANUFACTURER'S
NAMEORMILLNUMBER
ing to theseperformance standards for sheathing are marked
with grade stamps such as those shown in Figure 10—4c,d.
(a) (b) As seen in Figure 10—4a,b, the grade stamps must show (1)
conformance to plywood productstandards,(2) nominal
panel thickness, (3)grades offace and backveneersorgrade
name basedonpaneluse, (4) performance-rated panelstan-
APA___ dard, (5) recognition as a quality assurance agencyby the
O- RATED SHEATHING 0 PS2-92 NationalEvaluation Service (NES),which is affiliatedwith
15132 INCH*0
32/16 EXPOSURE1 *-Ø theCouncilofAmerican BuildingOfficials, (6) exposure
0—* SIZED FORSPACING SHEATHINGSPAN*
durability classification, (7) span rating,whichrefers to
EXPOSURE 1 *—O 0*15/32" SHEATHING
32/16 Rating *—O maximum allowable roofsupportspacing and maximum
0— 000
PS 2-92 SHEATHING
) PRP—133 floor joist spacing, and (8) panelsizing for spacing.
NEH.0A391 PRP.1O8 4—0 MANUFACTURER'S
NAME ORMIU.NUMBER

(c) (d) Plywood

o construction
Product Standard that governsspecifics of productionfor General Description
and industrial plywood
Plywoodis a flat panel built up ofsheetsofveneer called
Nominal panel thickness subject to acceptabletolerances plies, unitedunder pressureby a bonding agentto createa
3 Panel panelwith an adhesive bond betweenplies. Plywoodcan be
grade designationindicatingminimumveneer grade madefrom eithersoftwoods or hardwoods. It is always con-
used for panel faceand back, orgrade name based on
paneluse structedwith an odd numberoflayerswith the grain direc-
tion ofadjacentlayersoriented perpendicular to one another.
o panel
Performance-ratedpanelstandard indicating structural-use
test procedure NationalEvaluation
Since layerscan consist ofa singleply or oftwo ormore
recognizedby
Service (NES) plies laminated such that their grain is parallel,a panelcan
containan odd or evennumber ofpliesbut always an odd
NES report number fromCouncil of AmericanBuilding numberoflayers. The outside pliesare calledfaces or face
Officials (CABO)
and backplies;the innerplies are called cores or centers; and
o Exposure
interior
durabilityclassification: Exposure indicates
bonded with exterior
1 theplieswith grain perpendicular tothat oftheface and back
panel glue suitablefor uses are calledcrossbands. The core may be veneer,lumber, or
not permanently exposedto weather
particleboard, with the total panelthicknesstypicallynot
O Span rating indicatingmaximumspacing of roof andfloor less than 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) or more than 76 mm (3 in.).
supports for ordinary residentialconstructionapplications; The plies may vary in number,thickness,species,and grade
32/16 rating identifiesa panelrated for use on roofsupports ofwood. To distinguishthenumber ofplies (individual
spacedup to 813 mm (32 in.) o.c., orfloor supports spaced
up to 406 mm (16 in.) o.c. sheetsofveneerin a panel)from the numberoflayers
(numberoftimesthe grain orientation changes), panels are
fJ Sized for spacing denotes panels that have been sized to
allowfor of
sometimes describedas three-ply, three-layer or four-ply,
spacing paneledges duringinstallation toreduce
the possibility of buckling three-layer. The outerlayers(face andback) and all odd-
numbered layers(centers) generally have their grain direction
Figure 10—4. Typicalgrade stamps for plywood and OSB. oriented parallel to the length or long dimensionofthe
panel. The grain ofeven-numbered layers(cores) is perpen-
dicularto the length ofthe panel.
adhesive-bond requirementsas well as prescriptive lay-up
provisions and includesmany plywoodgradesnot covered The alternationofgrain directionin adjacentplies provides
under PS 2—92. plywoodpanelswith dimensionalstability across their
width.It also results in fairlysimilar axial strengthand
A significantportionQfthemarketfor construction and stiffness properties inperpendiculardirections withinthe
industrialplywood is in residentialconstruction. This situa- panelplane. The laminated constructiondistributesdefects,
tion has resultedin the development ofperformance standards markedly reduces splitting whenthe plywoodis penetrated
for sheathingandsingle-layer subflooring orunderlayment for by fasteners (comparedwith splittingofsolid wood), and
residentialconstruction. Plywoodpanels conforming to these improves resistance to checking.

10-6
Compared with solid wood,the chiefadvantages ofplywood suitable for exterior service, such as in marine applications.
arethat theproperties along thelength ofthepanelaremore A significant portionof all hardwoodplywoodis available
nearly equalto propertiesalong the width,there is greater completely finished.
resistance to splitting,and the form permitsmany applica-
tions wherelarge sheetsare desirable. The use ofplywood The adhesives used in the manufacture ofthe two classesof
may result in improvedutilizationofwood. Plywoodcan plywood are quitedifferent, buteach type is selectedto
cover largeareas with aminimumamount ofwoodfiber provide the necessary performance required by the appropriate
becauseplywoodthat is thinnerthan sawn lumber can be specifications.
used in some applications. The properties ofplywood de-
Construction and industrial plywoodcoveredby Product
pendon the qualityofthe different layers ofveneer, orderof StandardPS 1 is classified by exposure capability type) and
layerplacement, adhesive used, and controlofbonding
conditions.The grade ofthe panel depends uponthe quality grade.The two exposure capabilities are exteriora]d interior.
oftheveneersused,particularly oftheface andback. The Exteriorplywoodis bonded with exterioradhesive,and
veneersused in manufacture cannotbe less than "C"grade as
type ofpanelrefersto the durability ofthe adhesive-to-wood definedin PS 1. Interior-type plywoodmay be bondedwith
bond and depends upon the adhesive-bonded joint, particu-
interior, intermediate, or exterior (waterproof) adhesive."D"
larly its water resistance,and upon veneergrades used. Gen-
erally, faceveneerswith figured grainthat are used in panels grade veneeris allowedas inner andback pliesofcertain
whereappearance is important havenumerous short,or interior-type plywoods. Adhesive bondperformanc require-
otherwise deformed, wood fibers.Thesemay significantly ments are specified in PS 1.
reducestrengthand stiffuess ofthe panels. On the otherhand, The fourtypes ofhardwoodand decorative plywood in de-
face veneersand other pliesmay contain certainsizes and
creasing orderofresistance to water are Technical (Exterior),
distributions of knots, splits, or growthcharacteristics that
havenoundesirable effectson strength properties for specific Type I (Exterior), Type II (Interior), and Type III (Interior);
adhesive bondrequirements for these are specified in
uses, such as sheathing for walls,roofs, or floors. ANSI/HPVA—1—1994 (ITIPVA 1994).
The plywoodindustrycontinuesto developnew products.
Hence, the reader should alwaysreferdirectlyto current Processing Considerations
specifications on plywoodand its use for specific details.
After treesarefelledandbucked to length, the logs are graded
and sorted to makethe most appropriate and efficient use of
Types of Plywood thewood fiber. For softwood plywood, in the past, logs
Broadly speaking,two classesofplywoodare available, graded as "peelers"were sentto veneermills or plywood
coveredby separate standards: (a) construction and industrial, plants and "sawlogs"were shippedto lumbermills. Because
and (b) hardwoodand decorative. Construction and industrial ofthedwindling availability oftheclear,large-diameter
plywoodhas traditionallybeen madefrom sofiwoocis such as peeler logs on whichthe plywood industry was founded, this
Douglas-fir, Southern Pine, white fir, larch, western hem- practicehas changed. Today, the highergrades ofsoftwood
lock, and redwood.However,the currentstandardlists a peelerlogs are sentto sawmills, and with few exceptions,
largenumberofhardwoods as qualifying foruse. At the same plywood is madefrom low-grade sawlogsor peelerlogs.
time, the standardforhardwoodand decorative plywood This changecameaboutbecauseofthe increasing demandfor
covers certain decorative softwoodspecies for nonconstruc- clear sawn lumber, and it has been madepossibleby innova-
tionuse. tions in veneerand plywood manufacturing aridtesting
practices that ensure that panelsare suitable fortheir intended
Most constructionand industrial plywood used in the United use (McKay 1997).
Statesis produceddomestically, and U.S. manufacturers
exportsomematerial.Generally speaking, the bulk ofcon- Logsdeliveredto a veneermill are sorted by grade and
struction and industrialplywoodis used wherestrength, species, then debarked and crosscut into peelerblocks.Peeler
stiffuess, and construction convenience are more important blocks are often heatedorconditioned by steamingor im-
thanappearance. However, somegradesofconstruction and mersion in hot water prior to peeling,which makesthem
industrial plywood are madewith faces selected primarily for easierto peel, reduces veneerbreakage, andresultsin
appearance and are used eitherwith clearnaturalfinishes or smoother, higher qualityveneer. Theheated blocks are then
pigmentedfinishes. conveyedto a veneerlathe. To maximize veneery:eld, each
block is gripped on the ends at the block's geomeiriccenter.
Hardwood and decorative plywoodis made ofmany different Whilerotatingat high speed, the block is fed against a
species,both in the UnitedStates and overseas.Well over stationary knife parallel to its length. Veneeris pecled from
halfofall such panelsused intheUnited Statesare imported. theblock in a continuous, uniformlythinsheet, much like
Hardwoodplywood is normallyused in such applications as unwinding a roll ofpapertowels, but at a speedofup to
decorative wall panelsand for furniture andcabinet panels 4.1 m/s (13.3 linearfits).
whereappearance is more important than strength. Most of
theproduction is intendedfor interiororprotecteduses, Depending on its intendeduse, veneermay range inthick-
althougha very smallproportionis madewith adhesives ness from 1.6 to 4.8 mm (1/16 to 3/16 in.) for sofiwood

10—7
plywoodand much thinnerfor hardwoodand decorative Specifications
plywood. After being peeledto a diameterfrom 127 to
51 mm (5 to 2 in.), the peeler core is ejectedfrom the lathe. The two general classes ofplywood—(a) constructionand
Peeler cores may be sawn into standard38- by 89-mm industrial plywoodand (b) hardwoodand decorative ply-
(nominal2- by 4-in.) lumber, usedfor fenceposts, and land- wood—are coveredby separate standards.Constructionand
scape timbers,orchippedforuse as pulp chipsor fuel. industrialplywood are coveredby ProductStandardPS 1—95
(NIST 1995), and hardwoodand decorative plywood by
The continuoussheet ofveneer is then transportedby con- American NationalStandardANSL'HPVA—l—1994 (HPVA
veyor to a clippingstation where it is clippedinto usable 1994). Eachstandard recognizes differentexposure durability
widthsand defects are removed.The wet veneeris then dried classifications, whichare primarilybased on moistureresis-
to an average moisturecontent that is compatible with the tanceofthe adhesive and the grade ofveneerused.
adhesivesystem being used to bond the panels. Since it is
criticalthat veneer moisturecontentbe low atthe time adhe- Model building codes in the United States stipulatethat
sive is applied, each sheet is meteredas it exits the dryer. plywood used for structural applications like subflooringand
Pieces that are too wet or dry are reroutedto beredriedor sheathingmust meet therequirementsofcertainU.S.
reconditioned,respectively.Properlydried veneeris then Department ofCommerce standards. Voluntary Product
sorted into one ofas many as 15 to 20 differentgrades ac- StandardPS 1—95 for construction and industrial plywood
cording to the size and number ofknots and othernatural and (NIST1995) and Performance StandardPS 2—92 forwood-
processing defects. Each grade has a specific use; someveneer based structural-use panels(NIST 1992) spell outthe ground
requiresspecial processingbeforeit is assembled into ply- rules for manufacturing plywood and establishing plywoodor
wood. After gradingand/orprocessing, the veneer is taken to OSB properties, respectively. Thesestandardshave evolved
thelay-uparea. over time from earlierdocuments (O'Halloran 1979, 1980;
APA 1981) andrepresentaconsensusopinion ofthe makers,
Adhesiveis applied to veneers in the lay-upareaby spray, sellers, and users ofplywoodproductsas well as other con-
curtain coating, roller coating,extrusion, and recently, foam- cernedparties.In addition,model buildingcodesrequirethat
ing. Veneer is laid up into plywoodby hand, machine,or a plywood manufacturers be inspected and their productscerti-
combination ofboth. Hand lay-up is the oldestmethod,and fied for conformance to PS 1—95, PS 2—92, APA PRP—108,
it is still the only practicalway ofmaking plywoodfor some or TECOPRP—133 by qualifiedindependentthird-party
applications.With this method,the face, back, and center agencies on a periodic unannounced basis.
veneers are hand-placed by workers calledsheetturners. After
being coatedon both sides with adhesive,the alternating With PS 1—95, as long as a plywoodpanel is manufactured
coreplies are placedby hand or machine. The lay-upprocess usingthe veneergrades, adhesive, and construction estab-
is almost completelyautomatedin newerplywoodplants, lished in the standard'sprescriptive requirements,the panel
althoughthe narrow stripsused for coresmay still beplaced is by definition acceptable.When plywoodis assembled so
manually. Beforeveneersare laid up, narrowstripsare some- that the proportionofwood with the grain perpendicularto
timesjoined into full-widthsheets with hot-meltadhesive- the panel's face grain is greaterthan 33% or more than 70%
coatedfiberglass thread so that they canbehandledby ma- ofthepanel's thickness, the plywoodautomatically meets
chine. Also, veneers may be upgradedby punchingout knots the span rating. In panelswith fourormore plies, the com-
and other defectsand replacingthem with wood plugsor bined thicknessofthe inner layers must equal45% or more
syntheticpatches. ofthepanel's thickness. Generally speaking, for panelsoftFie
same thickness and madewith the face and backveneeroftFie
Once assembled, panelsare conveyedfrom the lay-up area same species,stiffness and strength increase as the thickness
to thepressingarea. Panels are first subjectedto coldpre- oftheface and backveneersincreases. All other thingsbeing
pressingto flattenthe veneersandtransferthe adhesive to equal, the stiffnessand strength ofplywoodalso increase as
uncoatedsheets;panelsare then hot pressed.Afterhot press- panelthickness increases.
ing,panels are solid-piledor hot-stackedto ensurecomplete
curing ofthe adhesive,then sawn to size. Panels are then All hardwoodplywood representedas conformingto Ameri-
gradedwith regard to the product standard underwhichthey canNationalStandardANSIIHPVA—1—1994 (HPVA 1994)
were manufactured. Knotholesand splitson the faces and is identified by one oftwo methods: bymarking each panel
backs ofsomepanels may be repairedwith wood plugsor with the HardwoodPlywood& VeneerAssociation(HPVA)
with syntheticpatches (by filling the holes and splits with plywoodgrade stamp(Fig. 10—5) or by includinga written
what is essentiallyliquidplastic that quicklyhardens). statementwith this informationwith the order or shipment.
Thosepanelsthat do not meet the specification are down- The HPVAgrade stamp shows (1) HPVAtrademark,(2)
gradedorrejected.Panelsneedingfurtherprocessing are sent standardthat governsmanufacture, (3) HPVAmill number,
to thefmishingareawhere, depending ontheirintendeduse, (4) plywoodadhesive bond type, (5) flame spreadindex
they may be sandedto thickness, profiledwith tongueand class, (6) description oflay-up, (7) formaldehyde emission
grooveedges, surface textured, scarf-or fmger-jointed, oiled characteristics, (8) face species, and (9) veneergrade offace.
and edge-sealed, or given other treatments.The panelsare
thenready for shipping(McKay 1997).

10—8
 HARDWOODPLYWOOD& VENEERASSOCIATION Grades and Classification
FORMALDEHYDE REDOAK 0 FLAME SPREAD
Plywoodis classifiedby both exposuredurabilityclass and
EMISSION PLYWOOD 200OR LESS
0.2 PPM ASTME84 grade. Exposure durability classrefers to the ability ofa
CONFORMS TO paneltoresistthe damaging effectsofexposure to the weather
ormoisture. Panel grades areeithernames that describe the
REQUIREMENTS0 — intendeduse ofthe panel, such as underlayment or concrete
form,or lettersthat identify the gradesofthe face and back
veneers, such as A—B.
BONDLINE
LAYUP6
1/4 INCH THICK
MILL000 TYPEII 0 Veneers forplywoodare visuallygradedaccording i;othe
HP-SG-86 0 SPECIALTY ANSI/HPVA size,number, and locationofnatural andprocessing defects
GRADEO HP-1-1994 that affecttheir strength andappearance. Knots,decay,splits,
insect holes, surface roughness, numberofsurface repairs, and
Explanationof numbering otherdefects are considered. Moresurface repairs,suchas
0 HPVAtrademark elliptical (boat-shaped) wood patches andbiggerknots are
allowedin the lowerveneergrades.Veneers are graded as N,
Standard governing manufacture
A, B, C, C-Plugged, andD. N-gradeor natural finish ye-
HPVA mill number neersare virtually blemish-free, and they containonly a few
minorsurface repairs.A andB veneers have solid surfaces
0 Plywood bondline type with neatly maderepairs and small, tightknots. Knotholes
0 Flame spread index class as determined by testing in
accordance withASTM E84, standard test method for
upto 25 mm (1 in.) in diameterare allowedin C veneers,
whereas D veneersmay have knotholes as large as 51 mm
surface burning characteristics of building materials (2 in.) across. Becausetheirappearanceisusuallyofsecon-
o Lay-up description references structural attributes of wall
panels as described in HPMAdesignguide HP-SG-86,
dary importance, panels meantfor sheathing andother struc-
tural uses are mademostly from C and D veneers. The N, A,
Structuraldesign Guide for HardwoodPlywoodWall Panels andB veneers are reserved forpanelswhere appearance is the
as published by the Hardwood Plywood & Veneer primaryconsideration in such uses as exteriortrim arid
Association
soffits,interiorpaneling, doors,and cabinets.
0 Formaldehyde emission characteristics to determine
Construction Plywood Exposure DurabilityClass
compliance with U.S. Department of Housing and Urban
Development requirements for building product use in The exposure durability classifications for construction and
manufactured homes bytesting in accordance with
ASTM E1333, Standard Test Method for Determining industrialplywoodspecifiedin PS—I are as follows: exterior,
FormaldehydeLevels From Wood ProductsUnder Defined exposure1, intermediate adhesive, exposure2, and interior.
Test Conditions Using a Large Chamber Exterior plywood is bondedwith exterior(waterproof) adhe-
J Face species (face species designation is not required for
wall panelswhenthe surface is a decorative simulation
sive and is composed ofC-gradeorbetterveneersthrough-
out. Exposure I plywood is bondedwith exterioradhesives,
suchas that of a wood grainof another species or of a but itmay includeD-grade veneers. Exposure 2 plysood is
pattern) madewith adhesive ofintermediate resistance to moisture.
0 Veneer grade ofofface (grade of veneerof backis shown Interior-type plywoodmay be bondedwith interior, interme-
following grade facefor industrial panels) diate,or exterior (waterproof) adhesive. D-grade veneeris
allowedon inner and backpliesbfcertain interior-type
Figure 10—5. Grade stamp for hardwood plywood grades.
conforming to ANSI/HPVA—1—1 994.
Theexposure durability classifications forhardwoodand
decorative plywoodspecified inANSIIHPVA HP—i—i994
The span-ratingsystem forplywoodwas established to are as follow, indecreasing order ofmoisture resistance:
simplifyplywoodspecification withoutresortingto specific technical(exterior), type I (exterior), type II (interior), and
structural engineering design.This systemindicatesperfonn- type III (interior). Hardwoodand decorative plywoodare not
ance withoutthe needto refer to speciesgroup or panel typicallyused in applications wherestructural performance is
thickness. It gives the allowablespan whenthe face grain is aprominentconcern. Therefore, most oftheremaining
discussion ofplywood performance will concernconstruction
placedacross supportswith aminimumofthree supports.
and industrialplywood.
Ifdesigncalculationsaredesired,a designguide is provided
bythe APA—TheEngineeredWoodAssociationin Plywood Plywood Grades
DesignSpecj/ication(PDS) and APA Technical Note There are many plywood grade names (Tables 10—3 and
N375B(APA—TheEngineeredWoodAssociation1995a,b). 10—4). In additionto the 30 or so genericnames listed in
The designguide contains tables ofgrade stampreferences, PS 1—95, each agencythat inspects plywoodmills and.
sectionproperties, and allowable stressesfor plywoodused certifies theirproductshas coinedits owntrademarkedgrade
in constructionofbuildingsand similarstructures. names. For example, panels intended for use as single-ILayer

10—9
 Table 10—3. Grade names for interior plywood gradesa
Minimum Veneer Quality
Panel grade designation face back inner plies Surface

N—N N N C S2Sb
N-A N A C S2S
N—B N B C S2S
N—D N D D S2S
A-A A A 0 S2S
A—B A B D S2S
A-D A D 0 S2S
B—B B B D S2S
B—D B 0 D S2S
Underlayment C plugged D C &D Touch sanded
C—D plugged C plugged D D Touch sanded
Structural I C—D Unsanded
I
Structural C—D plugged, underlayment Touch sanded
C—D C D D Unsanded
C—D with exterior adhesive C D D Unsanded
aNIST 1995.
bsanded on two sides.

Table 10—4. Grade names for exteriorplywood gradesa

Minimum Veneer Quality inner
Panel grade designation face back plies Surface

Marine, A—A, A—B. B—B, HDO, MDO See regular grades

Specialexterior, A—A, A—B, B—B, HDO, MDO See regular grades
A-A A A C S2Sb
A—B A B C S2S
A-C A C C S2S
B—B (concrete form)
B—B B B C S2S
B—C B C C S2S
C—C plugged C plugged C C Touch sanded
C—C C C C Unsanded
A—A high-densityoverlay A A C plugged —
B—B high-densityoverlay B B C plugged —
B—B high-densityconcrete form overlay B B C plugged —
B—B medium-densityoverlay B B C —
Special overlays C C C —
-
aNIST 1995.
bSanded on two sides.

flooring(combined subtloorand underlayment) madeby Span Ratingand General Property Values

TECO-certified manufacturers are calledFloorspan, while The more than 70 species ofwood used formakingsoftwood
those madeby mills certifiedbythe APA—The Engineered plywood (includingsome hardwoods) are classified into five
Wood Association are named Sturd-1-Floor. Althoughthe groups according totheirstiffhess and strength(Table 10—5).
trade namesmay be different, the minimum stiffness and The strongest woodsare in Group 1; the weakest, in
strengthpropertiesofthe panels arenot. Withthe exception Group 5. Today, almostall plywoodintendedfor structural
ofcustom-orderpanels, plywoodis strictlya commodity use is markedwith a two-numberspanrating (for example,
product;panels ofthe same grade andthicknessconforming 32/16)insteadofa speciesgroup number (Fig. 10—4).
to eitherPS 1—95 or PS 2—92 are interchangeableamong As with softwoodlumber allowable designvalues,p]ywood
manufacturers. o
span ratings were developedby breakingthousands full-
size panels ofvaryingconstruction andthickness.The left-
hand number ofthe rating represents the maximum

10—10
 Table 10—5. Softwood plywood species groups by stiffness and strengtha
Group I Group2 Group3 Group 4 Group5

Apitong Cedar, Port Orford Alder, red Aspen Bassviood

Beech, American Cypress Birch, paper Bigtooth Poplar
Birch Douglas-fir" Cedar, yellow Quaking Balsam
Sweet Fir Fir, subalpine Cativo
Yellow Balsam Hemlock, eastern Cedar
Douglasfirc Californiared Maple, bigleaf Incense
Kapur Grand Pine Western
Keruing Noble Jack Red
Larch, western Pacific silver Lodgepole Cottonwood
Maple, sugar VVhite Ponderosa Eastern
Pine Hemlock, western Spruce Black
Caribbean Lauan Redwood (Western Poplar)
Ocote Almon Spruce Pine, eastern
Pine, Southern Bagtikan Engelman White, sugar
Loblolly Mayapis White
Longleaf Red lauan
Shortleaf Tangile
Slash White lauan
Tanoak Maple,black
Mengkulang
Meranti, red
Mersawa
Pine
Pond
Red
Virginia
Westernwhite
Spruce
Black
Red
Sitka
Sweetgum
Tamarack
Yellow poplar -
8From NIST 1995. Strongestspecies in Group 1; weakest in Group 5.
bTrees grown in Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico.
eTrees grown in Washington, Oregon,California, Idaho, Montana, Wyoming,and Canadianprovinces
ofAlberta and British Columbia.

on-center(OC) spacingforframingwhenthe
recommended Table 10—6 providesapproximateproperties ofsheathing-
panelis usedas roofsheathing;the right-handnumberis the grade plywood. Plywoodmay be used under loading
maximum recommended OC spacingfor framingwhenthe conditions that requirethe addition ofstiffenersto preventit
panelis usedas subflooring. Panels intendedfor single-layer from buckling. It may alsobe used in the form ofcylirLders
flooring(combined subfloorandunderlayment) haveoniy orcurvedplates,whichare beyondthescope ofthis hand-
one span-ratingnumber; for example,24 OC. In all cases, book but are discussed inU.S. Department ofDefense
thepanels are meant to be installedwith theirlength perpen- BulletinANC—l8.
dicularto framingand acrossthree or more supports.Again,
panelsofthe same grade and spanrating canbe substituted It is obviousfrom its construction that a strip ofplywood
forone anotherregardless ofwho madeor certified them. cannotbe as strong in tension,compression, or bendingas
a strip ofsolidwood ofthe same size.Those layershaving

10—11
 Table 10—6. General property values for sheathing-grade plywooda
ASTM test method"
Property Value (whereapplicable)
Linear hygroscopicexpansion
(30%—90%RH) 0.15%
Linearthermal expansion 6.1 io cm/cm/°C (3.4 x 10 in/in/°F)
Flexure
Modulusof rupture 20.7—48.3MPa (3,000—7,000lbIin2) D3043
Modulus of elasticity 6.89—13.1 GPa (1—1.9 x 106 lb/in2)
Tensile strength 10.3—27.6 MPa (1,500—4,000lb/in2) D3500
Compressive strength 20.7—34.5MPa (3,000—5,000lb/in2) D3501
Shear through thickness
(edgewiseshear)
Shear strength 4.1—7.6 MPa (600—1,100lb/in2) D2719
Shear modulus 0.47—0.761 GPa (68—110 x i0 lb/in2) D3044
Shear in plane of plies (rolling shear) D2718
Shear strength 1.7—2.1 MPa (250—300lb/in2)
Shear modulus 0.14—0.21 GPa (20—30 x 1O3 lb/in2)

aAll mechanical propertiesare based on gross section properties of plywood panels, with stress applied parallelto
grain direction of face plies where applicable.Note: Data are not to be used in developing allowable design values.
lnformationon engineering design methods for plywood courtesyof APA—The Engineered Wood Association,
Tacoma,WA.
bStandard methods of testing strength and elastic propertiesof structural panels are given in ASTM standards
(see References).

their grain directionoriented at 90° to the directionofstress problem,such as in small pieces,plywoodcan be ordered
cancontributeonly afraction ofthestrengthcontributed by with asolid coreandface veneers.
thecorrespondingareas ofa solid strip becausethey are
stressedperpendicularto the grain. Strength propertiesin the Other Considerations
length andwidth directions tendto be equalizedin plywood Plywood ofthin,cross-laminatedlayers is very resistantto
becauseadjacentlayers are oriented at an angle of90° to each
splitting. Therefore, nails and screwscanbe placedclose
other.
togetherand close to the edgesofpanels.Of course,highly
Characteristics efficient,rigidjoints can be obtainedby bondingplywoodto
itselfor to heavierwood members,such as those needed in
Although plywood is an engineeredwood product, it is also prefabricatedwood I-joists, box beams,and stressed-skin
used as a componentin other engineered wood productsand panels.Adhesive-bonded joints shouldnot be designedto
systemsin applicationssuch as prefabricated I-joists, box transmitload in tensionprimarilynormalto the plane ofthe
beams, stressed-skinpanels, and panelizedroofs. Plywood plywoodsheetbecauseofthe rather low tensilestrengthof
has high strength-to-weight and strength-to-thickness ratios, wood perpendicular to grain. Adhesive-bonded joints should
and its stiffness and strengthare more equal in widthand be arranged to transmitloadsthrough shear.It must be
length than are stiffnessand strengthofsolid wood. Plywood recognized that shearstrength acrossthe grain ofwood (often
also has excellentdimensionalstability along its length and calledrollingshear strength becauseofthe tendencytoroll
across its width.Minimaledge-swellingmakesplywood thewood fibers)is only 20% to 30% ofthat parallel to the
perhapsthe best choice for adhesive-bonded tongue-and- grain. Thus,sufficientareamust beprovidedbetween ply-
groovejoints, evenwhere some wetting is expected. Because wood and flangemembers ofbox beams andbetweenply-
thealternating grain directionofits layerssignificantly re- wood and stringersofstressed-skin panelsto avoid perpen-
ducessplitting,plywood is an excellentchoice for uses that
dicular-to-grain shearing failure in the face veneer, inthe
call for fastenersto be placedvery near the edges ofa panel. crossband veneernextto the face veneer,or in the wood
In uses where internalknotholesand voidsmay pose a member.Variousdetails ofdesign are given in Chapter 11.

10—12
 elements. The strandsare dried,blendedwith resin md wax,
Specialty Panels andformedinto thick,loosely consolidated mats that are
Some plywoodpanels are designedfor specialuses, includ- pressedunder heat and pressure into largepanels.
ingmarine decorative underlayment and concrete form and Figure 10—6 shows an 0S13 manufacturingprocess.Oriented
specialexteriorapplications. The treatingofplywoodwith strandboard is madefrom long, narrow strands, with the
preservatives and fire retardants is done by manufacturers strands ofeach layer aligned parallelto one anotherbut
outsideofthe plywoodindustry.Plywoodis easily pressure- perpendicular to strands in adjacentlayers, like the cross-
treatedwith waterbornepreservatives and fire retardants, and laminated veneers ofplywood. It is this perpendicukrorien-
treatedplywoodis readilyavailable foruse wheresuch pro- tationofdifferentlayers ofalignedstrands that gives OSB its
tectionis needed. uniquecharacteristics and allows itto be engineeredto suit
different uses.
Particle and Fiber Composites Stranding Process
Many wood-basedcomposite materials havebecomepopular. Typically, logs are debarked and then sent to a soaking pond
Thesecompositesare usually availablein panelform and are or directlyto thestrandingprocess.Long log disk or ring
widelyused in housingand furniture. Conventional compos- stranders are commonly usedto producewood strandstypi-
ites are typicallymade with aheat-curingadhesivethat holds cally measuring114 to 152 mm(4.5 to 6 in.) long,
the wood fibercomponents together.The physicaland me- 12.7 mm (0.5 in.) wide, and 0.6 to 0.7 mm (0.023 tD
chanical properties ofwood-based fiberand particle panel 0.027in.) thick.
materialsare determinedby standardASTMtest methods.
Drying Process
General Processing Considerations Green strands are stored in wet bins and then dried in a
Alltheproductsinthefamilyofparticleandfiber composite traditionaltriple-passdryer,a single-pass dryer, a combina-
materials are processed in similarways.Raw material for tion triple-pass/single-pass dryer, ora three-section ccnveyor
OSB, waferboard, and fiberboard is obtainedby flakingor dryer. A relatively recentdevelopmentis a continuous chain
chippingroundwood.For fiberboard, chips are reducedto dryer, in whichthe strandsare laid on a chainmatthat is
wood fiberusing refmersthatusuallyuse steam to soften the matedwith an upperchainmat andthe strands are he.d in
wood. The comminuted wood is then dried, adhesive is place as theymove throughthe thyer. The introducticnof
new dryingtechniques allows the use oflongerstrands,
applied, and a mat ofwood particles,fibers,or strands is reducessurface inactivation ofstrands, and lowers dryer
formed;the mat is then pressedin a platen-typepress under outfeed temperatures. Driedstrands are screened and sentto
heat andpressure until the adhesiveis cured. The bonded
productis allowedto cool and is furtherprocessed into dry bins.
specifiedwidth, length, and surface qualities.
Adhesive Application or Blending
Oriented Strandboard The blendingofstrandswith adhesive and wax is a highly
controlled operation, with separate rotatingblenders med for
Oriented strandboard is an engineered structural-use panel face and corestrands. Typically, differentresin formulations
manufactured from thin wood strandsbondedtogetherwith are used for face andcore layers. Faceresins may be liquidor
waterproofresin underheatandpressure, and it is used ex- powdered phenolics, whereas coreresins maybe phenolics or
tensivelyforroof, wall, and floor sheathingin residential and isocyanates. Several differentresin application systems are
commercial construction. Orientation ofwood strandswith a used; spinning disk resin applicators are frequently used.
typical aspect ratio (thatis, strandlength dividedby width)
ofat least 3 canproduce apanel productwith greaterbending Mat Formation
strength and stiffness in the oriented or aligneddirection. Mat formerstake on a numberofconfigurations, ranging from
electrostatic equipmentto mechanical devices containing
Raw Materials spinningdisks to align strands along the panel's lengtand
Theraw material for the original waferboard product, which star-type cross-orienters to positionstrandsacross the panel's
was made from square wafers,was aspen. As this industry width. All formers use the long andnarrow characteristic of
expanded andOSB became the predominantproductmanu- the strandto place it betweenthe spinningdisks or troughs
factured, other species such as Southern Pine, white birch, before it is ejectedonto a moving screen orconveyorbelt
red maple, sweetgum,and yellow-poplar were foundto be below the forming heads.Orientedlayersofstrands within
suitable raw materialsas well. Small amounts of someother the mat—face, core, face, forexample—are dropped sequen-
hardwoodscan also be used forOSB. tially,each by a different forminghead. Modemmat forrners
eitheruse wire screenslaid over a movingconveyorbelt to
Manufacturing Process carry the mat into the press or screenless systemsinwhich
In the general manufacturing process for OSB,debarked logs themat lies directlyon the conveyorbelt.
areoften heated in soaking ponds,then slicedinto thin wood

10—13
Figure 10—6. Schematic of OSB manufacturing process. (Courtesy of Structural Board Association,
Willowdale, Ontario, Canada.)

Hot Pressing standard. The manufacturer must also maintainan in-plant

Inhotpressing,the loose layeredmat oforiented strandsis qualitycontrolprogramin whichpanelpropertiesare regu-
compressed underheatandpressure to cure the resin. As larly checked, backedby an independent third-party-
administered qualityassuranceprogram.The third-party
many as sixteen 3.7- by 7.3-rn (12- by 24-ft)panelsmay be
formedsimultaneouslyin amultiple-openingpress. A more agencymust visit the mill on a regular unannouncedbasis.
recentdevelopmentis the continuouspress for OSB.The The agencymust confirm that the in-plantquality control
press compactsand consolidates the orientedandlayeredmat program is being maintainedandthat panels meet the mini-
ofstrands and heats it to 177°C to 204°C (350°Fto 400°F) mum requirements ofthe standard.Today, OSB manufac-
to cure theresin in 3 to 5 mm. tured to standard PS 2—92 is quality-certified by the follow-
ing organizations: APA—TheEngineeredWoodAssociation,
Professional Services and Industries, Inc., PittsburghTesting
Design Capacities and Panel Certification Laboratories, and PFS/TECOCorporations.Examples of
Design capacities ofperfonnance-rated products, which in- gradestampsforperformance-rated panelsare shown in
cludeOSB andwaferboard,canbe determined byusing
Figure 10—4c,d.
proceduresoutlinedin Technical Note N375B(APA—The
EngineeredWood Association 1995a). In this reference, Particteboard
allowable designstrengthand stiffnessproperties, as well as
nominal thicknessand sectionproperties,are specified based The wood particleboardindustry grewout ofa need to dis-
on thespan ratingofthepanel. Additionaladjustmentfactors pose oflarge quantities ofsawdust,planer shavings, andto a
based on panel grade and construction are alsoprovided. lesser extent, the use ofmillresidues and other relatively
Table 10—7 providesgeneralpropertyvaluesforsheathing-
homogeneous waste materials producedby other wood in-
grade OSB. dustries.Simplyput, particleboardis producedby mechani-
Under PS 2—92, amanufactureris requiredto enterinto an cally reducing the materialinto small particles,applying
adhesive to the particles,and consolidating a loosemat of
agreement with an accreditedtestingagency to demonstrate
that its panelsconformwith the requirements ofthe chosen

10—14
 Table 10—7. General property values for sheathing-gradeOSBa
ASTM test methodb
Property Value (where appIicable
Linear hygroscopicexpansion
(30%—90%RH) 015%
Linear thermal expansion 6.1 x IOcm/cml°C (3.4 x I0 in/in/°F)
Flexure
Modulusof rupture 20.7—27.6MPa (3,000—4,000lb/in2) D3043
Modulus of elasticity 4.83—8.27GPa (700—1,200x Io lb/in2)
Tensile strength 6.9—10.3 MPa (1,000—1,500lb/in2) 03500
Compressive strength 103—17.2 MPa (1,500—2,500lb/in2) D3501
Shear through thickness
(edgewiseshear)
Shear strength 6.9—10.3MPa (1,000—1,500lb/in2) D2719
Shear modulus 1.24—2.00 GPa (180—290 x i03 lb/in2) D3044
Shear in plane of plies (rolling shear) 02718
Shear strength 1.38—2.1 MPa (200—300 lb/in2)
Shear modulus 0.14—0.34GPa (20—50 x lb/in2)

aAll mechanical propertiesare based on gross section propertiesof OSB panels, with stress applied parallelto panel
major axis where applicable. Note: Data are not to be used in developing allowable design values. Information
courtesy of APA—The Engineered Wood Association,Tacoma, WA.
bStandard methods of testing strength and elastic propertiesof structuralpanels are given in ASTM standards
(see References).

theparticleswith heatand pressureinto a panelproduct

(Fig. 10—7). All particleboardis currentlymade usinga dry
process,whereair ormechanicalformers areusedto distrib-
utetheparticlesprior to pressing.
Particleboard is typicallymade inthree layers. The facesof
theboard consists offine wood particles,and thecoreis
madeofthe coarsermaterial.Producinga panelthis way
improvesutilizationofthematerialandthe smooth face
a
presents better surface for laminating, overlaying, painting,
or veneering. Particleboardis alsoreadilymade from a vari-
etyofagriculturalresidues.Low-densityinsulating or sound-
absorbing particleboardcan bemadefrom kenafcore orjute
stick. Low-, medium-, and high-density panelscan be pro-
ducedwith cereal straw, which has begun to be usedin
North America. Rice husksarecommercially manufactured
into medium-and high-density productsin the Middle East. Figure 10—7. Particles, whichare sometimes produced
by hammermilling, are used to produce composites
All other things being equal, reducing lignocellulosic suchas particleboard.
materialsto particles requires less energythan reducingthe
same materialinto fibers. However,particleboard is generally
not as strongas fiberboard becausethefibrousnature of particleboard is usually bonded with aUF resin, although
lignocellulosics is not exploitedas well. Particleboard is PF and MF resins are sometimes used for applicatiom
used for furniture cores,whereit is typicallyoverlaidwith requiringmore moistureresistance. The varioussteps
othermaterials fordecorative purposes. Particleboard can be involved in particleboard manufacturing are describedtn
usedin flooringsystems, inmanufactured houses,for stair the following text.
treads, and as underlayment. Thinpanelscan be used as a
panelingsubstrate.Since most applications are interior,

10—15
Particle Preparation materialis fed intothe high end and discharged at the low
Standard particleboardplantsbased on particulatematerial end. A seriesofflights forcesthefurnishto flow from one end
use combinations ofhogs, chippers,hammermills, ring to theother three timesbeforebeing discharged. The rotary
flakers,ring mills, and attritionmills. To obtain particle- movementofthe drum moves the materialfrom input to
boards with good strength, smooth surfaces, and equal swel- output.
ling,manufacturers ideallyuse ahomogeneous material with
a high degreeofslenderness(long,thin particles), no over- Addition of Resins and Wax
size particles,no splinters,and no dust. Dependingon the Frequently used resins for particleboard includeurea-
manufacturing process,the specifications for the ideal particle formaldehyde and, to amuch lesser extent, phenol-
size are different. For agraduated board, widertolerances are formaldehyde, melamine-formaldehyde, and isocyanates. The
acceptable. For athree-layerboard,the coreparticlesshould type andamountofresin used for particleboard depend on the
be longerand surfaceparticles shorter, thinner, andsmaller. type ofproduct desired. Basedon the weightofdry resin
Fora five-layerormulti-layerboard,thefurnish forthein- solidsand ovendry weightofthe particles,the resin content
termediate layerbetween surface and core should have long can range between 4% and 10%, butusuallyrangesbetween
and thin particles for buildingagood carrier forthe line 6% and 9% forUF resins. The resin contentofthe outer face
surface and to give the boardshigh bendingstrengthand layersis usually slightlyhigherthan that ofthe core layer.
stiffness. Urea-formaldehyde resin isusuallyintroduced in watersolu-
tions containingabout 50% to 65% solids. Besides resin,
Particle Classificationand Conveying paraffin ormicrocrystalline waxemulsion is addedto im-
Very smallparticles increase furnish surface area andthus proveshort-term moistureresistance.The amountofwax
increase resinrequirements. Oversized particles can adversely ranges from 0.3%to 1% based on the ovendryweightofthe
affectthe qualityofthe final productbecauseofinternal flaws particles.
in theparticles.While some particles areclassifiedthrough
the use ofair streams, screenclassification methods are the Mat Formation
mostcommon. In screenclassification, the particles are fed After theparticleshavebeenprepared,theymust be laid into
over a vibrating flat screenor a seriesofscreens. The screens an even and consistent mat to be pressed into apanel. This
may be wire cloth, plates with holes or slots, or plates set on is typically accomplished in abatch mode or by continuous
edge. formation. The batch system employs a caul or tray on
whicha deckleframe is placed.The mat is formed bythe
The two basic methods ofconveying particlesare by me- back-and-forth movement ofthe tray or hopperfeeder. The
chanicalmeans and by air. The choice ofconveyingmethod mat is usuallycold pressedto reduce mat thicknessprior to
dependsuponthe size oftheparticles.In air conveying, care hotpressing. The production ofthree-layerboards requires
shouldbe taken that the materialdoes not pass through three or more formingstations.The two outer layers consist
many fans, whichreducesthe size ofthe particles. In some ofparticles that differ in geometryfrom those in thecore.The
types offlakes, damp conditions are maintained to reduce resin contentofthe outer layers is usuallyhigher (about 8%
break-upofparticles during conveying. to 15%) than that ofthecore (about4% to 8%).
Particle Drying In continuousmat-forming systems,theparticlesaredistrib-
a
The furnishdryingoperationis criticalstep in the process- uted in one or several layersontravelingcauls or on amov-
ing ofcompositeproducts. The raw materialsfor these prod- ing belt. Mat thickness is controlledvolumetrically. The
ucts do not usuallyarrive at the plant at a low enoughmois- two outer face layersusually consistofparticles that differin
turecontentfor immediateuse. Furnish that arrives at the geometry from those in the core. Continuous-formed mats are
plant can range from 10% to 200% moisturecontent. For use often pre-pressed, with either asingle-openingplaten or a
with liquidresins, forexample,the furnishmust be reduced continuous press. Pre-pressing reduces mat height and helps
to about 2% to 7% moisture content. to consolidate themat forpressing.
The moisture content ofparticles is criticalduringhot- Hot Pressing
pressing operations.Thus,it is essentialto carefullyselect After pre-pressing, themats arehot-pressedinto panels.
properdryers and controlequipment. The moisturecontent Presses can be dividedinto platenand continuoustypes.
ofthematerialdepends on whetherresin is to be addeddry Further development in the industryhas made possiblethe
or in theform ofa solution or emulsion.Themoisture con- construction ofpresses for producing increasingly larger panel
tent ofmaterials leavingthe dryers is usually in the range of sizes in both single- and multi-openingpresses. Both of
4% to 8%. The mainmethods used to dry particlesare these types ofpresses can be as wide as 3.7 m (12 ft). Multi-
rotary, disk, and suspensiondrying. openingpresses can be as long as 10 m (33 ft) and single-
openingpresses, up to 30.5 m (100 It) long. Hot-presstem-
A triple-pass rotary dryer consistsofa largehorizontal rotat- peratures forUFresins usuallyrange from 140°C to 165°C
ing drum that is heatedby either steam or directheat. Oper- (284°F to 325°F). Pressure dependson anumber offactors,
atingtemperaturesdepend on the moisture content ofthe but it is usuallyin therange of 1.37 to 3.43 MPa (199 to
incoming furnish. The drum is set at a slight angle, and 498 lb/in2) formedium-density boards.Upon enteringthe

10—16
hot press, mats usuallyhave a moisturecontent of 8% to particleboard is used as core stockfor a widevariety offurni-
12%, but this is reducedto about 5% to 9% duringpressing. ture and cabinet applications.Floorunderlayment and
manufactured home deckingrepresent particleboard construc-
Alternatively, some particleboards are madebythe extrusion tion productsand approximately 10% ofthe market. Low-
process.In this system,formation andpressing occur in one density panels producedin thicknesses>27 mm
operation. The particles are forcedinto a long, heateddie (>1-1/16 in.) are used for solid-core doors.
(madeoftwo sets ofplatens)by meansofreciprocating pis-
tons. The board is extrudedbetweenthe platens. The parti- Particleboard Grade Marks and Product
cles are oriented in a planeperpendicular to the planeofthe Certification
board, resultingin propertiesthat differ fromthose obtained Particleboard that has been grade markedensures Ihat the
with flat pressing.
producthas beenperiodicallytested forcompliancewith
voluntary industryproductperformance standards.These
Finishing inspection or certification programs alsogenerallyrequire
Afterpressing, theboard is trimmedto obtain thedesired that the qualitycontrolsystem ofa production plant meets
length and width andto square the edges. Trim lossesusu- strictcriteria. Particleboard panelsconforming to these prod-
ally amountto 0.5%to 8%, dependingon the size ofthe uctperformance standards are marked with grade stampssuch
board, the processemployed,and the controlexercised. as those shown in Figure 10—8.
Trimmers usually consist ofsaws with tungstencarbidetips.
Aftertrimming,the boards are sanded orplaned priorto Fiberboard
packaging and shipping. Particleboards may alsobe veneered
or overlaid with other materials to provide a decorative The term fiberboard includes hardboard, medium-density
surface, orthey may be fmishedwith lacqueror paint. fiberboard (MDF), and insulation board. Several things
Treatments with fire-resistant chemicals are alsoavailable. differentiate fiberboard from particleboard, most notably the
physicalconfiguration ofthe comminuted material
Properties (Fig. 10—9). Becausewood is fibrous by nature,fiberboard
Tables 10—8 and 10—9 showrequirements for grades ofparti-
a
exploitsthe inherent strengthofwood to greater extentthan
cleboardandparticleboardflooringproducts, as specified by does particleboard.
theAmerican NationalStandardfor Particleboard A208.I To makefibersforcomposites, bonds betweenthe wood
(NPA 1993). This standard is typicallyupdatedat least
every 5 years. Today, approximately 85% ofinterior-type
fibers must be broken. In its simplest form, thisi

Table 10—8. Particleboard grade requirementsc

Linear Formaldehyde
Internal expansion maximum
MOR MOE bond Hardness max avg Screw-holding (N) emission
Graded (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (N) (%) Face Edge (ppm)

H—I 16.5 2,400 0.90 2,225 NS 1,800 1,325 0.30

H—2 20.5 2,400 0.90 4,450 NS 1,900 1,550 0.30
H—3 23.5 2,750 1.00 6,675 NS 2,000 1550 0.30
M—1 11.0 1,725 0.40 2,225 0.35 NS NS 0.30
M—S 12.5 1,900 0.40 2,225 0.35 900 800 0.30
M—2 14.5 2,225 0.45 2,225 0.35 1,000 900 0.30
M—3 16.5 2,750 0.55 2,225 0.35 1,100 1,000 0.30
LD—1 3.0 550 0.10 NS 0.35 400 NS 0.30
L0—2 5.0 1,025 0.15 NS 0.35 550 NS 0.30
aFrom NPA (1993). Particleboard made with phenol-formaldehyde-based resins does not emit signifi-
cant quantities of formaldehyde.Therefore,such products and other particleboard products made
with resin without formaldehydeare not subject to formaldehydeemission conformancetesting.
bPanels designatedas "exterior adhesive" must maintain 50% MOR after ASTM 01037 accelerated
aging.
CMOR = modulus of rupture; MOE = modulus of elasticity.NS = not specified. 1 MPa = 145 lb/in2;
I N = 0.22 lb.
dH = density> 800 kg/m3 (>50 lb/fl3), M = density 640 to 800 kg/m3 (40 to 50 lb/ft3). LD = density
<640 kg/rn3 (<40 lb/fl3). Grade M—S refers to medium density; "special" grade added to standard
after grades M—1, M—2, and M—3. Grade M—S falls between M—I and M—2 in physicalproperties.

10—17
 Table 10—9. Particleboard flooring productgrade requirementsa
Formaldehyde
Internal Linearexpansion maximum
MOR MOE bond Hardness max avg emission
Gradeb (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) (N) (%) (ppm)
PBU 11.0 1,725 0.40 2,225 0.35 0.20
D—2 16.5 2,750 0.55 2,225 0.30 0.20
D—3 19.5 3,100 0.55 2,225 0.30 0.20
°From NPA (1993). Particleboard madewith phenol-formaldehyde-based resins does not emit significant
quantitiesof formaldehyde. Therefore,such products and other particleboard products made with resin without
formaldehydeare not subject to formaldehydeemission conformance testing. Grades listed here shall also
comply with appropriaterequirements listed in section 3. Panels designatedas "exterioradhesive" must
maintain50% MOR after ASTM D1037 accelerated aging (3.33).
bPBU = underlayment; D = manufactured home decking.

TECONational
Evaluation Service
ReportNumber
from Council of SAMPLE MANUFACTURED HOME DECKING STAMP
AmericanBuilding
Officials(CABO) STANDARD
MAN U FACTURED N REFERENCE
BUILDING
HOME DECKING 0DE
/
Performance
Standard
for wood-based
structural-use
panels
GRADE NAME

0
/cNflflEDflED
GRADEMARK OF
CERTIFICATION
AGENGY COMPANY
LOCATION
CONFORMS

HUD24CFR32

MILL 000
TO ANSI
A21 GRADE0-2
AND PARTICLEBOARD
FORMALDEHYDE EMISSION
REQUIREMENTS OF

MILLNUMBER

Exposuredurability PRODUCTION: DATE/SHIFT

Figure 10—8. Examples ofgrade stamps for particleboard.

accomplishedby attritionmilling. Attritionmilling is an reduceenergyrequirements, but theymayreduce yield as

age-oldconcept wherebymaterial is fedbetweentwo disks, well.Refmersare availablewith single-or double-rotating
one rotating and the other stationary.As the material is disks, as well as steam-pressurized and unpressurizedcon-
forcedthroughthe preset gap betweenthe disks, it is sheared, figurations. For MDF, steam-pressurized refmingis typical.
cut, andabradedinto fibersandfiber bundles. Grainhas been
ground in this way for centuries. Fiberboardis normally classified by densityand can be made
by eitherdry or 'wet processes(Fig. 10—2). Dry processesare
Attritionmilling, or refming as it is commonlycalled, can applicableto boards with high density (hardboard)and me-
be augmentedby water soaking,steamcooking, orchemical dium density (MDF). Wetprocessesare applicableto both
treatments.Steamingthe lignocellulosic weakensthe lignin high-density hardboardand low-density insulationboard.
bonds betweenthe cellulosicfibers.As aresult,the fibers are The following subsections brieflydescribe the manufacturing
more readily separatedandusuallyare less damagedthan ofhigh- and medium-density dry-process fiberboard,wet-
fibersprocessed by dry processing methods.Chemicaltreat- process hardboard, andwet-processlow-density insulation
ments, usuallyalkali, are also used to weakenthe lignin board. Suchslandand Woodson(1986) and Maloney(1993)
bonds. All ofthese treatmentshelp increase fiberqualityand providemore detailedinformation.

10—18
Figure 10—9. Fibers can be made from many Figure 10—11. Air-laid matabout to entera
lignocellulosics and form the raw materials for laboratory press.
many composites, most notably fiberboard. Fibers
are typicallyproduced by the refining process.

SAMPLEBUNDLETAG FOR MDF CERTIFICATION

CONFORMS TO MDF
FORMALDEHYDEEMISSIONREQUIREMENTS
OF ANSI A208.2-1 994
STANDARD
REFER!ENCE
GRADEMARK OF IN BUILDING
CERTIFICATION CODE
AGENGY

IC P Al MI LL 000
\FIEO MILL NUMBER
COMPANY
LOCATION
PRODUCTION DATE/SHIFT

Figure 10—10. Laboratory-producedair-laid mat before Figure 10—12. Exampleof MDF formaldehyde
pressing. Approximate dimensions are 686 by 686 by emissions certificationtag.
152 mm (27 by 27 by 6 in.) thick. Resin was applied
to fibers before mat production. Thismat willbe made
into a high-density fiberboard approximately 3 mm
(0.12 in.) thick.

(Fig. 10—11). All dry-formedboards are pressedin multi-

Dry-Process Fiberboard
openingpresses at approximately 140°C to 165°C (284°F to
Dry-process fiberboardis madein a similarfashionto parti- 329°F) for UF-bonded products and 190°C (410°F)for PF-
cleboard.Resin (UF, PF) and other additives may be applied bondedproducts. Continuous pressingusing large,high-
tothe fibersby sprayingin short-retention blenders or intro- pressureband pressesis also gainingin popularity.Board
ducedas thewet fibers are fed fromthe refinerinto ablow-
density is a basic property and an indicatorofboard quality.
line dryer.Alternatively, somefiberboardplants addthe resin Since densityis greatly influencedby moisture content, this
in the refiner.The adhesive-coated fibers arethen air-laid into is constantly monitoredby moisture sensorsusinginfrared
a mat for subsequent pressing,much thesameas mat light.An example ofan MDFformaldehyde emissions
formation forparticleboard. certification tag is shownin Figure 10—12.
Pressing procedures fordry-process fiberboard differ some-
what from particleboard procedures. Afterthefiber mat is Wet-Process Hardboard
formed(Fig. 10—10), it is typicallypre-pressedin aband Wet-processhardboards differ from dry-process fiberboards in
press. The densifiedmat is then trimmedby disk cutters and th
severalsignificantways. First, water is used as distribu-
transferred to caulplates for thehardboard pressing operation; tion medium for formingthe fibers into a mat. As such,this
forMDF, the trimmedmat is transferreddirectlyto the press technology is reallyan extension ofpapermanufacturing

10—19
 technology. Secondly, some wet-process boardsare made Insulation Board
without additionalbinders.Ifthe lignocellulosic contains Insulationboards are low-density, wet-laidpanel products
sufficient lignin and iflignin is retained during therefining used for insulation, sound deadening, carpetunderlayment,
operation,lignincan serve as the binder. Underheatand and similarapplications. In the manufactureofinsulation
pressure, lignin will flow and act as a thermosetting adhe- board, theneed for refining and screeningis a functionofthe
sive, enhancingthe naturallyoccurringhydrogen bonds. raw material available, the equipmentused,and the desired
end-product. Insulationboardstypically do not use a binder,
Refining is an importantstep fordevelopingstrength in wet- and theyrelyon hydrogenbonds to hold theboard compo-
processhardboards.The refiningoperationmust alsoyield a nents together.Sizing agents are usuallyadded to the furnish
fiberofhigh "freeness;"that is, it must be easy to remove
water from the fibrousmat. The mat is typicallyformed on a (about 1%) to providethe finishedboard with a modest
Fourdrinierwire, like papermaking, or on cylinder formers. degree ofwater resistance and dimensionalstability. Sizing
The wet processemploys a continuously travelingmesh agentsincluderosin, starch, paraffm,cumarone, resin,
screen,onto which the soupypulp flows rapidly and asphalt, and asphaltemulsions.
smoothly. Wateris drawnoffthroughthe screenand then Likethe manufacture ofwet-process hardboard, insulation
througha series ofpress rolls, whichuse a wringingaction boardmanufactore is a modification ofpapermaking. A thick
to removeadditionalwater. fibrous sheet is madefrom a low-consistency pulp suspen-
sion in aprocessknownas wet felting. Feltingcan be ac-
Wet-processhardboardsare pressed in multi-opening presses
heatedby steam. The press cycle consistsofthreephases and complishedthroughuse ofa deckle box, Fourdrinier screen,
lasts 6 to 15 mm. The first phase is conductedat high pres- or cylinder screen. A deckle box is a bottomless framethat is
placed over a screen. A measuredamountofstock is put in
sure, and it removesmost ofthe water while bringing the the box to form one sheet; vacuumis then appliedto remove
boardto the desiredthickness.The primarypurposeofthe
most ofthe water. The use ofFourdrinierscreenfor felting is
secondphase is to removewater vapor. The fmal phase is
similarto that for papermaking, exceptthat line speeds are
relatively shortand resultsin the final cure. A maximum reducedto 1.5 to 15 m/min (5 to 49 ft/mm).
pressure ofabout 5 MPa (725 lb/in2) is used.Heat is essen-
tial duringpressingto inducefiber-to-fiber bond. A high Insulation boardis usually cold-pressedto removemost oF
temperatureofup to 210°C (410°F)is used to increase pro- thefreewater after the mat is formed. The wetmats arethen
ductionby causingfaster evaporation ofthe water.Lackof dried to the final moisturecontent. Dryersmay be a continu-
sufficient moistureremoval during pressing adversely affects ous tunnel or a multi-deck arrangement. The board is gener-
strength and may result in "springback"orblistering. ally dried in stagesat temperatures rangingfrom 120°C to
190°C (248°F to 374°F). Typically, about 2 to 4 h are
Post-Treatment of Wet- and requiredto reduce moisture contentto about 1% to 3%.
Dry-Process Hardboard
Severaltreatmentsare used to increase the dimensional Afterdrying,someboards are treatedfor variousapplications.
stability and mechanical performance ofhardboard. Heat Boards maybe given tongue-and-groove or shiplapedges or
treatment,tempering,and humidification may be done singu- can be grooved to produce aplank effect. Otherboardsare
larly or in conjunction with one another. laminated by means ofasphalttoproduceroofinsulation.

Heattreatment—exposure ofpressedfiberboard to thyheat— Properties and Applications

improvesdimensionalstability and mechanical properties,
reduceswater adsorption, and improves interfiber bonding. Medium-Density Fiberboard—Minimumpropertyre-
quirements, as specified bythe American NationalStandard
Temperingis the heattreatment ofpressedboards,preceded for MDF, A208.2(NPA 1994) are given in Table 10—10.
by the additionofoil. Temperingimproves board surface This standardis typicallyupdatedevery 5 years or less. The
hardness and is sometimesdone on varioustypes ofwet- furniture industryis by far the dominantMDFmarket. Me-
formed hardboards. It also improves resistance to abrasion, dium-density fiberboard is frequently used in place ofsolid
scratching, scarring, and water. The most commonoils used wood, plywood, andparticleboardin many furnitureapplica-
include linseed oil, tung oil,and tall oil. tions. It is also used for interiordoorskins, mouldings,and
interiortrim components (Youngquist and others 1997).
Humidification is the additionofwater to bring the board
moisture content intoequilibriumwith the air. Initially, a Hardboard—Table 10—11 providesbasic hardboardphysi-
pressedboard has almost no moisture content. Whenthe cal properties (ANSIIAHA A135.4—1995 (AHA 1995a)) for
board is exposedto air, it expandslinearly by taking on 3% selected products. The uses forhardboardcan generallybe
to 7% moisture. Continuousor progressivehumidifiersare grouped as construction, furnitureand furnishings, cabinet
commonly usedfor this purpose.Air ofhigh humidityis and store work, appliances,and automotiveand rolling
forcedthroughthe stackswhereit provideswater vaporto the stock. Typicalhardboard productsare prefinishedpaneling
boards.The entireprocess is controlled by a dry-bulb-wet- (ANSI/ABAA135.5—1995 (AHA 1995b)), house siding
bulb controller. Anothermethod involves spraying water on (ANSIJAHA A135.6—1990 (AHA 1990)), floor underlay-
theback sideoftheboard. ment, and concreteform board. Table 10—12 shows physical

10—20
Table 10—10. Medium-density fiberboard (MDF) property requirementsa
. Nominal Internal Formaldehyde
thickness MOR MOE bond Screw-holding (N) emissionc
Product classb (mm) (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) Face Edge (ppm)

Interior MDF
HD 34.5 3,450 0.75 1,555 1,335 0.30
MD 21 24.0 2,400 0.60 1,445 1,110 0.30
>21 24.CI 2,400 0.55 1,335 1,000 0.30
LD 14.0 1,400 0.30 780 670 0.30
Exterior MDF
MD—Exterior 21 34.5 3,450 0.90 1,445 1,110 0.30
adhesive >21 31.0 3,100 0.70 1,335 1,000 0.30
aFrom NPA (1994). Metric property values shall be primary in determining product performance
requirements.
bMD_Exterior adhesivepanels shall maintain at least 50% of listed MOR after ASTM D1037—1991,
accelerated HD = density> 800 kg/rn3 (> 50 lb/fl3), MD = density640 to 800 kg/rn3
aging (3.3.4).
(40 to 50 lb/ft), LD = density <640 kg/rn3 (< 40 lbfft3).
cMaxirnum emission when tested in accordance with ASTM E1333—1 990, Standard testmethod
for determining formaldehydelevels from wood products under definedtest conditionsusing
a larger chamber(ASTM).

Table 10—11. Hardboard physical property requirement?

Water resistance Tensile strength
:max avg/panel) (mm avg/panel)(MPa)
Water MOR
Normal absorption Thickness (mm avg/ Parallel Perpendicular
thickness based on swelling panel) to to
Product class (mm) weight(%) (%) (MPa) surface surface

Tempered 2.1 :30 25 41.4 20.7 0.90

2.5 25 20 41.4 20.7 0.90
3.2 25 20 41.4 20.7 0.90
4.8 25 20 41.4 20.7 0.90
6.4 20 15 41.4 20.7 0.90
7.9 15 10 41.4 20.7 0.90
9.5 10 9 41.4 20.7 0.90
Standard 2.1 40 30 31.0 15.2 0.62
2.5 :35 25 31.0 15.2 0.62
3.2 :35 25 31.0 15.2 0.62
4.8 :35 25 31.0 15.2 0.62
6.4 25 20 31.0 15.2 0.62
7.9 20 15 31.0 15.2 0.62
9.5 15 10 31.0 15.2 0.62
Service-tempered 3.2 35 30 31.0 3.8 0.52
4.8 30 30 31.0 3.8 0.52
6.4 30 25 31.0 3.8 0.52
9.5 20 15 31.0 3.8 0.52

aAHA 1995a.

10—21
 Table 10—12. Physical and mechanical properties ofhardboard sidinga
Propertyb Requirement
Water absorption(based on weight) 12% (max avg/panel)
Thicknessswelling 8% (max avg/panel)
Weatherabilityof substrate (max residualswell) 20%
Weatherabilityof primed substrate No checking, erosion, flaking, or objection-
able fiber raising; adhesion, less than
3.2 mm (0.125 in.) of coating picked up
Linearexpansion30% to 90% RH (max) Thicknessrange Maximum linear
(cm) expansion(%)
_____________
0.220—0.324 0.36
0.325—0.375 0.38
0.376—0.450 0.40
>0.451 0.40
Nail-head pull-through 667 N (150 lb) (mm avg/panel)
Lateral nail resistance 667 N (150 Ib) (mm avg/panel)
Modulusof rupture 12.4 MPa (1,800 lb/in2) for 9.5, 11, and
12.7 mm (3/8, 7/16, and 1/2 in.) thick
(mm avg/panel)
20.7 MPa (3,000 lb/in2) for 6.4 mm (1/4 in.)
thick (mm avg/panel)
Hardness 2002 N (450 Ib) (mm avg/panel)
Impact 229 mm (9 in.) (mm avg/panel)
Moisture contentc 4% to 9% included,and not morethan 3%
variancebetweenany two boards in any
one shipment or order
aFrom Youngquistand others 1992.
bRefer to ANSI/AHA A135.6 1—1990 for test method for determining informationon properties.
csince hardboard is a wood-basedmaterial, its moisture contentvaries with environmental
humidity conditions.When the environmental humidityconditionsin the area of intended use are
a critical factor, the purchaser should specify a moisture content range more restrictivethan
4% to 9% so that fluctuation in the moisture contentof the siding will be kept to a minimum.

propertiesofhardboardsiding. Hardboardsidingproducts example ofa grade stampfor a sidingproduct meetingthis

comein a greatvariety offinishes andtextures(smoothor standard.
embossed) and in differentsizes. For application purposes,
theAHA sidingclassifies into three basic types: Insulation Board—Physicaland mechanicalproperties of
insulation board are publishedin the ASTM C208 standard
Lapsiding—boardsapplied horizontally, with each board specification for cellulosic fiberinsulation board.Physical
overlappingthe board belowit
Squareedgepanels—siding intendedfor vertical application (a) (b)
in fullsheets
CONFORMS CONFORMS
Shiplap edgepanelsiding—sidingintendedfor vertical
application,with the long edges incorporating shiplap joints
The type ofpanel dictatesthe application method. The AHA
administers a qualityconformance programforhardboard for
ZiL\oo ANSJ/AHA 135.6
both panel and lap siding. Participationin this programis ANSI/AHA 194.1

voluntaiy and is open to all (not restrictedto AHAmem- Figure 10—13. Examplesofgrade stamps: (a) grade
bers).Under this program,hardboardsidingproductsare stamp for siding conforming toANSI/AHA Al35.6
testedby an independent laboratoryin accordance with prod- standard, and (b) grade markstampfor cellulosic
uctstandardANSI/AHAA135.6.Figure l0—13a providesan fiberboard productsconforming to ANSIIAHAAl94.1
standard.

10—22
properties are also includedin the ANSI standard for Surface treatment—Surface treatments improvethe appear-
cellulosicfiberboard, ANSJIAHA A194.1 (AHA 1985). ance andperformance ofboards. Boardsare cleaned by
Insulationboardproductscan be dividedinto three categories sprayingwith water and then dried at about 240°C: (464°F)
(Suchslandand Woodson1986): exterior,interior, and for 30 seconds. Boardsurfaces are then modifiedwith paper
industrial. overlay, paint, or stainor are printed directlyon the panel.
Exteriorproducts Punching—Punchingchangesboardsinto the perforated
sheets used as peg board. Most punchingmachine: punch
• Sheathing—board used in exteriorconstruction because of three rows ofholes simultaneously whilethe board advances.
its insulationand noise controlqualities,bracingstrength,
and low price Embossing—Embossingconsistsofpressingthe unconsoli-
dated mat offiberswith a texturedform. This processresults
• Roofdecking—three-in-one component that provides roof in a slightly contoured boardsurface that can enhance the
deck, insulation, and afmishedinteriorceilingsurface; in- resemblance ofthe boardto that ofsawn or weathe red wood,
sulationboardsheetsare laminated together with water- brick, and other materials.
proofadhesive Roofinsulation—insulation boarddesigned
foruse on flat roofdecks Specialty Composites
• Aluminum sidingbackerboard—fabricated insulation Special-purpose composites are producedto obtain desirable
board for improvinginsulation ofaluminum-sided houses properties like water resistance, mechanical strenglh, acidity
control, and decay and insect resistance. Overlays and ye-
Interiorproducts neers can alsobe addedto enhance both structural ]Droperties
• Buildingboard—general purposeproductfor interior and appearance (Fig. 10—14).
construction
• Ceilingtile—insulationboard embossed and decorated for Moisture-Resistant Composites
interioruse; valuedfor acoustical qualities; also decora- Sizingagents,wax, and asphaltcan be used to make com-
tive, nonacousticaltiles positesresistantto moisture. Sizingagentscover the surface
offibers, reducesurface energy, andrenderthe fibeis relatively
• Sound-deadening board—special productdesignedto hydrophobic. Sizingagents can be applied in two ways.In
control noise levels in buildings thefirstmethod,water is used as a medium to ensurethor-
Industrialproducts oughmixing ofsizingand fiber. The sizingis forcedto
precipitate from thewater and is fixedto the fibersurface. In
• Mobilehome board• the secondmethod,the sizing is applieddirectlyto the
fibers. Rosin is acommonsizing agentthat is obtainedfrom
• Expansionjoint strips livingpinetrees, from pine stumps, and as a by-prDduct of
• Boardsfor automotive andfurniture industries kraftpulping ofpines. Rosinsizing is added in amountsof
less than 3% solidsbased on dry fiberweight.
The AHAadministers a qualityconformance program for
cellulosic fiberboardproductsincludingsound-deadening Waxes arehigh molecularweighthydrocarbons derived from
crude oil. Waxsizing is used in dry-process fiberboardpro-
board, roofinsulation boards,structuralandnonstruLctural
sheathings, backerboard,androofdeckingin variousthick- duction; for wet processes, waxis added in solid form or as
nesses. Theseproductsare tested by an independent labora-
tory in accordancewith productstandardANSIIAI-IA
A194.1. An exampleofthe grade mark stamp forthese
productsis shown in Figure l0—13b.

Finishing Techniques
Several techniquesare usedto fmishfiberboard: trimming,
sanding,surfacetreatment,punching, and embossing.
Trimming—Trimmingconsistsofreducingproductsinto
standardsizes and shapes.Generally, double-saw trimmers
areusedto saw theboards. Trimmers consistofoverhead-
mountedsaws ormultiplesaw drives. Trimmedboards are
stacked in piles for futureprocessing.
Sanding—Ifthicknesstolerance is critical,hardboard is
sandedprior to fmishing. S1S (smooth on one side;)boards
requirethis process.Sanding reducesthicknessvariationand Figure 10—14. Medium-densityfiberboardwith veneer
improves surfacepaintability.Single-head, wide-beltsanders overlay. Edges canbe shaped and finishedas required
are usedwith 24- to 36-grit abrasive. by end product.

10—23
an emulsion.Wax sizing tends to lower strengthproperties
to a greater extentthan does rosin.
Asphaltis also used to increase water resistance, especially
in low-density wet-processinsulation board.Asphaltis a
black—brownsolid or semi-solid materialthat liquefies when
heated. The predominantcomponent ofasphalt is bitumen.
Asphaltis precipitated onto fiberby the additionofalum.
Flame-Retardant Composites
Twogeneralapplication methodsare available for improving
thefireperformance ofcomposites with fire-retardantchemi-
cals. One methodconsistsofpressureimpregnating the wood
with waterborneororganicsolventbome chemicals. The
secondmethodconsistsofapplyingfire-retardant chemical
coatingsto the wood surface, The impregnation methodis
usually more effective and longerlasting; however, this
techniquesometimes causes damageto the wood—adhesive Figure 10—15. Laboratory-producedlow-density,
bonds in the compositeand resultsin the degradation of cement-bondedcomposite panel. Full-scale panels
some physicaland mechanicalpropertiesofthe composite. suchas these are used in construction.
Forwood in existingconstructions, surface application of
fire-retardant paintsor other finishes offers apractical method
to reduceflamespread. alone(for example, increased strength-to-weight ratio,im-
provedabrasion resistance)
Preservative-TreatedCornposites
Wood is highly susceptibleto attack by fungi and insects; Composites madefrom wood and othermaterialscreate
thus, treatmentis essentialfor maximum durability in ad- enormous opportunities tomatchproductperformanceto
verse conditions. end-use requirements (Youngquist 1995).

Composites canbeprotectedfrom the attackofdecay fungi

andharmful insects by applyingselectedchemicalsas wood Inorganic—BondedComposites
preservatives. The degreeofprotection obtaineddepends on Inorganic-bonded wood composites havea long and varied
thekind ofpreservativeused and the ability to achieveproper history that startedwith commercial productionin Austriain
penetration andretentionofthe chemicals. Woodpreserva- 1914. A plethoraofbuilding materials can be made using
tive chemicalscanbe appliedusingpressureornonpressure inorganic bindersand lignocellulosics, and they run the
processes. As in the application offire-retardant chemicals, normal gamut ofpanelproducts, siding, roofing tiles, and
the application ofwood preservatives can sometimes cause precast buildingmembers (Fig. 10—15).
damageto wood—adhesivebonds,thus reducingphysicaland
mechanicalpropertiesofthe composite. Commonpreserva- Inorganic-bonded wood compositesare moldedproductsor
tive treatments includechromatedcopperarsenate (CCA) and boardsthat containbetween 10% and 70% by weightwood
boron compounds. particles orfibersand conversely 90%to 30% inorganic
binder. Acceptable properties ofan inorganic-bonded wood
Wood—Nonwood Composites composite can be obtained only when the wood particlesare
fullyencasedwith the binderto makeacoherentmaterial.
Interesthas burgeonedin combining wood and otherraw This differs considerably from thetechniqueusedtomanufac-
materials,such as plastics,gypsum,and concrete, into com- ture thermosetting-resin-bonded boardswhereflakesor parti-
positeproductswith uniquepropertiesand cost benefits cles are "spot welded"by a binderappliedas a fmely dis-
(Youngquist and others 1993a, 1993b, 1994;Rowelland tributedsprayorpowder.Because ofthis difference and
others 1997). The primaryimpetusfor developing such becausehardened inorganic binders have ahigherdensity
productshas comefrom one or more ofthe following research than that ofmost thermosetting resins, the required amount
and developmentgoals: ofinorganic binder per unit volumeofcompositematerialis
much higherthan that ofresin-bondedwood composites.
• Reducematerialcostsby combininga lowercost material The propertiesofinorganic-bonded wood compositesare
(actingas a filler or extender) with an expensive material significantly influenced by the amountandnature ofthe
• Develop productsthatcanutilize recycledmaterials andbe inorganic binderand the woodymaterialas well as the den-
recyclable inthemselves sity ofthe composites.
• Produce compositeproductsthat exhibitspecific proper- Inorganic bindersfall into three main categories: gypsum,
ties that are superiorto those ofthe component materials magnesia cement,and Portlandcement.Gypsumand magne-
sia cement aresensitiveto moisture, andtheiruse is

10—24
generally restrictedto interior applications. Composites Magnesia-Cement-BondedComposites
bondedwith Portland cement are more durable than those Fewerboardsbondedwith magnesia cementhave beenpro-
bondedwith gypsumormagnesia cement and are used in ducedthan cement- or gypsum-bonded panels, mainlybe-
both interiorand exteriorapplications. Inorganic-bonded cause ofprice. However, magnesia cement does offersome
composites are made by blending proportionate amounts of manufacturing advantages over Portland cement.First,the
lignocellulosic fiberwith inorganic materials in the presence various sugars in lignocellulosics apparentlydo not have as
ofwater and allowingtheinorganic materialto cure or "set much effecton the curingand bonding ofthebinder.Second,
up" to make a rigid composite. All inorganic-bonded com- magnesia cement is reportedto be more tolerantof high
posites are very resistantto deterioration, particularly by water contentduringproduction.This opens up possibilities
insects,vermin,and fire. to use lignocellulosics not amenableto Portlandcement
A unique featureofinorganic-bonded composites is that their composites, without leachingor other modification, and to
manufacture is adaptable to eitherendofthe costand tech- use alternative manufacturing processes andproducts.
Although composites bondedwith magnesiacemer.tare
nology spectrum. This is facilitatedby the fact that no heat considered water-sensitive, they are much less so than
is requiredto cure theinorganic material. Forexample, in
thePhilippines, Portlandcement-bonded composites are gypsum-bonded composites.
mostlyfabricatedusing manuallabor and are used in low- One successful application ofmagnesia cement is a low-
cost housing. In Japan, the fabrication ofthese composites is
density panel madefor interior ceiling and wall applications.
automated,and they are used in very expensive modular In theproduction ofthis panelproduct,wood wool
housing. (excelsior) is laid out in a low-density mat. The mat is then
The versatility ofmanufacture makesinorganic-bonded com- sprayed with an aqueous solutionofmagnesia cemnt,
posites ideally suitedto a variety oflignocellulosic materi- pressed,and cut into panels.
als. With a very small capital investmentand the most
In Finland, magnesia-cement-bonded particleboard is manu-
rudimentary oftools,satisfactoryinorganic-bonded lignocel-
lulosiccompositebuildingmaterials can be producedon a factured usinga converted conventional particleboard plant.
small scaleusing mostly unskilledlabor. Ifthe market for Magnesiaoxide is appliedto the lignocellulosic pLrticles in
such composites increases, technologycan be introcLuced to a batchblenderalong with otherchemicals and water.
increase manufacturing throughput. The laborforce can be Depending on application and otherfactors,boardsmay
trainedconcurrently with the gradual introduction ofmore be cold- or hot-pressed.
sophisticated technology. Other processes havebeensuggested for manufacturing mag-
nesia-cement-bonded composites. One application may be to
Gypsum-Bonded Composites spray a slurry ofmagnesiacement,water,and lignocellulosic
Gypsumcan be derivedby miningfrom natural sources or fiber onto existingstructures as fireproofmg. Extrusion into a
obtainedas abyproductofflue gas neutralization. Flue gas pipe-type profileor other profilesis also possible.
gypsum, now being producedin very large quantities in the
UnitedStatesbecauseofClean Air Act regulations, is the Portland-Cement-Bonded Composites
result ofintroducinglime into the combustion processto The most apparentand widely usedinorganic-bonded com-
reducesulfur dioxide emissions. In 1995, more than 100
posites are those bonded with Portlandcement. Portland
powerplants throughoutthe UnitedStates were producing cement,whencombined with water, immediately eactsin a
gypsum. Flue gas gypsum can be usedin lieu ofmined process calledhydrationto eventually solidify into a solid
gypsum. stone-like mass. Successfully marketedPortland-cement-
Gypsum panels are frequently used to finishinteriorwall and bondedcompositesconsist ofboth low-density products
ceiling surfaces. Inthe UnitedStates,these productsare madewith excelsior andhigh-density productsmide with
generically called"dry wall" becausetheyreplace wet plaster particles and fibers. General mechanical property valuesfor a
systems. To increase the bending strength and stiffness, low density cement—woodexcelsiorproduct are given in
gypsumpanelsare frequently wrappedin paper,whichpro- Table 10—13.
vides atensionsurface.An alternativeto wrappinggypsum
with fiber is to place the fiberwithinthe panel, as several The low-density productsmay be used as interior ceiling and
U.S. and Europeanfirms are doingwith recycledpaper fiber. wall panels in commercial buildings. In addition to the
There is no technicalreasonthat other lignocellulosics advantages describedfor low-density magnesia-bonded com-
cannotbe used in this way. Gypsumis widely available and posites,low-density composites bondedwith Portland
does not have the highlyalkalineenvironment ofcement. cement offer soundcontrol and can be quitedecorative. In
someparts ofthe world,these panels function as complete
Gypsum panels are normally made from a slurry ofgypsum, wall and roofdeckingsystems. The exteriorofthe panels is
water,andlignocellulosic fiber. In large-scale production, the stuccoed, and the interioris plastered. High-density panels
slurry is extruded onto a belt, whichcarriesthe slurry can be used as flooring, roofsheathing, fire doors, load-
a
through dryingoven to evaporate water and facilitate cureof bearing walls, and cement forms. Fairly complexmolded
thegypsum. The panel is then cutto length and trimmedif shapes can be moldedor extruded,such as decoraive roofmg
necessary. tiles or non-pressure pipes.

10—25
 Table 10—13. General properties of low-density cement—wood composites fabricated usingan
excelsior-type particle
Property From To

Bending strength 1.7 MPa (250 lb/in2) 5.5 MPa (800 lb/in2)
Modulusof elasticity 621 MPa (0.9 x io lb/in2) 1,241 MPa (1.8 x io lb/in2)
Tensile strength 0.69 MPa (100 bun2) 4.1 MPa (600 lb/in2)
Compression strength 0.69 MPa (100 lb/in2) 5.5 MPa (800 lb/in2)
Shearc 0.69 MPa (100 lb/in2) 1.4 MPa (200 lb/in2)
E/Gd 40 100
aData represent compilationof raw data from variety of sourcesfor range of board properties. Variables
include cement—wood mix, particle configuration, board density, and the forming and curing methods.
bSpecific gravity range, 0.5 to 1.0.
cShear strength data are limited to a small sample of excelsior boards having a specific gravity of 0.5 to 0.65.
dE/G is ratio of bending modulusof elasticityto modulusof rigidity or shear modulus. For wood, this ratio is
often assumed to be around 16.

Problems and Solutions CarbonDioxideTreatment—In themanufacture ofa ce-

Although the entiresphere ofinorganic-bonded lignocellu- ment-bondedlignocellulosic composite,the cementhydra-
losic compositesis attractive, and cement-bonded compos- tion processnormallyrequires from 8 to 24 h to develop
ites are especiallyso, the use ofcementinvolves limitations sufficient board strength and cohesiveness to permitthe
and tradeoffs. Markedembrittlement ofthe lignocellulosic release ofconsolidation pressure. By exposingthe cementto
component is known to occur and is causedby the alkaline carbondioxide,the initialhardeningstage can bereducedto
environment providedby the cement matrix. In addition, less than 5 mm. This phenomenonresults from the chemical
hemicellulose, starch, sugar, tannins, and lignin, all to a reactionofcarbondioxide with calciumhydroxide to form
varyingdegree, affectthe curerate and ultimate strength of calciumcarbonate and water.
these composites. To make strong and durable composites, Reductionofinitial cure time ofthe cement-bonded lignocel-
measuresmust be takento ensurelong-term stabilityofthe lulosic composite is not the only advantage ofusingcarbon
lignocellulosic in the cement matrix. To overcome these dioxideinjection. Certainspecies ofwood have varying
problems,various schemes have been developed. The most amounts ofsugars and tannins that interfere with the hydra-
commonis leaching,wherebythe lignocellulosic is soaked tion or settingofPortland cement. Research has shown that
in water for 1 or 2 days to extractsome ofthe detrimental theuse ofcarbon dioxide injection reducesthe likelihood of
components. However,in someparts oftheworld, the water these compounds to inhibit the hydrationprocess,thus
containingthe leachate is difficultto dispose of. Low water— allowing the use ofawiderrange ofspecies in these compos-
cement ratios are helpful, as is the use ofcuringaccelerators ites. In addition,researchhas demonstrated that composites
like calciumcarbonate. Conversely, low alkali cements have treatedwith carbon dioxide can be twiceas stiffand strongas
been developed, but they are not readily available throughout untreatedcomposites (Geimerand others 1992). Finally,
theworld. Two other strategiesarenaturalpozzolansand carbon-dioxide-treatedcomposites do notexperience efflores-
carbondioxidetreatment. cence(migration ofcalciumhydroxide to surface ofmaterial),
Natural Pozzolans—Pozzolans are defmedas siliceous or so the appearance ofthe surface ofthe fmal productis not
siliceousand aluminousmaterials that can react chemically changedover time.
with calciumhydroxide(lime)at normaltemperatures in the
presenceofwater to form cement compounds (ASTM 1988). Wood Fiber—Thermoplastic
Somecommonpozzolanicmaterials include volcanicash, fly
Composites
ash, rice husk ash, and condensedsilicafume. All these
materials can react with lime at normaltemperatures tomake As described else'where in this chapter,the use oflignocellu-
a naturalwater-resistant cement. losic materials with thermosetting polymericmaterials,like
phenol-orurea-formaldehyde, in the production ofcompos-
In general, when pozzolansare blendedwith Portland ce- ites has a long history. The use oflignocellulosics with
ment,they increase the strength ofthe cement but slowthe thermoplastics, however, is a more recent innovation.
curetime. More important, pozzolansdecreasethe alkalinity Broadlydefined, a thermoplastic softenswhenheatedand
ofPortlandcement,which indicatesthat addinglignocellu- hardens whencooled. Thermoplastics selected for use
losic-based material (rice husk ash) to cement-bonded ligno- with lignocellulosics must melt or softenat or belowthe
cellulosiccompositesmay be advantageous. degradation point ofthe lignocellulosic component,normally
200°C to 220°C(392°Fto 428°F). These thermoplastics

10—26
include polypropylene, polystyrene, vinyls, and low- and
high-density polyethylenes.
Woodflour is a readilyavailableresource that can be used as
a filler in thermoplastic composites. Woodflour is processed
commercially, often frompost-industrial materials such as
planer shavings, chips, and sawdust. Severalgrades are
availabledepending upon wood species and particle size.
Woodfibers, although more difficult to process compared
with wood flour, can leadto superiorcomposite properties
and act more as areinforcement than as afiller.A wide vari-
etyofwood fibersareavailable fromboth virginand recycled
resources.
Othermaterials can be addedto affectprocessing andproduct
performance ofwood—thermoplasticcomposites. Theseaddi-
tives can improvebondingbetweenthe thermoplastic and Figure 10—16. Theuseof lignocelulosics as reinforcing
fillers allowsthermoplastics to be molded into a wide
wood component (for example, coupling agents),product
variety of shapes and forms.
performance (impactmodifiers, UV stabilizers, flame retar-
dants), andprocessability(lubricants).
Thermoplastics inpellet form havebulk densityin therange
Several considerations must be kept in mind when process- of500 to 600 kg/rn3(31 to 37 lb/ft3). Lignocellulosicstypi-
ing wood with thermoplastics.Moisturecan disrupt many cally have an uncompactedbulk densityof25 to 250 kg/rn3
thermoplastic processes,resulting in poor surface quality, (1.6 to 16 lb/ft3).Wood fibersare atthe low end ofthe hg-
voids, and unacceptable parts.Materialsmust either be nocellulosic bulk densitycontinuum and wood flours at the
predriedor vented equipmentmust be used to remove mois- high end. Althoughprocessing ofwood flour in thermoplas-
ture. The low degradation temperatureofwood must alsobe tics is relatively easy, the low bulk density and difficultyof
considered. As a generalrule, melt temperatures shouldbe
dispersing fibrous materials makethermoplastics more diffi-
kept below200°C(392°F),exceptfor short periods. Higher cult to compound. More intensivemixingand the use of
temperatures canresult in the releaseofvolatiles, discolora- specialfeeding equipment may be necessary to handlelonger
tion, odor, and embrittlementofthe wood component. fibers.
There are two mainstrategies for processing thermoplastics The manufacture ofthermoplastic composites is usuallya
in lignocellulosic composites (Youngquist and others
1993b).In the first, the lignocellulosic component serves as two-stepprocess.The raw materialsare firstmixed together,
and the composite blend is then formedinto a product. The
areinforcingagentor filler in a continuous thermoplastic combination ofthese steps is called in-line processing, and
matrix. In the second,the thermoplasticserves as a binderto theresult is a singleprocessing stepthat convertsraw
the majority lignocellulosic component. The presence or materials to endproducts.In-lineprocessingcan be very
absenceofa continuous thermoplasticmatrixmay alsode- difficult becauseofcontrol demands andprocessing trade-offs.
terminethe processabilityofthe composite material. In As a result,it is often easier and more economicalto separate
general, ifthe matrixis continuous, conventional thermo- theprocessingsteps.
plasticprocessingequipmentmay be usedto process
composites; however, ifthe matrixis not continuous, other Compounding is the feedingand dispersingofthe lignocellu-
processesmay be required.For thepurposeofdiscussion, we losiccomponent in a moltenthermoplastic to produce a
presentthese two scenariosfor composites with h:igh and low homogeneous material.Variousadditives are added and
thermoplasticcontent. moisture is removedduringcompounding. Compounding
may be accomplished usingeitherbatchmixers(:forexample,
CompositesWith High Thermoplastic Content internaland thermokinetic mixers)or continuous mixers(for
In composites with high thermoplasticcontent, thethermo- example, extruders and kneaders). Batchsystemsallow
plasticcomponentis in a continuousmatrix andthe ligno- closercontrol ofresidence time, shear,and temperature than
cellulosic component servesas areinforcement or filler do continuous systems. Batch systemsare also more
(Fig. 10—16).In the greatmajorityofreinforcedthermoplas- appropriate for operations consisting ofshortruns and fre-
tic compositesavailable commercially, inorganic materials quent changeofmaterials. On the other hand, coitinuous
(for example,glass,clays, andminerals)areused as rein- systems are less operator-dependent than are batch systems
forcements or fillers. Lignocellulosic materials offer some and haveless batch-to-batch differences (Anon. 1997).
advantages over inorganic materials; they are lighter, much The compounded materialcanbe immediately pressedor
less abrasive, and renewable. As areinforcement, lignocellu-
losicscan stiffenand strengthen the thermoplastic and can shapedinto an end product while still in its moli;en state or
improvethermal stabilityofthe productcompared with that pelletizedinto small, regularpellets for futurereheatingand
ofunfilledmaterial. forming. The most common types ofproduct-forming
methods forwood—thermoplasticcompositesinvolve forcing

10—27
molten materialthrougha die (sheet orprofile extrusion) into thermoplastic granules,flakes,or fibersand pressedinto
a cold mold(injectionmolding)or pressingin calenders panel products.
(calendering) or betweenmold halves(thermoforming and
compression molding). Becausethe thermoplastic component remainsmoltenwhen
hot, differentpressingstrategies must be used than when
Properties ofwood—plasticcomposites can vary greatly thermosetting bindersare used. Two options havebeen
depending upon such variablesas type, form,and weight developedto accommodate these types ofcomposites. In the
fractions ofconstituents, types ofadditives, and processing first, the materialis placed in the hot press at ambienttern-
history.Table 10—14shows someofthe properties for perature.The press then closesand consolidates the material,
severalunfilledpolypropylene and wood—polypropylene and heat is transferred through conduction to melt thether-
composites. moplastic component, whichflows around the lignocellu-
losic component. The press is then cooled,"freezing"the
Composites with high thermoplasticcontent are not without
tradeoffs. Impactresistance ofsuch composites decreases thermoplastic so that the composite can be removedfrom the
compared with that ofunfilledthermoplastics, and these press.Alternatively, the material can be firstheated in an
oven or hot press. The hot material is then transferred to a
composites are also more sensitive to moisture thanunfilled
material orcompositesfilled with inorganic material. Froma coolpress whereit is quickly consolidatedand cooledto
makea rigidpanel. Somecommercial nonstructurallignocel-
practicalstandpoint,however,the thermoplastic component
usuallymakesthe temperaturesensitivity ofthe composite lulosic—thermoplasticcomposites are made in this way.
more significantthan any changein propertiesbroughtabout
Nonwoven Textile-Type Composites
by moisture absorption.
In contrastto high-thermoplastic-content and conventional
CompositesWith Low Thermoplastic Content low-thermoplastic-content composites, nonwoventextile-
Composites with low thermoplastic contentcan be made in a type composites typically require long fibrous materials for
variety ofways. In the simplestform, the thermoplastic their manufacture. These fibers mightbe treatedjute or kenaf,
componentacts much the same wayas a thermosetting resin; butmore typicallythey aresyntheticthermoplasticmaterials.
that is, as a binder to the lignocellulosic component. An Nonwoven processes allow and tolerateawider range of
alternativeis to use the thermoplasticin the form ofa textile lignocellulosic materials and synthetic fibers, depending on
fiber. The thermoplastic textile fiberenablesa variety of productapplications. Afterfibersare dry-blended, theyare
air-laidinto a continuous, loosely consolidatedmat. The
lignocellulosics to be incorporatedinto a low-density, non-
woven, textile-like mat. The mat may be a product in itself, mat is thenpassed through a secondary operation in which
or it may be consolidatedinto a high-density product. the fibersare mechanically entangled or otherwise bonded
together. This low-density mat may be a product in itself, or
Experimentally, low-thermoplastic-content composites have the mat maybe shapedand densified in athermoformingstep
beenmadethatare very similarto conventional lignocellu- (Youngquist and others 1993b).
losiccomposites inmany performance characteristics
(Youngquist and others 1993b).In their simplestform,
Ifleft as low density andused withoutsignificant modifica-
lignocellulosic particlesor fiberscan be dry-blended with tion by post-processing, the mats have a bulk density of

Table 10—14. Mechanical properties of wood—polypropylenecomposites

Tensile Flexural Izod impact energy
Heat
Strength Modulus Elonga- Strength Modulus Notched Unnotched deflection
Density
(g/cm (MPa (GPa tion (MPa (CPa (J/m (J/m temperature
Compositec (lb/ft3)) (lb/in2)) (lb/in2)) (%) (lb/in2)) (lb/in2)) (ft—lbf/in)) (ft—lbf/in)) ( C ( F))
Polypropylene 0.9 28.5 1.53 5.9 38.3 1.19 20.9 656 57
(56.2) (4,130) (221,000) (5,550) (173,000) (0.39) (12.3) (135)
PP + 40% 1.05 25.4 3.87 1.9 44.2 3.03 22.2 73 89
woodflour (65.5) (3,680) (561,000) (6,410) (439,000) (0.42) (1.4) (192)
PP + 40% 1.03 28.2 4.20 2.0 47.9 3.25 26.2 91 100
hardwood fiber (64.3) (4,090) (609,000) (6,950) (471,000) (0.49) (1.7) (212)
PP+40% 1.03 52.3 4.23 3.2 72.4 3.22 21.6 162 105
hardwood fiber (64.3) (7,580) (613,000) (10,500) (467,000) (0.41) (3.0) (221)
+ 3% coupling
agent
aUnpublished data.
bpropeies measured accordingto ASTM standards for plastics.
Cpp is polypropylene; percentagesbased on weight.

10—28
50 to 250 kg/rn3 (3 to 16 lb/ft3). These productsare particu- Low-density nonwoven matscan alsobe usedto replace dirt
larly well knowninthe consumerproductsindustry, where or sod for grass seedingaround newhome sites or along
nonwoven technology is used to make avariety ofabsorbent highway embankments. Grassseed can be incorporated
personal care products,wipes, and other disposableitems. directlyinto the mat. Thesemats promote seed germination
The productsare made from high-qualitypuipsin conjunc- and goodmoistureretention.Low-density mats can also be
tion with additivesto increase absorptiveproperties. A much used for filters.The densitycan be varied,dependingon the
wider varietyoflignocellulosics canbe used for other appli- material being filteredandthe volumeofmaterialthat passes
cations, as describedin the following text. throughthe mat per unitoftime.
One interestingapplication forlow-density nonwoven mats High-density fibermats can be defmed as composites that are
is formulch aroundnewly plantedseedlings. The mats madeusingthe nonwoven mat process and then formed into
provide thebenefitsofnaturalmulch; in addition, controlled- rigid shapes by heatand pressure. To ensuregood bonding,
release fertilizers, repellents, insecticides, andherbicides can the lignocellulosic can be precoatedwith a thermDsetting
be added to themats. The additionofsuch chemicalscould resin such as phenol—formaldehyde,or it can be blendedwith
bebased on silviculturalprescriptions to ensure seedling synthetic fibers, thermoplastic granules,orany combination
survivaland early development on planting sites where ofthese materials.High-density fiber matscantypicallybe
severenutritionaldeficiencies, animaldamage,insect attack, pressedinto productshavinga specificgravityof 0.60 to
andweeds are anticipated. 1.40. Table 10—15 presents mechanicalandphysicalproperty

Table 10—15. Properties of nonwoven web composite panels with specificgravity of 1.oa
Formulationb
Property 90H/IOPE 90H/1OPP 80H/IOPE/PR
Static bending MOR, MPa (lb/in2) 23.3 (3,380) 25.5 (3,700) 49.3 (7150)
Cantileverbending MOR, MPa (lb/in2) 21.1 (3,060) 27.1 (3,930) 45.6 (6,610)
Static bending MOE, GPa (x103 lb/in2) 2.82 (409) 2.99 (434) 3.57 (518)

DynamicMOE, GPa (xl lb/in2) 4.75 (689) 5.27 (764) 5.52 (800)
Tensile strength,MPa (lb/in2) 13.5 (1,960) 12.5 (1,810) 27.7 (4,020)
Tensile MOE, GPa (xlO3lbTin2) 3.87 (561) 420 (609) 5.07 (735)
Internal bond, MPa (lb/in2) 0.14 (20) 0.28 (41) 0.81 (120)

Impact energy, J (ftlbf) 26.7 (19.7) 21.5 (15.9) 34.3 (25.3)

Water-soak,24 h
Thicknessswell, % 60.8 40.3 21.8
Water absorption, % 85.0 54.7 45.1
Water boil, 2 h
Thicknessswell, % 260.1 77.5 28.2
Water absorption, % 301.6 99.5 55.7
Linearexpansionc
Ovendryto
30% RH, % 0.13 0.00 0.55
65% RH, % 0.38 0.25 0.76
90% RH, % 0.81 0.78 0.93
EquilibriumMC at
30% RH, % 3.4 3.4 3.4
65% RH, % 6.4 6.2 6.3
90% RH, % 15.6 14.9 14.1

aFrom Youngquistand others 1992.

bValues connectedby solid line are not statisticallydifferent at 0.05 significance, level.
90H/1OPE, 90% hemlockand 10°A polyester; 90H/1OPP, 90% hemlockand 10% poly-
propylene; 80H/IOPE/IOPR, 80% hemlock, 10% polyester, and 10% phenolic resin.
CRH = relative humidity.

10—29
data for nonwoven webcompositepanelswith a specific ASTMD2718—90. Standardtestmethod for structural
gravityof 1.0 for threedifferentformulations ofwood,syn- panelsin planarshear (rollingshear).
thetic fibers,and phenolicresin. Afterthermoforming, the
ASTMD2719—89. Standardtest methods for structural
productspossess goodtemperatureresistance.Becauselonger
fibersare used,these productsexhibitbettermechanical panels in shearthrougb-the-thickness.
propertiesthan those obtainedwith high-thermoplastic- ASTM D3043—87. Standardmethods oftesting structural
contentcomposites;however, the high lignocellulosic panels in flexure.
contentleads to increasedmoisture sensitivity.
ASTMD3044—76. Standardtest method for shear modu-
lus ofplywood.
References ASTM D3500—90. Standardtest methods for structural
Abourezk,J. 1977. Statements on introducedbills andjoint panels in tension.
resolutions. Congressional Record—U.S. Senate Mar. 1
S3156-S3179. ASTM D3501—76. Standardmethods oftesting plywood
in compression.
AHA. 1985. Cellulosicfiberboard,ANSI/AHAA194.1—
1985. Palatine, IL: AmericanHardboardAssociation. ASTM E1333—90. Standardtest method for determining
formaldehyde levels from woodproductsunder defined test
AHA. 1990. Hardboardsiding, ANSI/AHAAl35.6—1990. conditions usinga largechamber.
Palatine,IL: American HardboardAssociation.
English, B.; Chow, P.; Bajwa,D.S. 1997. Processing into
AHA. 1995a. Basic hardboard,ANSI/AHAA135.4—1995. composites. In: Rowell, Roger M.; Young, RaymondA.;
Palatine, IL: American HardboardAssociation. Rowell, JudithK., eds. Paper and compositesfrom agro-
AHA. 1995b. Prefmished hardboardpaneling, ANSI/AHA based resources.Boca Raton, FL: CRC Lewis Publishers:
A135.5—1995. Palatine, IL: American HardboardAssocia- 269—299. Chapter8.
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ofcementparticleboard. In: Proceedings, inorganicbonded
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Inc. 19: 58—70.
September 27—30; Spokane, WA.
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structural use panels. Tacoma,WA: AmericanPlywood HPVA. 1994. American nationalstandardfor hardwoodand
Association. decorative plywood, ANSIIHPVA—1—1994. Reston, VA:
HardwoodPlywood& VeneerAssociation.
APA—The Engineered Wood Association. 1991. Perform-
ance standards andpoliciesfor structural use panels. APA Maloney, T.M. 1986. Terminologyand products defini-
PRP—108. Tacoma, WA: APA—The EngineeredWood tions—A suggested approach to uniformity worldwide.
Association. In: Proceedings, 18th international unionofforestresearch
organization world congress; 1986 September; Ljubljana,
APA—The Engineered Wood Association. l995a. Design Yugoslavia. IUFRO WorldCongressOrganizing
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Technical Note N375 B. Tacoma, WA: APA—The
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fiberboard manufacturing. San Francisco, CA: Miller
APA—The Engineered Wood Association. 1995b. Ply- Freeman Publications.
wood design specification. Tacoma, WA: APA—The Engi-
neeredWood Association. Marra, G. 1979. Overview ofwood as material. Journalof
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ASTM. 1988. Concreteand mineralaggregates. 1988. 1(4): 699—710.
Annual Book ofASTM Standards,Sec. 4, Vol. 4.02, 4.03.
Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and McKay, M. 1997. Plywood. In: Smulski,S., ed.. Engi-
Materials. neeredwood products—A guide for specifiers, designersand
users. Madison, WI: PFS ResearchFoundation.
ASTM. (Current edition).AnnualBook ofASTM Stan-
dards. Philadelphia,PA: AmericanSociety for Testing and NIST. 1992. Voluntaryproduct standardPS 2—92. Perform-
Materials. ance standard forwood-base structural-use panels. National
Institute of Standards and Technology. Gaithersburg, MD:
ASTM C208—94. Standardspecification for cellulosic fiber UnitedStatesDepartment ofCommerce.
insulatingboard. NIST. 1995. Voluntaryproduct standard PS 1—95 Construc-
ASTM Dl037—94. Standardtest methods for evaluating tion and industrial plywood. NationalInstituteof Standards
thepropertiesofwood-based fiberand particle panelmate- and Technology. Gaithersburg, MD: UnitedStates Depart-
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NPA. 1993. Particleboard, ANSI A208.1—1993.Gaithers- Youngquist, J.A. 1988. Wood-based composites:The
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1987 September28—October1; Rome, Italy: 11&—124.

10—31
 I Chapter UI
Glued Structural Members
Russell C. Moody, Roland Hernandez,and Jen Y. Liu

luedstructural members are manufactured in a

Contents varietyofconfigurations.Structural composite
StructuralCompositeLumber 11—1 lumber(SCL) productsconsist ofsmallpieces of
woodglued togetherinto sizes commonfor solid-sawn
Types 11—2 lumber. Glued-laminated timber(glulam)is an engineered
stress-rated productthat consists oftwo ormore layersof
Advantages and Uses 11—2 lumberin whichthe grain ofall layersis oriented parallelto
Standards and Specifications 11—3 thelength ofthe lumber. Gluedstructuralmembersalso
Glulam 11—3 includelumberthat is glued to panelproducts, such as box
beamsand I-beams, and structural sandwich comtruction.
Advantages 11—3

History 11—4 Structural Composite Lumber

Typesof GlulamCombinations 11—4 Structuralcompositelumberwas developedin response to
the increasing demandforhigh quality lumberat atime
Standards and Specifications 11—6 whenit was becoming difficultto obtain this type oflumber
Manufacture 11—6 from the forestresource. Structural composite lumber prod-
uctsare characterized by smallerpieces ofwood glued to-
Development ofDesignValues 11—9 gether into sizes commonfor solid-sawn lumber
Designs for Glued-Laminated Timber 11—10 One type ofSCL productis manufactured by laminating
GluedMembersWith Lumberand Panels 11—1:2 veneerwith all plies parallel to the length. This product is
calledlaminated veneerlumber(LVL) and consistsofspe-
Box Beams and I-Beams 11—12 ciallygradedveneer. Another type ofSCL product consists
Prefabricated WoodI-Joists 11—13 ofstrands ofwood or strips ofveneerglued together under
high pressures andtemperatures. Dependingupcn the com-
Stressed-Skin Panels 11—14 ponentmaterial, thisproduct is called laminated strand
Structural Sandwich Construction 11—16 lumber(LSL), parallelstrandlumber(PSL), or oriented
strandlumber(OSL)(Fig. 11—1). These types ofSCL prod-
Fabrication 11—16 uctscan be manufactured from raw materials,such as aspen
or other underutilized species, that arenot commonly used
Structural Design 11—17
for structural applications. Different widthsoflumber can be
Dimensional Stability,Durability,and Bowing 11—20 rippedfrom SCL forvarioususes.
Thermal Insulation 11—20 Structural composite lumberis a growingsegmentofthe
Fire Resistance 11—21 engineered wood productsindustry. It isusedas areplace-
ment forlumberin variousapplications and in the manufac-
References 11—21 tare ofother engineered woodproducts, such as prefabricated
woodI-joists,whichtake advantage ofengineering design
valuesthat can be greaterthan those commonlyassignedto
sawn lumber.

11—1
 along the length ofthe member. The least dimension ofthe
strandsmust not exceed 6.4 mm (0.25 in.), and the average
length ofthe strandsmust be a minimumof 150 times the
least dimension. In 1997, one commercial product in the
UnitedStateswas classified as PSL.
Parallel strand lumberis manufactured using veneerabout
3 mm (1/8 in.) thick, whichis then clipped into strands
about 19 mm (3/4 in.) wide. These strands are commonly
least 0.6 m (24 in.) long. The manufacturing process was
t
designedto use the material from roundup ofthe log in the
veneercuttingoperation as well as other less than full-width
veneer. Thus, the process can utilize wastematerialfrom a
plywoodorLVL operation.Speciescommonlyused for PSL
include Douglas-fir, southernpines, westernhemlock, and
yellow-poplar,but there are no restrictionson usingother
Figure 11—1. Examples ofthreetypesofSCL (topto species.
bottom): laminated veneer lumber (LVL), parallel strand
lumber(PSL), and oriented strand lumber(OSL). The strands are coated with a waterproofstructural adhesive,
commonly phenol-resorcinol formaldehyde, and oriented in a
press using specialequipmentto ensure properorientation
and distribution. The pressing operation results in densifica-
Types tion ofthe material,and the adhesive is curedusing micro-
Laminated VeneerLumber wavetechnology. Billetslargerthan thoseofLVL are com-
Work in the 1940s on LVL targeted the production ofhigh monlyproduced; atypical size is 0.28 by 0.48 m (11 by
19 in.).This productcan then be sawn into smallerpieces, if
strength parts for aircraft structures usingSitka spruce veneer.
Research on LVL in the 1970s was aimedat defmingthe desired. As with LVL, a continuous press is usedso that the
effectsofprocessing variablesfor veneerupto 12.7 mm length ofthe product is limitedby handlingrestrictions.
(1/2 in.) thick. In the 1990s, production ofLVL uses veneers
3.2 to 2.5 mm (1/8 to 1/10 in.) thick, whichare hot pressed Laminated Strand Lumber and
with phenol-formaldehyde adhesive into lengths from 2.4 to Oriented Strand Lumber
18.3 m (8 to 60 ft) or more. Laminatedstrandlumber(LSL) and oriented strand lumber
(OSL) products are an extensionofthe technology used to
The veneerforthe manufacture ofLVL mustbe carefully produceoriented strandboard (OSB) structural panels.One
selected forthe productto achieve the desired engineering type ofLSL uses strandsthat are about 0.3 m (12 in.) long,
properties. The visual grading criteriaofPS 1—95 (NIST which is somewhat longerthan the strands commonly used
1995) are sometimes used but are generallynot adequate forOSB. Waterproof adhesives are used in themanufactureof
withoutadditionalgrading. Veneers are often sortedusing LSL. One type ofproductuses an isocyanatetype ofadhesive
ultrasonic testing to ensure that the fmishedproductwill that is sprayed on the strandsand cured by steam injection.
havethe desiredengineering properties. a
This productneeds greaterdegreeofalignmentofthe
strands than does OSB and higherpressures,which result in
Endjoints between individual veneersmaybe staggered increased densification.
along the productto minimize their effecton strength. These
endjoints may be buttjoints, or the veneer ends may over-
lapfor some distance to provide loadtransfer. Someproduc- Advantages and Uses
ers provide structural endjoints in the veneers usingeither In contrastwith sawnlumber, the strength-reducing charac-
scarf or fmgerjoints. Laminated veneerlumbermay alsobe teristicsofSCL are dispersedwithinthe veneer or strands
made in 2.4-m(8-ft) lengths,havingno endjoints in the andhave much less ofan effecton strength properties. Thus,
veneer;longerpieces are then formed by endjointingthese relatively high design values can be assignedto strength
pieces to create the desired length. properties for both LVL and PSL.Whereasboth LSL and
SheetsofLVL are commonly producedin 0.6- to I .2-m OSLhave somewhat lowerdesignvalues, they have the
advantage ofbeing produced from a raw material that need
(2- to 4-ft) widths in a thicknessof38 mm(1.5 in.). Con- not be in a log size large enoughforpeeling into veneer. All
tinuouspressescan be used to form apotentiallyendless
SCL products are madewith structural adhesivesand are
sheet, which is cut to the desiredlength. Variouswidths of
lumbercan be manufactured at the plant orthe retail facility. dependent upon a minimum level ofstrength in these bonds.
All SCL products are madefrom veneers or strands that are
dried to a moisturecontentthat is slightlyless than that for
Parallel Strand Lumber most service conditions. Thus, little change in moisture
Parallelstrand lumber(PSL) is defined as a compositeof contentwill occur in many protectedservice conditions.
wood strandelementswith wood fibersprimarilyoriented

11—2
When usedindoors,this results in a productthat is less Advantages
likely to warp or shrink in service. However,the rorous
nature ofboth LVL and PSLmeans that these products can Comparedwith sawn timbers as well as other structural
quicklyabsorbwater unless they are providedwith some materials,glulamhas severaldistinct advantages in size
protection. capability, architectural effects, seasoning, vanationofcross
sections, grades,and effecton the environment.
Alltypes ofSCL productscanbe substituted for sawn lum-
berproductsin many applications. Laminated veneerlumber Size Capabilities—Glulam offers the advantage ofthe
is used extensively for scaffold planks and in theflanges of manufacture ofstructural timbers that are much larger than
prefabricated I-joists, whichtakes advantage ofthe relatively thetreesfrom whichthe componentlumberwassawn.
high designproperties. Both LVL and PSL beamsare used In thepast, theUnitedStateshad accessto largetrees that
as headersand majorload-carrying elementsin construction. could produce relatively largesawn timbers.However,the
The LSL and OSL productsare used for bandjoists in floor presenttrend is to harvestsmallerdiametertrees on much
constructionand as substitutes for studs and raftersin wall shorterrotations, and nearly all new sawmillsare built to
androofconstruction. Varioustypes ofSCL are alsoused in accommodate relatively small logs. By combiningthe lum-
a numberofnonstructural applications, such as themanufac- ber in glulam,the production oflarge structural elementsis
ture ofwindowsand doors. possible.Straightmembersup to 30 m (100 ft) long are not
uncommonand some span up to 43 m (140 ft. Sections
Standards and Specifications deeperthan 2 m (7 ft) have beenused. Thus, glulamoffers
thepotentialto producelargetimbersfrom small trees.
TheASTM D5456(ASTM 1997a) standardprovidesmeth-
odsto developdesignpropertiesfor SCL productsas well as Architectural Effects—Bycurvingthe lumber(luring the
requirements for quality assurance during production. Each manufacturingprocess, avarietyofarchitectural effects can be
manufacturer ofSCL productsis responsible for developing obtainedthat are impossible or very difficult with other
therequiredinformation on properties and ensuringthat the materials.The degreeofcurvature is controlled by the thick-
minimumlevels ofquality are maintainedduringproduction. ness ofthe laminations. Thus, glulamwith moderatecurva-
Anindependentinspectionagency is requiredto monitorthe ture is generally manufactured with standard 19-mm-
quality assurance program. (nominal 1-in.-) thick lumber. Low curvatures aie possible
with standard38-mm (nominal2-in.) lumber, whereas
Unlikelumber,no standardgradesor designstresseshave 13 mm (1/2 in.) or thinnermaterial may be requiredforvery
been established forSCL.Each manufacturer mayhave
sharpcurves. Asnoted later in this chapter,the radiusof
unique designpropertiesand procedures. Thus,the designer curvature is limitedto between 100 and 125 times the
shouldconsult information providedbythe manufacturer. lamination thickness.

Glulam SeasoningAdvantages—Thelumberused in the manufac-

ture ofglulammust be seasonedor dried prior to use, so the
Structuralglued-laminatedtimber(glulam)is one ofthe effects ofchecking and other drying defects are minimized. In
oldest gluedengineeredwoodproducts. Glulam is an engi- addition, design can be on the basis ofseasonedwood,
neered, stress-rated product that consistsoftwo ormore whichpermitsgreater design valuesthan canbe assignedto
layersoflumberthat are glued togetherwith the grain ofall unseasoned timber.
layers,whicharereferredto as laminations, parallelto the
length.Glulamis definedas a materialthat is made from Varying CrossSections—Structural elementscan be de-
suitablyselectedandpreparedpiecesofwood eitherin a signedwith varying cross sectionsalong their length as
straightor curved form, with the grain ofall pieces essen- determined by strength andstiffnessrequirements. The
tially parallelto the longitudinal axis ofthe member.The beamsinFigure 11—2 showhow the centralseciion ofthe
maximum laminationthicknesspermitted is 50 mm (2 in.), beamcan bemadedeeperto account for increased structural
andthe laminations are typicallymadeofstandard 25- or requirements in this region ofthe beam. Similarly, arches
50-mm-(nominal1- or 2-in.-)thick lumber. North American often havevaryingcross sectionsas determined by design
standards requirethat glulambemanufactured in an approved requirements.
manufacturing plant. Becausethe lumberisjoined endto
end, edgeto edge, and face to face,the size ofglulamis Varying Grades—Onemajor advantage ofglulam is that a
limitedonly by the capabilities ofthe manufacturingplant largequantity oflowergrade lumbercan be used withinthe
and the transportationsystem. less highly stressedlaminations ofthe beams. Grades are
often variedwithinthe beams so that the highestgradesare
Douglas Fir—Larch, Southern Pine, Hem—Fir, and Spruce— used in the highlystressedlaminations near the top and
Pine—Fir (SPF) are commonlyused for glulam in the United bottomandthe lowergrade for the iimerhalf or more ofthe
States. Nearlyany speciescan be used for glularn timber, beams. Speciescan also be varied to matchthe structural
providedits mechanicaland physical propertiesare suitable requirements ofthe laminations.
andit canbe properly glued.Industrystandards cover many
softwoods and hardwoods, andprocedures are in placefor
including other species.

11—3
 adhesivesduringand followingWorldWar I stimulated
additionalinterest in Europe in regardto using glulam in
aircraft andbuilding frames.
(a)
In theUnitedStates, one ofthefirst examplesofglulam
archesdesignedand built usingengineeringprinciples is in a
buildingerectedin 1934at the USDA Forest Service,Forest
ProductsLaboratory,Madison, Wisconsin(Fig. 11—3). The
founder ofa company that producedmany ofthese initial
buildings in the United States was a Germanimmigrantwho
(b) transferred the technology to his manufacturing facility in
p Peshtigo, Wisconsin. Applicationsincludedgymnasiums,
churches, halls, factories, and barns. Several other companies
based on the same technology were soon established.
World WarII stimulated additional interestand the devel-
(c) opmentofsynthetic resin adhesives that were waterproof.
This permittedthe use ofglulam timber in bridges and other
p exteriorapplications that requiredpreservativetreatment.By
the early 1950s, therewere at least a dozenmanufacturers of
glulamtimber in the UnitedStates,whojoined togetherto
form the American Institute ofTimber Construction(AITC.
In 1963, this association producedthefirstnationalmanufac-
(d)
turing standard. The AITC continuesto prepare,update, and
C) distribute industry standards for manufacture and design of
Figure 11—2. Glulamtimbers may be (a) singletapered, glulam. By the mid-i990s, about 30 manufacturingplants
(b) double tapered, (c) tapered at both ends, or acrossthe UnitedStatesand Canadawere qualifiedto pro-
(d) tapered atone end. duce glulam, according to the requirements ofthe AITC
standard.

EnvironmentallyFriendly—Muchis being written and From the mid-l930s throughthe 1980s, nearly all glulam
discussedregardingthe relative environmental effects of production was used domestically. During the 1990s, the
variousmaterials.Several analyseshave shown that the exportmarketwas developed and significantquantities of
renewabilityofwood, its relatively low requirement for material were shipped to PacificRim countries,mainly
energyduring manufacture, its carbonstorage capabilities, Japan.
and itsrecyclabilityofferpotentiallong-term environmental
advantages over other materials. Although aesthetics and
economic considerations usuallyare the majorfactorsinflu- Types of Glulam Combinations
encingmaterialselection,these environmental advantages Bending Members
may increasingly influence materialselection. The configuring ofvariousgrades oflumberto form a glulam
The advantages ofglulamare temperedby certain factors cross section is commonly referredto as a glulamcombina-
that are not encounteredin the production ofsawn timber. tion. Glulamcombinations subjectedto flexural loads, calleti
In instances wheresolid timbersareavailable intherequired bending combinations, were developedto providethe most
efficient andeconomicalsection for resisting bendingstress
size, the extra processingin makingglulamtimberusually caused by loadsappliedperpendicular to the wide faces ofthe
increases its cost abovethat ofsawn timbers. The manufac-
laminations. This type ofglulam is commonlyreferredto as
ture ofglulam requiresspecial equipment, adhesives, plant
ahorizontally laminated member.Lowergradesoflaminat-
facilities,and manufacturingskills,whicharenot neededto
producesawn timbers.All steps in the manufacturing process ing lumberare commonly used forthe centerportionofthe
combination, or core, where bendingstress is low, while a
requfre care to ensurethe high qualityofthe fmishedproduct.
One factorthat must be considered early in the design of highergrade ofmaterial is placed onthe outside faces where
large straight or curvedtimbersis handlingand shipping. bending stress is relativelyhigh. To optimize the bending
stiffnessofthis type ofglulam member, equalamounts of
high qualitylaminationson the outside faces shouldbe
History includedto producea "balanced"combination.To optimize
Glulam was first used in Europe in the construction ofan bendingstrength, the combination can be "unbalanced"with
auditoriumin Basel, Switzerland, in 1893, which is often more high quality laminations placedon the tension side of
cited as the first knownsignificantuse ofthis product. Itwas themember compared with thequalityusedon the compres-
sion side. For high quality lumberplaced on the tension
patentedas the "Hertzer System"and used adhesivesthat, by side ofthe glulam combination, stringentrequirements are
today'sstandards,arenot waterproof.Thus, applications
were limitedto dry-use conditions. Improvements in

11-4
Figure 11—3. Erected in 1934at the Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin, this buildingis one of the
first constructed with glued-laminated timbers arched, designed, and builtusingengineering principles.

placedon knot size, slope ofgrain, and lumberstiffness. tions,but the nonselectiveplacementofmaterialoften results
Forcompression-side laminations, however,knot size and in aless efficient and less economical memberthan does the
slope-of-grainrequirements are less stringent and only lum- bending combination. As with bending combinations, knot
ber stiffness is givenhigh priority.In thecasewherethe and slope-of-grain requirements apply basedonthe intended
use ofthe axial memberas atensionor compression
glulam memberis usedover continuous supports,the com- member.
binationwouldneed to be designedas a balancedmember for
strengthand stiffness becauseofthe exposure ofboth the top Curved Members
and bottomofthebeam to tensilestresses.The knot and
Efficient use oflumberin cross sections ofcurved glulam
slope-of-grain requirements forthis typeofcombination are combinations is similarto that in cross sections ofstraight,
generallyapplied equallytoboth the top and bottom horizontally-laminated combinations. Tensionand compres-
laminations. sion stresses are analyzedas tangential stressesin the curved
Axial Members portionofthe member.A unique behavior in these curved
members is the formation ofradialstressesperpendicular to
Glulam axial combinations were developedto providethe thewide faces ofthelaminations. As theradiuscfcurvature
most efficient andeconomicalsectionfor resisting axial forces oftheglulammemberdecreases, theradialstreses formedin
and flexural loadsappliedparallel to thewide faces ofthe thecurved portion ofthebeamincrease. Becauseoftherela-
laminations. Members havingloads appliedparallelto the
wide faces ofthe laminations are commonly referredto as tively low strengthof lumber in tensionperpendicular-to-the-
grain compared with tension parallel-to-the-grain, these radial
vertically laminated members. Unlikethepracticeforbend- stresses becomea criticalfactor in designing curvedglulam
ing combinations, the same grade oflaminationis used combinations. Curvedmembers are commonly manufactured
throughoutthe axial combination. Axial combinations may with standard 19- and 38-mm-(nominal 1- and 2-in.-)thick
alsobe loadedperpendicular to the wide face ofthe lamina- lumber. Naturally,the curvature that is obtainable with the

11—s
standard 19-mm- (nominal1-in.-) thick lumberwill be designofglulam timbermembers in the United States. A
sharperthan that for the standard38-mm- (nominal 2-in.-) comparable specification forhardwoodsis AITC 119,
thick lumber. Recommended practicespecifies that the ratio "Standard Specifications for Structural Glued-Laminated
oflaminationthicknesst to theradius of curvature R should Timber ofHardwood Species" (AITC 1996). The National
not exceed 1/100 for hardwoods and Southern Pine and DesignSpecflcationfor Wood Construction(NDS) summa-
1/125 forother sofiwoods(AF&PA 1997). For example, a rizes the design information in AITC 117 and 119 and de-
curved Southern Pine beam (t/R 1/100) manufactured with fmes the practicetobe followedin structural designofglu-
standard 38-mm- (nominal2-in.-)thick lumber(t= 1.5 in.) lam timbers(AF&PA 1997). For additionaldesign
shouldhave a radiusofcurvature greaterthan or equalto information, see the Timber Construction Manual (AITC
3.81 m (150 in.) 1994). APA—The EngineeredWoodAssociationhas also
developeddesignvalues for glulamunderNationalEvalua-
Tapered Straight Members tion Report486, whichis recognizedby all the model build-
Glulam beams are often taperedto meet architectural re- ing codes.
quirements, provide pitchedroofs,facilitate drainage, and In Canada,CAN/CSA 086, thecode for engineering design
lower wall height requirementsat the end supports.The in wood,providesdesign criteriafor structural glulam
taper is achievedby sawingthe memberacross one ormore timbers (CSA 1994).
laminations at the desired slope.It is recommendedthat the
taper cut be made only on the compression sideofthe glu- Manufacture
lam member,becauseviolatingthe continuity ofthe tension-
side laminations would decreasethe overall strength ofthe The manufactureofglulam timbermust follow recognized
member.Commonforms ofstraight,taperedglulam combi- nationalstandards tojustif'the specifiedengineering design
nations include(a) single tapered, amemberhaving a con- values. Whenglulam is properly manufactured,both the
tinuous slope from end to end on the compression side; quality ofthe wood andthe adhesive bonds should demon-
(b) doubletapered,a memberhavingtwo separate slopes strateabalancein structural performance.
sawn on the compressionside; (c) taperedat both ends, a
memberwith slopes sawn on the ends, but the middlepor- The ANSI A190.1 standard (ANSI 1992) has a two-phase
tion remainsstraight; and (d) tapered at one end, similarto approach to all phasesofmanufacturing. First is the qualifica-
(c) with only one end havinga slope. Thesefourexamples tion phase in which all equipmentand personnelcritical to
areillustratedin Figure 11—2. theproduction of a qualityproduct arethoroughlyexamined
by athird-party agency and thestrengthofsamples ofglued
Standards and Specifications joints is determined. In the secondphase, aftersuccessful
qualification, dailyqualityassurance procedures and criteria
Manufacture areestablished, whicharetargeted to keep each ofthe critical
The ANSI/AITCA190.1 standardofthe American National phases ofthe process under control. An employeeis assigned
Standards Institute(ANSI 1992) contains requirements for responsibility for supervisingthe dailytesting and inspec-
theproduction,testing,and certificationofstructural glulam tion. The third-partyagencymakes unannouncedvisits to
timber in the UnitedStates. Additionaldetailsand commen- theplants to monitorthemanufacturing processandthe
finishedproductandto examine the dailyrecords ofthe
taly on the requirements specifiedin ANSI A190.1 are pro-
vided in AITC 200 (AITC 1993a), whichis part ofANSI qualityassurance testing.
A190.1 by reference. A standard for glulampoles,ANSI The manufacturing processcanbe dividedinto fourmajor
05.2 (ANSI 1996),addressesspecialrequirements for utility parts: (a) dryingand grading the lumber, (b) endjointing the
uses.Requirements for the manufacture ofstructural glulam lumber, (c) face bonding, and (d) fmishingand fabrication.
in Canadaare given in CAN/CSA 0122 (CSA 1989).
In instances wherethe glulam will be used in high moisture
Derivation of Design Values contentconditions, it is also necessaryto pressuretreat the
memberwith preservative. A final criticalstep in ensuring
ASTM D3737 (ASTM 1997b) covers the procedures to thequality ofglulam is protection ofthe glulam timber
establishdesignvaluesfor structural glulam timber. Proper-
ties considered includebending, tension,compression paral- during transit and storage.
lel to grain, modulusofelasticity, horizontal shear,radial Lumber Drying and Grading
tension,and compressionperpendicularto grain. To minimize dimensionalchangesfollowingmanufacture
and to take advantage ofthe increased structural properties
Design Values and Procedures
ofglulam timber havestandardized thetarget assignedto lumbercompared with large sawn timbers,it is
Manufacturers criticalthat the lumberbe properlydried. This generally
designvalues in bending for beams. For softwoods, these means kiln drying. For most applications,the maximum
designvalues are given in AITC 117, "Standard Specifica- moisturecontentpermittedin the ANSI standard is 16%
tions for Structural Glued-Laminated TimberofSoftwood (ANSI 1992). Also, the maximumrange in moisture content
Species"(AITC 1993b). This specification containsdesign is 5% amonglaminations to minimizedifferential changes in
valuesandrecommendedmodification ofstresses for the dimension followingmanufacture. Many plantsuse lumber at

11-6
or slightlybelow 12% moisturecontent fortwo reasons.One
reasonis that the materialis more easily endjointed at 12%
moisturecontent than at higher levels.The other reason is
that 12% is an overallaverageequilibrium moisturecontent
for many interiorapplicationsin the UnitedStates (seeCh.
12, Tables 12—1 and 12—2). Exceptions are some areas in the
southwestUnited States. Matchingthe moisturecontentof
theglulamtimber at the time ofmanufactureto that whichit
will attain in application minimizes shrinkage and swelling,
whichare the causes ofchecking.
The moisturecontent oflumbercan be determinedby sam-
pling from the lumber supplyand usinga moisturemeter.
Alternatively, most manufacturers use a continuous in-line
moisturemeterto check the moisturecontentofeach pieceof
lumberas it enters the manufacturingprocess.Pieces with
greaterthan a given moisture level are removed and redried.
Grading standardspublishedby the regional lumber grading
associations describethe characteristics that are permittedin
various grades oflumber. Manufacturing standards forglulam
timberdescribe the combination oflumbergrades necessary
for specific design values(AITC 117) (AITC 1993b). Two
Figure 11—4. Typicalfingerjointusedin the
types oflumbergradingare used for laminating: visual manufacture of glulam.
gradingandE-rating.
The rules for visuallygradedlumberare based entirelyupon
thecharacteristics that arereadily apparent. The lumbergrade to purchasespeciallumberthat ismanufactured undera
description consistsoflimitingcharacteristics forknot sizes, quality assurance systemto providethe requiredtensile
slopeofgrain,wane,and several other characteristics. An strength. Another optionpracticed by at least one manufac-
exampleofthe knot size limitationfor visuallygraded turerhas been to use LVL to providethe requiredtensile
westernspecies is as follows: strength.

Laminatinggrade Maximumknot size End Jointing

To manufactureglulamtimberin lengths beyondthose
Li 1/4 ofwidth
commonly available for lumber, laminations mrst be made
L2 1/3 ofwidth by endjointing lumberto theproperlength. Themost
common end joint, a fingerjoint, is about 28 mm (1.1 in.)
L3 1/2 ofwidth
long (Fig. 11—4). Otherconfigurations are also acceptable,
providedtheymeet specific strength and durability require-
E-ratedlumberis gradedby a combination oflumberstiffness ments.The advantages offingerjointsare that they require
determination and visual characteristics. Eachpiece oflumber a
only short length oflumberto manufacture (thus reducing
isevaluatedforstiffness by one ofseveral acceptable proce- waste)and continuous production equipmentis readily
dures, and thosepiecesthat qualifyfor a specific grade are available. Well-made joints are criticalto ensure adequate
then visuallyinspectedto ensurethat they meet the require- performance ofglulamtimber.Careful control ateach stage of
ment formaximumallowableedgeknot size.The grades are theprocess—determining lumber quality, cuttingthejoint,
expressed in terms oftheirmodulusofelasticity followedby applying the adhesive,mating, applying endpressure, and
their limitingedge knot size. Thus, a 2.OE—i/6 grade has curing—is necessary to produce consistenthigh strength
a modulusofelasticityof 13.8 GPa (2 x 106 lb/in2)and a joints.
maximum edge knot size of 1/6 the width.
Justprior tomanufacture, the ends ofthe lumber are in-
Manufacturers generally purchase gradedlumberand verify spected to ensure that there are no knotsor other featuresthat
thegradesthroughvisualinspectionofeach piece and, if would impairjointstrength.Then, joints are cut on both
E-rated, testing ofa sample. To qualifythe materialfor some ends ofthe lumberwith specialknives. Adhesiwe is applied.
ofthehigherdesignstresses forglulamtimber,manufacturers The joints in adjacentpieces oflumberare mated, and the
must also conductadditionalgrading for material to be used adhesive is cured underend pressure. Most manufacturing
in thetensionzone ofcertainbeams. Highqualilymaterialis equipment featuresa continuous radio-frequency curingsys-
requiredfor the outer 5% ofthe beam on the tension size,and tem that providesheat to partiallyset the adhesivein a
thegradingcriteriaforthese "tension laminations" are given matterofa few seconds. Fingerjoints obtain most oftheir
in AITC 117 (AITC 1993b). Special criteriaare appliedto strength duringthis process,andresidualheatpermits the
providematerialofhigh tensilestrength. Anotheroptionis jointto reachits fullstrengthwithina few hours.

11—7
Fingerjoints havethe potentialto reach at least 75% ofthe
strength ofclear wood in many species ifproperly manufac-
tured, Thesejoints are adequatefor most applications be-
cause most lumbergradesused in the manufacture ofglulam
timberpermitnatural characteristics that result in strength
reductions ofat least 25% less thanthat ofclear wood.
The ANSI standard requiresthat manufacturers qualit' their
production joints to meet the requiredstrength level ofthe
highest grade glulam timber they wish to produce. This
requires that the resultsoftensiletests ofend-jointed lumber
meet certain strengthcriteriaand that durabilitymeets certain
criteria. When these criteriaare met, daily qualitycontrol
testing in tensionis required to ensurethat the strength level
is being maintained.Durabilitytests are alsorequired.
A continuingchallengein theglulamproductionprocess is
to eliminate theoccurrence ofan occasional low-strength end
joint. Visual inspectionand other nondestructive techniques
have beenshownto be only partially effective in detecting
low-strength joints. An approachused by manymanufactur-
ers to ensure endjointquality is the use ofa proofloading
system for critical endjoints. This equipmentappliesa
specifiedbendingor tensionload to check thejointstrength
for critical laminations on the tension sideofbeams. By
applyingloadsthat are related to the strengthdesired,low-
strength joints can be detectedand eliminated. The qualifica-
tion proceduresforthis equipmentmust provethat the ap- Figure 11—5. After beingplaced in the clamping bed,
plied loadsdo not cause damageto laminations that are the laminations of these arches are forcedtogether
accepted. with an air-driven screw clamp.
Face Bonding
Theassembly of laminations into full-depth members is andclamping processes. Performance is evaluatedby con-
anothercriticalstage in manufacture. To obtain clear,paral- ductingsheartests on samples cut offas end trim from the
lel, and gluable surfaces,laminationsmust be planed to strict finishedglulamtimber. The target shear strengthofsmall
tolerances.The best procedureis toplane the two wide faces specimens is prescribed inANSI A190.1 (ANSI 1992) and
ofthelaminationsjust prior to thegluing process.This equalsabout 90% ofthe average shear strength forthe
ensures that the final assemblywill be rectangularandthat species. Thus, the adhesivebonds are expectedto develop
thepressurewillbe applied evenly. Adhesives that havebeen nearlythe full strength ofthe wood soonaftermanufacture.
prequalifiedare then spread,usuallywith a glue extruder.
Phenolresorcinolis the most commonlyused adhesivefor Finishing and Fabrication
facegluing,but other adhesives that havebeenadequately Afterthe glulamtimberis removedfrom the clampingsys-
evaluated and provento meet performance and durability
tem, the wide faces are planedto remove the adhesivethat
requirements may also be used. has squeezed out betweenadjacentlaminations and to
The laminationsare then assembledinto the required layup; smooth out any slight irregularities between the edges of
after the adhesive is given the properopen assembly time, adjacent laminations. As aresult, the finished glulamtimber
pressureis applied.The most commonmethodfor applying is slightly narrowerthan nominal dimensionlumber. The
pressureis with clampingbeds; the pressureis appliedwith remainingtwo faces ofthe membercan be lightlyplaned or
either a mechanical or hydraulic system(Fig. 11—5). This sandedusingportableequipment.
resultsin a batch-typeprocess,and the adhesiveis allowed Theappearance requirements ofthe beamdictatethe addi-
to cure at room temperaturefrom 6 to 24 h. Somenewer tional finishingnecessaryat this point. Historically, three
automatedclampingsystemsincludecontinuoushydraulic classifications offinishinghave beenincludedin the industry
presses and radio-frequency curingto shorten the facegluing standard, AITC 110: Industrial, Architectural, and Premium
processfromhours to minutes.Upon completion ofthe face (AITC 1984). Industrial appearanceis generallyapplicable
bondingprocess,the adhesiveis expectedto haveattained whenappearance is not aprimaryconcern, such as industrial
90% or more ofits bond strength. Duringthe next few days,
plants andwarehouses. Architectural appearance is suitable
curing continues, but at amuch slowerrate. for most applications whereappearanceis an importantre-
The facebondingprocessis monitoredby controlsin the quirement. Premium appearanceis the highestclassification.
lumberplaning,adhesivemixing,and adhesivespreading The primary difference among these classifications is the

11—8
amountofknot holes and occasionalplaner skips that are depthto whichthe chemicals penetrate into the lumber.
permitted. A recentlyintroducedclassification, calledFram- Different processes are quite effective for somespecies but not
ing,consistsofhit-and-miss planingand permitsa signifi- for others. In addition,the treatedlumberis gener1ly more
cantamountofadhesive to remainonthe surface. This fm- difficult to bondeffectively and requires special manufacturing
ishingis intendedfor uses that requireone member to have procedures. Thus, it is recommendedthat the manufacturer
thesamewidth asthelumberused in manufacture for framing be contacted to determine thecapabilities ofwaterbome-
into walls.These members are often coveredin the finished preservative-treatedproducts.
structure.
The major advantage ofa waterbome treatmentis that the
The next step in themanufacturingprocess is fabrication, surface ofthe timberappears little changedby thetreatment.
wherethe fmal cuts are made, holes are drilled,connectors Different chemicals can leavea green,gray, or brown color;
are added, and afinish or sealer is applied, ifspecified. For all result in a surface.that is easily finishedwith sains or
various members, different degrees ofprefabrication are done paints. To avoidthe potentialof corrosive interactions with
at this point. Trussesmay be partiallyor fully assembled. thechemical treatments, specialcare must be given when
Moment splicescan be fullyfabricated, then disconnected for selectingthe connection hardware. In addition, wa,terborne-
transportationanderection. End sealers,surface sealers, preservative-treated glulamtimberis muchmore subjectto
primercoats, andwrappingwith waterproofpaper orplastic moisture contentcyclingthan is creosote-treated or oilborne-
all help to stabilizethe moisturecontent ofthe glulamtim- preservative-treated glulam timber.
berbetweenthetime it is manufactured and installed. The
extentofprotectionnecessarydepends upon the end use and A major consideration in selectingapreservativetreatment is
mustbe specified. the localregulations dealingwith the use and disposal of
wastefrom preservative-treated timber. Recommended reten-
Preservative Treatment tion levels for applications ofvarious preservatives are given
in AITC 109 (AITC 1990) along with appropriatequality
In instances wherethemoisturecontentofthe finished glu- assurance procedures.
lam timberwillapproach or exceed20% (in most exterior
and some interioruses), the glulamtimber shouldbe pre-
servativetreatedfollowingAITC (1990)and AWPA Development of Design Values
(1997b). Three main typesofpreservatives are available: The basic approach to determine the engineered design
creosote, oilbome,and waterborne. Creosoteand oilborne valuesofglulammembers is throughthe use ofstress index
preservatives are applied to the finishedglulamtimbers. values and stress modification factors.
Some light oil solventtreatments can be appliedto the
lumberprior to gluing, but the suitabilitymust be verified Stress Index Values
with the manufacturer. Waterborne preservatives are best
appliedto the lumberprior to the laminating and manufactur- Stress indexvaluesarerelatedto the properties clearofwood
that is free ofdefects and otherstrength-reducing characteris-
ing process becausethey can leadto excessive checking if tics. Stressindex values for several commonly used species
appliedto large finishedglulamtimbers.
and E-ratedgrades oflumberare given inASTM D3737
Creosote Solutions—Treatmentwith creosotesolutionsis (ASTM 1997b). Procedures are also given for developing
suitablefor the most severe outdoorexposure. Itresultsin a these values for visualgrades ofother species.
dark, oily surface appearancethat is difficult to alter. This,
coupledwith a distinct odor, restrictscreosotesolutionsto Stress Modification Factors
structures, such as bridges,that do not comein directcontact Stressmodification factors are relatedto strength-reducing
with humans.Creosotesolutions are an extremely effective characteristics and are multipliedby the stress indexvalues
preservative as proven by their continued use formilway to obtainallowabledesign properties. Detailedinformation
structures. Anotheradvantage is that the creosotetreatment on determination ofthese factors for bending, tension, com-
rendersthe timbersmuch less susceptible to moisturecon-
tent changes than are untreatedtimbers.Creosotesolutions pression, andmodulusofelasticityare given in ASTM
D3737 (1997b).
areoftenusedas a preservative treatmenton bridgestringers.
Oilborne Treatments—Pentachlorophenol and copper Other Considerations
napthanate are the most commonoilbornepreservatives. The Effect of End Joints on Strength—Both finge:rjoints and
solvents are classifiedin AWPA StandardP9 as Type A, scarfjointscan be manufactured with adequatestrength for
Type C, and Type D (AWPA 1997a). Type A results in an use in structural glulam. Adequacyis determinedby physical
oily finishand shouldnotbe usedwhen aplain table surface testingprocedures and requirements in ANSI A190.1 (ANSI
is needed.Type B or C canbe stainedor painted. More 1992).
details are given in AITC (1990) and AWPA(1997a).
Joints shouldbe well scatteredin portionsofstructural
Waterborne Treatments—Waterborne preservative treat- glulamthat is highly stressedin tension. Requird spacings
mentsconformto AWPAP5 (AWPA 1997b) and use water- ofendjoints aregiven in ANSI A190.1. Endjoints oftwo
soluble preservative chemicalsthat becomefixed inthe qualities can be used in a glulammember,deperLding upon
wood.The effectiveness ofthis treatmentdepends uponthe strength requirements at variousdepths ofthe cross section.

11—9
 However,laminatorsusuallyuse the samejointthroughout Effectof Shake, Checks, and Splits on Shear Strength—
the members for easein manufacture. In general, checks and splits havelittle effecton theshear
The higheststrength valuesare obtainedwith well-made strengthofglulam. Shake occurs infrequently and shouldbe
excluded from material for laminations. Most laminated
plain scarfjoints; the lowestvalues are obtainedwith butt timbers are madefrom laminationsthat are thin enoughto
joints. This is becausescarfjoints with flat slopes have seasonreadily withoutdeveloping significantchecks and
essentially side-grain surfaces that can bewell bondedto
splits.
develophigh strength, andbuttjoints have end-grainsurfaces
that cannotbe bondedeffectively. Structural fmgerjoints
(eithervertical orhorizontal)are a compromise between scarf Designs for Glued-Laminated Timber
and buttjoints; the strengthofstructural fingerjoints varies Most basic engineering equationsused for sawn lumberalso
with joint design.
apply to glulam beamsand columns.The designofglulam
Nostatementcan be maderegardingthe specific joint in this chapteris only applicable to glulam combinations
strength factor offingerjoints, becausefmgerjoint strength that conformto AITC 117 (AITC 1993b) for softwoodspe-
cies and AITC 119 (AITC 1996) for hardwoodspecies and
depends on the type and configuration ofthejointandthe
manufacturing process.However, thejointfactor ofcom- are manufactured in accordance with ANSIJAITC A190.1
monlyused fmgerjointsin high-qualitylumberused for (ANSI 1992). The AITC 117 standard is madeup oftwo
laminating can be about 75%. High-strength fmgerjoints can parts: (a) manufacturing, whichprovidesdetailsfor the many
be made whenthedesignis such that thefmgershaverela- configurations ofglulam made from visuallygradedand
tively flat slopes and sharp tips. Tips are essentiallya series E-ratedsoftwoodlumber; and (b) design, whichprovides
ofbuttjoints that reducetheeffectiveness offmgerjoints as tabulardesign valuesofstrength and stiffness forthese glu-
well as creating sources ofstress concentration. lam combinations. The AITC 119 standardprovides similar
information for glulammadefrom hardwoodspecies oflum-
Generally,buttjoints cannot transmittensilestress and can ber. Thesestandards are based on laterally-braced straight
transmit compressive stress only after considerable deforma- members with an average moisture contentof 12%. For
tion or ifa metal bearingplate is tightlyfittedbetweenthe bendingmembers,the designvaluesare based on an as-
abutting ends. In normal assembly operations, such fitting sumed referencesize of305mm deep, 130mm wide, and
would not be done. Therefore, it is necessaryto assumethat 6.4 m long (12 in. deep, 5.125 in. wide, and 21 ft long).
buttjoints areineffectivein transmittingboth tensileand
compressive stresses. Because ofthis ineffectiveness and Tabular Design Values
becausebuttjoints cause concentration ofboth shearstress Tabular designvaluesgiven in AITC 117 and AITC 119
and longitudinal stress,buttjoints are not permittedfor use includethe following:
in structural glued-laminatedtimbers.
Fb allowablebendingdesignvalue,
Effectof Edge Joints on Strength—It is sometimesneces-
sary to place laminations edge-to-edge to provideglulam F allowable tensiondesignvalue parallelto grain,
members ofsufficient width. Because ofdifficulties in fabrica-
tion, structuraledgejointbondingmay not be readily avail- F allowable shear design valueparallel to grain,
able, and the designershould investigate the availability of Fc.perp allowable compression designvalueperpendicular
suchbondingprior to specifying. to grain,
For tension, compression, and horizontally laminated bend- F allowable compression design valueparallel
ing members,the strength ofedgejoints is of little impor- to grain,
tanceto the overall strength ofthe member. Therefore, from
the standpoint ofstrength, it is unnecessarythat edgejoints E allowablemodulusofelasticity, and
be glued ifthey are not in the same location in adjacent
laminations. However,for maximum strength, edgejoints F, allowable radial tension design value
shouldbe glued where torsional loading is involved. Other perpendicular to grain.
considerations, such as the appearance offace laminations or Because glulammembers canhave differentproperties when
thepossibilitythat water willenter theungluedjoints and loadedperpendicular or paralleltothe wide faces ofthe lami-
promotedecay, should also dictateifedgejoints are glued. nations,a commonnamingconventionis usedto specify the
Ifedgejoints in vertically laminated beamsarenot glued, design valuesthat correspondto a particulartype oforienta-
shear strengthcouldbe reduced. The amount ofreduction can tion. For glulam members loaded perpendicularto the wide
be determinedby engineering analysis. Using standardlami- faces ofthe laminations, designvaluesare commonlyde-
noted with a subscriptx. For glulam membersloaded paral-
nating procedureswith edgejoints staggeredin adjacent lel to the wide faces ofthe laminations, designvaluesare
laminations by at least one lamination thickness, shear
strength ofverticallylaminatedbeams with ungluededge commonly denotedwith a subscripty. Some examples
joints is approximately halfthat ofbeams with adhesive- E
includeFb and fordesignbending stress and design
bonded edgejoints. modulusofelasticity, respectively.

11—10
End-Use Adjustment Factors derivedassuming a uniform load. This methodof loading
Whenglulam members are exposed to conditions other than factor CL is recommendedin theNational Design
the describedreference condition, the published allowable Specj/Ication for Wood Construction(AF&PA 1997).
design values requireadjustment. The following text de- CL = 1.00 foruniform loading on a simplespan
scribeseach ofthe adjustmentfactors that account forthe end-
use condition ofglulam members. = 1.08 for centerpoint loading on a 5imple span
C
Volume—The volumefactor accounts for an observed = 0.92 forconstantstress over the full length
reductionin strengthwhen length, width, and depth of struc-
tural glulammembersincrease.This strengthreductionis Forother loadingconditions, valuesofCL canbe estimated
due to the higherprobability ofoccurrence ofstrength- usingthe proportionofthe beam length subjectedto 80% or
reducingcharacteristics, such as knots and slope ofgrain, in more ofthe maximum stressL0 and
higher volume beams. This volume factor adjustmentis
given in the NationalDesign Specj/Ication for Wood
Construction(AF&PA 1997) in the form CL = (11—3)

0.10, 0.10, 0.10

305
C =1—H
1 l30" 6.4
I—I I—I Tension Lamination—Pastresearchhas shownthat special
d) w) L) (metric) (11—la)
provisions are requiredfor thetensionlamination ofa glulam
beamto achieve the specifieddesignbendingstrengthlevels.
Properties listedin AITC 117 and 119 are applicableto
0.10 0.10 0.10

c [.J _5J
=
(1J
(inch—pound) (1 1—Ib) beamswith these specialtensionlaminations. Ifa special
tension lamination is not includedin the beam combination,
strength reduction factorsmust be applied. Tensionlamina-
for Douglas-fir and other species, and tion factors Cr, whichcan be found in ASTMD3737
/ \0.05 0.05, 0.05 (ASTM 1997b), have the followingvalues:
305' 1130 6.4
I—I I—I
'1

C =1—I = 1.00 for specialtensionlaminationsperAITC 117

d) w) L) (metric) (1 l—2a) CT
= 0.85 withouttensionlaminations and for depth
0.05 0.05 0.05
380 mm in.)
C=11 1±
(.d) ( w ) L (inch—pound) (1l—2b)
= 0.75 withouttensionlaminations and for depth
>380 mm (>15 in.).
for southernpines, whered is depth (mm, in.), w width
(mm, in.), andL length (m, ft). (Eqs. (11—la)and (11—2a) in th
Curvature—Thecurvature factor accounts for increased
metric, Eqs. (1 1—ib) and (1 l—2b) in inch—pound system.) stressesin the curvedportion ofcurvedglulambeams. This
factor does not apply to design values in the straightportion
Moisture Content—Themoisturecontentfactor CM ofa member, regardless ofthe curvature elsewhere. The
accounts forthe reductionin strengthas moisture content curvature factor C, whichcan be found in the Ntional
increases. A moisture contentadjustmentis listed in both Design Specflcation(AF&PA 1997), has the following
ASTM D3737 (ASTM 199Th) and AITC 117—Design relation:
(AITC 1993b).
= 1.0 for moisturecontent 16%
CM C= (11—4)
1_2000(LJ
Formoisture content>16%, as in ground contact andmany
other exteriorconditions,use the followingMvalues: t
where is thickness of lamination andR is radius ofcurva-
tureon insideface oflamination. The value t/F 1/100
for hardwoods and southernpines;t/R 1/125 for other
sofiwoods.
Fb F1 F 'c-perp F E
FlatUse—Theflat use factoris appliedto bendingdesign
values whenmembers are loadedparalleltowide faces of
CM 0.8 0.8 0.875 0.53 0.73 0.833 laminations and are less than 305 mm (12 in.) in depth. Flat
use factors C, whichcan be found in theNationalDesign
Spec/ication (AF&PA 1997), have the followingvalues:
Loading—Anadjustmentforthe type of loading onthe
member is alsonecessary becausethe volume factors are

il—Il
Memberdimensionparallel
to wide faces oflaminations Cf
273 or 267mm(10-3/4 or 10-1/2 in.) 1.01
222 or 216mm(8-3/4 or 8-1/2 in.) 1.04
171 mm (6-3/4 in.) 1.07
130 or 127mm (5-1/8 or 5 in.) 1.10
79 or 76mm (3-1/8 or 3 in.) 1.16
64mm (2-1/2 in) 1.19

I beam
LateralStability—The lateral stabilityfactoris appliedto Figure 11—6. Beams with structural panel webs.
bendingdesignvaluesto accountfor the amountoflateral
support applied to bending members. Deep bendingmem-
bers that are unsupported along the top surfuce are subjectto Designdetails forbeam cross sections (includingdefinitions
lateraltorsionalbucklingand would have lowerbending ofterms inthefollowing equations) are presentedin
designvalues. Members that are fully supported would have Figure 11—6. Both flanges in these beamsare the same
no adjustments(CL = 1.0). thickness becausea construction symmetrical about the
neutral planeprovidesthe greatest momentofinertiafor the
amount ofmaterial used. The following equationswere
Glued Members With derived by basic principles ofengineering mechanics.
Thesemethods can be extended to derivedesignsfor
Lumber and Panels unsymmetrical constructions, ifnecessary.
Highlyefficientstructural components can be produced by
combininglumber with panel productsthroughgluing. Beam Deflections
These components,including box beams, I-beams, Beam deflections can be computed using Equation(8—2)in
"stressed-skin" panels,and foldedplate roofs, are discussed Chapter8. The following equations for bending stiffness (El)1
in detail in technicalpublicationsoftheAPA—The Engi- and shearstiffnessGA' apply to thebox and I-beamshown In
neeredWoodAssociation(APA 1980). One type ofmember, Figure 11-6. The bendingstiffness is given by
s
prefabricatedwood I-joists, discussedin detail. Detailson
structural designare given in the followingportion ofthis
(El)1 =-[E(d —c3)b+2EWd3} (11—5)
chapterforbeams with webs ofstructural panelproducts and
stressed-skin panels whereinthe parts are glued together with
a rigid, durableadhesive. E
whereE is flange modulusofelasticity and is webmodu•
Thesehighly efficientdesigns, although adequatestructur-
E
lus ofelasticity. For plywood, valuesof forthe appropri-
ate structural panel construction and grain directioncan be
ally, can suffer from lack ofresistance to fire and decay unless computedfrom Equations (11—1), (11—2), and (11—3).
treatmentor protectionis provided.The rather thinportions
ofthecross section (the panelmaterials) are more vulnerable Anapproximate expression fortheshearstifThessis
to fire damage than arethelarger, solid cross sections. GA'= 2WcG (11-6)
Box Beams and I-Beams whereG is shearmodulus forthe structural panel for appro-
BoxbeamsandI-beamswith lumberor laminated flanges priatedirectionandA' is the effective areaofthe web.An
and structural panel webs can be designedto providethe improvement in shear stiffness can be madeby properly
desired stiffness, bending,momentresistance, and shear orientingthe web, dependingupon its directionalproperties.
resistance. The flangesresist bendingmoment,and the webs Equation(11-6) is conservative becauseit ignoresthe shear
stiffness ofthe flange. This contribution can be includedby
provideprimaryshear resistance. Properdesign requires that use ofAPA design methodsthat are based on Orosz (1970).
thewebs must notbuckle under designloads.Iflateral sta-
(Forfurtherinformation on APA design methods,contact
bility is a problem,the box beam design shouldbe chosen APA—TheEngineeredWoodAssociationin Tacoma,
becauseit is stiffer in lateral bendingand torsionthan is the
I-beam. In contrast,the I-beam shouldbe chosenifbuckling Washington.)
oftheweb is ofconcernbecauseits singleweb, double the Flange Stresses
thickness ofthatofa box beam, will offer greaterbuckling
resistance. Flangecompressiveandtensilestressesat outer beamfibers
aregiven by

11—12
 6M In Equations (11—11) and (11—13), theshear modulusG can
(11—7) be assumedwithoutgreaterror to be about 1/16 oCthe flange
(d3 modulusofelasticity EL. The resultanttorsionalstifthess GK
d E will be slightly low ifbeam webs have plywoodgrain at 45°
where M is bending moment. to theneutral axis. The lateral bucklingofI-beamswill also
be slightly conservative becausebendingrigidityofthe
Web Shear Stress flangehas been neglected inwritingthe equations given here.
Web shear stress at the beamneutral planeis givenby IfbucklingoftheI-beamseemspossibleat desigi loads,the
more accurate analysis ofForest Products Laboral:oryReport
1318B (Lewisand others 1943) shouldbe used before
3V E(d2—c2)b4-2E,Wd2
— (11—8) redesigning.
4W E(d3 —c3)b+2EWd3
Stiffeners and Load Blocks
where Vis shearload. The shear stress must not exceed
allowablevalues.To avoid webbuckling, eitherthe web Determinationofthe numberand sizes ofstiffeners and load
shouldbe increased inthicknessorthe clear length ofthe blocks neededin aparticularconstruction does not lend itself
webshouldbe brokenby stiffenersgluedto the web. to arationalprocedure, but certaingeneralrules can be given
that willhelp the designer ofa structure obtain a satisfactory
Web edgewise bendingstresses at the insideoftheflanges structural member. Stiffeners servea dualpurpos in a struc-
canbe computed by tural memberofthis type. One functionis to limitthe size of
6M theunsupported panel in theweb, and theother [5 to restrain
fxw (11—9) the flanges frommovingtoward each other as the beamis
E(d3 c3b
d3 stressed.
)—÷2—W
Stiffeners shouldbe gluedto thewebs and in contactwith
both flanges. A rationalway ofdetermining howthick the
Althoughit is not likely,the web can buckle as a result of stiffenershouldbe is not available, but tests ofbox beams
bendingstresses. Shouldbucklingas aresult ofedgewise
bendingappearpossible,the interaction ofshearand edge- made at the Forest Products Laboratory indicatethat a thick-
wise bendingbuckling can be examinedusingthe principles ness ofat least six timesthe thicknessofthewet is suffi-
of Timoshenko (1961). cient.Becausestiffeners must alsoresistthe tendencyofthe
flanges to movetoward each other,the stiffenersshouldbe as
Lateral Buckling wide as (extend tothe edgeof) the flanges.
Possiblelateral bucklingofthe entire beamshou]Ld be Forplywoodwebs containing plies with thegrain ofthe
checkedby calculatingthe criticalbendingstress (Ch. 8, wood oriented both parallel and perpendicular to the axisof
Lateral—TorsionalBuckling section).The slenderness factor themember, thespacingofthestiffeners isrelativelyunim-
p, requiredto calculatethis stress, includesterms for lateral portantfor thewebshearstressesthat are allowed.Maximum
flexuralrigidityEI andtorsionalrigidityGKthat are defmed allowable stresses are less than thosethat will producebuck-
as follows: ling. A clear distance betweenstiffeners equalto or less than
two timesthe clear distance betweenflanges is adequate.
Forbox beams, Load blocks are specialstiffeners placedalongthe member at
points ofconcentrated load.Load blocksshouldbe designed
'
El =—E(d—c)b
12 (11—10)
sothat stresses caused by a loadthatbears againstthe side-
grain material in the flanges donot exceedthe alLiowable
÷E[(b+2W)3 —b3}d designforthe flangematerial in compression perpendicular
to grain.
—
GK =[(d÷ c)(d2 c2)(b+W)2W1G (Il_il) Prefabricated Wood I-Joists
[ (d2—c2)+4(b+W)W j
For i-beams, In recentyears,thedevelopment ofimprovedadhesives and
manufacturing techniqueshas led to the development ofthe
prefabricatedI-joist industry. This productis a unique type
El = —'{E[(b-,-2W) —(2W)3}(d—c) 11 /
" I—12\
ofI-beamthat is replacingwider lumbersizes in floor and
roof applications forboth residential and commercial build-
+E(2W)3d} ings (Fig. 11—7).
Significant savings in materials are possible with prefabri-
GK= (11—13) catedI-joiststhat use eitherplywoodororientedstrandboard
[(d_c)3b+d(2W)3]G (OSB) forthe web materialand smalldimensionlumberor
where E is flexuralelasticmodulusoftheweb. structural composite lumber(SCL) for the flanges,The high
quality lumberneededforthese flanges has beendifficultto
obtain using visualgrading methods,andboth mechanically

11—13
 Recently, a performance standard for prefabricted I-joists
has beenpromulgated forproductsused in residentialfloor
construction (APA 1997).

Stressed-Skin Panels
Constructions consisting ofstructuralpanel "skins" glued to
wood stringersare often called stressed-skin panels. These
panels offer efficient structural constructions for floor, wall,
androofcomponents. They can be designedto provide
desired stiffness, bending moment resistance,and shear
resistance.The skins resist bendingmoment,and the wood
stringers provideshearresistance.
The details ofdesignfor a panelcross section are given in
Figure 11—8. The following equationswere derivedby basic
principles ofengineering mechanics. A more rigorousdesign
procedure that includes the effects ofshear lag is available in
Kuenzi and Zahn (1975).
Panel deflections can be computedusing Equation(8—2)in
A Chapter8. The bendingstiffness Eland shearstiffnessGA'
Figure 11—7. Prefabricated I-joists with laminated veneer are given by the following equationsfor the stressed-skin
lumberflanges and structuralpanel webs. (A) One ex- panelshown in Figure 11—8.
perimental producthasa hardboard web. The othertwo
commercial productshave (B) oriented strandboard and b
(C) plywood webs. EI=
(E1t,+E2t +Et0(s/b))
graded lumberand SCL are being used by several manufac-
turers.The detailsoffasteningthe flanges to the webs vary {1iz2 [(t1 + t) +(t2 +
betweenmanufacturers; all must be glued with awaterproof + E1t1Et(s / b)(t1 + t)2 + E2t2Et(s / b)(t2 + tj2}
adhesive.Prefabricated I-joistsare becoming popularwith
buildersbecauseoftheirlight weight,dimensionalstability
and ease ofconstruction. Theiraccurate and consistent di- + +Et
mensions,as well as uniformdepth, allowthe rapid creation {EfIt+Ef2t
ofa level floor. Utilitylines pass easilythroughopeningsin (11—14)
thewebs. whereE1 and E2aremodulusofelasticityvalues for skins
The ASTM standardD5055(ASTM 1997d) gives proce- E
1 and 2, and En flexural modulusofelasticityvaluesfor
skins 1 and 2, E stringermodulusof elasticity, and s total
dures for establishing, monitoring,and reevaluating struc-
tural capacities ofprefabricated I-joists. Eachmanufacturer of width ofall stringersin a panel.
prefabricated I-joists is responsible fordeveloping the re- Anapproximate expression for shearstiffness is
quiredproperty information and ensuringthat the minimum
levels of qualityare maintainedduring production. An inde- GA'—Gst (11—15)
pendentinspectionagencyis required to monitorthe quality
assurance program. whereG is stringer shearmodulus.

Standardgrades,sizes, and span tables have not been estab- Skin Stresses
lishedfor all prefabricatedI-joists. The production ofeach Skin tensileand compressive stressesare given by
manufacturer mayhave unique design properties andproce-

Li-- ME1y1
dures. Thus,the designermust consult information provided
by the manufacturer. Manyengineering equationspresented
in theprevioussection also apply to prefabricated I-joists. (11—16)
—
— ME2y2
Jr2
Duringthe 1980s, the prefabricatedwoodI-joists industry El
was one ofthe fastestgrowing segments ofthewood prod-
ucts industry. Prefabricated I-joistsare manufactured by about where El is given by Equation(11—14), Mis bending
15 companies in the United Statesand Canadaand are often moment, and
distributedthroughbuildingmaterialsuppliers. Each manu-
facturerhas developedits buildingcodeacceptance andpro-
vides catalogs with span tables and designinfonnation.

11—14
L 1,
J
Figure 11—8. Stressed-skinpanel cross section.

Glue Shear Stress

E2t2[(t1 + t) + (t2+t)} + Et (t1 + t) Glue shear stress in thejointbetweenthe skins and stringers
y1
is given by
+E2t2 + Et
2E1t1

E1t1[(t1+ t)+ (t2+ ta)]+ Et + t) , V(EQ)

sEl
(11—19)

=
whereEQ = Eitiby. Thisstress shouldnot exceeivalues for
+E2t2 + Et theglue and species. It shouldalso not exceedthewood
2[Eiti stress fn ("rolling" shear)for solidwoodbecause, forply-
wood, the thin plies allow the glue shear stresses to be
Either the skins shouldbe thick enoughor the stringers transmittedto adjacentplies and could cause rolling shear
spacedclosely enough so that buckling does not occur in the failurein thewood.
compression skin. Bucklingstress canbe analyzedby the
principles in Ding and Hou (1995). The designstress for the
structural panel in tensionandcompressionstrengthshould Buckling
notbe exceeded. Buckling ofthe stressed-skin panelofunsupported length
under end loadappliedin a directionparallel to the length of
StringerBending Stress thestringerscan be computed by
The stringerbending stress is the larger value given by
—;/2) (11—20)
— ME(y1
El (11—17) whereL is unsupported panel length and El is bending
— ME(y2—t2/2) stiffness givenby Equation (11—14).
fsr2
El
Compressive stress in the skins is given by
andthese shouldnot exceedappropriate valuesfo:r the
species. -L
-EA
The stringer shear stress is given by (11—21)
PE2
- V(EQ) (11—18)
fxc2

sEl
and in the stringers by
whereEQ = (E1t1b + Esy2)y. This also shouldnot exceed
PE
appropriate valuesforthe species. f=. (11—22)

11—15
 resistant facingcanbeused for the top facingofa floorpanel;
anddecorative effectscan be obtainedby usingpanelswith
plasticfacings forwalls, doors,tables, and other furnishings.
Core materialcan be chosento provide thermal insulation,
fireresistance, and decay resistance. Becauseofthe light
weightofstructural sandwich construction, soundtransmis-
sion problems must also be considered in choosingsandwich
component parts.
Methods ofjoining sandwich panelsto each other and other
structures must be plannedso that thejoints functionprop-
erly andallow for possible dimensionalchangeas a resultof
temperatureand moisture variations.Both structuraland
nonstructural advantages need to be analyzedin light ofthe
strength and service requirements for the sandwich construc-
tion. Moisture-resistant facings, cores, and adhesivesshould
be used iftheconstruction is to be exposedto adverse mois-
ture conditions. Similarly, heat-resistantor decay-resistant
facings, cores,and adhesives shouldbe usedifexposureto
elevated temperatures ordecay organisms is expected.

Fabrication
Facing Materials
Figure 11—9. Cutaway sectionofsandwich construction One advantage ofsandwich construction is the great latitude
with plywood facingsand a paper honeycombcore. it providesin choice offacingsand theopportunityto use
thinsheetmaterials becauseofthenearly continuoussupport
by thecore. The stiffliess, stability, andto a largeextent, the
whereEA E1t1b + E2t2b + Et,s. These compressivestresses strength ofthe sandwich are determined by the characteristics
shouldnot exceed stress valuesforthe structural panelor ofthefacings. Facingmaterialsincludeplywood, single
stringermaterial.For plywood, compressivestress should veneers, orplywoodoverlaid with a resin-treatedpaper,
also be less than the critical buckling stress. oriented strandboard, hardboard, particleboard, glass—fiber-
reinforcedpolymers or laminates, veneerbonded to metal,
and metals,such as aluminum, enameledsteel,stainless
Structural Sandwich steel, magnesium, and titanium.
Construction
Core Materials
a
Structural sandwichconstruction is layered construction
formedby bondingtwo thinfacings to a thickcore Many lightweight materials,such as balsa wood, rubber
foam,resin-impregnated paper, reinforcedplastics, perforated
(Fig. 11—9). The thin facings are usuallymade ofa strong
and densematerialbecausethey resistnearly allthe applied chipboard, expandedplastics,foamedglass, lightweight
concrete and clay products, and formedsheetsofcloth,metal,
edgewiseloads and flatwisebendingmoments.The core, orpaperhave beenused as a core for sandwich construction.
whichis made ofa weak and low densitymaterial,separates New materials and new combinations ofoldmaterialsare
and stabilizesthe thinfacings andprovidesmost ofthe shear
constantly beingproposedandused. Cores offormedsheet
rigidityofthe sandwichconstruction. Byproperchoiceof materials are often calledhoneycomb cores. By varyingthe
materials for facings andcore, constructions with high ratios
ofstiffnessto weightcanbe achieved. As a crude guide to the sheet material, sheet thickness, cell size, and cell shape,
coresofa wide range in density can be produced. Various
materialproportions, an efficientsandwich is obtainedwhen core configurations are shown in Figures 11—10 and 11—11.
theweightofthecore is roughlyequalto the total weightof The core cell configurations showninFigure 11—10 can be
thefacings. Sandwich construction is also economical be- formed to moderateamounts ofsinglecurvature,but cores
causethe relativelyexpensive facingmaterials are usedin shownin Figure 11—11 as configurations A, B, and C can
much smaller quantities than are the usuallyinexpensive core be formed to severesingle curvature and mild compound
materials.The materialsare positionedso that each is used
curvature (spherical).
to its best advantage.
Fourtypes ofreadilyformable coresareshownas configura-
Specific nonstructuraladvantages canbe incorporated in a tions D, E, F, and G in Figure 11—11. The type D and F
sandwich construction byproperselectionoffacing and core cores form to a cylindrical shape, the type D and E cores to a
materials.An impermeable facing can act as amoisture
barrierfora wall or roofpanel in ahouse; an abrasion- sphericalshape, andthe type D and G cores tovarious com-
poundcurvatures.

11—16
 -',. I- I- Ifthe sandwich panelsare likelyto be subjectedto damp or
wet conditions, a core ofpaper honeycomb shouldcontaina

IIlitSt!
B
—J'.
synthetic resin. Whenwet, paper with 15% phenclic resin
provides goodstrength, decay resistance, and desirablehan-
dling characteristics during fabrication. Resin amounts in
excess ofabout 15% do not seem to produce again in
strength commensurate with the increased quantity ofresin
required. Smaller amounts ofresin may be combiuedwith
fungicides to offerprimaryprotection againstdecay.

_. —
D Manufacturing Operations
Theprincipaloperation in themanufactureofsandwich
panelsis bonding the facings to the core. Special presses are
neededfor sandwich panelmanufacture to avoid crushing
lightweight cores, becausethe pressures requiredare usually
lowerthan can be obtainedinthe range ofgoodp:ressure
controlon presses ordinarily used for structural panelsor
F
E plastic products. Becausepressurerequirements are low,
simpleand perhapsless costly presses could be used.Con-
tinuousrollerpresses or hydraulic pressureequipmentmay
alsobe suitable. Inthe pressing ofsandwichpanels, special

—1ii
G
problems can occur,but the manufacturing processis basi-
cally not complicated.
Adhesives must be selectedand appliedto providethe neces-
Figure 11—10. Honeycomb core cell configurations. saryjointstrengthandpermanence.The facingmaterials,
especially ifmetallic, mayneed special surface treatment
beforethe adhesive is applied.
In certainsandwich panels, loading rails or edgings are
placedbetween the facings atthe time of assembly. Special
fittings or equipment, such as heating coils, plumbing,or
electrical wiringconduit,can easily be installed:Ln the panel
beforeits components are fittedtogether.

—
A
Someofthe most persistentdifficulties in the use ofsand-
wich panelsare caused by the necessity ofintroducingedges,
inserts, and connectors. In some cases,the problem involves
tying togetherthinfacingmaterials withoutcausing severe
stress concentrations. In othercases, such as furniture manu-
D facture, the problemis "showthrough"ofcore or inserts

—
throughdecorative facings. These difficulties are minimized
by achoice ofmaterials in whichtherate and degreeofdiffer-
ential dimensional movementbetween core and insert are at a
minimum.

F
Structural Design
E
The structural design ofsandwichconstruction can be com-
pared with the design ofan I-beam. The facings and coreof
thesandwich are analogous to theflanges and wb ofthe
I-beam, respectively. The two thin and stifffacings,separated
by a thick and light core,carry thebending loads. The func-
tions ofthe core are to supportthe facings againstlateral
wrinklingcausedby in-plane compressive loads and to carry,
Figure 11—11. Cellconfigurationsfor formable paper throughthe bondingadhesive,shear loads.When the
honeycomb cores. strength requirements forthe facings and core in aparticular
design are met, the construction shouldalsobe checked for
possible buckling, as for a columnor panel in compression,
and forpossible wrinklingofthe facings.

11—17
The contribution ofthe core material to the stiffnessofthe wherey is deflection, x distance along the beam, Mbending
sandwich construction can generallybeneglectedbecause of £
momentper unit widthat point x, and shear force per unit
thecore's low modulusofelasticity;when that is thecase, width at pointx.
the shearstress can be assumedconstantover the depth ofthe
core.The facing moduliofelasticityare usuallymore than Integration ofEquation (11—25) leads to the following
100 times as great as the coremodulusofelasticity. The core generalexpression for deflection ofa sandwich beam:
material may also have a small shear modulus. This small
shearmodulus causes increased deflections ofsandwich kPa3 kPa
(11—2(5)
construction subjectedto bendingand decreased buckling D U
loadsofcolumnsand edge-loadedpanels,compared with whereP is total loadper unit width ofbeam, a is span, and
constructions in which the core shearmodulusis high. The kb and k,are constantsdependentupon the loadingcondition.
effectofthis low shearmodulusis greaterforshortbeamsand The firstterm in the rightside ofEquation(11—26) givesthe
columns and small panelsthan it is for long beams and
columns and largepanels. bendingdeflection and the secondterm the sheardeflection.
Valuesofkb and Ic3 forseveralloadings are given in
Withoutconsideringthe contributionofcore material, the Table 11—1.
bendingstifihess ofsandwich beamshavingfacings ofequal Forsandwich panelssupported on all edges, the theoryof
or unequalthicknessis given by plates must be appliedto obtain analyticalsolutions. A
comprehensive treatment ofsandwich plates undervarious
D= h2t1t2(E1t2+E2t1) '' +E22t3)
1(Et
12
(11—23) loadingand boundary conditions can be found in the books
(t1÷t2)2 by Allen (1969), Whitney(1987),and Vinson and Sierak-
owski(1986). Many extensive studies ofsandwich construc -
whereD is the stiffnessperunit widthofsandwich construc- tionperformed atthe Forest Products Laboratory are refer-
tion (productofmodulusofelasticity and momentofinertia enced in those books. In addition,somehigh-orderanalyses
ofthecross section),E, and P22 moduli ofelasticityoffacings ofsandwich construction that considergeneral materialprop-
1 and 2, t1 and t2 facing thickness,and h distance between ertiesfor component parts in specifiedapplications can be
facingcentroids. foundin the references at the endofthis chapter.
The shear stiffness perunitwidth is given by The bucklingload per unit width ofa sandwich panel with
no edge members and loadedas a simplysupportedcolumn
U=—G (11—24) isgivenby
tc

N— NE
whereG0is the core shear modulusassociated with distor- (11—27)
tion ofthe plane perpendicular to the facings and parallel to 1+ NE/U
t
thesandwich length and is thethickness ofthecore. where criticalload
The bendingstiffness D and shear stiffness Uare used to
computedeflections andbucklingloads ofsandwich beams. it2n2D
The general expression forthe deflection offlat sandwich N= a 2 (11—28
beams is given by
in whichn is thenumber ofhalf-wavesinto whichthe col-
umn buckles and a is the panel length. The minimum value
of NE is obtainedfor n = 1 and is called theEuler load.
2 D U1c/x
(11—25)

Table11—1. Valuesof kb and k8 for several beam loadings

Loading Beam ends Deflection at kb k
Uniformly distributed Both simply supported Midspan 5/384 1/8
Both clamped Midspan 1/384 1/8
Concentratedat midspan Both simply supported Midspan 1/48 1/4
Both clamped Midspan 1/192 1/4
Concentrated at outer Both simply supported Midspan 11/76 1/8
quarter points Both simply supported Load point 1/96 1/8
Uniformly distributed Cantilever,1 free, 1 clamped Free end 118 1/2
Concentratedat free end I
Cantilever,I free, clamped Free end 1/3 1

11—18
Atthis load,thebuckling form is often called "general DepartmentofDefense (1968)and somepublicationslisted
buckling,"as illustratedin Figure 1 1—12A. intheReferences.
The bucklingload N is often expressedin the equivalent Buckling ofsandwich components has been emphasized
form becauseitcauses complete failure, usually producing severe
shearcrimping at the edgesofthe buckles.Anotherimpor-
1
— tant factor isthe necessity that the facingstress be no more
(11—29)
N NEU than its allowable valueat the designload. The facing stress
is obtainedby dividingtheload by thefacing area under
When U is finite, N <NE; when Uis infmite,N= NE; and load. For an edgewise compressiveload perunit widthN,
when NE is infmite(thatis, n -4 oc in Eq. (11—28)), N= U, thefacing stress is givenby
which is often called the "shear instability"limit. The
appearance ofthis buckling failure resembles a crimp N
(Fig. 1 1—12B). Shearinstabilityor crimpingfailureis a!-
1= + (11—30)
tl t2
ways possibleforedge-loadedsandwich construction andis a
limitfor general instability and not a localized failure. Inastrip of sandwich construction subjected tobending
moments,the meanfacingstresses are given by
Fora sandwichpanel under edgeload and with edgemem-
bers, the edge members willcarry a load proportional to their
transformed area (areamultiplied by ratio ofedgemember i=1,2 (11—31)
modulusofelasticityto facing modulusofelasticity). Edge
memberswill also increase the overallpanelbucklingload wherefi is mean compressive ortensilestress per unit width
becauseofrestraints at edges. Estimates ofthe effects ofedge in facing i and Mis bendingmoment per unit width of
memberscan be obtainedfrom Zahn andCheng(1964). sandwich. Ifthe strip is subjectedto shear loads, the shear
stress in the core is given by
Buckling criteriafor flat rectangular sandwich panels under
edgewise shear, bending, andcombinedloads andthose for S
sandwich walls ofcylinders undertorsion,axial compression (11—32)
orbending,and externalpressurehaveall been investigated
by variousresearchersattheForest Products Laboratory. whereSis the appliedshear load per unitwidth ofsandwich.
Detailscan be found in MilitaryHandbook23A by the U.S.
Localized failure ofsandwich construction must be avoided.
Suchfailureis shown as dimplingand wrinklingofthe
facings in Figure 1 1—12Cand D, respectively. The stress at
a
whichdimpling ofthe facinginto honeycomb corebegins
is given by the empirical equation
Facing

(11—33)
fd=2E()
where); is facing stress at dimpling, E facingmodulusof
elasticity at stress);, tffacing thickness, and s cel.l size of
honeycomb core(diameterofinscribed circle).
Increase in dimpling stress can be attainedby deereasing the
cell size.Wrinkling ofthe sandwichfacingscan occurbe-
cause they are thin and supported by a lightweigfl corethat
functionsas theirelasticfoundation.Wrinklingcan also
occur becauseofapoor facing-to-core bond,resultingin
-t Separ-
ation
from separation offacing from the core(Fig. 11—12D).Increasein
_Honeycomb
core
[1re bond strength should producewrinklingby corecrushing.
Thus,a convenientrule ofthumb is to requirethat the sand-
wich flatwisetensilestrength(bond strength)is rio less than
flatwisecompressive core strength. Approximate wrinkling
ore stress for a fairly flat facing (precluding bond failure) is given
__________
t tttof tttt [shin
tttt by

C. Dimpling facings D. Wrinklingof facings

f =..(EEG)" (11—34)

Figure 11—I 2. Modes of failureofsandwich

construction underedgewise loads.

11—19
wheref is facingwrinklingstress,E facingmodulusof It is possible to calculatemathematically thebowingofa
elasticity, E core modulusofelasticityin a directionper- sandwich constr1ction ifthe percentage ofexpansion ofeach
pendicularto facing, and G core shear modulus. facing is known. The maximum deflection is given approxi-
matelyby
Wrinkling and other forms oflocal instabilityare described
in detail in Military Handbook23A (U.S. Department of
a
Defense 1968) and in book by Allen (1969). Localized
800h
failure is not accuratelypredictable, and designs shouldbe
checked by ASTM tests oflaboratoryspecimens. wherek is thepercentage ofexpansion ofone facingcompared
with the opposite facing, athe length ofthe panel, and hthe
Because sandwich constructions are composed ofseveral
distance between facingcentroids.
materials,it is often ofinterest to attemptto design a con-
struction ofminimumweight for aparticularcomponent. In conventional construction, vaporbarriersare often in-
One introductionto the problem ofoptimum design is pre- stalledto block migrationofvapor to the cold side ofa wall.
sentedby Kuenzi(1970).For a sandwich with similarfac- Various methods have beentried or suggested for reducing
ings havinga requiredbending stiffness D, the dimensions vapormovementthroughsandwich panels,whichcausesa
fortheminimumweightdesignaregiven by moisture differential with resultantbowingofthe panels.
1/3
These methods include bonding metal foil withinthe sand-
wich construction, blending aluminum flakes with the resin
h= 212 (11—35)
bonding adhesives, and usingplasticvapor barriersbetween

-
t = 4w h
veneers, overlay papers,specialfinishes,ormetal orplastic
facings.Becauseadded cost is likely, some methods should
not be used unless their needhas been demonstrated.
A largetestunitsimulatingthe use ofsandwichpanels in
whereh is distance betweenfacingcentroids, t facingthick- houses was constructed atthe Forest ProductsLaboratory.
ness,E facingmodulusofelasticity,w facingdensity,and w The panels consisted ofa varietyoffacingmaterials,includ-
core density. ing plywood, aluminum, particleboard, hardboard,paper-
Theresulting constructionwill have very thin facings on a board, and cement asbestos, with coresofpaper honeycomb,
polyurethane, or extruded polystyrene. Thesepanels were
very thick core and will be proportioned so that the total core evaluated for bowing and general performance after various
weight is two-thirdsthe total sandwichweightminusthe
bond weight.However,such a construction may be impracti- lengths ofservicebetween 1947 and 1978. The experimental
cablebecausethe requiredfacings may be too thin. assemblyshown in Figure 11—13 representsthe type of
construction used in the test unit. The major conclusions
Many detaileddesign procedures necessary for rapid design of werethat (a) boving was least for aluminum-faced panels,
sandwich components for aircraft are summarized inMilitary (b) bowing was greaterfor plywood-faced panels with
Handbook23A(U.S. Department ofDefense 1968). The polyurethane orpolystyrene coresthan for plywood-faced
principles containedtherein and in somepublicationslisted panelswith paper cores,and (c) with propercombinations
intheReferences are broad and can be applied to sandwich offacings, core, andadhesives, satisfactory sandwich panels
components ofall structures. can beensuredby careful fabrication techniques.

Dimensional Stability, Thermal Insulation

Durability, and Bowing Satisfactory thermal insulation can best be obtainedwith
In a sandwichpanel, any dimensionalmovementof one y
sandwich panels using cores havinglow thermal conduc-
facing with respecttothe other as a result ofchanges in tivity,although the use ofreflective layerson the facings is of
some value. Paperhoneycomb cores havethermal conductiv-
moisture contentandtemperaturecauses bowingofan unre-
strainedpanel. Thus, although the use ofdissimilar facings ity values (k values),ranging from 0.04 to 0.09 W/mK
is often desirable from an economic or decorative standpoint, (0.30to 0.65 BtuinIhft2°F), dependingon the particular
thedimensionalinstabilityofthefacings during panel core construction. The k valuedoes not vary linearly with
manufacture or exposuremayrule outpossible benefits. If corethickness for a true honeycomb corebecauseofdirect
dimensionalchangeofboth facings is equal, the length and radiationthrough the core cell opening from one facingto the
width ofthe panel will increase or decrease but bowingwill other.Honeycombwith open cells can also havegreater
not result. conductivity ifthe cells are large enough(greaterthan about
9 mm (3/8 in.)) to allow convection currentsto develop.
The problemofdimensionalstability is chieflyrelatedto the
facings becausethe core is notstiffenough eitherto cause Animprovement in theinsulation valuecan be realizedby
bowingofthe panel or to cause the panelto remainflat. fillingthe honeycomb corewith insulation or a foamed-
However, the magnitudeofthebowingeffectdepends on the in-place resin.
thickness ofthe core.

11—20
 Resistance to flame spread couldbe improvedby placinga
barriersheet atthe top ofthe panel orat intervalsinthe panel
height,or ifstrengthrequirements permit, by simplyturning
the length ofthecoreblocksat 90° angles in the vertical
direction.

References
GeneraI
Smuiski,S., ed. 1997. Engineered wood products, a guide
to specifiers, designers andusers. PFS Research
Foundation.

Structural Composite Lumber

ASTM. 1997a. Standard specification forevaluation ofstruc-
tural composite lumberproducts.ASTM D5456. West
Conshohocken, PA: American Society for TestlrLg and
Materials.
Bohlen, J.C. 1972. Laminatedveneer lumber—levelopment
and economics. Forest ProductsJournal.22(1): 18—26.
Jung,J. 1982. Properties ofparallel-laminated veneerfrom
stress-wave-tested veneers. Forest ProductsJournal.
32(7): 30—35.

Kunesh, R.H. 1978. MICROLAM: Structural laminated

veneer lumber. Forest Products Journal. 28(7): 41—44.
Laufenberg, T. 1983. Parallel laminated veneer: processing
and performance research review. Forest Products Journal.
33(9):21—28.
Moody, R.C. 1972. Tensile strengthof lumberlaminated
from 1/8 in. thick veneers. Res. Pap.FPL—RP— [81. Madi-
son, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,
Forest Products Laboratory.
NIST. 1995. Voluntary product standardPS 1—95. Con-
structionand industrial plywood. Gaithersburg,MD:U.S.
Department ofCommerce, NationalInstitute ofStandards
and Technology.
Figure 11—13. Cutaway to showdetails of sandwich
constructionin an experimental structure. Press—Lam Team. 1972. Feasibility ofproducinga high-
yield laminated structuralproduct.Res.Pap. FPL—RP—175.
Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest
Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
Fire Resistance
Intests attheForest ProductsLaboratory, thefire resistance Glulam
ofwood-faced sandwich panelswas appreciablygreaterthan AF&PA. 1997. Nationaldesign specification forwood
that ofhollowpanelsfacedwith the same thickness of construction. Washington,DC: American Foreit & Paper
plywood. Fireresistance was greatly increased whencoatings Association.
that intumesce on exposureto heatwere appliedto the core
material. The spreadoffire through the honeycomb core AITC. 1979. Recommended practiceforproteclionofstruc-
tural glued-laminated timberduring transit, storage,and
dependedto a large extentonthe aligmnentofthe flutes in erection. AITC 111. Englewood,CO: AmericanInstitute
thecore. Inpanels with flutesperpendicular to thefacings,
only slight spreadofflameoccurred. In coresin whichflutes
ofTimberConstruction.
were parallel to the length ofthe panel,the spreadofflame AITC. 1984. Standard appearance gradesfor structural glued-
occurredinthe verticaldirectionalong open channels. laminated timber. AITC 110. Englewood,CO: American
Institute ofTimber Construction.

11—21
AITC. 1990. Standardfor preservative treatmentofstructural Moody, R.C. 1977. Improvedutilization of lumberin glued
glued-laminatedtimber. AITC 109. Englewood,CO: laminated beams. Res. Pap. FPL—RP—292. Madison, WI:
American InstituteofTimber Construction. U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest
Products Laboratory.
AITC. 1993a. Inspectionmanual. AITC 200. Englewood,
CO: American Institute ofTimber Construction. Peterson, J.; Madson, G.; Moody, R.C. 1981. Tensile
AITC. 1993b. Standardspecifications for structural glued- strengthofone-, two-, and three-plyglulammembersof2 by
laminated timberofsoftwoodspecies.AITC 117. Engle- 6 Douglas-fir. Forest ProductsJournal. 31(1): 42—48.
wood, CO: AmericanInstituteofTimber Construction. Selbo, M.L.; Knauss, AC.; Worth, H.E. 1965. After two
AITC. 1994. Timberconstructionmanual. American Insti- decadesofservice, glulamtimbers showgoodperformance.
tute of Timber Construction. 4th ed. New York: JohnWiley Forest Products Journal. 15(11): 466—472.
& Sons. Wolfe, R.W.; Moody, R.C. 1979. Bending strength of
AITC. 1996. Standardspecifications for structural glued- vertically glued laminated beamswith one to five plies. Res.
laminatedtimber ofhardwoodspecies.AITC 119. Engle- Pap. FPL—RP—333.Madison, WI: U.S. Departmentof
Agriculture, Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory.
wood, CO: American InstituteofTimber Construction.
ANSI. 1992. Structural glued laminated timber. Glued Members With Lumber and Panels
ANSI/AITC A190.1. New York: American National APA. 1980. PlywoodDesign Specification. Tacoma, WA:
Standards Institute. APA—The Engineered WoodAssociation.
ANSI. 1996. Structural glued laminated timber for utility
structures. ANSI 05.2.New York: American National Supp. 1. Design and fabrication ofplywoodcurvedpanels
Standards Institute. Supp.2. Designand fabrication ofplywood-lumber beams
ASCE. 1975. Woodstructures,a design guide and commen- Supp.3. Design and fabrication ofplywoodstressed-skin
tary. NewYork: American Society ofCivil Engineers. panels
ASCE. 1982. Evaluation, maintenance and upgradingof Supp.4. Designand fabrication ofplywoodsandwich
wood structures. New York: American Society ofCivil panels
Engineers. APA. 1997. Performance standardfor I-joistsused in residen-
ASTM. 1997b. Standardpracticeforestablishing stresses for tial floor construction. PRI—400. Tacoma, WA: APA—The
structural glued-laminatedtimber(glulam).ASTM D3737. Engineered Wood Association.
Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing and ASTM. 1997d. Standardspecification for establishingand
Materials.
monitoring structural capacities ofprefabricated wood I-
ASTM. I997c. Standardpracticefor establishing structural joists. ASTM D5055.West Conshohocken, PA: American
grades and relatedallowable properties forvisuallygraded Society for Testing and Materials.
lumber. ASTM D245. Philadelphia,PA: American Society ASTM. I997e. Standardmethods for testing veneer, ply-
for Testing and Materials.
wood,and other glued veneer constructions. ASTM D805.
AWPA. 1997a. Standards for solvents and formulations for West Conshohocken, PA: American Societyfor Testing and
organicpreservativesystem. P9. Woodstock, MD:American Materials.
WoodPreservers' Association.
Ding, Y.; Hou, J. 1995. Generalbucklinganalysis ofsand-
AWPA. 1997b. Standards for waterbome preservatives. P5. wich constructions. Computers & Structures. 55(3):
Woodstock,MD:American WoodPreservers'Association. 485—493.

CSA. 1989. Structuralglued-laminatedtimbers.CAN/CSA ForestProducts Laboratory. 1943. Designofplywood

0122. Rexdale,ON: Canadian Standards Association. webs for box beams.FPL Rep. 1318. Madison, WI: U.S.
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products
CSA. 1994. Engineeringdesignofwood (limit state design).
Laboratory.
CAN/CSA 086. Rexdale,ON: Canadian Standards
Association. Kuenzi, E.W.; Znhn,J.J. 1975. Stressed-skinpanel deflec-
tion and stresses. Res. Pap. FPL—RP—251. Madison, WI:
Freas, A.D.; Selbo, M.L. 1954. Fabricationand design of U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest
glued laminated wood structural members.U.S. Department Products Laboratory.
ofAgricultureTech. Bull. 1069. Available from: Engle-
wood, CO: American InstituteofTimber Construction. Lewis, W.C.; Heebink, T.B.; Cottingham, W.S.;
Dawley,E.R. 1943. Bucklingin shear webs ofbox and I-
Jokerst, R.W. 1981. Finger-jointedwood products. Res. beamsand their effectupon designcriteria. FPL Rep. 131 8B.
Pap. FPL—RP—382. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest
Agriculture, Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory. Service,Forest Products Laboratory.

11—22
Lewis, W.C.; Heebink, T.B.; Cottingham, W.S. 1944. C394—88. Shearfatigueofsandwich core materials
Effects ofcertain defects and stress concentrating factors on
C480—88. Flexure-creep ofsandwich constructions
thestrengthoftensionflanges ofbox beams. FPLRep.
1513. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest C481—88. Laboratory aging ofsandwich constructions
Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory.
Cheng, S. 1961. Torsion of sandwich plates oftrapezoidal
Lewis, W.C.; Heebink, T.B.; Cottingham, W. S. 1945. cross section. Journal ofAppliedMechanics,American
Effectofincreasedmoistureon the shearstrengthat gluelines Society ofMechanical EngineersTransactions. 28(3):
ofbox beams and on theglue—shear and glue—tension 363—366.
strengthsof small specimens.FPL Rep. 1551. Madison,
WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Service,Forest Hall, R.B. 1996. Performance limitsfor stiffness-critical
ProductsLaboratory. graphiticfoam structures. Pt. II. Comparisons ofIbams,
foam-core andhoneycomb-core sandwiches in bending/shear.
McNatt, J.D. 1980. Hardboard-webbed beams:Research and JournalofComposite Materials.30(17): 1938—1956.
application.Forest Products Journal. 30(10): 57—64.
Holmes,C.A. 1978. Room corner-wall fire tests ofsome
Orosz, I. 1970. Simplifiedmethodfor calculating shear structural sandwich panelsandcomponents. Journal
deflections ofbeams.Res. Note FPL—RN—0210. Madison, ofFire andFlammability.9: 467—488.
WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Service,Forest
ProductsLaboratory. Holmes, C.A.; Eickner, H.W.; Brenden, J.J. land
others]. 1980. Firedevelopmentand wall endurance in
Superfesky, M.J.; Ramaker, T.J. 1976. Hardboard-webbed sandwich and wood-framestructures. Res. Pap. FPL—RP—
I-beamssubjectedto short-term loading.Res. Pap. FPL— 364. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest
RP—264. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory.
Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory.
Karisson, K.F.; Astrom, B.T. 1997. Manufacturingand
Superfesky, M.J.; Ramaker, T.J. 1978. Hardboard-webbed applications ofstructural sandwich components. Composites,
I-beams: Effectsoflong-term loading and loading environ- PartA: AppliedScience and Manufacturing. 28(2): 88—97.
ment. Res. Pap. FPL—RP—306. Madison, WI: U.S. Depart-
ment ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Kimel, W.R. 1956. Elasticbuckling ofa simply supported
Laboratory. rectangular sandwich panelsubjected to combined edgewise
bendingand compression- results forpanelswith facings of
Timoshenko, S. 1961. Theory of elasticstability. 2d ed. eitherequalorunequalthicknessand with orthotropic cores.
NewYork: McGraw—Hill. FPL Rep. 1857-A. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agri-
culture, Forest Service, Forest ProductsLaboratory.
Structural Sandwich Construction
Krajcinovic, D. 1972. Sandwich beamanalysis. Journalof
Allen, H.G. 1969. Analysisand designofstructural sand- AppliedMechanics, American Society ofMechanical
wich panels. Oxford,England:Pergamon. EngineersTransactions. 39(3):773—778.
ASTM. 1997f. Annual book ofASTM standards.ASTM Kuenzi, E.W. 1970. Minimum weight structural sandwich.
Section 15, Vol. 03. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Res. Note FPL—086. Madison, WI: U.S. Departmentof
Testing and Materials. Agriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory.
C271—88. Densityofcore materials forstructural sandwich Kuenzi, E.W.; Ericksen, W.S.; Zahn, J.J. 1962. Shear
constructions stabilityofflat panelsofsandwich construction. FPL Rep.
C273—88. Shearpropertiesin flatwiseplaneofflat 1560. (Rev.) Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,
sandwich constructions or sandwich core Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory.
C297—88. Tensilestrengthofflat sandwich constructions Kuenzi, E.W.; Bohannan, B.; Stevens, G.H. 1965. Buck-
in flatwiseplane ling coefficients for sandwich cylinders offinitelnigth under
uniformexternallater pressure. Res. Note FPL—RN—0104.
C363—88. Delaminationstrengthofhoneycombtype core Madison, WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest Serv-
material ice, Forest Products Laboratory.
C364—88. Compressive strength, edgewise, offiat Noor, A.K.; Burton,W.S.; Bert, C.W. 1996. Computa-
sandwich constructions tional models forsandwichpanelsand shells. Applied
Mechanics Reviews. 49(3): 155—199.
C365—88. Compressive strength, flatwise,ofsandwich
cores Palms,J.; Sherwood, G.E. 1979. Structural sandwich
C366—88. Thickness ofsandwich cores,measurement of performance after31 yearsofservice. Res. Pap. FPL—RP—
342. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgricull;ure, Forest
C393—88. Flexuralproperties offlatsandwich Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
constructions

11—23
Plantema, F.J. 1966. Sandwich construction. New York, Vinson, J.R.; Sierakowski, R.L. 1986. The behaviorof
NY: John Wiley. structures composed ofcompositematerials. Martinus
Nijhoff.
Reddy, J.N.; Miravete, A. 1995. Practicalanalysisofcom-
posite laminates. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc. Whitney, J.M. 1987. Structural analysis oflaminated
anisotropic plates. Lancaster, PA: TechnomicPublishing
Seidi, R.J. 1952. Paper honeycomb cores for structural Co., Inc.
sandwich panels. FPL Rep. R19l8. Madison, WI: U.S.
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Zahn, J.J.; Cheng, S. 1964. Edgewisecompressive
Laboratoiy. bucklingofflat sandwich panels: Loaded ends simply
supportedand sides supported by beams.Res. Note
Sherwood, G.E. 1970. Longtimeperformance ofsandwich FPL—RN—O 19. Madison, WI: U.S. Departmentof
panelsin Forest ProductsLaboratoryexperimental unit. Res. Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest ProductsLaboratory.
Pap. FPL—RP—l44. Madison, WI: U.S. Departmentof Zheng,Shiying; Yao, J. 1995. Exact solutionofsandwich
Agriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory. beams.AppliedMathematics and Mechanics.16(6):
U.S. DepartmentofDefense. 1968. Structural sandwich 539—548.
composites. Military Handbook23A. Washington,DC:
Superintendent ofDocuments.

11—24
 I Chapter
Drying and Control of Moisture
Content and Dimensional Changes
William T. Simpson

n thelivingtree, wood containslargequantitiesof

Contents water.As green wood dries,most ofthe water is
_______removed. The moistureremainingin the wood
DeterminationofMoistureContent 12—1 tends to cometo equilibriumwith the relative humidityof
Oven-Drying Method 12—2 the surrounding air. Correctdrying, handling, and storage of
ElectricalMethod 12—2 wood will minimizemoisturecontentchanges that might
Recommended MoistureContent 12—3 occur after dryingwhenthe wood is in service and such
Timbers 12—3 changes are undesirable. Ifmoisturecontentis controlled
withinreasonable limitsby such methods,major problems
Lumber 12—3 from dimensional changes can usually be avoided.
Glued WoodProducts 12—3
DryingofWood 12—5 The discussion in this chapteris concernedwith moisture
Air Drying 12-6 contentdetermination, recommended moisturecontentval-
AcceleratedAir Dryingand Pre-Drying 12—6 ues, drying methods,methodsof calculating dimensional
changes, design factors affecting such changes in structures,
Kiln Drying 12—6 and moisture contentcontrolduringtransit,storage, and
DryingMechanism 12-6 construction. Data on green moisture content, fibersaturation
DryingStresses 12—7 point, shrinkage, and equilibrium moisture contentare given
Dry Kilns 12—7 with information on other physicalpropertiesin Chapter3.
Kiln Schedules 12—8
DryingDefects 12—9
t
Woodin service is virtually alwaysundergoing least
slight changesin moisture content. Changesin response to
MoistureContentofDried Lumber 12—10 dailyhumiditychangesare smalland usuallyofno conse-
MoistureControlDuring Transitand Storage 12—14 quence. Changes that occur as aresult ofseasonal variation,
Plywoodand Structural Items 12—14 although gradual,tend to be ofmore concern. PrDtective
Finish and FactoryLumber 12—15 coatingscan retard dimensional changesin wood but do not
preventthem.In general, no significant dimensional changes
Dimensional Changesin Wood 12—15 will occur ifwood is fabricatedor installedatamoisture
Estimation Using Dimensional ChangeCoefficient 12—15 contentcorresponding tothe averageatmospheric conditions
CalculationBased on GreenDimensions 12—i7 to whichit willbe exposed. When incompletely dried mate-
DesignFactorsAffectingDimensional Change 12—18 rial is used in construction, some minor dimensional
FramingLumberin House Construction 12—18 changescan be tolerated ifthe properdesign isused.
HeavyTimber Construction 12—18
Interior Finish 12—18 Determination of
Flooring 12—18 Moisture Content
Wood Care and InstallationDuring Construction 12—18
Lumberand Trusses 12—18 The amountofmoisture in wood is ordinarily expressedas a
Exterior Trim and Millwork 12—19 percentage ofthe weightofthewood whenovendry.Four
methods ofdetermining moisture contentare coveredin
FinishedFlooring 12—19 ASTMD4442.Two ofthese—theoven-dryingand the
InteriorFinish 12—19 electrical methods—are describedin this chapter.
Plastering 12—19
References 12—20

12—1
The oven-dryingmethodhas been the most universally property measured. Conductance-type (orresistance)meters
acceptedmethod for determining moisture content, but it is measuremoisture contentin terms ofthe directcurrentcon-
slowand necessitates cutting the wood. In addition, the ductance ofthe specimen. Dielectric-type meters are oftwo
oven-drying methodmay give values slightly greater than types.Thosebased principally on dielectric constantare
true moisture contentwith woods containing volatile extrac- calledcapacitance or capacitive admittance meters;those
tives. The electricalmethod is rapid, does not requirecutting basedon loss factor are calledpower-lossmeters.
thewood, and canbe usedon wood in place in a structure.
However, considerable care must be takento use and inter- Theprincipaladvantages ofthe electrical methodcompared
pret theresults correctly. Use ofthe electrical method is with the oven-drying method are speedand convenience.
generallylimited to moisturecontentvalues less than 30%. Onlya few seconds are requiredforthe determination, and
thepiece ofwood being tested is not cutor damaged, except
for driving electrode needlepoints into the wood whenusing
Oven-Drying Method conductance-type meters. Thus, the electrical methodis
In the oven-dryingmethod,specimens are takenfrom repre- adaptableto rapid sortingoflumberon the basis ofmoisture
sentativeboards orpieces ofa quantity oflumber. With content, measuring the moisturecontent ofwood installedia
lumber, the specimens should be obtainedat least 500 mm abuilding,or establishingthemoisture contentof a quantity
(20 in.) from the end ofthe pieces.They shouldbe free from oflumberor otherwood items, whenused in accordance
knots and other irregularities, such as bark and pitchpockets. with ASTM D4442.
Specimens from lumbershouldbe full cross sections and
25 mm (1 in.) long. Specimens from larger items may be Forconductance meters, needleelectrodes ofvariouslengths
representative sectorsofsuch sections or subdivided incre- aredrivenintothewood. There are two generaltypes of
ment borer or auger chip samples. Convenientamountsof electrodes: insulated and uninsulated. Uninsulatedelectrode;
chips andparticlescan be selectedatrandomfrom larger will sense the highest moisture contentalong theirlength
batches,with care takento ensurethat the sampleis represen- (highest conductance). Moisture gradients betweenthe surface
tative ofthe batch. Veneersamples should be selectedfrom and the interiorcan leadto confusion. Ifthe wood is wetter
fouror five locations in a sheet to ensure that the sample nearthe centerthan the surface, whichis typicalfor drying
average will accurately indicate the average ofthe sheet. wood, thereadingwill correspond to the depth ofthe tip of
theinsulated electrodes. Ifa meterreadingincreases as the
Eachspecimenshouldbe weighedimmediately, beforeany electrodes are being driven in, then the moisturegradientis
drying orreabsorptionofmoisturehas takenplace.Ifthe typical.In this case, the pins should be driven in about one-
specimen cannotbe weighed immediately, it shouldbe fifthto one-fourth the thickness ofthe woodtoreflectthe
placed in a plastic bag or tightlywrappedin metal foil to average moisture content ofthe entirepiece. Driedor par-
protectit from moisturechangeuntil itcan be weighed. After tially driedwood sometimes regains moisturein the surface
weighing, the specimenis placed in an oven heatedto 101°C fibers, andthe surface moisture contentis greater thanthe
to 105°C (214°F to 221°F)and kept there until no apprecia- interior. In this case, the meter with the uninsulatedpins
bleweight changeoccursin 4-h weighingintervals. A lum- will read the highermoisturecontentsurface,possiblycaus-
ber section25 mm (1 in.) along thegrain will reacha con- ing a significantdeviation from the averagemoisture content.
stantweight in 12 to 48 h. Smallerspecimens will takeless To guard againstthis problem, electrodeswith insulated
time. The constant or ovendry weightand the weightofthe shanks havebeendeveloped. They measuremoisturecontent
specimen when cut are used to determine thepercentage of ofonly thewood atthetips oftheelectrodes.
moisturecontentusing the formula
Dielectric-typemetersare fittedwith surface contact elec-
Moisturecontent (%) trodesdesigned forthe type ofspecimenmaterialbeing
tested. The electric field from these electrodes penetrates well
Weightwhencut — Ovendryweight x 100 into the specimen, but with a strengththat decreasesrapidly
(12—1)
with depth ofpenetration. Forthis reason, the readingsof
Ovendiyweight dielectric metersare influenced predominantly by the surface
layersofthe specimen, and the material near midthickness
Electrical Method maynotbe adequately representedinthe meter reading if
thereis amoisturecontent gradient.
The electrical method ofdetermining the moisture contentof
wood uses the relationships betweenmoisturecontentand To obtain accuratemoisture contentvalues, each instrument
measurable electrical properties ofwood,such as conductiv- shouldbe used in accordance with its manufacturer'sinstruc-
ity (or its inverse,resistivity),dielectric constant, or power- tions. The electrodes shouldbe appropriate for the material
loss factor.These properties vary in a definiteandpredictable being tested and properly orientedaccording to metermanu-
way with changingmoisturecontent, but correlations are not facturer'sinstructions. The readingsshouldbe carefullytaken
perfect. Therefore,moisture determinations usingelectrical as soonas possibleafter inserting the electrode.A species
methods are always subject to some uncertainty. correction suppliedwith the instrumentshould be applied
when appropriate. Temperature corrections should thenbe
Electric moisture meters are available commercially and are madeifthetemperature ofthe wood differs considerably from
based on each ofthese properties and identified by the thetemperature ofcalibration used bythemanufacturer.

12—2
Approximate corrections for conductance-type (resistance) necessaryto tightenbolts or other fastenings occasionally to
metersare made by addingor subtracting about 0.5%for maintain fullbearingofthe connectors as the members
each5.6°C(10°F)the woodtemperature differs from the shrink.
calibration temperature. The correction factors are addedto
the readingsfor temperatures less than the calibration tem- Lumber
perature and subtracted from thereadings fortemperatures
greaterthan the calibration temperature. Temperature correc- The recommendedmoisturecontentofwood shouldbe
tions fordielectric meters are rather complex and are best matchedas closely as is practicalto the equilibrium moisture
madefrom publishedcharts(James 1988). content (EMC) conditions in service. Table 12—i shows the
EMC conditions in outdoorexposurein variousU.S. cities
Althoughsome meters have scalesthatgo up to 120%,the for each month. The EMCdataare basedon the average
range ofmoisture contentthat can be measuredreliablyis 4% relative humidityandtemperaturedata (30 ormore years)
to about 30% forcommercial dielectricmetersand about 6% available from the NationalClimatic Data Centerofthe
to 30% for resistance meters.The precision oftheindividual NationalOceanic andAtmosphericAdministration. The
meterreadings decreases near the limitsofthese ranges. relative humiditydatawere the average ofthe morning and
Readingsgreaterthan 30% must be considered only qualita- afternoonvalues, and in most caseswould be representative
tive. Whenthe meteris properly used on a quantity of lum- oftheEMCattainedby thewood.However,in some loca-
ber driedto a reasonably constantmoisturecontentbelow tions, earlymorningrelativehumiditymay occasionally
fiber saturation, the average moisturecontentfrom the reach 100%. Underthese conditions, condensationmay occur
correctedmeterreadingsshouldbe within 1% ofthe true and the surface fibers ofwood will exceedtheEMC. The
average. moisture content requirements are more exacting for fmished
lumberand woodproductsusedinside heatedand air-
Recommended Moisture conditioned buildingsthan those for lumberused outdoors or
in unheatedbuildings. Forgeneralareas oftheUnitedStates,
Content therecommended moisturecontentvalues forwood used
inside heated buildingsare shown in Figure 12—1. Values
Wood shouldbe installedat moisturecontent levels as close and tolerances forboth interiorand exterioruses ofwood in
as possible to theaveragemoisturecontentit will experience variousforms are given in Table 12—2. Ifthe averagemois-
in service. This minimizesthe seasonalvariationin moisture ture contentis within 1% ofthat recommendedand all pieces
contentand dimensionafter installation, avoidingproblems fall within the individual limits, the entire lot is probably
such as floorbucklingor cracksin furniture. The in-service
moisturecontentof exterior wood (siding, wood trim) satisfactory.
primarilydependson the outdoorrelativehumidityand Generalcommercial practiceis tokilndry wood for some
exposureto rain or sun. The in-service moisturecontentof products, such as flooringand furniture,to a slightly lower
interiorwood primarilydepends on indoorrelative humidity, moisture contentthan serviceconditions demand, anticipat-
whichin turn is a complexfunctionofmoisture sources, ing a moderate increase in moisture content during process-
ventilation rate, dehumidification (for example, air ing and construction. This practiceis intendedto ensure
conditioning),and outdoor humidityconditions. uniformdistributionofmoisture among the individual
The recommendedvalues for interiorwood presentedinthis pieces. Common grades ofsoftwoodlumberand softwood
dimension lumberare not normallydried to the moisture
chapterare based onmeasurements in well-ventilated build- contentvalues indicated in Table 12—2. Dry lumber, as
ings without unusualmoisturesourcesand without air con- defmed in the American Softwood LumberStandard, has a
ditioning. In air-conditionedbuildings,moisture conditions maximum moisture contentof 19%. Some industry grading
depend to a greatextent on the propersizingofthLe air- rulesprovide for an even lowermaximum. Forcxample,to
conditioningequipment.Wood installedin basements or be grade markedKD 15, the maximum moisture content
over a crawl space mayexperience amoisture contentgreater
thanthe range provided,and wood in insulatedwalls orroofs permittedis generally15%.
and atticsmay experience a moisture contentgreateror less
thanthe range.Nevertheless, the recommended values for Glued Wood Products
installation provide a usefulguideline. Whenveneersare bonde&with cold-setting adhesives to
make plywood, they absorbcomparatively large quantities of
Timbers moisture. To keepthe fmal moisture content low andto
minimize redryingofthe plywood, the initial moisture
Ideally, solid timbers shouldbe dried to the averagemois- content ofthe veneershouldbe as low aspractical.However,
ture content they will reach in service. Althoughthis opti-
mum is possible with lumber less than 76 mm(:3 in.) thick, very dry veneeris brittleand difficultto handlevithout
it is seldom practicalto obtain fully dried timbers,thick damage,so the minimum practicalmoisturecontent is about
4%. Freshly glued plywoodintendedfor interior service
joists, and planks. When thick solid members are used, shouldbe dried to the moisturecontentvalues given in
someshrinkageofthe assemblyshouldbe expected. In the
case ofbuilt-upassemblies, such as rooftrusses,it maybe Table 12—2.

12—3
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 Drying of Wood
Drying is requiredfor wood to be used in most products.
Driedlumberhas many advantages over green lumber for
producers and consumers. Removal ofexcesswatrreduces
weight,thus shippingand handling costs. Proper drying
confmes shrinking and swelling ofwood in use to manage-
able amounts under all but extreme conditions ofrelative
humidityor flooding.As wood dries, most of its strength
properties increase, as well as its electrical andthermal insu-
latingproperties. Properlydried lumbercanbe cutto precise
dimensions andmachinedmore easily and efficiently; wood
•11% average parts can be more securelyfittedandfastenedtogther with
moisture content nails, screws,bolts, and adhesives; warping,spl::[tting,
checking, and other harmful effectsofuncontrolled dryingare
Figure 12—1. Recommendedaverage moisture largelyeliminated; andpaint, varnish, and other finishes are
content for interioruseofwoodproductsin more effectively appliedandmaintained. Woodrriustbe
variousareas of the United States.
relatively dry beforeit can be glued ortreatedwith decay-
preventing and fire-retardantchemicals.
Hot-pressed plywoodand other boardproducts,such as
particleboardandhardboard,usuallydo not havethe same The keyto successful and efficient dryingis control ofthe
moisturecontentas lumber. The high temperaturesused in dryingprocess.Timelyapplication ofoptimum or at least
hotpressescause these productsto assumea lowermoisture adequatetemperature, relativehumidity, and air circulation
contentforagiven relativehumidity. Becausethis lower conditions is critical. Uncontrolleddryingleads to drying
defects that can adversely affectthe serviceability and eco-
equilibrium moisture contentvaries widely, depending on
thespecific type ofhot-pressedproduct,it is recommended nomics ofthe product.The usual strategyis to dry as fast as
that such productsbe conditionedat30% to 40% relative the particularspecies, thickness, and end-product require-
humidityfor interioruse and 65% for exterioruse. ments allow without damaging the wood. Slower diying can
be uneconomical as well as introduce therisk ofstain.
Lumberusedinthe manufactureoflarge laminated members
shouldbe dried to amoisture content slightly less than the Softwood lumberintended for framing in construction is
moisture contentexpectedin serviceso that moisture ab- usually targeted for dryingto an average moisture content of
sorbedfrom the adhesivewill not cause the moisturecontent 15%, not to exceed 19%. Softwoodlumberfor many other
oftheproductto exceedthe servicevalue. The range of uses is dried to a low moisture content, 10% to 2% for
moisturecontentbetween laminations assembledinto a many appearance grades to as low as 7% to 9% for furniture,
singlemembershouldnot exceed 5 percentage points. cabinets, and miliwork. Hardwoodlumberforframingin
Although laminatedmembers areoften massivearid respond construction, althoughnot in common use, shoi.ld alsobe
rather slowly to changesin environmental conditions, it is driedto an average moisturecontentof 15%, not to exceed
desirableto followthe recommendations in Table 12—2 for 19%. Hardwoodlumberforfurniture,cabinets,arid millwork
moisture contentat time ofinstallation. is usuallydried to 6% to 8%moisture content.

Table 12—2. Recommendedmoisturecontentvalues forvariouswooditemsat timeofinstallation

Recommended moisture content (%) in various climatologicalregions

Most areas of the

United States Dry southwestern areaa Damp, warm coastal areaa
Individual Individual Individual
Use ofwood Averageb pieces Averageb pieces Averageb pieces
Interior:woodwork, flooring, furniture, 8 6—10 6 4—9 11 8—13
wood trim
Exterior:siding,wood trim, 12 9—14 9 7—12 12 9—14
sheathing,laminatedtimbers
aMajor areas are indicated in Figure 12—1.
bTo obtain a realisticaverage,test at least 10%of each item. If the quantity of a given item is small, make sevraI
tests. For example, in an ordinary dwellinghaving about 60 floor joists, at least 10 tests should be made on joists
selected at random.

12—5
Lumberdryingis usuallyaccomplished by somecombina- Kiln Drying
tion ofair drying,acceleratedair drying or pre-drying, and
kiln drying. Wood species, lumberthickness,economics, In kiln drying, highertemperatures and faster air circulation
and enduse are often the main factors in determining the areusedto increase drying rate considerably. Specific kiln
details ofthe dryingprocess. schedules havebeen developed to controltemperature and
relativehumidityin accordance with the moisturecontent
and stress situationwithinthe wood, thus minimizing
Air Drying shrinkage-caused defects.
The main purposeofair drying lumberis to evaporate as
much ofthe water as possible beforeenduse or transferto a Drying Mechanism
dry kiln. Air dryingusuallyextends until wood moisture
content is as low as 20% to 25%, at which time the lumber Water in wood normallymovesfrom high to low zonesof
is transferredto a dry kiln iffmal dryingto a lowermoisture moisture content, whichmeansthat the surface ofthe wood
contentis required. Sometimes, dependingon a mill's must be drierthan the interiorifmoistureis to be removed.
scheduling, air dryingmay be cut short at ahigher moisture Dryingcan be broken down intotwo phases: movementof
content beforethe wood is sent to the dry kiln. Air drying waterfrom the interiorto thesurface ofthe wood and evapo-
saves energy costs and reducesrequireddry kiln capacity. ration ofwater from the surface. The surface fibers ofmost
Limitationsofair dryingare generallyassociated with uncon- species reachmoistureequilibrium with the surrounding air
trolled drying. The drying rate is very slow duringthe cold soon afterdrying begins. This is the beginningofthe
winter months.At other times, hot, dry winds may increase development of a typicalmoisturegradient(Fig. 12—2),that
degrade and volume losses as a result ofsevere surface check- is, the difference inmoisturecontentbetweenthe inner and
ing and end splitting.Warm, humid periods with little air outer portions ofa board.Ifair circulation is too slow, a
movementmay encouragethe growthoffungal stains, as longertime is requiredforthe surfaces ofthe woodto reach
well as aggravatechemicalstains. Another limitation ofair moisture equilibrium. This is one reasonwhy air circulation
dryingis the high cost ofcarryinga large inventory ofhigh is so importantin kiln drying. Ifair circulationis too slow,
value lumberforextendedperiods.Air dryingtime to 20% drying is also slowerthan necessary and mold could develop
to 25% moisturecontent varieswidely,depending on spe- on the surface oflumber. Ifdryingis too fast, electrical
cies, thickness,location,and the time ofyear the lumberis energy in running the fans is wasted, and in certain species,
stacked.Some examples ofextremes for25-mm- (1-in.-)
thick lumberare 15 to 30 days for some ofthe low density
species,such as pine, spruce, red alder,and soft maple,
stackedin favorable locations and favorable timesoftheyear,
to 200 to 300 days for slow dryingspecies,such as sinker
hemlockand pine, oak, and birch, in northern locationsand
stackedat unfavorabletimes ofthe year.Details ofimportant
air dryingconsiderations,such as lumber stacking and air
dryingyard layout,are coveredin Air Drying ofLumber:
A GuidetoIndustry Practices (Rietz and Page 1971).

Accelerated Air Drying

and Pre-Drying a)
4-.
The limitations ofair dryinghave led to increaseduse of 0
technology that reduces dryingtime and introduces some 0
control into dryingfrom green to 20% to 25% moisture
content. Acceleratedair dryinginvolves theuse offans to 0
0
force air through lumberpiles in a shed. This protectsthe
lumberfrom the elementsand improves air circulation com-
pared with air drying. Smallamountsofheat are sometimes
used to reduce relativehumidityand slightly increase tem-
perature. Pre-dryers take this acceleration and control a step
furtherby providingcontrol ofboth temperature and relative
humidityand providingforced air circulation in a completely
enclosedcompartment. Typicalconditionsin a pre-dryerare
27°C to 38°C (80°F to 100°F) and 65% to 85% relative
0 20 40 60 80 100
humidity.
Thickness(percentage of totalthickness)
Figure 12—2. Typicalmoisture gradientin lumber
during drying at time increasing from t, to t3.

12—6
surface checking andother drying defects can develop if
relativehumidityand air velocityare not coordinated.
Watermovesthroughthe interior ofwood as a liquidor
vaporthroughvariousair passageways in the cellularstruc-
ture ofthe wood, as well as throughthe wood cell walls.
Moisturemovesin these passagewaysin all directions, both
across and with the grain. In general, lighterspecies dry
fasterthan heavierspecies becausethe structure oflighter
wood contains more openingsper unit volumeand moisture
movesthroughair faster than throughwood cell walls. Water
movesby two main mechanisms: capillaryaction(liquid)
and diffusion ofboundwater (vapor). Capillary actioncauses
free water to flow throughcell cavities andthe smallpas-
sageways that connectadjacent cell cavities. Diffusion of
bound watermovesmoisture from areas ofhigh concentration
to areas oflow concentration. Diffusioninthe longitudinal
directionis about 10 to 15 times fasterthan radial ortangen-
tialdiffusion, and radialdiffusionis somewhat fasterthan
tangentialdiffusion. This explainswhy flatsawnlumber
generally dries fasterthan quartersawn lumber. Although
longitudinal diffusion ismuch faster thandiffusion acrossthe
grain,it generally is not ofpracticalimportance in lumber
that is many times longerthan it is thick.
Because chemical extractives in heartwoodplug up passage-
ways,moisturegenerallymovesmore freely in sapwoodthan
in heartwood; thus, sapwoodgenerally dries faster than Figure 12—3. End view of board showing development
heartwood. However, the heartwoodofmany species is lower of drying stresses (a) early and (b) later in drying.
in moisturecontentthan is thesapwoodand canreach final
moisture contentas fast.
or checks,occur duringthis initialstage ofdryirLg, and they
The rate at whichmoisture movesin wood depends on the can be a serious defectfor many uses. As dryingprogresses,
relativehumidityofthe surrounding air, the steepness ofthe thecore begins to dry and attempts to shrink. However,the
moisturegradient,andthe temperatureofthe wood. The shell is set in apermanentlyexpandedcondition and pre-
lowerthe relativehumidity, the greaterthe capillary flow. vents normal shrinkageofthe core. This causes the stresses
Low relativehumidityalso stimulates diffusion by lowering to reverse;the core goes into tensionand theshell into
themoisture contentat thesurface, thereby steepening the compression. The changein the shell and core stressesand
moisturegradient and increasing the diffusion rate. The in themoisture contentlevel during dryingis shown in
greaterthe temperature ofthe wood,the faster moisture will Figure 12—4. Theseinternal tension stresses maybe severe
move from the wetter interior to the driersurface. Ifrelative enoughto cause internalcracks(honeycomb).
humidityis too low in the early stages ofdrying,excessive Differential shrinkage caused by differences inradial, tangen-
shrinkage mayoccur, resulting in surface and endchecking.
Ifthetemperatureis too high, collapse,honeycomb, or tial, and longitudinal shrinkage is a major cause ofwarp.
The distortions shownin Figure in Chapter3 are due to
strength reduction can occur. differential shrinkage. Whenjuvenile or reaction wood is
present on one edge orface ofaboard andnormalwood is
Drying Stresses presenton the opposite side, the difference intheirlongitudi-
arethemaincause ofnonstain-related drying nalshrinkage can also cause warp.
Drying stresses
defects. Understanding these stresses providesameansfor
minimizingandrecognizingthe damage they can cause. Dry Kilns
The cause ofdrying stresses inthe differential shrinkage Most dry kilns are thermallyinsulatedcompartments de-
a
betweenthe outerpart of board (the shell) and the interior signed for abatch process in whichthe kiln is completely
part (the core) can also cause drying defects. Early in drying, loadedwith lumber in one operation and the lumberremains
thefibers in the shell dryfirst and begin to shrink. However, stationary during the entiredryingcycle. Temperature and
thecore has notyet begunto dry and shrink; consequently, relative humidityare kept as uniform as possiblethroughout
thecore preventsthe shellfrom shrinking. Thus,theshell thekiln and canbe controlledover a wide range.Tempera-
goes into tensionand the core into compression (Fig. 12—3). tureand relative humidity are changedas thewood dries
Ifthe shell dries too rapidly, it is stressedbeyond the elastic basedon a schedule that takes into accountthe moisture
limit and dries in a permanentlystretched(set) condition contentand/orthe dryingrate ofthe lumber. Al].dry kilns
withoutattainingfull shrinkage. Sometimes surface cracks,

12—7
 C
0(0
(0
a)
0.

(I) ci,
C
I-a)
C
a>
C
8—.

In
0

C
0 Maximum Final
Cl,
(0 tension Icase-
a)
0 in center I hardened Booster coil
state
(00 Figure 12—5. Lineshaft, double-track, compartment kiln
2 9.-.
—
- with alternately opposing fans. Vents are over fan shaft
C
COo _I.uIIIII.I_ betweenfans. Venton high pressure side offans
0) becomes fresh air inletwhen directionof circulation
C
Ca) is reversed.
a>—
C
0()
efficiencyandthe needto avoid severedryingconditions that
(0 willlead to dryingdefects. A kiln schedule is a series of
0 temperatures andrelativehumidities that are appliedat vari-
ous stagesofdrying.In most schedules, the temperatureis
Thickness
graduallyincreased andthe relativehumidity decreased. The
Figure12—4. Moisture—stressrelationship during schedule for SouthernPine structural lumberis an exception
sixstagesof kiln drying 50-mm- (2-in.-) thick to this general rule. This is lumberusually dried at a con-
red oak. stanttemperature and relative humidity. Temperatures are
chosento strike this compromise ofasatisfactorydryingrate
andavoidance ofobjectionable drying defects. The stresses
use sometype offorced-aircirculation, with air moving that developduringdryingare the limitingfactor in deter-
throughthe lumberperpendicularto the length ofthe lumber mining the kiln schedule.The schedulemust be developed
andparallelto the spacers (stickers)that separate eachlayerof so that the drying stresses do not exceedthe strength ofthe
lumberin a stack. wood at any giventemperatureand moisturecontent. Other-
Three generaltypes ofkilns are in commonuse. One is the wise, thewood will crackeither on the surface or internally
track-loadedtype (Fig. 12—5), where lumberis stackedon orbe crushed by forces that collapsethewood cells.Wood
kiln trucks that are rolled in and out ofthe kiln on tracks. generally becomes stronger as the moisture contentdecreases,
The majorityofsoftwoodlumberin the United Statesis andto a lesserextent, it becomes weakeras temperature
increases. The net result is that as wood dries it becomes
dried in this kilntype. Anothermajor type is the package-
loadedkiln(Fig 12—6),whereindividual stacksoflumberare stronger becauseofthe decreasing moisture content andcan
fork-liftedinto place in the kiln. This type ofkiln is com- toleratehigherdrying temperatures and lowerrelative humid-
ities withoutcracking. This is a fortunate circumstance
monlyusedfor dryinghardwoodlumber. Thesekilns are becauseas wood dries, its drying rate decreasesat any given
most commonlyheated with steam,althoughsoftwood
lumberkilns are sometimesdirectly heated. A third common temperature, and the ability to increase dryingtemperature
helpsmaintaina reasonably fast dryingrate. Thus,rapid
type ofkiln,usuallypackage loaded, is the dehumidification drying is achievedin kilns by the use oftemperaturesas high
kiln. Insteadofventinghumid air to removewater, as the
other two types ofkilns do, water is removedby condensa- as possible and relativehumiditiesas low as possible.
tion on cold dehumidifiercoils(Fig. 12—7).
Dryingschedules vary by species,thickness,grade, and end
use oflumber. There are two general types ofkilnschedules:
Kiln Schedules moisturecontent schedules and time-basedschedules. Most
hardwoodlumberis dried by moisturecontent schedules.
Akiln schedule is a carefullydevelopedcompromise between This meansthat the temperatureand relativehumiditycondi-
theneedto dry lumberas fast as possible foreconomic tions are changedaccording to variousmoisture content

12—8
 Automatic ventilators

Figure 12—6. Package-loadedkiln with fansconnected directlyto motors.

levels attainedby the lumberduringdrying.A typicalhard-

wood schedulemightbegin at 49°C(120°F)and 80% rela- Drying Defects
tive humiditywhen the lumberis green. By the time the Most dryingdefects or problems that developin wood prod-
lumberhas reached 15% moisture content,thetemperatureis ucts during drying can be classified as fracture or distortion,
as high as 82°C(180°F). A typicalhardwooddryingsched- warp, ordiscoloration. Defectsin any one ofthese categories
uleis shownin Table 12—3. Some methodofmonitoring are caused by an interaction ofwood properties with process-
moisturecontentduringdrying is required for schedules ing factors.Woodshrinkageis mainlyresponsiblefor wood
based on moisture content. One common method is the use ruptures and distortionofshape. Cell structure andchemical
ofshortkilnsamplesthat are periodically weighed,usually extractives inwood contribute to defectsassociatedwith
manuallybut potentially remotelywith load cells.Alterna- uneven moisture content, undesirablecolor, and undesirable
tively, electrodes are imbeddedin sampleboards to sensethe surface texture. Dryingtemperatureis themost important
changein electrical conductivity with moisturecontent. This processing factor becauseit canbe responsible for defects in
system is limitedto moisturecontent values less than 30%. each category.

Softwood kiln schedules generally differ fromhardwood Fracture or Distortion

schedules in that changesin kilntemperatureand relative
Surface checks occur earlyin drying whenthe shll ofaboard
humidity are made at predetermined timesrather thanmois- is stressedin tensionenoughto fracture the wool. These
ture contentlevels.Examples oftime-basedschedules, both
checks occur most often onthe face offlatsawn boards and are
conventional temperature(<100°C (<212°F)) andhigh illustrated in Figure 12—8. End checks(Fig. 12—9) are simi-
temperature(>110°C(>230°F)), are given in Table 12—3. lar to surface checks but appearon the ends ofboards. End
checks occur because the rapid longitudinal movementof
moisture causes the boardend to dry very quicklyand

12—9
 L— Warp

I 11Th Warp in lumberis any deviationofthe face or edgeofa

boardfrom flatnessor any edge that is notat right anglesto
the adjacentface oredge. Warp can be tracedto two causes:
(a) differences betweenradial, tangential, and longitudinal
shrinkage inthe pieceas it dries or (b) growth stresses. Warp
is aggravated by irregularor distorted grain and thepresence
ofabnormal types ofwood,such asjuvenile andreaction
1-Compressor 4-Condenser 7-Waterdrain wood. The six major types ofwarp are bow, crook, twist,
2-Blower 5-Controlvalve 8-Auxiliary heater
3-Evaporator 6-Maintan 9-Wood stack oval, diamond, and cup (Fig. 12—13).

Discoloration
The use ofdried wood productscan be impairedby discol-
oration, particularlywhenthe enduse requires aclear, natural
fmish. Unwanteddiscoloration can developin the tree,
duringstorage oflogs andgreen lumber, or during drying.
There are two generaltypes ofdiscoloration: chemicaland
fungal.
Chemicaldiscoloration is the result ofoxidativeand enzy-
matic reactions with chemicalconstituentsin wood. Disco]-
orations range from pinkish, bluish, and yellowishhues
throughgray andreddish brownto dark brown shades.
Brown stainin pines and darkeningin many hardwoodsis a
common problem whendryingtemperatures aretoo high
(Fig. 12—14).A deep grayish-brown chemicaldiscoloration
can occur in many hardwoodspecies ifinitial dryingis too
slow(Fig. 12—15).

Fungal stains, often referredto as blue orsap stain, are

causedby fungithat grow in the sapwood(Fig. 12—16).
Blue-stain fungido not cause decay ofthe sapwood,,and
fungi generally do not grow in heartwood.Blue stain can
developifinitialdrying is too slow.
Anothercommontype ofstain developsunder stickers
todrain (Fig. 12—17). This stain results from contactofthe sticker
with the board. Stickerstains(sometimescalledshadow)are
Fig. 12—7. A typical dehumidification kiln (top) and
dehumidification dryingsystem (bottom). imprintsofthe stickerthat are darkeror lighterthan the
woodbetweenthe stickers andcan be causedby either
chemical or fungalaction, or both.
develophigh stresses, thereforefracturing. End coatings,
eitheronthe logor freshlysawn lumber, are an effective Moisture Content of Dried Lumber
preventative measure. Collapse is a distortion, flattening, or
crushingofwood cells. In severecases (Fig. 12—10),collapse Although widely used, the trade terms "shippingdry," "air
usuallyshows up as groovesor corrugations, a washboarding dry," and "kiln dry" may not have identicalmeaningsas to
effect. Less severecollapse shows up as excessive thickness moisturecontentin the differentproducingregions. Despite
shrinkageand may not be a seriousproblem. Honeycomb thewide variations in the use ofthese terms,they are some-
(Fig. 12—11)is an internalcrack that occurs in the later times used to describe dried lumber. The followingstate-
stagesofkiln dryingwhen the core ofa board is in tension. ments,which are not exact definitions, outline these
It is causedwhen the core is still at a relativelyhigh mois- categories.
ture contentand dryingtemperatures are too high for too
long duringthis critical dryingperiod. Nondestructive test- Shipping Dry
ing methods,using speed ofsound,have been foundto be Shippingdry means lumberthat has been partially dried to
effective in detecting the presenceofthese cracks in dried
lumber. Knots may loosenduringdryingbecauseofthe preventstainormold duringbriefperiods oftransit; ideally
the outer 32 mm(1/8 in.) is dried to 25%or less moisture
unequalshrinkagebetweenthe knot andthe surrounding content.
wood (Fig. 12—12).

12—10
 Table 12—3. Typicaldry kiln schedules for lumber

Moisture content-based schedule for25-mm (1-in.) (4/4) blackwalnut,

dried to 7% moisturecontent
Temperature (°C(°F)) Relative Equilibrium
Moisture humidity moisture content
content (%) Dry-bulb Wet-bulb (%) (%)

Above 50 49.0 (120) 45.0 (113) 80 14.4

50 to 40 49.0 (120) 43.5 (110) 72 12.1

40 to 35 49.0 (120) 40.5 (105) 60 9.6

35 to 30 49.0 (120) 35.0 (95) 40 6.5

30 to 25 54.5 (130) 32.0 (90) 22 4.0

25 to 20 60.0 (140) 32.0 (90) 15 2.9

20 to 15 65.5 (150) 37.5 (100) 18 3.2

15to7 82.2(180) 54.5 (130) 26 3.5

Equalize 82.2 (180) 58.3 (137) 30 3.8

Condition 82.2 (180) 76.7 (170) 79 11.1

Time-basedschedule for 25- to 50-mm (1- to 2-in.) (4/4 to 8/4) Douglas Fir,
uppergrades, dried to 12% moisture content
Temperature (°C(°F)) Relative Equilibrium
humidity moisture content
Time (h) Dry-bulb Wet-bulb (%) (%)

Otol2 76.5(170) 73.5(164) 86 14.1

12 to 24 76.5 (170) 71.0 (160) 78 11.4

24 to 48 79.5(175) 71.0 (160) 69 9.1

48 to 72 82.2 (180) 71.0 (160) 62 7.7

72 to 96 82.2 (180) 60.0 (140) 36 4.5

or until dry

High temperature schedule for 50- by 100-mm to 50- by 250-mm (2- by 4-in, to
2- by 10-in.) Southern Pine, dried to 15%moisturecontent

Temperature (°C(°F)) Relative Equilibrium

humidity moisture content
Time (h) Dry-bulb Wet-bulb (%) (%)

0 until dry 116 (240) 82.2 (180) 29 2.5

Air Dry densehardwoods and 15% to 20% for softwood;andlow-

Air dry means lumberthat has been dried by exposureto the density hardwoods. Extendedexposurecan bring standard
airoutdoorsor in ashed or by forcedcirculation ofair that 19- and 38-mm (nominal1- and2-in.) lumberwithinone or
has not beenheated above49°C (120°F). Commercial air- two percentage points ofthe average exteriorequilibrium
moisturecontentofthe region.For much ofthe United
dry stockgenerallyhas an average moisturecontentlow
States, the minimum moisturecontent ofthoroughlyair-
enoughfor rapid kilndryingor rough construction use. dried lumberis 12% to 15%.
Moisture content is generallyin the range of20°/o to 25% for

12—11
 Figure 12—11. Board machined into millworkshows
honeycomb (top). Surface of planed red oakboard
shows no honeycomb(bottom).

Figure 12—8. Surfacechecking on Douglas Fir

dimension lumber.

Figure 12—12. Loose knotin Southern Pine.

Kiln Dry
T1LL Kiln dry means lumberthat has been dried in a kiln or by
somespecial drying methodto an averagemoisturecontent
specified or understood to be suitable for a certainuse. The
average moisture contentshouldhaveupper and lowertoler-
ance limits,and all values should fall within these limits.
Kiln-driedsoftwood dimension lumbergenerallyhas an
average moisture contentof 19% orless; the average mois-
turecontentfor many other softwooduses is 10% to 20%.
Hardwood andsoftwoodlumber for furniture,cabinetry, and
millworkusually has a fmal moisture contentof6% to 8%
andcan be specified to be free ofdrying stresses.The impor-
tance ofsuitable moisturecontentvalues is recognized, and
provisions covering them are now incorporatedin some
softwood standards as gradingrules. Moisturecontent values
in thegeneral gradingrules may or may not be suitable for a
specific use; ifnot, aspecialmoisturecontentspecification
shouldbe made.
Figure 12—10. Severe collapse in western redcedar.

12—12
 Point of greatest
deflection
Figure 12—15. Gray sapwood stain in southern red oak
that was dried green with humid, low temperature
conditions and poorair circulation.

Oval Diamond Cup

Figure 12—13. Various typesofwarpthat candevelop
in boards duringdrying.

Figure 12—14. Brownsapwood stain in Southern Pine

lumber.

Figure 12—16. Sap stain in Southern Pine. Color

ranges from bluish gray to black.

12—13
 When standard 19-mm (nominal 1-in.) softwoodlumber,
kilndried to 8% or less, is piled solid under a good pile roof
in a yard in humidweather, average moisture contentofa
pile can increase at the rate ofabout 2% permonth duringthe
first 45 days. An absorptionrate ofabout 1% permonth can
then be sustained throughouta humid season.Comparable
initialand sustaining absorption rates are about 1% per
month in open (roofed) sheds and 0.3%per monthin closed
sheds. Stockthat was piled for a year in an open shed in a
westernlocation increased 2.7% on the insideofsolid piles
and 3.5% on the outside ofthe piles. All stock that has been
manufactured in any way shouldbe protectedfrom precipita-
tion and spray, becausewater that gets into a solid pile tends
to be absorbedby thewood insteadofevaporating.The
extentto whichadditional control ofthe storage environment
is requireddepends uponthe useto which thewood will be
put andthe corresponding moisture contentrecommenda-
tions. The moisturecontent ofall stock should be deter-
mined when it is received.Ifmoisture contentis not as
specified orrequired, stickered storage in an appropriate
conditioncould ultimatelybring the stock withinthe desired
moisture contentrange. Ifa large degreeofmoisture change
is required, the stock must be redried.

Figure 12—17. Stickerstain in sapwood of sugar

maple after planing. Plywood and Structural Items
Green or partiallydried lumberand timbersshould be open
piled on stickersandprotectedfrom sunshineand precipita-
Moisture Control During tion by a tight roof. Framing lumberand plywoodwith 20°/
Transit and Storage or less moisture contentcan be solid piled in a shed that
providesgoodprotectionagainstsunshine and direct or
Lumber and other wood itemsmay change in moisture wind-driven precipitation. However, a betterpracticefor
content and dimensionwhile awaitingshipment, during stockwith greaterthan 12% moisturecontent is the use of
fabrication,in transit, and in storage. stickeredpilingto bring moisture content more in line with
When standard 19-mm (nominal1-in.) thy softwood lumber the moisture contentin use. Dry lumbercan be piled solid iri
is shippedin tightly closedboxcars,shippingcontainers, or the open for relativelyshortperiods, but at least a minimum
trucksor in packageswith complete and intact wrappers, pile cover ofwaterproofed paper shouldbe used whenever
average moisture contentchanges for a package cangenerally possible. Because it is difficultto keeprain out completely,
be held to 0.2% or less per month. In holdsor between storingsolid-piledlumberin the open for long periods is not
decks ofships, dry materialusually adsorbsabout 1.5% recommended. Ifframinglumbermust be storedinthe open
moistureduringnormalshippingperiods. Ifgreen materialis for a long time, it shouldbe piled on stickers over good
includedin the cargo, the moistureregain ofthe dry lumber supports and the piles shouldbe roofed. Solid-piledmaterial
may be doubled. On the top deck, ifunprotected from the that has become wet againshouldalso be re-piledon
elements,the moistureregain can be as much as 7%. stickers.

Table 12-4. Amountby whichtemperatureofstorage area must be increased above outside

temperature to maintain equilibrium moisture content
Outside relative Tern perature differential(°C (°F)) for desired equilibrium moisture content
humidity
(%) 6% 7% 8% 9% 10% 11% 12%
90 18.3 (33) 16.1 (29) 12.8 (23) 10.0 (18) 8.3 (15) 6.1 (11) 5.0 (9)
80 16.7 (30) 13.9(25) 10.5(19) 7.8(14) 6.1 (11) 4.4(8) 3.3(6)
70 13.9 (25) 11.1 (20) 8.3 (15) 5.6 (10) 3.9 (7) 2.2 (4) 1.7 (3)
60 11.1 (20) 8.3 (15) 5.0 (9) 3.3 (6) 1.7 (3) — —
50 8.3 (15) 5.6 (10) 2.8 (5) 0.6 (1) — — —

12—14
Finish and Factory Lumber that the shrinkage—moisturecontentrelationship is linear.
Figure3—4(Ch. 3) shows that this is not the case, so some
Such kiln-drieditemsas exterior fmish, siding, and exterior error is introduced. The error is in the directioncfunderes-
millwork shouldbe storedin a closedbut unheatedshed. timatingdimensionalchange, by about 5% ofthe true
They shouldbe placed on supportsraised abovethe floor, at change. Many changes ofmoisturecontentin use are over the
least 150 mm (6 in.) high ifthe floor is paved or 300 mm smallmoisturecontentrange of6% to 14%, wherethe
(12 in.) ifnot paved. Interiortrim, flooring, cabinetwork, shrinkage—moisturecontentrelationship is linear (Ch. 3,
and lumberfor processinginto furniture shouldbe storedin a Fig. 3—4). Therefore, a setofshrinkage coefficierLts based on
room or closedshed where relative humidityis controlled. thelinearportion oftheshrinkage—moisturecontentcurve
Kiln-dried and machinedhardwooddimension or softwood has been developed (Table 12—5). Approximate changes in
cutstock should also be storedunder controlledhumidity dimension can be estimatedby a simple formula that in-
conditions. volves a dimensional change coefficient, from Table 12—5,
whenmoisture contentremainswithinthe range ofnormal
Driedandmachinedhardwooddimension or softwood use. (Dimensional changes are furtherdiscussedin Chs.3
lumberintendedforremanufacture shouldalsobe stored and 6.)
under controlled humidityconditions. Underuncontrolled
conditions,the ends ofsuch stockmay attain a greatermois- Estimation Using Dimensional
ture contentthan the balanceofthe length.Then, whenthe
stockis straight-line rippedorjointed beforeedgegluing, Change Coefficient
subsequent shrinkagewill cause splittingor open gluejoints The changein dimension within the moisture contentlimits
at the ends ofpanels.The simplestwayto reducerelative of6% to 14% can be estimatedsatisfactorily by usinga
humidityin storageareas ofall sizes is to heat the space to a dimensional changecoefficient based on the dimension at
temperatureslightlygreaterthan that ofthe outsideair. 10% moisturecontent:
Dehumidifiers canbe usedin small, well-enclosed spaces.
Iftheheatingmethodis used, and there is no source ofmois- AD =DJ[CT(MF — M1)} (12—2)
ture exceptthat containedinthe air, the equilibrium mois-
ture contentcan be maintained by increasing thetemperature whereAD is change in dimension, D1 dimensionin units of
ofthestorage areagreaterthantheoutside temperature bythe length at startofchange, CT dimensional changecoefficient
amounts shown in Table 12—4. Whena dehumidifier is tangential direction(for radial direction, use CR), MF mois-
used,the averagetemperaturein the storage space shouldbe ture content(%) at end ofchange, andM1 moisturecontent
knownor controlled. Table 3—4 in Chapter3 shouldbe used (%) at startofchange.
to selecttheproperrelativehumidityto givethedesired
averagemoisturecontent. Woodin a factory awaitingor ValuesforCT and CR, derivedfrom total shrinkage values,
following manufacture can becometoo dry ifthe area is aregiven in Table 12—5. When MF <M1, the quantity
(MF M1) will be negative, indicating adecreasein
—
heatedto 21°C (70°F) orgreater whenthe outdoor tempera-
ture is low. This often occursin the northernUnited States dimension; when greater,it will be positive, indicatingan
increase in dimension.
during the winter. Under suchcircumstances, exposedends
and surfaces ofboardsor cut pieceswilltendto dry to the
low equilibrium moisture content condition, causing shrink- As an example, assumingthewidthofa flat-grained white fir
board is 232 mm (9.15 in.) at 8% moisture content, its
age andwarp. In addition,an equilibrium moisturecontent
of4% ormore belowthemoisture contentofthecore of change in width at 11% moisturecontent is estimatedas
freshlycrosscut boardscancause end checking. Simple AD = 232[0.00245(1 1 — 8)]
remedies are to coverpiles ofpartiallymanufactured items
with plasticfilm and lowerthe shoptemperatureduring = 232(0.00735)
nonworkhours.Increasedcontrolcanbe obtainedin critical = 1.705 mm
shopandstorageareas by humidification. In wann weather,
coolingcan increase relativehumidity anddehumidification AD =9.15[0.00245(11—8)]
may benecessary. = 9.15[0.00735]
Dimensional Changes in Wood = 0.06725or 0.067 in.
Dry woodundergoes smallchanges in dimensionwith nor- Then,dimension at end ofchange
mal changes in relativehumidity. Morehumid air will cause
slight swelling,and drier air willcause slight shrinkage. D1+AD =232+ 1.7 (= 9.15 + 0.067)
Thesechangesare considerably smallerthan those involved = 233.7 mm
with shrinkagefrom the green condition. Equation(12—2) (= 9.217 in.)
can be used to approximate dimensionalchangescausedby The thickness ofthe same board at 11% moisturecontentcan
shrinking andswellingby usingthe total shrinkage coeffi- be estimatedby usingthe coefficient CR= 0.00112.
cient from green to ovendry. However, the equationassumes

12—15
Table 12—5. Coefficients for dimensional change as a resultof shrinkingor swellingwithin moisturecontent limits
of 6% to 14% (Ci = dimensional change coefficientfor tangential direction; CR = radial direction)
Dimensional change Dimensionalchange
coefficienta coefficienta

Species CR CT Species CR CT
Hardwoods
Alder, red 0.00151 0.00256 Honeylocust 0.00144 0.00230
Apple 0.00205 0.00376 Locust, black 0.001 58 0.00252
Ash, black 0.00172 0.00274 Madrone, Pacific 0.00194 0.00451
Ash, Oregon 0.00141 0.00285 Magnolia,cucumbertree 0.00180 0.00312
Ash, pumpkin 0.00126 0.00219 Magnolia, southern 0.00187 0.00230
Ash, white 0.00169 0.00274 Magnolia, sweetbay 0.00162 0.00293
Ash, green 0.00169 0.00274 Maple, bigleaf 0.001 26 0.00248
Aspen, quaking 0.00119 0.00234 Maple, red 0.00137 0.00289
Basswood,American 0.00230 0.00330 Maple, silver 0.001 02 0.00252
Beech, American 0.001 90 0.00431 Maple, black 0.00165 0.00353
Birch, paper 0.00219 0.00304 Maple, sugar 0.001 65 0.00353
Birch, river 0.001 62 0.00327 Oak, black 0.001 23 0.00230
Birch, yellow 0.00256 0.00338 Red Oak, commercial 0.00158 0.00369
Birch, sweet 0.00256 0.00338 Red oak, California 0.001 23 0.00230
Buckeye, yellow 0.00123 0.00285 Red oak:water, laurel, willow 0.00151 0.00350
Butternut 0.00116 0.00223 White Oak, commercial 0.00180 0.00365
Catalpa, northern 0.00085 0.00169 White oak, live 0.00230 0.00338
Cherry, black 0.00126 0.00248 White oak, Oregon white 0.00144 0.00327
Chestnut, American 0.00116 0.00234 White oak, overcup 0.00183 0.00462
Cottonwood, black 0.00123 0.00304 Persimmon, common 0.00278 0.00403
Cottonwood, eastern 0.00133 0.00327 Sassafras 0.00137 0.00216
Elm, American 0.00144 0.00338 Sweet gum 0.001 83 0.00365
Elm, rock 0.00165 0.00285 Sycamore, American 0.00172 0.00296
Elm, slippery 0.00169 0.00315 Tanoak 0.00169 0.00423
Elm,winged 0.00183 0.00419 Tupelo, black 0.00176 0.00308
Elm, cedar 0.00183 0.00419 Tupelo, water 0.00144 0.00267
Hackberry 0.00165 0.00315 Walnut, black 0.00190 0.00274
Hickory, pecan 0.00169 0.00315 Willow, black 0.00112 0.00308
Hickory, true 0.00259 0.00411 Willow, Pacific 0.00099 0.00319
Holly, American 0.00165 0.00353 Yellow-poplar 0.001 58 0.00289
Softwoods
Baldcypress 0.00130 0.00216 Pine, eastern white 0.00071 0.00212
Cedar, yellow 0.00095 0.00208 Pine, jack 0.00126 0.00230
Cedar, Atlantic white 0.00099 0.001 87 Pine, lobIolly 0.00165 0.00259
Cedar, eastern red 0.00106 0.00162 Pine, pond 0.00165 0.00259
Cedar, Incense 0.00112 0.001 80 Pine, lodgepole 0.00148 0.00234
Cedar, Northernwhiteb 0.00101 0.00229 Pine, Jeffrey 0.00148 0.00234
Cedar, Port-Orford 0.001 58 0.00241 Pine, longleaf 0.001 76 0.00263
Cedar, western redb 0.00111 0.00234 Pine, ponderosa 0.00133 0.00216
Douglas-fir, Coast-type 0.001 65 0.00267 Pine, red 0.001 30 0.00252
Douglas-fir, Interior north 0.00130 0.00241 Pine, shortleaf 0.00158 0.00271
Douglas-fir, Interior west 0.001 65 0.00263 Pine, slash 0.00187 0.00267
Fir, balsam 0.00099 0.00241 Pine, sugar 0.00099 0.00194
Fir, Californiared 0.001 55 0.00278 Pine, Virginia 0.00144 0.00252
Fir, noble 0.001 48 0.00293 Pine, westernwhite 0.00141 0.00259

12—i 6
Table 12—5. Coefficients for dimensional change as a resultof shrinkage or swellingwithin moisturecontent
limits of6% to 14%(CT = dimensional change coefficientfor tangential direction; CR = radial direction)—con.
Dimensional change Dimensional change
coefficienta coefficienta

Species CR CT Species CR CT

;Softwoods—con.
Fir, Pacific silver 0.00151 0.00327 Redwood, oldgrowthb 0.00120 0.00205
Fir, subalpine 0.00088 0.00259 Redwood, secondgrowthb 0.00101 0.00229
Fir, grand 0.00112 0.00245 Spruce, black 0.00141 0.00237
Fir, white 0.00112 0.00245 Spruce, Engelmann 0.00130 0.00248
Hemlock, eastern 0.00102 0.00237 Spruce, red 0.00130 0.00274
Hemlock, western 0.00144 0.00274 Spruce, white 0.00130 0.00274
Larch, western 0.00155 0.00323 Spruce, Sitka 0.00148 0.00263
Tamarack 0.00126 0.00259
ImportedWoods

Andiroba, crabwood 0.00137 0.00274 Light red "Philippine mahogany" 0.00126 0.00241
Angelique 0.00180 0.0031:2 Limba 0.00151 0.00187
Apitong, keruingb 0.00243 0.00527 Mahoganyb 0.001 72 0.00238
(all Dipterocarpusspp.) Meranti 0.001 26 0.00289
Avodire 0.00126 0.002213 Obeche 0.001 06 0.00183
Balsa 0.00102 0.00267 Okoume 0.00194 0.00212
Banak 0.00158 0.0031:2 Parana, pine 0.001 37 0.00278
Cativo 0.00078 0.00183 Paumarfim 0.00158 0.00312
Cuangare 0.00183 0.0034:2 Primavera 0.00106 0.00180
Greenheartb 0.00390 0.00430 Ramin 0.001 33 0.00308
Irokob 0.00153 0.00205 SantaMaria 0.00187 0.00278
Khaya 0.00141 0.00201 Spanish-cedar 0.00141 0.00219
Kokroduab 0.00148 0.00297 Teakb 0.00101 0.00186
Lauans: dark red 0.001 33 0.00267
"Philippinemahogany"

aper 1% changein moisture content, based on dimensionat 10% moisture content and a straight-line
relationship betweenmoisture content at which shrinkage starts and total shrinkage. (Shrinkage
assumed to start at 30% for all species except those indicated by footnoteb.)
bshrinkageassumed to start at 22% moisture content.

Because commercial lumber is often notperfectlyflatsawn or moisturevalue is outside ofthose limits,can be calculated
quartersawn, this procedurewill probablyoverestimate width by
shrinkage and underestimate thicknessshrinkage. Note also
that ifboth a size changeandthe percentage ofmoisture —
— DI(MF — M1) 12—3
contentare known,Equation(12—2) can be used to calculate
the origmalmoisturecontent. 30(100)!s.f.—30÷ M1

where ST is tangential shrinkage (%) from green 1:0 ovendry

Calculation Based on (Cli. 3, Tables 3—5 and 3—6) (use radial shrinkage SRwhen
Green Dimensions appropriate).

Approximatedimensionalchangesassociatedwith moisture NeitherM1 nor M should exceed30%,the assumedmoisture

contentchangesgreaterthan 6% to 14%, orwhen one contentvaluewhenshrinkage starts for most speries.

12—17
 equilibrium. When standard 38- or 64-mm(nominal2- or
Design Factors Affecting 3-in.)joists are nailedtogetherto provide a laminatedfloor
Dimensional Change ofgreaterdepth for heavydesignloads,thejoistmaterial
shouldbe somewhat less than 12% moisture contentifthe
Framing Lumber in buildingis to be heated.
House Construction
Interior Finish
Ideally, house framinglumber shouldbe dried to the mois-
turecontent it will reachin use, thus minimizingfuture The normalseasonal changes in the moisture contentof
dimensional changes as a result offrame shrinkage. This interior fmish are not enoughto cause seriousdimensional
ideal condition is difficultto achieve, but some diying and changeifthewoodwork is carefullydesigned. Large mem-
shrinkageofthe frame may take placewithoutbeing visible bers, such as ornamental beams,cornices,newel posts, stair
orcausingseriousdefectsafter the house is completed. If, at stringers, and handrails, shouldbe built up from compara-
thetime thewall and ceiling fmish is applied, themoisture tively smallpieces. Widedoor and windowtrim and base
content ofthe framinglumber is not more than about 5% shouldbe hollow-backed. Backbandtrim, ifmitered at the
above that which it will reach in service, there will be little corners, shouldbe glued and splined before erection; other-
or no evidenceofdefects causedby shrinkage oftheframe.In wise buttjoints shouldbe used for the wide faces. Large,
heatedhouses in cold climates,joists over heatedbasements, solid pieces,such as wood paneling, shouldbe designedand
studs, and ceilingjoists may reacha moisturecontent as low installed so that the panelsare free to move across the grain.
as 6% to 7% (Table 12—2). In mild climates,theminimum Narrowwidths are preferable.
moisturecontentwill be greater.
The most commonsigns ofexcessiveshrinkage are cracksin Flooring
plasteredwalls, truss rise, openjoints, and nail pops in dry- Flooring is usuallydried to the moisture contentexpectedi.n
wall construction; distortionofdoor openings; uneven floors; service so that shrinking and swelling are minimizedand
and looseningofjointsand fastenings. The extentofvertical
bucklingor largegaps betweenboards do not occur. For
shrinkage afterthe house is completedis proportional to the basement,large hall, or gymnasium floors, however,enough
depth ofwood usedas supportsin a horizontal position,
such as girders, floorjoists, and plates.After all, shrinkage space shouldbe left aroundthe edgesto allow for some
expansion.
occurs primarilyin the width ofmembers,not the length.

Thorough consideration shouldbe given tothe type offram- Wood Care and Installation
ing best suited to the wholebuildingstructure.Methods
shouldbe chosen that will minimizeor balancethe use of During Construction
wood across the grain in verticalsupports.These involve
variations in floor, wall, andceilingframing.The factors Lumber and Trusses
involved and details ofconstruction are coveredextensively it shouldbe, lumberis often not protectedfrom the
Although
in Wood-Frame House Construction (Sherwood and Stroh weatherat construction sites. Lumberis commonlyplaced
1991). on the ground in open areas near the buildingsite as bulked
and strapped packages. Supportsunder such packages are
Heavy Timber Construction useful to prevent wettingfrom mud and groundwater and
shouldelevatethe packagesat least 150 mm (6 in.) offthe
In heavytimberconstruction, a certainamount ofshrinkage ground. The packagesshouldalso be coveredwith plastic
is to be expected.A column that bears directly on awood tarpaulins for protection from rain.
girder can result in a structuresettlingas a result ofthe
perpendicular-to-grain shrinkage ofthe girder. Ifnot provided Lumberthat is green ornearly green shouldbe piled in
for in the design, shrinkage may cause weakening ofthe stickers undera rooffor additional dryingbefore it is built
joints or unevenfloors orboth. One meansofeliminating intothe structure. The same procedureis required for lumber
part ofthe shrinkage in mill buildingsand similar structures that has beentreatedwith a waterborne preservativebut not
is to use metal post caps; themetal in thepost capseparates fullyredried. Prefabricated building parts, such as roof
theupper columnfrom thelower column. The same thing is trusses,sometimes lie unprotected on the ground atthe
accomplished by boltingwood corbels to the side ofthe buildingsite. In warm,rainy weather, moistureregain can
lower column to supportthe girders. result in fungal staining. Wettingofthe lumber also results
in swelling, and subsequent shrinkage oftheframingmay
Whenjoisthangers are installed,the top ofthe joistshould contribute to structural distortions. Extendedstorage of
be abovethetop ofthegirder; otherwise, whenthejoist lumberat moisturecontentsgreater than 20% without drying
shrinks in the stirrup, the floor over the girder will be higher can allow decay to develop.
thanthat bearing upon the joist. Heavyplankingused for
flooringshould be near 12% moisturecontentto minimize Ifframinglumberhas a greatermoisturecontentwhenin-
openings betweenboards as they approach moisture stalled than that recommended in Table 12—2, shrinkagecan

12—18
be expected. Framing lumber, eventhoroughlyair-dried • Break open flooring bundles andexpose all sides of
stock,will generallyhave a moisture contentgreaterthan flooring to the atmosphereinsidethe structure.
that recommendedwhen it is deliveredto the buildingsite. If
carelessly handledin storageatthe site, the lumbercan take
• Closeup the house at night and increase the temperature
upmore moisture. Builders canschedule theirwork so an about 8°C (15°F)greaterthanthe outdoortemperature
appreciable amountofdryingcan take place during the early for about 3 daysbeforelayingthe floor.
stages ofconstruction. This minimizes the effectsofaddi- • Ifthe houseis not occupiedimmediately after the floor is
tional dryingand shrinkageafter completion. Whenthe
house has beenframed, sheathed, and roofed,the framingis laid, keepthe house closed at night or during damp
so exposedthat in time it can dry to a lowermoisturecon- weatherand supplysomeheat ifnecessary.
tent than would ordinarily be expectedinyard-driedlumber. Better and smoothersandingand fmishingcan be done when
The application ofthe wall and ceilingfmish is delayed thehouse is warmand thewood has been kept dry.
while wiringand plumbingare installed.Ifthis delay is
about 30 days in warm,thy weather, framinglumber should
lose enoughmoistureso that any additional dryingin place Interior Finish
willbe relativelyunimportant. In cool, damp weather, or if In abuildingunder construction, averagerelative humidity
wet lumberis used, theperiodofexposureshouldbe ex- willbe greaterthan that in anoccupiedhouse becauseofthe
tended.Checkingmoisture contentofdoor andwindow moisturethat evaporates from wetconcrete, brickwork, plas-
headers and floor and ceilingjoists at this time with an
electricmoisturemeter is good practice.Whenthese mem- ter,and eventhestructural wood members. The average
bersapproach an average of 12% moisturecontent, interior temperature will be lowerbecauseworkers prefera lower
finishandtrim can normallybe installed.Closingthe house temperaturethan is common in an occupiedhouse. Under
such conditions, the fmishtends to havegreater moisture
and usingthe heating systemwillhastenthe rate ofdrying. contentduringconstruction than it willhave during
Beforewall finish is applied,the frame shouldbe examined occupancy.
and defects that may have developedduringdrying,such as Before the interiorfinishis delivered, the outsidedoors and
warped or distortedstuds, shrinkage oflintelsover openings, windowsshouldbe hung in place so that they can be kept
or loosenedjoints, shouldbe corrected. closedat night. In this way, conditions ofthe inleriorcanbe
held as close as possible to the highertemperatureand lower
Exterior Trim and Miliwork humidity that ordinarily prevail duringthe day. Suchprotec-
tionmay be sufficient duringthy warm weather, but during
Exterior trim, such as corniceand rakemouldings, fascia
damp or coolweather, it is highly desirable that someheat
boards,and soffit material,is normallyinstalled beforethe be maintainedin thehouse,particularlyatnight. Whenever
shingles are laid. Trim, siding, and windowand door frames
shouldbe protected on the site by storing in the house or possible,the heating plant shouldbe placedin the house
beforethe interiortrim is installed, to be availablefor sup-
garageuntil time ofinstallation. Althoughitems such as plyingthe necessary heat. Portableheaterscan aLso be used.
window frames and sashes are usuallytreatedwith sometype The temperature during the night shouldbe maintained
ofwater-repellent preservativeto resistabsorption ofwater, about 8°C (15°F) greaterthan the outsidetempe:rature but
they shouldbe storedin a protectedarea ifthey cannotbe shouldnot be allowedto drop below about 21°C (70°F)
installed soon after delivery. Woodsidingis often received
in packaged form and can ordinarily remainin thepackage duringthe summer or 17°C (62°F)when the oui;side tem-
until installation. perature is below freezing.
Afterbuildingshavethoroughlydried, less heatis needed,
Finished Flooring but unoccupiedhouses,new or old, shouldnot be allowedto
standwithout someheat duringthe winter. A temperature of
Cracks developin flooring ifit absorbs moistureeitherbefore about 8°C (15°F) greaterthan the outside temperature and
or after it is laid, thenshrinks whenthebuildingis heated. abovefreezing at all timeswillkeep the woodwork, finish,
Suchcrackscan be greatlyreducedby observing the follow- andother parts ofthe house frombeing affected bydampness
ing practices: orfrost.
• Specif' flooring manufactured according to association
rules and sold by dealersthatprotect it properly during Plastering
storage anddelivery. During aplastering operationin a moderate-sized, six-room
• Do not allow flooring tobe delivered beforemasonry house,approximately 450 kg (1,000 ib) ofwater are used,all
and plastering are completedand fllly thy, unless a thy ofwhichmust be dissipatedbeforethehouse isready forthe
storage space is available. interiorfmish. Adequateventilation to removethe evaporated
moisture will keep it from being absorbedby the framework.
• Install the heatingplantbefore flooring is delivered. Inhousesplasteredin coldweather,theexcessmoisture can
also cause paint to blister on exteriorfinish and siding.

12—i 9
Duringwarm, dry weather,with the windows wide open,the McMiIIen,J.M.; Wengert, F.M. 1978. Drying eastern
moisture willbe gone withina week afterthe fmal coat of hardwoodlumber. Agric. Handb. 528. Washington, DC:
plaster is applied.During damp,cold weather,the heating U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
systemor portable heatersare used to prevent freezing of
plaster and to hasten its drying. Adequateventilationshould Rietz, R.C. 1978. Storageoflumber. Agric.Handb. 531.
be providedat alltimes ofthe year becausea largevolume of Washington, DC: U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
air is requiredto carry away the amount ofwater involved.
Even in the coldestweather, the windowson the side ofthe Rietz, R.C.; Page, R.H. 1971. Air dryingoflumber: A
guide to industry practices.Agric. Handb. 402. Washington,
house away from the prevailingwinds shouldbe opened 50 DC: U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
to 75 mm (2 to 3 in.),preferablyfrom thetop.
Sherwood, G.E.; Stroh, R.C. 1991. Wood-FrameHouse
References Construction. USDA Agric. Handb. 73. Washington,DC:
U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
ASTM. [currentedition].Directmoisture contentmeasure-
ment ofwood andwood-basedmaterials.ASTM D4442—92. Simpson, W.T. 1989. Dryingwood: a review. Drying
West Conshohocken,PA: American Societyfor Testing and Technology. An International Journal,Pt. 1. 2(2): 235—265,
Materials. Pt. 2, 2(3): 353—368.

ForestProductsLaboratory.1961. Woodfloorsfordwell- Simpson, W.T., ed. 1991. Dry kiln operator's manual.
ings. Agric. Handb. 204. Washington,DC: U.S. Depart- Agric. Handb. 188. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
mentofAgriculture. Agriculture.
ForestProductsLaboratory. 1972. Methodsofcontrolling USDC. 1970. American softwoodlumberstandard.NBS
humidityin woodworkingplants. Res. Note FPL—RN— Voluntary Prod. Stand. PS 20—70; Washington,DC: U.S.
0218. Madison, WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest Department ofCommerce.
Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory.
James,W.L. 1988. Electric moisturemeters for wood.Gen.
Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR--6. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory.

12—20
 I Chapter 3I
Biodeterioration of Wood
Terry L. Highley

nder properconditions, woodwill give centuriesof

Contents ruui service. However,ifconditions exist that permit the
FungusDamageand Control 13—1 development ofwood-degrading organislrs,protec-
tion must be providedduringprocessing, merchandising,
Molds and Fungus Stains 13—2 and use.
ChemicalStains 13—3
The principalorganisms that can degradewood are fungi,
Decay 13—3 insects,bacteria, andmarine borers.
ofMold, Stain, and Decay 13—6
Prevention Molds, most sapwoodstains,and decay are causedby fungi,
RemedialTreatmentofInternally DecayedWood 13—8 whichare microscopic, thread-like microorganisms that must
haveorganicmaterialto live. For some ofthem,wood offers
Bacteria 13—8 therequiredfoodsupply. The growthoffungidepends on
Insect Damageand Control 13—8 suitablymild temperatures, moisture,and air (oxygen).
Chemicalstains,althoughthey are not causedby organisms,
Beetles 13—8 arementionedin this chapterbecausethey resemble stains
Termites 13—11
causedby fungi.

CarpenterAnts 13—13 Insects alsomay damage wood,and in many situationsmust

be considered in protective measures. Termitesarethe major
Carpenter Bees 13—13 insect enemyofwood,but on anational scale, they are a less
MarineBorerDamage and Control 13—13 seriousthreatthan fungi.

Shipworms 13—13 Bacteriain woodordinarily are oflittle consequence, but

some maymake the wood excessivelyabsorptive.In addi-
Pholads 13—14
tion, some may cause strength losses over long periods of
Limnoriaand Sphaeroma 13—14 exposure, particularlyin forest soils.
NaturalResistance to Marine Borers 13—14 Marine borersare a fourth general typeofwood-degrading
ProtectionofPermanentStructures 13—14 organism. They can attack susceptible wood rapidlyin salt
waterharbors wheretheyare the principalcause ofdamage to
ProtectionofBoats 13—15 piles and other wood marine structures.
References 13—15 Wooddegradation by organisms has been studiedexten-
sively, and manypreventivemeasuresare wellknownand
widelypracticed. By taking ordinary precautionswith the
finishedproduct, the usercan contribute substanlially to
ensuring a long servicelife.

Fungus Damage and Conitrol

Fungus damageto woodmay be tracedto threegeneral
causes: (a) lack ofsuitable protectivemeasureswhenstoring

13—1
 Less than 35

li•IT 35 to 70
More than 70

Figure 13—1. Climate index for decay hazard. Higher numbers indicate greater decay hazard.

logs or bolts; (b) improperseasoning, storing, or handlingof depends on the infectingorganisms and the speciesand
the raw materialproducedfrom the log; and (c) failure to take moisturecondition ofthe wood. The fungal brownstain
ordinary simpleprecautionsin using the fmal product. The mentionedhere shouldnot be confusedwith chemicalbrown
incidenceand developmentofmolds, decay, and stains stain.
causedby fungidependheavilyon temperatureandmoisture
conditions(Fig. 13—1). Molddiscolorations usuallybecome noticeableas fuzzy or
powdery surface growths, with colorsranging from light
shadestoblack. Amongthe brightercolors, green andyel-
Molds and Fungus Stains lowishhues are common. On sof'twoods, though the fungus
Molds and fungus stainsare confmedto a great extentto maypenetrate deeply, the discoloring surface growthoften
sapwoodand are ofvarious colors. The principalfungus can easily bebrushedor surfaced off. However, on large-pored
stainsare usuallyreferredto as sap stain or blue stain. The hardwoods (for example, oaks), the wood beneath the surface
distinctionbetween moldingand stainingis made primarily growthis commonly stainedtoo deeplytobe surfacedoff.
on the basis ofthe depth ofdiscoloration. With somemolds The stainingtends to occur in spots ofvarying concentration
andthe lesserfungus stains, there is no clear-cut differentia- and size,depending onthe kind and patternofthe superficial
tion. Typicalsap stain or blue stain penetrates into the growth.
sapwoodand cannotbe removedby surfacing. Also, the Underfavorable moisture and temperature conditions,stain-
discoloration as seen on across section ofthe wood often
ing and moldingfungi may become established and develop
appears as pie-shaped wedgesoriented radially, correspond- rapidlyin the sapwoodoflogs shortly after they are cut. In
ing to the directionofthe wood rays (Fig. 13—2). The dis- addition, lumber and such productsas veneer,furniture
coloration may completely coverthe sapwoodor may occur
as specks, spots, streaks, orpatchesofvarious intensities of stock,and millwork may becomeinfectedat any stage of
manufacture oruse ifthey become sufficiently moist.Freshly
color. The so-calledblue stains,which vary from bluishto cutor unseasonedstock that is piled duringwarm,humid
bluish blackand gray to brown, are the most common, weathermay be noticeably discolored within 5 or 6 days.
althoughvariousshades ofyellow,orange,purple, and red Recommended moisture control measuresare given in
aresometimes encountered.The exact color ofthestain Chapter12.

13—2
 Spores Spores germinating

QQC
IC',
Infected cells
Hypha

Bore
hole

Pit

showing decay

Figure 13—2. Typicalradial penetration of log by stain.

The pattern is a resultof more rapid penetration by the
fungusradially(through the ray) than tangentially.

Ordinarily, stainandmold fungi affect the strength ofthe

wood only slightly; their greatesteffectis usuallyconfmed to
strength propertiesthat determine shock resistance ortough-
ness(Ch.4). They increase the absorbency ofwood,andthis
can cause over-absorption ofglue,paint,or wood preserva-
tive during subsequentprocessing. Increasedporosityalso
makeswood more wettable,which can lead to colonization
by typicalwood-decay fungi.
Stain-andmold-infected stock ispracticallyunimpaired for
many uses in which appearance isnot a limitingfactor, and a
small amountofstainmay be permittedby standardgrading
rules. Stock with stain andmold may not be entirelysatis- Figure 13—3. The decay cycle (topto bottom).
Thousands ofspores produced in a fruitingbody are
factoryfor siding,trim, and otherexteriormillwork because distributedby wind or insects. Oncontacting moist,
ofits greaterwater absorbency. Also, incipient decay may be
susceptible wood, they germinate to createnew
present, though inconspicuous, in the discolored areas. Both infectionsin the wood cells. In time,serious decay
ofthese factorsincrease thepossibility ofdecay in woodthat develops that may be accompanied by formation of
is rain-wettedunless the woodhas been treatedwith a newfruiting bodies.
suitable preservative.
discolorationis caused by the interaction ofironwith tannins
Chemical Stains in wood. Iron stain is more prevalentin hardwocds(for
Nonmicrobial or chemical stains are difficultto control and example,oak and many tropicalhardwoods) and in some
represent substantialloss in wood quality. These stains softwoods such as Douglas-fir. Control is achievedby
includea varietyofdiscolorations in woodthat are often eliminatingthe sourceofiron.
promotedby slow dryingoflumberand warmto hottem-
peratures. Suchconditions allownaturallyoccurring chemi- Decay
cals in wood toreact with air (enzymatic oxidation) to form a
new chemical that is typicallydark in color. Common Decay-producing fungimay,underconditions that favortheir
chemicalstainsinclude(a) interior sapwoodgraying, preva- growth, attack eitherheartwoodor sapwoodin most wood
lent in oak, hackberry, ash, andmaple; (b) brown stainin species (Fig. 13—3). The result is a conditiondeiignatedas
softwoods; and (c) pinking and browningin the interiorof decay, rot, dote, ordoze. Fresh surface growths cfdecay
light-colored woods such as maple. Anothercommon

13—3
Figure 13—4. Mycelial fanson a wood door.

fungi may appearas fan-shapedpatches(Fig. 13—4), strands, Most decay canprogress rapidlyat temperatures that favor
or root-likestructures, usuallywhite orbrown. Sometimes growthofplant life in general. For the most part, decay is
fruitingbodiesare producedthattake the form ofmush- relatively slowat temperatures below 10°C (50°F)and above
rooms,brackets, or crusts.The fungus,inthe form ofmicro- 35°C(95°F). Decayessentially ceaseswhenthe temperature
scopic,threadlikestrands,permeates the wood and uses parts drops as low as 2°C (35°F)or rises as high as 38°C (100°F).
of itas food. Some fungi live largelyon the cellulose; others
use the ligninas well as the cellulose. Serious decay occurs only whenthe moisturecontentofthe
wood is abovethe fiber saturation point (average30%). Only
Certaindecay fungicolonize the heartwood (causing heart when previously dried wood is contactedby water, such as
rot) and rarely the sapwoodoflivingtrees, whereas others providedby rain, condensation, or contactwith wet ground,
confmetheiractivities to logs or manufactured products, such willthe fibersaturation point bereached.By itself,thewater
as sawn lumber,structuraltimbers,poles, and ties. Most vapor in humid air will not wet wood sufficientlyto support
fungithat attacktreesceasetheir activities afterthe treeshave significant decay, but it will permitdevelopmentofsome
been cut, as do the fungi causingbrownpocket (peck)in mold fungi.Fully air-driedwood usuallywill have a mois-
baldcypress orwhite pocketin Douglas-firandother conifers. ture contentnotexceeding20% and shouldprovideareason-
Relatively few fungi continuetheir destruction afterthe trees ablemarginofsafetyagainstfungusdamage.Thus,wood
havebeen cut and workedinto productsandthen only if willnot decay if it is kept air dry, and decayalreadypresent
conditions remainfavorablefor their growth. Although from prior infectionwill not progress.
heartwoodis more susceptible to decay than is sapwoodin
livingtrees, for many species the sapwoodofwood products Woodcanbe too wet for decay as well as too dry. Ifthe
is more susceptibleto decaythan is theheartwood. wood is water-soaked, the supply ofair to the interiorofa

13-4
piecemay notbe adequateto supportdevelopment oftypical A few fungi, however, havewater-conducting strands; such
decay fungi. Forthis reason, foundation piles buriedbeneath fungiare capableofcarryingwater (usually from the soil) into
thewater table and logs storedin a pondor under a suitable buildingsor lumberpiles, wherethey moistenand rot wood
systemofwater spraysare not subject to decay by typical that wouldotherwise be dry. They are sometimes referredto
wood-decay fungi. technically as dry-rotfungiorwater-conducting fungi. The
latter term betterdescribes the true situationbecausethese
The earlyor incipient stages ofdecay are often accompanied fungi, like the others, must have water.
by a discoloration ofthe wood, which is more evidenton
freshly exposed surfaces ofunseasoned wood than on dry A third and generallyless importantkind ofdecay is known
wood.Abnormalmottlingofthe wood color,with either as soft rot. Softrot is causedby fungi relatedto Ihe molds
unnaturalbrownor bleachedareas, is often evidence ofdecay ratherthanthose responsible for brown andwhite rot. Soft
infection. Many fungithat cause heartrot in the standing tree rot typically is relativelyshallow; the affectedwood is
produceincipientdecaythat differs only slightly fromthe greatly degraded and often soft whenwet, but immediately
normalcolor ofthe wood or givesa somewhat water-soaked beneath the zoneofrot, the wood may be firm(Fig. 13—6).
appearance to the wood. Because soft rot usually is rather shallow,it is niost likelyto
damage relatively thinpieces ofwood such as slats in cool-
Typical or late stagesofdecay are easily recognized, because ing towers. It is favoredby wet situationsbut is alsopreva-
thewood has undergone defmite changes in color and proper- lent on surfaces that have beenalternately wet and dry over a
ties, the character ofthe changesdepending on the organism substantial period. Heavilyfissured surfaces, familiarto many
andthe substances it removes. as weathered wood,generally havebeen quitedegraded by
soft-rot fungi.
Two kindsofmajor decay fungi are recognized: brownrot
and white rot. With brown-rotfungi, only the celluloseis
extensively removed,the wood takes on a brownercolor,and Decay Resistance of Wood
it can crack acrossthegrain, shrink,collapse,and[ be crushed Chapter 3 discusses the naturalresistance ofwocd to fungi
into powder (Fig. 13—5). With white-rotfungi,both lignin andranksa grouping ofspecies according to decay resistance.
and celluloseusuallyare removed,the wood may losecolor In decay-resistant domestic species,only the heartwoodhas
and appear"whiter"than normal,it does not crackacrossthe significant resistance becausethe naturalpreservative chemi-
grain, and until severelydegraded,it retainsits outward cals in woodthat retardthe growthoffungiare cssentially
dimensions, does not shrink or collapse, and often feels restrictedto the heartwood. Naturalresistance ofspecies to
spongy. Brown-rot fungicommonlycolonize softwoods, and fungi is important only whereconditions conducive to decay
white-rotfungi commonlyoccur onhardwoods, but both existormay develop. Ifwood is subjectedto severedecay
brown-and white-rotfungi occasionally colonize both types conditions, pressure-treated wood,rather than resistant
ofwood. heartwood, is generallyrecommended.
Brown,crumblyrot, in the dry condition,is sometimes Effect of Decay on Strength of Wood
calleddry rot, but the term is incorrectbecausewood must
be damp to decay,although itmaybecome dry later. Decayinitially affectstoughness, or the abilitycfwood to
withstand impacts. This is generallyfollowedby reductions
in strengthvaluesrelatedto static bending. Everitually, all
strength properties are seriously reduced.

Figure 13—S. Brown rot in Southern Pinerailroad tie. Figure 13—6. Soft-rotted preservative-treated pine utility
Note the darkercolor and the cubicalchecking in the pole. Notetheshallowdepth of decay.
wood.

13—5
Strengthlossesduringearlystages ofdecay can be consider- do not air-dryfastenoughto avoid losses from fungi.
able, dependingto a great extentupon the fungi involved Preseasoning treatments with approved preservativesolutions
and, to a lesserextent, upon the type ofwood undergoing can be helpfulin these circumstances.
decay.In laboratorytests, losses in toughnessrangedfrom Forlogs,rapid conversion into lumberor storage in water or
6% to >50% by the time a 1% weight loss had occurredin
thewood as a result offungal attack.By thetime weight under awater spray(Fig. 13—7) is the surest way to avoid
lossesresultingfrom decay have reached 10%, most strength fungaldamage. Preservative sprayspromptlyappliedto the
losses may be expectedto exceed 50%.At such weight wood will protect most timberspecies during storage for 2 to
3 months, exceptin severedecayhazard climates, such as in
losses,decay is detectableonly microscopically. Itmay be
assumedthat wood with visuallydiscernible decay has been Mississippi (Fig. 13—1). For longer storage, an end coating
is neededto preventseasoning checks,throughwhich
greatlyreducedin all strength values. infectioncan enterthe log.
Prevention of Mold, Stain, and Decay Lumber
Logs, Poles, Piles, and Ties Growth ofdecay fungican be prevented in lumber and other
The wood species, geographic region,andtime ofthe year wood productsby rapidlydryingthem to a moisture content
determinewhat precautionsmust be takento avoid serious of20% or less and keepingthem dry. Standardair-drying
damagefrom fungi in logs, poles, piles, ties, and similar practiceswill usuallythy the wood fast enough to protect it,
thick productsduringseasoningor storage. In dry climates, particularly ifthe protection affordedby dryingis supple-
rapid surface seasoning ofpoles and pileswill retard devel- mentedby dip or spraytreatmentofthe stock with an EPA-
opmentofmold, stain, and decay. The bark is peeled from approvedfungicidal solution. Successful controlby this
thepole andthe peeledproduct is deckedon high skids or methoddepends not only upon immediateand adequate
treatment but also uponproperhandlingofthe lumberafter
piled on high, well-drainedgroundin the open to dry. In treatment. However, kiln drying is the most reliablemethod
humidregions, such as the GulfStates,these productsoften
ofrapidlyreducingmoisture content.

Figure 13—7. Spraying logs with water protectsthem against fungalstain and decay.
 Unseasoned or infectedwood shouldnot be enclosed until it
is thoroughly dried. Unseasoned wood includesgreen lum-
ber. Woodcan becomeinfected becauseofimproper handling
at the sawmillor retail yard or afterdeliveryonthejob.
Untreated wood parts of substructures shouldnot be permit-
tedto contactthe soil.A minimum of200 mm (8 in.) clear-
ance betweensoil and framingand 150 mm (6 in.) between
soil and sidingis recommended. Wherefrequent hardrains
occur,a foundation height abovegrade of300 to 460 mm
(12 to 18 in.) is advocated. An exceptionmay be madefor
certain temporaryconstructions. Ifcontactwith soil isun-
Figure 13—8. A sanitary, well-drained air-drying yard.
avoidable, the wood shouldbe pressuretreated (Ch. 14).
Sill plates and other wood restingon a concrete slab founda-
Air-dryingyards shouldbe kept as sanitaryand as open as tion generallyshouldbepressuretreatedand protectedby
possibleto air circulation(Fig. 13—8). Recommended prac-
tices include locatingyards and sheds on well-drained installing a moisture-resistant membranesuch as polyethyl-
ene beneath the slab. Girderandjoist openings in masonry
ground;removingdebris(whichservesas a source of walls shouldbe big enoughto ensurean air space aroundthe
infection) and weeds whichreduceair circulation); and ends ofthese wood members. Ifthe members are below the
employingpiling methods that permitrapid dryingofthe outside soil level,moistureproofmgofthe outer 'race ofthe
lumberand protect againstwetting.Storagesheds shouldbe
constructed and maintained to preventsignificant wettingof wall is essential.
thestock.Ample roofoverhangon open sheds is desirable. In buildingswithout basements but with crawl spaces, wet-
In areaswheretermitesorwater-conducting fungimay be ting ofthe woodby condensationduringcoldweatherorby
troublesome, stock to be held for long periods shouldbe air-conditioning may result in seriousdecay damage. How-
set on foundations high enough so that the wood can be ever, serious condensation leadingto decay may beprevented
inspected from beneath. by laying a barrier such as polyethyleneonthe soil. To
The user's best assurance ofreceivinglumberfree from decay facilitate inspection ofthe crawl space, amrnlmrLm 460-mm
other than light stain is to buy stock markedby a lumber (18-in.)clearance shouldbe left underwoodjoists.
association in a grade that eliminatesor limits such quality-
Woodshouldalso be protectedfrom rain duringconstruc-
reducingfeatures. Surface treatment forprotection atthe tion. Protection from rainwateror condensation in walls and
dryingyard is only temporarily effective.Exceptfortempo- roofs will prevent the development ofdecay. A fairlywide
rary structures, lumberto be used under conditiOnscondu- roofoverhang(0.6 m (2 ft)) with guttersand downspouts that
cive to decay shouldbe all heartwoodofa naturally durable
are kept free ofdebris is desirable. Roofs must be kept tight,
species or shouldbe adequately treatedwith a woodpreserva- and cross ventilation in attics is recommendedin cold
tive (Ch. 14).
climates. The use ofsound, dry lumberis importantin all
Buildings parts ofbuildings.
The lastingqualitiesofproperly constructed wood buildings Where service conditions in abuilding are suchthatthe
areapparentin all parts ofthecountry. Serious decayprob- wood cannotbe kept dry, theuse ofpreservative.•treated
a
lems are almostalways sign offaulty designor construc- wood (Ch. 14) orheartwoodofadurablespecies is advised.
tion, lack ofreasonable care in the handlingofthe wood,or Examples includeporches,exteriorsteps, andplatformsand
improper maintenance ofthe structure. such places as textile mills, pulp and paper mills, and cold
storage plants.
Construction principles that ensurelong service and avoid
decay in buildingsinclude(a) buildingwith dry lumber, free In making repairs necessitated by decay, every effort should
ofincipient decayand not exceeding theamounts ofmold be made to correctthemoisture condition that ledto the
damage. Ifthe condition cannotbe corrected, all infected
andblue stainpermittedby standard gradingrules; (b) using
construction details andbuilding designsthat will keep parts shouldbe replacedwith preservative-treate ci woodor
exterior wood dry and accelerate runoff;(c) usingwood with all-heartwood lumber ofanaturallydecay-resistant
treated with apreservative orheartwood ofa decay-resistant wood species. Ifthe sources ofmoisture that caused thedecay
species forparts exposed to aboveground decay hazards; and are entirelyeliminated, it is necessaryonly to replace the
(d) usingpressure-treated wood for thehigh hazard situation weakenedwoodwith dry lumber.
associatedwith groundcontact.
A buildingsite that is dry or for whichdrainageis provided Other Structures and Products
will reducethe possibilityofdecay. Stumps,wood debris, In general, the principles underlying the prevenl:ion ofmold,
stakes, orwood concrete forms are frequently subjectto decay stain, or decay damageto veneer,plywoodcontainers, boats,
ifleftunder ornearabuilding. and other wood productsand structures are similarto those

13—7
 describedfor buildings—dry the wood rapidlyand keep it
dry ortreat it with approvedprotective and preservative Bacteria
solutions. Interiorgradesofplywoodshould not be used Most woodthat has been wet for a considerable length of
wherethe plywoodwill be exposedto moisture; the adhe- time probablywillcontainbacteria. The sour smellof logs
sives,as well as the wood,may be damagedby fungi and that havebeenheldunder water for several months, or of
bacteriaas well as degradedby moisture. Withexterior-type lumbercut from them,manifestsbacterialaction. Usually,
panels, joint constructionshouldbe carefullydesignedto bacteriahavelittle effecton wood properties, except over
prevent the entrance ofrainwater. long periods, but some may makethe wood excessively
Intreatedbridge or wharftimbers,checking may occur and absorptive. This can result in excessivepickup ofmoisture,
adhesive,paint, or preservative duringtreatmentor use. This
may expose untreatedwood to fungalattack. Annualin-place effecthas beena problem inthe sapwoodofmillwork cut
treatmentofthese checks will provideprotection from decay.
from pine logs that have been stored in ponds.There also is
Similarly, pile tops may be protectedby treatmentwith a evidencethat bacteriadeveloping inpine veneerbolts held
wood preservative followedby application ofasuitable
underwater or sprayed with water maycause noticeable
cappingcompound. changes in the physical character ofthe veneer, including
Woodboats presentcertainproblemsthat are not encoun- somestrengthloss. Additionally, a mixtureofdifferent
tered in other uses ofwood. The parts especiallysubjectto bacteria, as wellas fungi, was found capableofaccelerating
decay are the stem, knighthead,transom, and frameheads, decay oftreatedcooling tower slats and mine timbers.
which can be reachedby rainwater from aboveor condensa-
tionfrombelow. Frayed surfaces are more likelyto decay
than are exposedsurfaces, and in salt water service, hull
Insect Damage and Control
membersjust belowthe weatherdeckaremore vulnerable The more commontypesofdamagecausedby wood-
than those belowthe waterline. Recommendations for avoid- attacking insects are shown in Table 13—I and Figure 13—9.
ing decay include(a) using only heartwoodofdurablespe- Methods ofcontrolling andpreventinginsect attackofwood
cies, free ofinfection, and preferably below 20% moisture aredescribed in the following paragraphs.
content; (b) providingand maintainingventilationin the
hull and all compartments;(c) keepingwaterout as much as Beetles
is practicable, especiallyfreshwater; and(d) whereit is
necessary to use sapwoodor nondurable heartwood, impreg- Bark beetlesmaydamage the surface ofthe components of
nating the wood with an approvedpreservative and treating logs and other rustic structures from which the bark has not
the fullycut, shaped, and boredwood before installation by been removed. Thesebeetlesare reddishbrown to black and
soaking it for a short time in preservativesolution. Where vary in length from approximately 1.5 to 6.5 mm (1/16 to
such mild soakingtreatment is used, the wood most subject 1/4 in.) They bore throughthe outer bark to the soft inner
to decayshouldalso be floodedwith an approvedpreserva- part, wherethey maketunnels in whichthey lay theireggs.
tive at intervalsof2 or 3 years. Duringthis treatment,the In makingtunnels,bark beetles push out fine brownish-white
wood shouldbe dry so that joints are relatively loose. sawdust-like particles. Ifmany beetles are present,their
extensivetunnelingwill loosenthe bark and permit itto fall
Remedial Treatment of oft'in largepatches,making thestructureunsightly.
Internally Decayed Wood To avoidbark beetle damage,logs may be debarked rapidly,
Four fumigants,32% sodiumN-methyldithiocarbamate in sprayedwith an approvedinsecticidal solution,stored in
water orunder a water spray, or cut duringthe dormant
water,methylisocyanate, Basamid(tetrahydro-3, 5-dimethyl- season(OctoberorNovember, for instance). Ifcut during this
2-H-1,3,5, thiodazine-6-thione), and chioropicrin period, logs shouldimmediately be piled offthe groundand
(frichioronitromethane), are registered foruse to arrest inter- arranged for good air movement, to promoterapid drying of
naldecayin wood. All these fumigants producevolatile the inner bark. This shouldoccur before the beetles begin to
toxic gaseswhenapplied to wood and move severalmeters
from thepoint ofapplication. These chemicals arerestricted- fly in the spring. Dryingthe bark will almost always prevent
damage by insects that preferfreshlycut wood.
use preservatives, andapplicatorsmust be trained and passa
teston pesticidehandlingand safetybeforeusingthechemi- Ambrosiabeetles, roundheaded and flatheaded borers,and
cals. Fumiganttreating poses risks, and thus the chemicals somepowder-postbeetlesthat get into freshly cuttimber can
cannotbe usedsafely in some situations. cause considerable damage to wood in rustic structures and
somemanufactured products. Certainbeetles may complete
Waterdiffusible boron-andfluoride-based rods,pastes, or
development and emergeseveral years after thewood is dry,
solutions can be appliedto wood by flooding or as external often raisinga questionas to the origin ofthe infestation.
coatings (for example, bandagewraps containing borateor
fluoridepaste appliedto the groundline ofpoles).

13—8
Table 13—1. Types ofdamage caused by wood-attacking insects
Typeof Damage
damage Description Causalagent Begins Erds
Pin holes 0.25 to6.4 mm (1/100 to 1/4 in.) indiameter, usually
circular
Tunnels open:
Holes 0.5to 3mm (1/50 to 1/8 in.) in diameter, Ambrosia beetles In living treesand During seasoning
usually centered indark streak or ring in sur- unseasonedlogs and
roundingwood lumber
Holes variable sizes; surroundingwood rarely Timberworms In living treesand Before seasoning
dark stained;tunnels lined with wood-collored unseasonedlogs and
substance lumber
Tunnels packed with usuallyfinesawdust:
Exit holes 0.8to 1.6mm (1/32to 1116 in.) in di- Lyctid powder-post During or after Reinfestationcontinues
ameter insapwood oflarge-poredhardwoods; beetles seasoning until sapwooddestroyed
loose floury sawdust intunnels
Exit holes 1.6to 3 mm (1116 to 1/8in.) indiameter; Anobiid powder-post Usually after wood in Reinfestationcontinues;
primarily in sapwood, rarely in heartwood;tunnels beetles use (in buildings) progress ofdamage very
loosely packedwith fine sawdust and slow
elongatepellets
Exit holes 2.5to 7mm(3/32 to 9/32 in.) in diame- Bostrichid powder- Before seasoningorif During seasoning or
ter, primarily sapwood ofhard woods, minor in post beetles wood is rewetted redrying
softwoods;sawdust intunnels fineto coarseand
tightly packed
Exit holes 1.6to2mm(1/16 to 1/12 in.) in diame-
ter; inslightly damp ordecayed wood; veryfine
sawdust or pelletstightly packed in tunnels
Wood-boring weevils In slightly damp wood
inuse i
Reinfestatloncontinues
whilewood damp

Grub holes 3to 13mm(1/8to1/2 in.) in diameter, circularor

oval
Exitholes 3to 13mm(1/8 to 1/2 in.) in diameter; Roundheadedborers In living trees and When adults emerge from
circular; mostly in sapwood; tunnelswithcoarse to (beetles) unseasonedlogs and seasonedwood orwhen
fibrous sawdust oritmay be absent lumber wood is driec
Exitholes 3to 13 mm (1/8 to 1/2 in.) in diameter; Flatheadedborers In living trees and When adults emerge from
mostly oval; in sapwood and heartwood;sawdust (beetles) unseasonedlogs and seasonedwood orwhen
tightly packed intunnels lumber wood lsdriec
Exit holes —6 mm (—1/4 in.) in diameter; circular; in Old houseborers During orafter Reinfestationcontinuesin
sapwood ofsofiwoods, primarilypine; tunnels (a roundheadedborer) seasoning seasonedwcod in use
packed with very fine sawdust
Exitholes perfectly circular,4 to 6 mm (1/6to 1/4 in.) Woodwasps In dying trees orfresh When adults emerge from
indiameter; primarily in softwoods; tunnels tightly logs seasonedwc'od, usuallyin
packed with coarse sawdust, oftenin decay softened use, orwhen kilndried
wood
Nestentryhole and tunnel perfectly circular—13 mm Carpenterbees In structural timbers, Nesting reoccurs annually
(-1/2 in.) in diameter in softsoftwoods in structures siding inspring atsameand
nearby locations
Network of Systems ofinterconnectedtunnels and chambers Social insectswith
galleries colonies
Wallslook polished;spaces completelyclean of Carpenterants Usually in damp partly Colony persists unless
debris decayed, orsoft- prolongeddrying ofwood
texturedwood inuse occurs
Wallsusually speckled with mudspots; some Subterraneantermites In woodstructures Colony persists
chambers may be filled with "clay"
Chambers contain pellets; areas may bewalled-off Dry-wood termites In wood structures Colony perssts
bydarkmembrane (occasionallydamp
wood termites)
Pitch pocket Openings between growth rings containingpitch Various insects In living trees In tree
Blackcheck Small packets in outer layerofwood Grubs ofvarious In living trees In tree
insects
Pithfleck Narrow, brownish streaks Flymaggots oradult In living trees In tree
weevils
Gum spot Small patches or streaks ofgum-like substances Grubsofvarious In living trees In tree
insects
Ring Double growth rings or incompleteannual layers of Larvaeofdefoliating In living trees In tree
distortion growth insectsorfiatheaded
cambium borers
Stained area morethan 25.4 mm (1 in.) long intro- Stainingfungi Withinsectwounds Withseasoning
duced byinsects in trees orrecentlyfelled logs

13—9
 in diameter,whichthey leavepackedwith a fine powder.
Species ofanobiidbeetles colonize coniferous materials.

Susceptible hardwoodlumberused for manufacturing pur-

poses shouldbe protectedfrompowder-postbeetle attackas
soon as it is sawn and when it arrivesat the plant. An ap-
proved insecticide appliedin water emulsion to the green
lumberwillprovideprotection.Suchtreatmentmay be
effectiveevenafter the lumberis kiln dried, until it is
surfaced.

Good plant sanitationis extremelyimportantin alleviating

theproblem ofinfestation. Proper sanitation measurescan
often eliminate the necessity for other preventative steps.
Damage to manufactured itemsfrequently is traceableto
infestation that occurred before the productswere placedon
themarket,particularlyifa fmish is not appliedto thesurface
oftheitemsuntil they aresold. Once wood is infested,the
larvaewill continue to develop, eventhough the surfaceis
subsequently painted, oiled,waxed, or varnished.
Whenselecting hardwood lumberfor buildingormanufactur-
ing purposes, any evidenceofpowder-postinfestationshould
not be overlooked, becausethe beetlesmay continuetobe
activelong after the wood is putto use. For standard 19-mm
(nominal 1-in.)lumber, sterilization ofgreen wood with
steam at 54°C (130°F) or sterilization ofwood with a lower
moisturecontentat 82°C(180°F)under controlledcondi-
tions ofrelative humidityforabout 2 h is effective for check-
ing infestation or preventing attack. Thickermaterial requires
Figure 13—9. Types of insect damage most likely to a longertime. A 3-mm soaking in a petroleumoil solution
occur in a building.Upper left—Termite attack; feeding containing an insecticide is alsoeffective for checking infesta-
galleries (often parallel to the grain) contain excrement tion orpreventingattack on lumberup to standard 19 mm
and soil. Upper right—Powder-post beetle attack; exit (nominal1 in.) thick. Small dimensionstock also can be
holes usually filled with woodflour and notassociated protectedby brushingor sprayingwith approvedchemicals.
with discolored wood. Lower left—Carpenterant attack; Forinfestedfurnitureor finishedwoodworkin a building, the
nestinggalleriesusually cut across grain and are free same insecticides may be used, but they should be dissolved
of residue. Lower right—Beetle attack; feeding galleries in a refinedpetroleum oil, like mineral spirits. Becausethe
(made in the wood whilegreen) freeof residue and Lyctus beetleslay their eggs in the open pores ofwood,
surrounding wood darkly stained. infestation can be prevented by covering the entiresurface of
each piece ofwood with a suitable finish.
Propercuttingpractices,rapid debarking, storingunder Powder-post beetlesin the family Anobiidae,depending on
water, and sprayingthe materialwith an approvedchemical thespecies,infest hardwoods and softwoods. Theirlife cycle
solution, as recommendedfor bark beetles, will controlthese takes 2 to 3 years and they requirea wood moisture content
insects. Damageby ambrosia beetles can be prevented in around 15% or greaterforviableinfestation. Therefore, in
freshlysawn lumberby dippingthe productin achemical most modernbuildings, the wood moisturecontent is gener-
solution. The addition of one ofthe sap-stainpreventives
ally too low for anobiids.Whenventilationis inadequateor
approvedfor controllingmolds, stains,and decay will keep in more humidregions oftheUnited States, wood compo-
thelumberbright. Powder-postbeetlesattack both hard- nents ofabuildingcan reachthe favorable moisturecondi-
woodsand softwoodsand both freshlycut and seasoned tions for anobiids.This is especiallya problem in air-
lumberand timber. Powder-post damage is indicated by conditioned buildings where water condenses on cooled
holes made in the surfaceofthewood by the wingedadults exterior surfaces. Susceptibility to anobiid infestationcan be
as they emergeand by the fme powderthat may fall from the alleviated by loweringthe moisturecontent ofwood through
wood. The powder-postbeetlesthat cause most ofthe dam-
improved ventilation and thejudicious use ofinsulation and
age to dry hardwoodlumberbelong to the genus Lyctus. vaporbarriers. Insecticides registered for use againstthese
They attackthe sapwoodofash, hickory,oak, and other beetlesaregenerally restrictedfor exteriorapplications to
large-poredhardwoodsas it beginsto season. Eggsare laid avoid potential safetyhazardsindoors.Woodbeing reusedor
in pores ofthewood,and the larvae burrow throughthe
recycled from older structures often has lyctidor anobiid
wood, makingtunnels from 1.5 to 2 mm (1/16to 1/12 in.) larvaein it. Suchwood shouldbe fumigatedorkilndried
beforeuse in anotherstructure.

13—10
Beetlesin the familyBostrichidae andweevils in the family
Curculionidae are associatedwith wood moisture contents
favorable for wood-infesting fungibecausetheymay benefit
nutritionally from the fungi. Thus, protection againstthese
insects consistsofthe same procedures as for protection
againstwood-decay fungi.
A roundheadedbeetle, commonly known as theoldhouse
borer,causes damageto seasonedconiferous buildingmateri-
als. The larvae reducethe sapwoodto a powdery or granular
consistencyand make a ticking soundwhile at work. When
mature,the beetlesmake an ovalhole approximately
6.5 mm (1/4 in.) in diameterinthe surface ofthe wood and
emerge. Anobiidpowder-postbeetles, which makeholes 1.6
to 3.2 mm(1/16 to 1/8 in.) in diameter,also cause damage
to pinejoists. Infestedwood shouldbe drenched with a Figure 13—10. A, the northern limit of recorded
solutionofone ofthe currentlyrecommended insecticides in damagedone by subterraneantermitesin the
ahighly penetratingsolvent. Beetlesnesting in wood behind United States; B, the northern limit of damage
done by dry-wood termites.
plasteredorpaneledwalls can be eliminatedthroughfumiga-
tion ofthebuildingby a licensed operator.

Termites d'

Termites superficially resembleants in size,generalappear-

ance,and habit ofliving in colonies. About 56 species are
known in the United States. Fromthe standpoint oftheir
methodsofattack on wood,termitescan be groupedinto two
main classes:(a) ground-inhabiting or subterranean termites
and (b) wood-inhabiting or nonsubterranean termites.

Subterranean Termites B
Subterranean termitesare responsible for most ofthe termite Figure 13—11. A, winged termite; B, wingedai,t
damagedone to wood structures in the UnitedStates. This (bothgreatly enlarged).Thewasp waistof the ant
and the long wings ofthe termiteare distinguishing
damage canbe prevented. Subterranean termites are more
prevalentin the southernthan in the northern states, where characteristics.
low temperaturesdo not favortheir development
(Fig. 13—10).The hazard ofinfestationis greatest(a) beneath
buildingswithoutbasements that were erected on a concrete Subterranean termitesnormallydo not establishthemselves
slab foundation or were built over a crawl space that is in buildingsby being carriedthere in lumber; they primarily
poorlydrainedand ventilated and (b) inany substructure enterfrom groundnests afterthe buildinghas bem con-
wood component close to the groundor an earth fill(for structed. An introduced species, the Formosantrmite, is
example, an earth-filled porch). adeptat initiatingaboveground infestations and nests in
structures wherewood remainswet for prolonged periods,
The subterranean termitesdeveloptheir colonies andmain- such as from roofleaks. Telltale signs ofsubterranean termite
tain theirheadquartersin the ground. They build their tun- presence are the earthen tubes or runways built1y these
nels throughearth and around obstructions to reachthe wood insects overthe surfaces ofthe foundation orother exposed
they need for food.They alsomust have a constant source of areas toreach thewood above.Anothersign is the swarming
moisture, whetherfrom the wood on whichthey are feeding ofwingedadults early inthe spring or fall. Inthewood
or the soil wheretheynest. The workermembers ofthe itself, the termites make galleries that generallyffollow the
colonycause destruction ofwood.At certain seasonsofthe grain,leavinga shell ofsoundwoodto conceal ;heir activi-
year,usually spring,male and femalewingedfonns swarm ties. Because the galleriesseldomshow on the wood sur-
from the colony,fly a short time, losetheirwings, mate,and faces, probing with a pick orknife is advisable ifthe presence
ifsuccessful in locatinga suitablehome,start new colonies. oftermitesis suspected.
The appearanceof"flyingants" or their shed wingsis an
indicationthat atermite colonymaybe nearandcausing Thebest protection forwood in areas where subterranean
seriousdamage.Not all "flyingants" are termites; therefore, termites are prevalentis to preventthe termitesfrom gaining
suspicious insects shouldbe identifiedbeforeinvesting in hiddenaccess to a building. The foundations shuld be of
eradication(Fig. 13—11). concrete, pressure-treated wood, orother materialthrough
whichthe termitescannotpenetrate.Withbrick, stone, or
concrete block, cement mortarshouldbe used because
termites can work throughsome other kinds ofmortar. Also, notablyKey West, and to the islands ofHawaii. They also
it is a goodprecautionto capthefoundation with 100 mm area localized problemin ArizonaandNew Mexico.
(4 in.) ofreinforcedconcrete. Postssupporting floor girders
should, ifthey bear directlyon the ground, be ofconcrete. If The nonsubterranean termites, especiallythe dry-woodtype,
there is a basement,it shouldbe flooredwith concrete. Un- donot multiplyas rapidlyas thesubterranean termites and
treatedposts in such abasementshouldrest on concretepiers havesomewhat differentcolony life and habits.The total
extending a few inchesabovethe basementfloor.However, amount ofdestruction they cause in the United States is
pressure-treated posts can rest directlyonthe basement floor. much less than that causedby the subterraneantermites. The
With the crawl-space type offoundation, wood floorjoists abilityofdry-woodtermitesto live in dry wood without
should be kept at least 460 mm (18 in.) and girders 300 mm outside moistureor contactwith the ground,however,makes
(12 in.) from the earth and good ventilationshouldbe pro- them a defmitemenace in theregionswherethey occur.
vided beneaththe floor.A rule ofthumb is to have a mini- Theirdepredations are not rapid, but they canthoroughly
mum of I unit areaofventilation for every 150 units of riddle timbers with their tunnelingsifallowedto work un-
crawlspace (for example, 1 ft2 ofventilated area for 150 ft2 of disturbed formanyyears.Nonsubterranean termitesare often
crawispace). movedfrom structureto structure in infesteditems such as
furniture.
Moisturecondensationon the floorjoists and subflooring,
whichmay cause conditions favorable to decay andcontrib- In constructingabuildingin localitieswherethe dry-wood
uteto infestationby termites,canbe avoidedby covering the type ofnonsubterranean termite is prevalent,it is good prac-
soil belowwith a moisturebarrier,maintainingadequate tice to inspectthe lumbercarefullyto see that it was not
ventilation, and assuming properdrainageofrainwater away infestedbefore arrival at thebuildingsite. Ifthe buildingis
from all sidesofa structure.All concrete forms, stakes, constructedduringthe swarming season,the lumbershould
stumps, and wastewoodshould be removedfromthe build- be watchedduringthecourse ofconstruction, becauseinfesta-
ing site becausethey are possiblesources ofinfestation. tion by colonizingpairs can easily takeplace.Becausepaint
Generally, the precautions effective against subterranean is agoodprotection againsttheentrance ofdry-woodter-
termitesare also helpfulagainstdecay. mites, exposed wood (exceptthat whichis preservative
treated)shouldbe kept coveredwith a paint fihn. Fine screen
The principalmethodofprotecting buildingsin high termite shouldbe placedover any openings to the interior unpainted
areas is to thoroughlytreat the soil adjacentto the foundation parts ofthebuilding.As in the case ofground-nesting ter-
walls and piers beneath the buildingwith a soil insecticide. mites, dead trees, old stumps, posts, or wood debris ofany
When concreteslab floors are laid directly on the ground, all kind that could serve as sources of infestation should be
soil underthe slab should be treatedwith an approved insec- removed from thepremises.
ticide beforethe concreteis poured.Furthermore, insulation
containingcellulosethat is used as a filler in expansion Ifa buildingis infestedwith dry-woodtermites, badly dam-
joints should be impregnatedwith an approvedchemical agedwood shouldbe replaced.Ifthe wood is only slightly
toxic to termites. Sealingthe top 13 mm (1/2 in.) ofthe damaged or is difficult to replace,furthertermiteactivitycan
expansion jointwith roofmg-grade coal-tarpitch alsopro- be arrestedby injecting a smallamountofan approvedpesti-
videseffective protection from ground-nesting termites. New cidal dust or liquidformulation into each nest. Current
modifications in soil treatmentand an insecticidal bait con- recommendations for suchformulations canbefound from
trolmethodare currentlyunder investigation andappear state pest controlassociations. Buildings heavilyinfested
promising.Currentreferences (available from national pest with nonsubterranean termites canbe successfully fumigated..
control operatorassociations)shouldbe consultedto take This methodis quickerthan the use ofpoisonous liquids
advantage ofthe newdevelopments intermitecontrol. and dusts and does not require finding all ofthe colonies.
However, it does notpreventthe termitesfrom returning
To controltermites already in a building,contactbetween becauseno poisonous residueis left in the tunnels. Fumiga-
thetermite colony in the soil and thewoodworkmust be tion is very dangerousand should be conductedonly by
broken. This can be done by blockingthe runways from soil licensed professional fumigators. Infestedpiecesoffurniture,
to wood,treating the soil, repairingleaks that keep wood pictureframes,and other smallpieces canbe individually
withinthe structurewet (for example, plumbingleaks),or fumigated, heated, orplacedin a freezerfor a shorttime. In
somecombination ofthese techniques. Possiblereinfesta- localities wheredry-woodtermites do serious damageto
tions canbe guardedagainstby frequentinspectionsfor signs posts and poles,the best protectionfor these and similar
oftermites. forms ofoutdoortimbersis full-lengthpressuretreatment
with a preservative.
NonsubterraneanTermites
IntheUnitedStates,nonsubterranean termiteshavebeen Naturally Termite-Resistant Woods
foundonly in a narrowstrip ofterritory extending from Only a limitednumberofwoodsgrown inthe United States
central California aroundthe southernedgeofthe continental offerany marked degree ofnaturalresistance to termiteattack.
United States to Virginia (Fig. 13—10) and in the West The close-grained heartwoodofCalifornia redwoodhas some
Indies andHawaii. Theirprincipaldamageis confinedto an resistance, especially whenused above ground. Very resinous
areain southernCalifornia,toparts ofsouthernFlorida,

13—12
heartwoodofSouthernPine is practicallyimmune to attack, Control is aimedat discouragingthe use ofnestingsites in
but it is not availablein large quantities and is seldom used. andnear buildings. The tunnel may be injectedwith an
insecticide labeled forbee controlandpluggedwith caulk.
Treating the surface aroundthe entryhole will discourage
Carpenter Ants reuse ofthe tunnel duringthe spring nestingperiod. A good
Carpenterantsare black or brown. They usuallyoccur in paintfilm or pressure preservative treatment protecisexterior
stumps, trees, or logs but sometimes damage poles, struc- wood surfaces from nesting damage. Bareinteriorwood
tural timbers,or buildings. One form is easily recognized by surfaces, such as in garages, can be protected by screens and
its giant size relative to other ants. Carpenter ants use wood tight-fittingdoors.
forshelterratherthan forfood,usuallypreferring woodthat is
naturallysoft or has beenmade soft by decay.They may Marine Borer Damage
enter abuildingdirectlyby crawling or maybe carriedthere
in fuelwood. Ifleft undisturbed, they can, in a few years, and Control
enlargetheir tunnelsto thepoint where replacement orexten-
siverepairsare necessary. The parts ofdwellings theyfre- Damageby marine-boring organismsto wood structures in
quent most often are porch columns, porch roofs,window saltorbrackishwaters is practicallya worldwideproblem.
sills, and sometimes the wood plates in foundation walls. Evidenceofattack is sometimes found in rivers evenabove
They often nest in hollow-core doors. The logs ofrustic theregionofbrackishness. The rapidityofattackdepends
cabinsare alsoattacked. upon local conditions and the kinds ofborers present. Along
thePacific,Gulf,and SouthAtlanticCoasts ofthe United
Precautions that preventattackby decay and termites are States, attack is rapid, anduntreatedpilings may be com-
usually effective againstcarpenterants. Decaying or infested pletelydestroyedin a year or less. Along the coast ofthe
wood, such as logs, stumps, or retainingwalls, shouldbe New England States, the rate ofattack is slowerbecauseof
removedfrom the premises, and crevices presentinthe cold watertemperatures but is still sufficiently rapid tore-
foundation orwoodworkofthe buildingshouldbe sealed. quire protection ofwood wherelong life is desired. The
Particularly, leaks in porch roofs shouldberepairedbecause principalmarineborersfrom the standpoint ofwood damage
the decay that may result makesthewood more desirableto in the UnitedStates are describedin this section. Control
the ants. measuresdiscussedin this sectionare those in use atthe
time this handbookwas revised. Regulations shoul[d be
Whencarpenterantsare found in a structure, anybadly reviewedat the time controltreatments are being considered
damaged timbers shouldbe replaced.Becausethe carpenter so that approvedpracticeswill be followed.
ant needshigh humidityin its immature stages, alterations
in theconstructionmay also be requiredto eliminatemois-
turefrom rainor condensation. In woodnot sufficiently Shipworms
damagedtorequire replacement, the antscan bekilledby Shipworms are the most destructive ofthe marineborers.
injection ofapprovedinsecticide into the nestgalleries. They are mollusks ofvariousspecies that superficially are
Carpenter ant nests are relatively easy to findbecausethey worm-like in form.The group includes several species of
keep their internalnest sites very cleanand free ofdebris. As Teredo and several species ofBankia, whichare especially
particlesofwood are removed to creategalleries or as pieces damaging. Thesemollusksare readily distinguishableon
ofinsects that havebeen fed upon accumulate, thedebris is close observation but are all very similarin several respects.
removedfrom the nest and then accumulates belowthe nest In the earlystages oftheir life, theyare minute, free-
opening. swimming organisms. Upon finding suitablelodgmenton
wood, they quickly developinto a new form and bury them-
Carpenter Bees selvesin the wood. A pair ofboring shellson the head
growsrapidlyin size as the boringprogresses,while the tail
Carpenter bees resemblelargebumblebees, but the top of part or siphonremainsat the originalentrance.Thus, the
their abdomenis hairless, causingtheir abdomensto shine, animalgrowsin length and diameterwithinthe wood but
unlike bumblebees. The females makelarge (13-mm- a
remains prisonerin its burrow, whichit lineswith a shell-
(1/2-in.-)diameter)tunnelsinto unfinishedsoft wood for like deposit. It lives on the woodborings and the organic
nests. They partitionthe hole into cells; each cell is pro- matterextracted fromthe sea waterthat is continuously being
vided with pollen andnectar for a singleegg. Becausecar- pumpedthrough its system. The entranceholes never grow
penter bees reusenesting sites for manyyears, anesting large, and the interiorofwood may be completely honey-
tunnel into a structural timbermaybe extended several feet combedand ruinedwhile the surface shows only slight
and have multiplebranches. In thinwood, such as siding, perforations. Whenpresentin greatnumbers,shipworms
theholes may extendthe full thicknessofthewood.They grow only a few centimeters beforethe wood is so com-
nest in stainedwood and wood with thinpaint films or light pletelyoccupied that growthis stopped. However,whennot
preservative salt treatments as wellas in bare wood.A favor- crowded, they can grow to lengths of0.3 to 1.2 m (1 to 4 ft)
ite nesting site is in unfinishedexteriorwood not directly depending on the species.
exposed to sunlight (for example, the undersides ofporch
roofs,and grape arbors).

13—13
Pholads theborersspreadinwardand destroythe untreatedinteriorof
the pile.
Another group ofwood-boringmollusksis the pholads,
which clearlyresemble clams and therefore arenot included Whenwood is to be used in salt water, avoidance ofcutting
with the shipworms. They are entirelyencasedin their dou- or injuring the surface after treatmentis evenmore important
ble shells. The Martesia arethebest-knownspecies, but than when wood is to be used on land. No cutting or injury
anotherwell-knowngroup is the Xylophaga. Like the ship- ofany kind for any purposeshould be permittedin theun-
worms,the Martesia enter the wood whenthey are very derwaterpartofthe pile. Wherepilesare cut to grade above
small, leavinga small entrancehole, and grow larger as they thewaterline, theexposed surfaces shouldbe protectedfrom
burrow into the wood. They generallydo not exceed64 mm decay. This may be accomplished by in-placeapplication
(2-1/2in.) long and 25 mm (1 in.) in diameterbut are capa- ofa woodpreservative followedby asuitablecapping
bleofdoingconsiderabledamage.Theiractivitiesin the compound.
UnitedStatesappear to be confined to the GulfCoast,
San Diego, and Hawaii. Natural Resistance to Marine Borers
Limnoria and Sphaeroma No woodis immune to marine-borer attack, and no commer-
cially important wood oftheUnited Stateshas sufficient
Anotherdistinctgroup ofmarineborers are crustaceans, marine-borer resistance tojustify its use untreatedin any
whichare relatedto lobsters and shrimp. The principal important structure in areas whereborersare active.The
borers in this group are species ofLimnoriaand Sphaeroma. heartwoodofseveral foreign species, such asgreenheart,
Theirattackdiffersfrom that ofthe shipworms andthe jarrah, azobe,andmanbarklak,has shownresistance to ma-
Martesia in that the bore hole is quite shallow; the result is rine-borerattack.Service recordson these woods, however,
that the wood gradually is thinned from the surface inward do not alwaysshowuniformresultsand are affected by local
through erosionby the combined actionofthe borersand conditions.
water erosion. Also, the Limnoriaand Sphaeromado not
become imprisonedin the wood but may move freely from Protection of Permanent Structures
placetoplace.
Thebest practicalprotection for pilesin sea water with
Limnoria are small, 3 to 4 mm (1/8 to 1/6 in.) long, and shipworms and moderateLimnoriahazard is heavy treatment
bore smallburrowsin the surface ofwood.Although they with coal-tarcreosote or creosotecoal-tarsolution. Where
can change their location,they usuallycontinueto bore in severe Limnoriahazardexists, dualtreatment(copper-
one place.When great numbersofLimnoriaarepresent,their arsenate-containingwaterbome preservatives followed by
burrows are separatedby very thinwalls ofwood that are coal-tarcreosote) is recommended. The treatmentmust be
easily erodedbythe motionofthe water ordamagedby thorough,the penetration as deep as possible,and thereten-
objectsfloating upon it. This erosion causesthe Limnoriato tionhigh togive satisfactoryresultsin heavily infested
burrow continuallydeeper;otherwise, theburrowswould waters.It is best to treat such piles by the full-cellprocess to
probablynot become greater than 51 mm (2 in.) long or refusal; that is, to force in all the preservativethe piles can
13 mm (1/2 in.) deep. Becauseerosion is greatestbetween hold without usingtreatments that cause seriousdamage to
tide levels,piles heavily attackedby Limnoriacharacteristi- thewood. For highestretentions,it is necessaryto air-or
cally wear within this zoneto an hourglassshape. In heavily kiln-dry the piling beforetreatment.Detailsoftreatments are
infestedharbors,untreatedpilingcan be destroyedby discussedin Chapter 14.
Limnoriawithin a year.
The life oftreatedpilesis influencedbythe thoroughness of
Sphaeromaare somewhat larger,sometimes reachinga thetreatment, thecare and diligence usedin avoidingdam-
length of 13 mm (1/2 in.) and a width of 6 mm (1/4 in.). In age to the treated shellduringhandlingand installation,and
general appearanceand size,they resemblethe common sow theseverity ofborer attack. Differences inexposurecondi-
bug orpill bug that inhabitsdamp places.Sphaeromaare tions, such as water temperature, salinity, dissolvedoxygen,
widelydistributedbut are not as plentiful as Limnoriaand water depth, and currents, tend to cause wide variations in
cause much less damage.Nevertheless, piles in some struc- theseverityofborer attack evenwithin limitedareas.Service
tures havebeen ruinedby them. Occasionally, theyhave recordsshowaverage-life figuresof22 to48 years on well-
beenfound workingin freshwater. In types ofdamage, treatedDouglas-firpiles in San FranciscoBay waters. In
Sphaeromaaction resemblesthat ofLimnoria. It has been South Atlanticand GulfofMexicowaters,creosotedpilesare
reportedthat Sphaeromaattack salt-treatedwood in Florida. estimatedto last 10 to 12 years and frequentlymuch longer.
On the North AtlanticCoast, whereexposureconditionsare
The average life ofwell-creosoted structures is many times less severe,pilescan last even longerthan the 22- to 48-year
theaverage lifeobtainedfrom untreated structures. However, life recordedin the San Francisco Bay.
eventhoroughcreosotetreatmentwill not alwaysstop
Martesia, Sphaeroma,and especiallyLimnoria;shallow or Metal armor and concrete or plasticjacketinghave beenused
erraticcreosotepenetrationaffords only slight protection. The with varying degreesofsuccess forthe protection ofmarine
spots with poorprotectionare attackedfirst, and from there, piles. The metal armor maybe in the form ofsheets, wire, or

13—i4
nails. Sheathing ofpileswith copperor muntz metal has
been only partiallysuccessful, owing to difficultyin main- References
taining a continuousarmor. Theft, damage in driving, dam- Beat, R.H. 1967. Formosaninvader. Pest Control.
ageby stormor driftwood,and corrosion ofsheathing have 35(2): 13—17.
sooner or later let in the borers, and in only a few caseshas
long pile life been reported. Attempts duringWorld WarII Beat, R.H.; Maulderi,J.K.; Jones, S.C. 1983. Subterra-
to electroplate wood pileswith copperwere not successful. neantermites, their preventionand control in buildi:gs.
Concretecasingsare now in greateruse than is metal armor, Home& Garden Bull. 64 (rev.). Washington,DC: U.S.
and they appearto providebetter protection whenhigh- Department ofAgriculture.
qualitymaterials are used and carefullyapplied. Unfortu- Cassens, D.L.; Eslyn, W.E. 1981. Fungicidesto prevent
nately, they are readily damagedby ship impact. For this sapstain and mold on hardwoodlumber. Forest Products
reason, concrete casings are less practicalforfenderpiles Journal. 31: 39—42.
than for foundation pilesthat are protected from mechanical
damage. Ebeling, W. 1975. Wood destroyinginsects and fungi. In:
Urban entomology. Berkeley, CA: University of California,
Jacketingpilesby wrappingthem with heavy polyvinyl DivisionofAgriculture Science: 128—216.
plastic is one recentform ofsupplementary protection. If
properly applied, thejacketing will kill any borers that may Esenther, G.R.; Beal, R.H. 1979. Termitecontrol: decayed
havealreadybecomeestablished by creating stagnantwater, wood bait. Sociobiology. 4(2): 215—222.
thereby decreasing oxygen levels in the waterthat is in Estyn, W.E.; Clark, J.W. 1976. Appraising deterioration
contact with the piles. Like other materials,the plasticjacket in submerged piling. Materials und Organismen. Supple-
is subjectto mechanicaldamage. ment 3: 43—52.

Protection of Boats Estyn, W.E.; Clark, J.W. 1979. Wood bridges—decay

inspectionand control. Agric. Handb. 557. Washington,
Wood bargeshave been constructedwith planking or sheath- DC: U.S. Department ofAgriculture.
ing pressure-treated with creosote to protectthe hull from ForestProducts Society.1997. Prevention ofdiscotorations
marineborers, and the results have been favorable. Although in hardwoodand softwoodlogs and lumber. FPS Proceed-
coal-tarcreosote is an effective preservative for protecting
ings 7283. Madison, WI: Forest Products Society.
wood against marineborers in areas ofmoderate borerhazard,
it has disadvantages in many types ofboats. Creosoteadds Greaves, H. 1969. Wood-inhabiting bacteria: general
considerably to the weight ofthe boat hull, and its odor is considerations. Commonwealth Scientific and Indusrial
objectionable to boat crews. In addition, antifouling paints Research Organization, Forest Products Newsletter59.
aredifficult to apply over creosotedwood. Hartley, C.; May, C.; 1943. Decay ofwood in boats. U.S.
Some copperbottompaints protect boat hulls againstma- Department ofAgriculture, ForestPath. Spec.Release8;
rine-borerattack,butthe protectioncontinues only while the U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service.
coatingremainsunbroken. Because it is difficultto maintain Highley, T.L.; Eslyn, W.E. 1982. Using flimiganis to
an unbrokencoatingofantifoulingpaint,theU.S. Navy has controlinteriordecay in waterfronttimbers.Forest Products
found it desirableto impregnate the hullplankingofsome Journal. 32: 32—34.
wood boatswith certain copper-containing preservatives.
Suchpreservatives,when appliedwith high retentions (24 to Highley, T.L.; Scheffer, T.C. 1978. Controllingdecay in
32 kg/rn3 (1.5 to 2.0 lb/ft3)),have someeffectiveness against above-water parts ofwaterfront structures. Forest Products
marine borers and shouldhelp to protectthe hull ofa boat Journal. 28: 40—43.
duringintervals betweenrenewalsofthe antifouling coating. Hunt, G.M.; Garratt, G.A. 1967. Wood preservation, 3d
These copper preservativesdo not provideprotection equiva- ed. The American forestry series. New York: McGraw—Hill
lent tothat furnished by coal-tarcreosote; theireffectiveness Book Company.
inprotecting boats is thereforebest assured iftheboatsare
dry docked atregularand frequentintervals and the antifoul- Jones, E.B.G.; Eltringham, S.K., eds. 1971. Maiine
ing coatingmaintained. However, the leach-resistant wood borers, fungi and fouling organisms ofwood. In: Proceedings
preservatives containingcopper arsenates have shown supe- ofOrganization for Economic Cooperation and Development;
nor performance (at a retentionof40 kg/rn3(2.5 lb/ft3)) to 1968 March27—April 3; Paris, France. OECD.
creosote in tests conductedin areas ofsevere borerhazard.
Krishna,K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. 1969. Biology of ter-
Plywoodas well as plank hulls can be protectedagainst mites. New York: Academic Press. Vol. I.
marine borersby preservativetreatment. The plywoodhull
Krishna,K.; Weesner, F.M., eds. 1970. Biology ofter-
presents a surface that can be cOveredsuccessfully with a mites. New York: Academic Press. Vol. II.
protective membraneofreinforcedplasticlaminate. Such
coverings should notbe attempted onwood that has been Lee, K.E.; Wood, T.G. 1971. Termites and soils. New
treatedwith a preservativecarried in oil, becausethebond York: Academic Press.
will be unsatisfactory.

13—15
Moore, H.B. 1979. Wood-inhabiting insects in houses: Scheffer, T.C.; Eslyn, W.E. 1976. Winter treatments
their identification, biology,prevention, and control. Pre- protectbirch roundwoodduringstorage. Forest Products
pared as part ofinteragency agreement IAA—25—75 between Journal. 26: 27—3 1.
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Scheffer, T.C.; Verrall,A.F. 1973. Principlesofprotecting
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University.
Proceedings, First international conference on wood prote>
Morrell,J.J.; Corden,M.E. 1982. Controllingwood tionwith diffusible preservatives: 1989 November;Nash-
deterioration with fumigants: a review.Forest Products ville, TN. Madison, WI: Forest Products Society: 91—92.
Journal. 36(10): 26—34.
Sherwood, G.E.; TenWolde, A. 1982. Moisturemove-
NPCA. 1976. Carpenterants. Tech. ReleaseESPC 052101. ment and control in light frame structures. Forest Products
Dunn Loring, VA: NationalPest Control Association. Journal. 32: 69—73.
NPCA. 1963. Carpenterbees. Tech. Release 3—63. Dunn Weesner, F.M. 1965. The termites ofthe United States, a
Loring,VA: NationalPest ControlAssociation. handbook. Elizabeth,NJ: NationalPest Control Association.
NPCA. 1964. The horntails. Tech.Release 14—64. Dunn Wilcox,W.W. 1978. Reviewofliteratureon the effect of
Loring,VA: National Pest ControlAssociation. early stages ofdecay on wood strength. Woodand Fiber.
9: 252—257.
Rietz,R.C. 1978. Storage oflumber. Agric. Handb. 531.
Washington,DC: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture. Williams, L.H. 1973. Anobiidbeetles should be contro led.
Pest Control. 41(6): 18,20,22,38,40,42,44.
Roff, J.W.; Cserjesi,A.J.; Swan, G.W. 1980. Prevention
ofsap stain and mold in packagedlumber. FORINTEK Zabel, R.A.; Morrell,J.J. 1992. Wood microbiology:
Canada Corp. Tech. Rep. 14 Ottawa, ON: FOR1NTEK. Decayand its prevention. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Scheffer, T.C. 1972. A climate index for estimating poten-
tial decay in wood structures aboveground.Forest Products
Journal. 21(10): 25—3 1.

13—16
 I Chapter iki I
Wood Preservation
Rebecca E. Ibach

hen left untreatedinmany outdoorapplications,

Contents wood becomessubjectto degradation by a variety of
Wood Preservatives 14—2 naturalcauses.Althoughsometrees possess natu-
rally occurring resistance to decay (Ch. 3, DecayResistance),
OilbomePreservatives 14—2
many are in short supplyor are not grown in ready proxim-
WaterbomePreservatives 14—9 ity to markets. Becausemost commonlyused wood species,
such as Southern Pine, ponderosapine, andDouglas-fir,
Preservative Effectiveness 14—12 possess little decayresistance,extraprotectionis needed
Effect ofSpecieson Penetration 14—12 whenthey are exposedto adverseenvironments. Woodcan
beprotectedfrom the attackofdecayfungi,harmfulinsects,
PreparationofTimber for Treatment 14—17 ormarine borersby applying chemicalpreservatives. The
Peeling 14—17 degreeofprotection achieveddepends on the preservative
used and the proper penetrationandretentionofthe chemi-
Drying 14—17 cals.Somepreservatives are more effective than others, and
someare more adaptable to certainuse requirements. Not
ConditioningofGreenProducts 14—18
only are differentmethodsoftreatingwood availab]e,but
Incising 14-18 treatability variesamongwood species—particularly their
heartwood, whichgenerallyresists preservative treatment
Cuttingand Framing 14—18 morethandoes sapwood. To obtain long-term effectiveness,
Application ofPreservatives 14—19 adequate penetration and retentionare needed for eachwood
species, chemical preservative, andtreatmentmethod.
PressureProcesses 14—19
Woodpreservatives that are appliedat recommended reten-
Nonpressure Processes 14—21 tion levels and achieve satisfactory penetrationcan greatly
Effecton Mechanical Properties 14—24 increase the life ofwood structures. Thus,the annualre-
placementcost oftreatedwood in serviceis much less than
Handlingand Seasoning ofTimberAfter Treatment 14—24 that ofwoodwithouttreatment.In considering preservative
QualityAssurance for TreatedWood 14-25 treatment processesand wood species,the combination must
providethe requiredprotection for the conditions ofexposure
TreatingConditionsand Specifications 14—25 and life ofthe structure. Allthese factors are considered by
Inspection 14—25 theconsensus technical committees in settingreference levels
requiredby the American Wood-Preservers' Association
PurchaseofTreated Wood 14—25 (AWPA), the American Society for Testing and Materials
References 14—26 (ASTM), andthe Federal Specification Standards. I)etails are
discussedlater in this chapter.
Note that mention ofa chemicalin this chapterdoes not
constitute arecommendation; only those chemicals registered
by the U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency (EPA)may be
recommended. Registration ofpreservatives is unckr constant
reviewby EPA andthe U.S. Department ofAgriculture.Use
only preservatives that bearan EPAregistrationnumberand
carry directions for home andfarmuse. Preservatives, such as
creosoteand pentachiorophenol, shouldnotbe app'Lied tothe
interior ofdwellings that are occupiedby humans.

14—1
Becauseall preservatives are under constant reviewby EPA, cleaning maybe requiredto remove surplus oils from sur-
aresponsibleState or Federalagencyshouldbe consultedas faces before spreading the adhesive.
tothe currentstatusofany preservative.
Coal-Tar Creosote
Wood Preservatives Coal-tarcreosote(creosote)is ablack or brownishoil made
by distillingcoal tarthat is obtainedafter high temperature
The EPAregulatespesticides,andwood preservatives are carbonization ofcoal.Advantages ofcreosote are (a) high
one type ofpesticide.Preservatives that are not restrictedby toxicityto wood-destroying organisms; (b) relative insolu-
EPAare available tothe generalconsumer for nonpressure bility in water and low volatility, which impartto it a great
treatments, andthe sale ofothers is restricted to certified degree ofpermanence underthe most varied use conditions;
pesticideapplicators.These preservatives can be usedonly in (c) easeofapplication; (d) easewith which its depth ofpene-
certainapplications and are referredto as "restricteduse." trationcan be determined; (e) relative low cost (whenpur-
Restricted use referstothe chemical preservative and not to chased in wholesale quantities); and (f) lengthy recordof
thetreatedwood product.The general consumer may buy satisfactory use.
and use woodproductstreatedwith restricted-use pesticides;
EPA does not considertreated wood a toxic substance nor is The character ofthe tar used,the methodofdistillation, and
it regulatedas apesticide. thetemperature range inwhichthecreosotefraction is col-
lectedall influencethe composition ofthe creosote. There-
ConsumerInformation Sheets (EPA-approved) are available fore, the composition ofthe various coal-tarcreosotes avail-
from retailersoftreated-woodproducts. The sheets provide ablemay vary considerably. However, smalldifferences in
information about the preservativeandthe use and disposal composition do not preventcreosotesfrom giving good
oftreated-wood products. Consumer information sheetsare service. Satisfactory resultsin preventing decay may gener-
available forthreemajor groupsofwood preservatives ally be expectedfrom any coal-tarcreosote that complies
(Table 14—1): withthe requirements ofstandard specifications.
. Creosote pressure-treated wood Several standards prepared by different organizations are
• Pentachlorophenol pressure-treated wood available for creosote oils ofdifferentkinds. Although the oil
obtainedundermost ofthese standardswill probablybe
• Inorganic arsenical pressure-treated wood effective in preventing decay,the requirements ofsome or-
Woodpreservativescan be dividedinto two generalclasses: ganizations are more exactingthan others. The American
Society forTestingand Materials StandardD390 for coal-tar
(1) oilbornepreservatives, such as creosoteand petroleum creosote has beenapprovedfor use by U.S. Department of
solutions ofpentachlorophenol and (2) waterborne preserva-
Defense agencies. This standard coversnewcoal-tarcreosote
tivesthat are appliedas water solutions. Many different and creosote inuse forthe preservative treatment ofpiles,
chemicals are in each ofthese classes, and eachhas differing
effectiveness in various exposure conditions. The three expo- poles,and timberformarine, land, and freshwater use.
Undernormalconditions,requirements ofthis standardcan
sure categories forpreservatives are (1)groundcontact (high be met withoutdifficultyby most creosoteproducers. The
decay hazardthat needs aheavy-dutypreservative),
requirements ofthis specification are similarto those ofthe
(2) aboveground contact (low decayhazard that doesnot AWPAstandardP1/P13 for creosote, whichis equally
usually requirepressuretreatment), and (3) marineexposure
(highdecay hazardthat needs aheavy-dutypreservative or acceptableto the user.
possiblydual treatment).In this chapter, both oilborneand Althoughcoal-tarcreosote (AWPAPl/P13) or creosote
waterbome preservative chemicals are described as to their solutions (AWPA P2) are well-suitedfor generaloutdoor
potentialand uses. See Table 14—2 for a summary ofpre- service in structural timbers,this creosotehas propertiesthat
servatives andtheirretentionlevels for various wood prod- are undesirable for somepurposes.The color ofcreosoteand
ucts. Some activeingredientscan be used inboth oilborne thefact that creosote-treated wood usually cannotbe painted
and waterbome preservatives. satisfactorily makethis preservative unsuitablewhere appear-
ance and paintability are important. Creosoteis commonly
Oliborne Preservatives used for heavytimbers,poles,piles, and railroadties.
Wooddoes not swell from treatmentwith preservativeoils, The odor ofcreosote-treated wood isunpleasantto some
but it may shrink ifit loses moisture duringthetreating people. Also, creosote vapors areharmfulto growingplants,
process.Creosoteand solutions with heavy,less volatile and foodstuffs that are sensitiveto odors shouldnot be stored
petroleumoils often help protectwood from weathering, but wherecreosote odors arepresent.Workerssometimes object
mayadverselyinfluenceits cleanliness, odor, color,paint- to creosote-treated woodbecauseit soils theirclothes,and
ability, and fire performance. Volatile oils or solvents with creosotevapor photosensitizes exposedskin. With normal
oilborne preservatives, ifremovedafter treatment, leavethe precautionsto avoid directskin contact with creosote, there
wood cleanerthan do the heavy oils but may notprovide as appearsto be no dangertothe health ofworkers handling or
muchprotection.Wood treatedwith somepreservativeoils workingnear the treatedwood. The EPA or the treater
can be glued satisfactorily, althoughspecialprocessing or shouldbe contactedfor specific information on this subject.

14—2
Table 14—1. EPA-approved consumer informationsheetsforthree major groups of preservative pressure-treated wood
Preservative
treatment Inorganic arsenicals Pentachlorophenol Creosote

Consumer This wood has beenpreserved by This wood has beenpreserved bypres- This wood hasbeenpreserved l,ypres-
information pressure-treatmentwith an EPA- sure-treatmentwith an EPA-registered suretreatmentwith an EPA-reg!stered
registered pesticide containing inorganic pesticidecontainingpentachlorophenolto pesticide containing creosote toprotect it
arsenic to protect itfrominsectattack protect itfrominsectattack and decay. frominsect attack and decay. Aood
anddecay. Wood treated with inorganic Woodtreatedwith pentachlorophenol treated with creosote should be sedonly
arsenic should be used onlywhere such should be used only where such protec- where such protection is importrnt.
protection is important. tion is important.
Creosotepenetratesdeeply intoand
Inorganicarsenicpenetratesdeeply into Pentachlorophenolpenetratesdeeply into remains in the pressure-treatedwood for
and remains inthe pressure-treated and remains inthe pressure-treatedwood a long time. Exposuretocreosote may
wood for a long time. Exposureto fora long time. Exposureto pentachloro- present certain hazards.Therefore,the
inorganic arsenic may present certain phenol may present certain hazards. following precautionsshould be aken both
hazards. Therefore,the following pre- Therefore,thefollowing precautions when handlingthe treatedwood and in
cautionsshould betaken both When should betaken bothwhen handling the determiningwhereto usethe treated
handlingthetreatedwood and indeter- treatedwood and in determiningwhere to wood.
mining whereto useordispose ofthe useand dispose ofthe treatedwood.
treatedwood.

Handling Disposeoftreatedwood byordinary Disposeoftreatedwood by ordinarytrash Dispose oftreatedwood byordinarytrash

precautions trashcollection or burial.Treated wood collection or bunal.Treated wood should collectionorburial.Treated wood should
should not beburned in open fires or in not be burned in openfires orin stoves, notbe burned in open fires orinstoves,
stoves, fireplaces, or residential boilers fireplaces, or residentialboilers because fireplaces, or residentialboilers, because
because toxicchemicals may be pro- toxicchemicals may be produced as part toxic chemicals may be produced aspart
duced aspartofthesmoke and ashes. ofthesmoke and ashes. Treatedwood ofthesmoke and ashes. Treated wood
Treated wood fromcommercial or fromcommercial or industrial use(e.g., from commercial or industrial use (e.g.,
industrial use(e.g., constructionsites) constructionsites) may be burnedonlyin constructionsites) maybe burned only in
may be burned onlyin commercial or commercialor industrial incinerators or commercial or industrial incinerators or
industrial incinerators or boilers in boilers rated at20 million BTU/hour or boilers inaccordancewithstate and
accordancewith state and Federal greaterheatinput oritsequivalentin Federal regulations.
regulations. accordancewith state and Federalregu-
lations. Avoid frequentorprolonged inhilations of
Avoid frequentorprolonged inhalation of sawdust fromtreated wood. When sawing
sawdust fromtreated wood. When Avoid frequentorprolongedinhalationof and machiningtreatedwood, wear adust
sawing and machiningtreatedwood, sawdustfromtreatedwood. When sawing mask. Whenever possible these opera-
wearadust mask. Whenever possible, and machiningtreatedwood, wearadust tionsshould be performedoutdoorsto
these operationsshould beperformed mask. Whenever possible,theseopera- avoid indoor accumulationsofarrbome
outdoors toavoid indoor accumulations tionsshould be performedoutdoorsto sawdust fromtreated wood.
ofairbornesawdust fromtreatedwood. avoid indoor accumulationsofairborne
sawdustfromtreated wood. Avoid frequentorprolonged skin contact
When power-sawing and machining, with creosote-treatedwood; whenhan-
weargoggles toprotect eyesfromflying Avoidfrequent or prolongedskin contact dling thetreated wood, wearlon-sleeved
particles. with pentachlorophenol-treatedwood. shirts and long pants and use gloves
When handlingthe treatedwood,wear impervious tothe chemicals (forexam-
Afterworking with the wood, and before long-sleevedshirts and long pants and ple, glovesthatarevinyl-coateth.
eating, dnnking,and usingtobacco usegloves impervioustothe chemicals
products,washexposed areas thor- (forexample, gloves that arevinyl-
When power-sawingand machining,
oughly. weargoggles toprotect eyesfromflying
coated).
particles.
Ifpreservativesorsawdust accumulate When power-sawingand machining,
on clothes, launder before reuse.Wash wear gogglesto protecteyesfromflying Afterworking with thewood and before
workclothes separately fromother particles. eating, drinking,and using tobaccoprod-
householddothing. ucts,wash exposed areasthoroughly.
Afterworkingwith thewood, and before
Ifoily preservativeor sawdust accumu-
eating,drinking,and usingtobacco prod- late on clothes, launder before reuse.
ucts, wash exposed areasthoroughly.
Washworkclothes separatelyfom other
Ifoilypreservatives or sawdust accumu- householdclothing.
lateon clothes,launder before reuse.
Wash workclothes separatelyfromother
householdclothing.

14—3
Table 14—1. EPA-approvedconsumer informationsheets for three major groups ofpreservativepressure-treatedwood—con.
Preservative
treatment Inorganicarsenicals Pentachiorophenol Creosote

Use site Wood pressure-treatedwithwater- Logs treatedwith pentachiorophenol Woodtreated with creosoteshould not be
precautions borne arsenical preservatives may should not be used for log homes.Wood used where itwill bein frequent orpro-
be used insideresidences as long as treatedwith pentachlorophenolshould not longed contact with bare skin (forexam-
all sawdust andconstructiondebns be used where itwill be infrequent or ple, chairs and otheroutdoor furniture)
arecleaned up and disposedofafter prolonged contactwith bare skin (for unless aneffectivesealer hasbeen
construction. example, chairs and other outdoorfumi- applied.
ture), unlessaneffectivesealer has been Creosote-treatedwood should notbe used
Do not usetreated wood undercir-
applied.
cumstances where the preservative in residential interiors. Creosote-treated
maybecome acomponent offood or Pentachlorophenol-treated wood should wood in interiors ofindustrial buildings
animal feed. Examples ofsuchsites notbe used in residential,industrial,or should beused onlyforindustrialbuilding
would bestructures orcontainersfor commercial interiors except for laminated componentsthatarein groundcontactand
storing sitage orfood. beamsorbuilding componentsthat arein aresubject todecayorinsect infestation
ground contactand are subjecttodecay or and forwood-block flooring. For such
Do not use treatedwood forcuthng insect infestationand where two coats of uses, twocoats ofan appropriatesealer
boards orcountertops. must beapplied. Scalers may be applied
an appropriatesealerareapplied.Sealers
Onlytreated wood thatisvisibly may beapplied attheinstallationsite. atthe installationsite.
clean and free ofsurface residue Urethane,shellac,latexepoxy enamel, Wood treatedwith creosote should notbe
should be used forpatios, decks, and and varnish are acceptable scalers for
used in the interiors offarmbuildings
walkways. pentachlorophenol-treated wood. where there may bedirectcontactwith
Do not usetreatedwood for con- Wood treatedwith pentachloropheriol domestic animals or livestock thatmay
struction ofthose portions ofbeehives should notbe used in theinteriors offarm crib (bite) or lick the wood.
thatmaycome intocontactwith the buildingswhere there may be direct In interiors offarmbuildings where
honey. contactwith domestic animals or live-
domestic animals or livestock areun-
stock thatmaycrib (bite) orlick thewood.
Treated wood should notbe used likely tocrib (bite) orlickthe wood,
whereitmaycomeinto directorindi- In interiors offarmbuildings where creosote-treatedwood may beused for
rect contactwith public drinking wa- domestic animals orlivestock areun- building componentsthatarein ground
ter,except forusesinvolving inci- likely tocrib (bite) or lick the wood, contact and aresubject todecayorinsect
dental contadsuchasdocks and pentachlorophenol-treated wood may be infestationiftwocoats ofaneffective
bridges. used forbuilding componentswhich are in sealer areapplied. Scalers may be
groundcontactand aresubjectto decayor appliedatthe installationsite. Coal-tar
insect infestationand wheretwocoats of pitch and coal-tar pitchemulsionare
anappropriatesealer are applied.Scalers effective seatersfor creosote-treated
may be appliedatthe installationsite. wood-block flooring. Urethane,epoxy, and
shellac are acceptable seaters forall
Do not use pentachlorophenol-treated creosote-treatedwood.
woodforfarrowing or broodingfacilities.
Do notusecreosote-treatedwood for
Do not usetreated wood under circum- farrowing or brooding facilities.
stances where the preservativemay
become a componentoffood oranimal Do not use treatedwood under circum.-
feed. Examplesofsuchsites would be stances where the preservative may
structures orcontainersfor storing silage become a component offood oranimal
orfood. feed. Examplesofsuch usewould be
structures orcontainersfor storing silage
Do notusetreatedwood forcutting boards orfood.
orcountertops.
Do not usetreated wood forcutting boards
Onlytreatedwood that isvisibly clean and orcountertops.
freeofsurface residueshould beused for
patios, decks, and walkways. Onlytreated wood thatisvisibly dean and
freeofsurface residues should be used
Donot usetreatedwood for construction forpatios, decks, and walkways.
ofthose portionsofbeehivesthat may
comeinto contactwith the honey. Donot usetreatedwood forconstruction
ofthose portions ofbeehivesthatmay
Pentachlorophenol-treated wood should come intocontactwith the honey.
notbe used where it may come intodirect
or indirectcontact with public drinking Creosote-treatedwood should notbe used
water, except foruses involving incidental where it may come into direct or indirect
contactsuch as docksand bridges. contactwith public drinking water, except
for uses involving incidentalcontact such
Do notusepentachlorophenol-treated as docks and bridges.
wood where itmay come into director
indirect contactwith drinking water for Do not usecreosote-treatedwoodwhere
domestic animals or livestock,except for it may come into director indirectcontact
usesinvolving incidentalcontact such as with drinking waterfor domestic animals
docks and bridges. or livestock,except for uses involving
incidentalcontactsuch asdocks and
bridges.

14-4
Table 14—2. Creosote, oilborne, and waterborne preservatives and retention levels for various wood productsa
Creosote and oilborne preservativeretention (kg/rn3(lbIft3))

Pentachloro- Pentachloro-
Form ofproduct and Creosote Creosote- phenol,P9, phenol,P9, Copper Oxine AW'A
service condition Creosote solutions petroleum TypeA TypeE naphthenate copper standard

A. Ties (crossties and 96—128 112—128 112—128 5.6-6.4 NR NR NR C2/C6

switch ties) (6—8) (7—8) (7--8) (0.35—0.4)
B. Lumber,timber, ply-
wood; bridge and mine
ties
(1) Salt waterb 400(25) 400(25) NR NR NR NR NR C2/C;9

(2) Soil and fresh water 160(10) 160 (10) 160 (10) 8 (0.50) NR 0.96(0.06) NR C2/C;9

(3) Above ground 128(8) 128(8) 128(8) 6.41 (0.40) 6.4(040) 0.64(0.04) 0.32(0.02) C2/C9
C. Piles
(1) Salt waterb C3/C14/C18
Borer hazard, 320 (20) 320(20) NR NR NR NR NR
moderate
Borer hazard, severe NR NR NR NR NR NR NR
Dual treatment 320 (20) 320(20) NR NR NR NR NR
(2) Soil, freshwater, or 96—272 96—272 96-272 4.8—13.6 NR 1.60(0.10) NR C3/C14/C24
foundation (6-17) (6-17) (6-17) (0.30-0.85)
D. Poles (length >5m
(>16 ft))
(1) Utility 120-256 120—256 120-256 4.8—12.8 NR 1.2—2.4 NR C4
(7.5-16) (7.5—16) (7.5—16) (0.30—0.80) (0.075—0.15)
(2) Building, round and 144—216 NR NR 72—10.9 NR NR NR C4/C23/C24
sawn (9—13.5) (0.45—0.68)
(3) Agricultural, round 120—256 120-256 NR, 6.1—9.6 NR NR, round NR C4/C16
and sawn (7.5—16) (7.5—16) round (0.38—0.60) (sawn,
(sawn, 1.2 (0.075))
192(12))
E. Posts (length <5m
(<16 ft))
(1) Agricultural, round 128—160 128—160 128—160 6.4—8.0 NR sawn,0.96 round, 0.88 C2/C5/Cl 6
and sawn,fence (8-10) (8-10) (8-10) (0.40—0.50) (0.060) (0.055)
(2) Commercial— 128—192 128—192 128-192 8-9.6 NR NR NR C2/C5/Cl 5/
residential construc- (8—12) (8—12) (8-12) (0.50—0.60) C23
tion, round and sawn
(3) Highway construc-
tion

Fence, guide, sign, 128—160 128—160 128—160 6.4—8.1 NR sawn four NR C2/C5/C14
and sight (8-10) (8-10) (8—10) (0.40—0.50) sides,0.96
(0.06)
Guardrailand spacer 160—192 160—192 160-192 8-9.6 NR sawn four NR C2/C5/C14
blocks (10—12) (10—12) (10—12) (0.50—0.60) skIes, 1.2
(0.075)
F. Glued-laminated
timbers/laminates
(1) Soil and freshwater 160(10) 160 (10) 16(1(10) 9.6(0.60) NR 9.6(0.60) NR C28
(2) Above ground 128(8) 128(8) 128(8) 4.8(0.30) NR 6.4(0.40) 3.2(0.20) C28

14—5
Table 14—2. Creosote, oilborne,and waterborne preservatives and retention levels for variouswood product?—con.
Waterborne preservative retention (kg/rn3 (lb/ft3))

Form ofproduct and ACZA CCA AGO AGO CDDC CBA AWPA
service condition ACC 0rACA Types I, II, or Ill Type B TypeD asCu CC TypeA standard

A. Ties (crossties and NR NR NR NR NR NR MR NR C21C6

switch ties)
B.Lumber,timber,
plywood; bridge and
mine ties
(1) Saltwaterb NR 40(2.50) 40(2.50) NR NR NR 40(2.50) MR C2iC9
(2) Soil andfreshwater 6.4(0.40) 6.4(0.40) 6.4(0.40) 6.4 6.4 3.2 (0.20) 6.4(0.40) NR CZC9
(0.40) (0.40)
(3) Above ground° 4.0(0.25) 4.0(0.25) 4.0(0.25) 4.0 4.0 1.6(0.10) 4.0(0.25) 3.27 GZ'Cg
(0.25) (0.25) (0.20)
C. Piles
(1) Saltwaterb C3'Ci4/
Cl8
Borerhazard, NR 24(1.5) 24.1 (1.5) NR NR NR NR NR
moderate
Borer hazard, severe NR 40(2.50) 40(2.50) MR NR NR NR MR
Dual treatment NR 16(1.00) 16(1.00) NR NR NR MR NR
(2) Soil, freshwateror NR 12—16 12—16 NR NR MR MR NR C3'C14/
foundation (0.80—1.0) (0.80—i .0) C24
D. Poles(length >5 m
(>16 ft))
(1) Utility NR 9.6 (0.60) 9.6(0.60) 9.6 NR NR NR NR C4
(0.60)
(2) Building, round and NR 9.6—12.8 9.6—12.8 9.6 9.6 3.2(0.2) NR NR C4i'C23/
sawntimber (0.60—0.80) (0.60—0.60) (0.60) (0.60) C24
(3) Agricultural, round NR 9.6(0.60) 9.6(0.60) 9.6 NR NR MR NR C4/C16
and sawn (0.60)
E. Posts(length<5m
(<16 ft))
(1) Agricultural, round NR 6.4(0.40) 6.4(0.40) 6.4 NR NR NR NR C21C5/
and sawn,fence (0.40) C16
(2) Commercial— 8(0.50), 6.4—9.6 6.4—9.6 6.4—9.6 6.4—9.6 3.2(0.20) 6.4(0.4), NR C2iC5/
residential con- (NR, sawn (0.40—0.60) (0.40-0.60) (0.40— (0.40— (NR, sawn C151
struction, round and structural 0.60) 0.6) structural C23
sawn members) members)
(3) Highway construc-
tion
Fence, guide,sign, 8—9.9 6.4(0.40) 6.4(0.40) 6.4 NR NR NR NR C2/C5/
and sight (0.50—0.62) (0.40) C14
Guardrail and spacer NR 8(0.50) 8 (0.50) 8(0.50) NR NR NR NR C21C5/
blocks C14
F. Glued- laminated
timbers/laminates
(1) Soil and fresh water 8(0.50)' 64 (040)d 6.4(0.40)" MR MR NR NR MR C28
(2) Above ground 3.2(0.20) 4(0.25) 4(0.25) NR NR NR NR NR C28
aRetentionlevels are those included in Federal SpecificationTT—W--571 and Commodity Standards ofthe AmericanWood Preservers'
Association. Refer tothe current issues ofthese specificationsforup-to-daterecommendationsand otherdetails. In manycases, the retention is
diflèrent depending on species and assay zone. Retentionsforlumber, timber, plywood, piles, poles, and fence posts aredetermined byassay of
borings of a number and location asspecified in FederalSpecificationTT—W—571orinthe Standards oftheAmerican Wood Preservers'Association
referencedin lastcolumn. Unlessnoted, all waterbome preservative retentionlevels are specifiedon an oxide basis. NRis not recommended.
bDualtreatmentsare recommendedwhen marine borer activity isknown to behigh (see AWPA C2, C3, C14,and C18 fordetails).
cFor usewhen laminationsaretreated priorto bonding.

14—6
In 1986, creosotebecamea restricted-use pesticideand is solutionshallconsist solelyofspecifiedproportionsof50%
availableonly to certifiedpesticideapplicators. For use and coal-tar creosoteby volume(whichmeets AWPA standard
handling ofcreosote-treated wood,refertothe EPA-approved P1/P13)and 50% petroleumoil by volume(which meets
ConsumerInformationSheet (Table 14—1). AWPAstandard P4). However, becauseno analytical stan-
dardsexistto verif'the complianceofP3 solution; after they
Freshlycreosotedtimbercanbe ignitedand burns readily, havebeen mixed, the consumerassumesthe risk ofusing
producing a densesmoke.However,after thetimbe:rhas these solutions.
seasonedfor some months,the more volatileparts ofthe oil
disappear fromnearthe surface andthe creosoted wood usu- Compared with straightcreosote, creosote solutions tend to
ally is little, ifany, easier to ignite than untreatedwood. reduceweathering and checking ofthe treatedwood. These
Until this volatileoil has evaporated, ordinaryprecautions a
solutions have greatertendencyto accumulate on the sur-
shouldbe takento preventfires. Creosoteadds fuel value, face ofthetreatedwood (bleed)and penetrate the wood with
but it does not sustain ignition. greaterdifficulty becausethey aregenerallymore viscous than
is straight creosote. High temperatures and pressuresduring
Coal-Tar Creosotes for Nonpressure Treatments treatment,whenthey can be safelyused, will often improve
Special coal-tarcreosotes are available fornonpressure treat- penetrationofhigh viscositysolutions.
ments, although these creosotescan only bepurchasedby Even thoughpetroleum oil and coal tar are less toxic to
licensed pesticideapplicators. Specialcoal-tarcreosotes differ
somewhat fromregularcommercial coal-tarcreosote in wood-destroying organisms andmixturesofthetwo are also
less toxic in laboratory tests than is straight creoscte,a
(a)being crystal-free to flow freely at ordinary temperatures reductionin toxicity does not necessarily implyless pre-
and (b) havinglow-boilingdistillation fractions removedto
servative protection. Creosote—petroleumandcreosote—coal-
reduce evaporation in thermal(hot and cold) treatments in
tarsolutions help reducechecking andweathering ofthe
open tanks. Consensus standards do not exist for coal-tar treatedwood.Posts and ties treatedwith standardfbrmula-
creosoteapplied by brush, spray, or open-tank treatments.
tions ofthese solutions havefrequentlyshown better service
than those similarly treatedwith straightcoal-tarcreosote.
Other Creosotes
Creosotes distilled from tars other than coal tar are usedto
Pentachlorophenol Solutions
some extentfor wood preservation, although they are not
includedin current Federal or AWPAspecifications. These Water-repellentsolutionscontainingchlorinatedphenols,
include wood-tarcreosote, oil-tarcreosote, andwater—gas-tar principally pentachlorophenol (penta), in solventsofthe
creosote. Thesecreosotesprotectwood from decay and insect mineralspiritstype,were first used in commercial dip treat-
attackbut are generallyless effective than coal-tarcreosote. ments ofwood by the miliworkindustry about 1931. Com-
mercial pressure treatment with pentachlorophenol inheavy
Creosote Solution petroleum oils on poles startedabout 1941, and considerable
quantities ofvariousproductssoonwere pressuretreated.
For many years, eithercoaltar or petroleum oil has been The standard AWPAP8 defines the properties ofpm-
mixed with coal-tar creosote, in variousproportions,to tachlorophenol preservative. Pentachiorophenol solutions for
lowerpreservativecosts.These creosote solutions have a wood preservation shallcontainnot less than 95% chlorin-
satisfactory recordofperformance, particularly for railroad ties ated phenols,as determinedby titrationofhydroxyland
andposts wheresurface appearance ofthetreatedwood is of calculated as pentachiorophenol. The performance ofpen-
minor importance. tachlorophenol and the propertiesofthe treatedwood are
influenced by the properties ofthe solvent used.
TheASTM D391 "Creosote—Coal-TarSolution"standard
covers creosote—coal-tarsolution foruse in the preservative The AWPA P9 standarddefinessolventsand formulations
treatmentofwood. This standard has been approvedforuse for organic preservative systems. A commercial processusing
by agenciesoftheU.S. Department ofDefense. This specifi- pentachiorophenol dissolved in liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
cationcontainsfour grades ofcreosotesolutions: was introduced in 1961, but later researchshowedthat field
• A (landand freshwater),containsno lessthan 80% performance ofpenta/LPG systemswas inferiortopentafP9
coal-tardistillate(creosote) by volume systems. Thus,penta/LPG systemsare no longerused.

• B (landand fresh water), contains no less than 70% The heavy petroleum solvent includedin AWPA P9 Type A
coal-tardistillate(creosote) by volume is preferable formaximum protection, particularlywhen
wood treatedwith pentachlorophenol is used in contact with
• C (landand freshwater), contains no lessthan 60% theground. The heavy oils remain in thewood for a long
coal-tardistillate(creosote) by volume time and do not usuallyprovide a cleanorpaintabicsurface.
• Marine Pentachiorophenol in AWPA P9, Type E solvent (disper-
The AWPA standardP2 similarlydescribesthe requirements sion inwater),is only approvedfor aboveground u5e in
for creosotesolutions. The AWPAstandardP3 (for creosote— lumber, timber,bridge ties, mine ties, and plywoodfor
southernpines, coastalDouglas-fir, andredwood
petroleum oil solution)stipulates that creosote—petroleumoil
(Table 14—2;AWPA C2 and C9).

14—7
Because ofthetoxicity ofpentachiorophenol, care is neces- Oxine Copper (copper-8-quinolinolate)
sary when handlingand using it to avoid excessivepersonal Oxinecopper(copper-8-quinolinolate) is an organometalic
contact with the solution or vapor.Do not use indoorsor compound, and the formulation consistsofat least 10%
wherehuman,plant, or animal contact is likely. Penta- copper-8-quinolinolate, 10% nickel-2-ethythexanoate, and
chiorophenol becamea restricted-use pesticidein November 80% inert ingredients (AWPA P8). It is accepted as a startd-
1986 and is only availableto certifiedapplicators. Foruse alone preservative foraboveground use for sapstain and mold
and handlingprecautions, referto the EPA-approved controland is alsousedfor pressuretreating (Table 14—2). A
ConsumerInformationSheet (Table 14—I). water-soluble form can be madewith dodecylbenzene sulfonic
The resultsofpole serviceandfield tests on wood treated acid, but the solution is corrosiveto metals.
with 5% pentachlorophenol in a heavy petroleum oil are Oxinecoppersolutions are greenishbrown, odorless, toxic
similar to those with coal-tar creosote.This similarityhas to both wood decayfungiand insects,and have a low toxic-
beenrecognizedin the preservative retentionrequirements of ity to humansand animals.Because of its low toxicityto
treatment specifications. Pentachiorophenol is effective humansand animals,oxine copperis the only EPA-
againstmany organisms, such as decay fungi, molds, stains, registered preservativepermittedby the U.S. Food and Drug
and insects.Becausepentachlorophenol is ineffective against Administration for treatment ofwood used in direct contact
marineborers, it is not recommended forthe treatment of with food. Someexamples ofits uses in wood are commer-
marine piles or timbersusedin coastal waters. cial refrigeration units,fruit and vegetablebasketsand boxes,
and water tanks.Oxinecoppersolutionshave also beenused
Copper Naphthenate on nonwoodmaterials,such as webbing, cordage, cloth,
Coppernaphthenateis an organometalic compoundthat is a leather, and plastics.
dark-green liquid and impartsthis color to the wood. Weath-
eringturns the color ofthe treatedwood to light brownafter Zinc Naphthenate
severalmonths ofexposure. The wood may vary from light Zinc naphthenateis similarto coppernaphthenatebut is less
brownto chocolate-brownifheatis used in the treating effective in preventing decay from wood-destroying fungiand
process.The AWPA P8 standarddefmes the properties of mildew.It is light colored and does not impartthe character-
coppernaphthenate,and AWPA P9 covers the solvents and istic greenish color ofcoppernaphthenate,but it does impart
formulations for organic preservativesystems. an odor. Waterbome and solventbome formulations are
available. Zinc naphthenate is notusedforpressuretreating
Coppernaphthenate is effectiveagainst wood-destroying and is not intended as a stand-alonepreservative.
fungiand insects.Jt has been used commercially since the
l940s for many wood products(Table 14—2). It is areaction
Bis(tri-n-butyltin)Oxide
productofcoppersalts andnaphthenicacids that are usually
obtainedas byproductsin petroleumrefming. Copper Bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide, commonly called TBTO, is a
colorlessto slightlyyellow organotincompoundthat is
naphthenate is not arestricted-usepesticidebut shouldbe
handledas an industrialpesticide. Itmay be used forsuperfi- solublein many organic solvents but insolublein water. It is
cial treatment, such as by brushing with solutions with a not used forpressuretreatingor as astand-alonepreservative
coppercontent of 1% to 2% (approximately 10% to 20% for in-ground use. TBTO concentratecontainsat least 95%
coppernaphthenate). bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide by weightand from 38.2% to 401%
tin (AWPA P8). This preservativehas lower mammalian
Chiorothalonil toxicity, causes less skin irritation, and has better paintahil-
ity than does pentachlorophenol, but it is not effective
Chiorothalonil(CTL) [tetrachloroisophthalonitrilej is an against decaywhen used in ground contact. Therefore,
organic biocide that is usedto a limitedextentfor mold TBTO is recommendedonly for ábovegrounduse, such as
control in CCA-treated wood (AWPA P8). It is effective millwork.It has been used as amarine antifoulant, butthis
againstwood decay fungi and wood-destroying insects.The use has beenalmost eliminated becauseofthe environmental
CU has limited solubilityin organic solvents and very low impactoftin on shellfish.
solubilityin water, but it exhibitsgood stability and leach
resistanceinwood. This preservativeis being evaluated for
both abovegroundand groundcontactapplications. The 3-odo-2-PropynyI Butyl Carbamate
solventused in the formulation ofthe preservative is AWPA 3-Iodo-2-propynylbutyl carbamate(IPBC) is a preservative
P9 Type A. that is intended fornonstructural, aboveground use only (for
example,millwork). It is not used for pressure treating appli-
cations such as decks. The IPBC preservativeis includedas
Chiorothalonil/Chlorpyrifos theprimaryfungicide inseveralwater-repellent-preservative
Chlorothalonillchlorpyrifos(CTL/CPF)is a preservative formulations underthe trade namePolyphaseand marketed
systemcomposedoftwo active ingredients (AWPAP8). by retail stores.However, it is not an effectiveinsecticide.
The ratio ofthe two components depends upon the retention Waterborne and solventbome formulations are available.
specified. CTL is an effectivefungicide, and CPF is very Someformulations yield an odorless,treatedproduct that can
effective againstinsectattack.The solvent used forformula- be paintedifdried aftertreatment.IPBC is alsobeing used in
tionofthis preservativeis specifiedin AWPAP9.

14—8
combination with didecyldimethylammonium chloride in a against decay and insects depends uponthe retentionand
sapstain—moldformulation (NP—i).IPBC contains 97% penetration obtained in application. ThesepreservLtives are
3-iodo-2-propynyl butyl carbamate, with a minimum of most often appliedusingnonpressure treatments like brush-
43.4% iodine (AWPA P8). ing, soaking,or dipping.
Preservative systems containingwater-repellent components
Alkyl Ammonium Compound
aresold undervarioustradenames, principally for thedip or
Alkyl ammoniumcompound (AAC) or didecyldimethylam-
moniumchloride (DDAC) is a compound that is effective equivalent treatment ofwindowsash and other millwork.
against wood decay fungi and insects. It is soluble in both Many are sold to consumers for household and fann use.
Federal specification TT—W—572 stipulates that such pre-
organicsolventsand water and is stable in wood as a result servatives (a) be dissolvedin volatile solvents,such as
ofchemicalfixation reactions. It is currentlybeing used as a mineralspirits, (b) do not cause appreciable swelling ofthe
component ofammoniacal copperquat(ACQ)(see section on
Waterborne Preservatives) for aboveground and ground con- wood,and (c) produceatreatedwood productthat meets a
tact and is a component ofNP—I for sapstainand mold performance testonwaterrepellency.
control. The preservative chemicals in Federal specification
TT—W—572 may be one ofthe following:
Propiconazole
Propiconazole is an organictriazolebiocide that is effective • Not less than 5% pentachlorophenol
againstwood decay fungibut not againstinsects(AWPA • Not less than 1% copperin the form ofcoppernaphthenate
P8). It is soluble in some organic solvents, but it has low
solubilityin water and is stable andleach resistant in wood.
It is currently being used commercially for aboveground and
• Notlessthan 2%copperin theform ofcoppernaphthenate
fortropicalconditions
sapstaincontrolapplicationin Europeand Canada. Solvents
used inthe formulation ofthe preservative are specified in • Not less than 0.045% copperin the form ofoxine copper
either AWPA P9 Type C or Type F. foruseswhen foodstuffs will be in contact with the treated
wood
4,5-Dichloro-2-N-Octyl-4-Isothiazolin-3-One
4,5-dichloro-2-N-octyl-4-isothiazolin-3-one is a biocide that The NationalWoodWindowand Door Association
is effective againstwood decayfungi and insects. It is soluble (NWWDA) standard forwater-repellent preservativ nonpres-
in organic solvents, but not in water, and is stableand leach sure treatment formillwork,IS 4—94, permits other preserva-
resistant in wood. This biocideis not currently being used tives, providedthe wood preservative is registered for use by
as a wood preservative.The solvent used in the formulation theEPAunderthelatestrevisionoftheFederal Insecticide,
ofthepreservativeis specifiedin AWPA P9 Type (2. Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)and that all water-
repellent preservative formulationsare tested foreffcctiveness
Tebuconazole againstdecay according to the soil block test (NWWDA
TM I).
Tebuconazole (TEB) is an organictriazolebiocide that is
effective againstwood decay fungi, but its efficacy against The AWPA StandardNi fornonpressure treatment ofmill-
insects has not yet been evaluated. It is soluble in organic work components also states that any water-repellent pre-
solventsbutnot in water, and it is stable and leachresistant servative formulation must be registered foruse by the EPA
in wood. Currently, TEB has no commercial application. underthe latest revision ofFIFRA. The preservativemust
The solvents usedin the formulation ofthis preservativeare alsomeet the Guidelines for EvaluatingNew Wood Pre-
specifiedin either AWPA P9 Type C or Type F. servativesfor Consideration bytheAWPAfor nonpressure
treatment.
Chiorpyrifos
Water-repellentpreservatives containing oxine copperare
Chiorpyrifos (CPF) is a preservative recentlyput into stan- usedin nonpressure treatmentofwood containers, pallets,
dard (AWPA P8). It is very effective against insect attackbut and otherproductsforuse in contact with foods. When
not fungalattack.Iffungalattackis a concern, thenCPF combined with volatile solvents, oxine copperis used to
shouldbe combinedwith an appropriate fungicide, such as
pressure-treat lumber intended foruse in deckingoftrucks
chlorothalonil/chlorpyrifos or IPBC/chlorpyrifos. andcars orrelateduses involvingharvesting,storage,and
transportation offoods (AWPAP8).
Water-Repellent and Nonpressure Treatments
willretardthe ingress
Effectivewater-repellentpreservatives Waterborne Preservatives
ofwater whenwood is exposed aboveground. Therefore,
these preservatives help reducedimensional changes in the Waterbome preservatives are often usedwhen cleanLiness and
wood as aresult ofmoisture changes whenthe wood is paintability ofthe treatedwood are required. Several formula-
exposed to rainwateror dampness for short periods. As with tions involving combinations ofcopper,chromium and
any wood preservative, the effectiveness in protecting wood arsenic haveshown high resistance to leaching and very good
performance in service. Waterbome preservatives are included

14—9
in specifications for items such as lumber, timber,posts, Inorganic arsenicals are a restricted-use pesticide. For use and
buildingfoundations,poles, and piling. handlingprecautions ofpressure-treated wood containing
inorganic arsenicals, referto the EPA-approved Consumer
Test results based on seawater exposure have shownthat Information Sheet (Table 14—1).
dualtreatment (waterbomecopper-containing salt preserva-
tivesfollowedby creosote) ispossiblythe most effective Standardwood preservatives used in water solutioninclude
methodofprotectingwood againstalltypes ofmarineborers. ACC, ACZA,and CCA (Types A and C). Other preserva-
The AWPA standards have recognizedthis process as well tives in AWPA P5 include alkyl ammoniumcompound
as thetreatmentofmarine piles with high retentionlevels of (AAC)and inorganic boron. Waterborne wood preservatives,
ammoniacal copperarsenate (ACA), ammoniacal copper zinc without arsenic or chromium, includeammoniacalcopper
arsenate (ACZA),orchromatedcopperarsenate (CCA).The quat (ACQ)(Types B and D), copperbis(dimethyldithio-
recommendedtreatmentand retentionin kilograms per cubic carbamate) (CDDC), ammoniacal coppercitrate(CC),and
meter(poundsper cubicfoot) for roundtimberpilesexposed copper azole—Type A (CBA—A), for aboveground use only.
to severe marine borer hazardaregiven in Table 14—3.
Poorlytreatedor untreatedheartwoodfaces ofwood species Acid Copper Chromate
containing"high sapwood"that do not requireheartwood Acid copperchromate (ACC)contains31.8%copperoxide
penetration(for example,southernpines, ponderosapine,and and 68.2% chromiumtrioxide (AWPAP5). The solid,
redpine) havebeen foundto perform inadequately in marine paste, liquidconcentrate, ortreating solutioncan be made of
exposure. In marine applications, only sapwoodfaces should coppersulfate, potassium dichromate, or sodiumdichromate.
be allowedforwaterbome-preservative-treated pine indirect Tests on stakesand posts exposed to decay and termite
seawater exposure. attackindicatethat wood well-impregnated with ACC gives
Waterborne preservatives leavethe wood surface compara- acceptable service, but it is more proneto leachingthan are
most other waterbome preservatives. Use ofACC is gener-
tivelyclean,paintable,and free from objectionable odor. ally limitedto cooling towers that cannot allow arsenic
CCA and acid copperchromate(ACC) must be used at low leachate in cooling water.
treatingtemperatures(38°C to 66°C (100°F to 150°F)) be-
cause they are unstable athighertemperatures. This restric-
tion may involvesome difficulty whenhighertemperatures Ammoniacal Copper Zinc Arsenate
areneededto obtain good treatingresultsinwoods such as Ammoniacalcopperzinc arsenate (ACZA)is used in the
Douglas-fir. Becausewater is addedto thewood inthe UnitedStates but not in Canada.It is commonlyused on the
treatmentprocess,the wood must be dried after treatment to West Coastfor the treatment ofDouglas-fir. Thepenetration
themoisturecontentrequiredfortheend use intended.

Table 14—3. Preservative treatment and retention necessary to protect round timber piles from
severe marine borer attack
Retention (kg/rn3 (lb/ft3))

Southern Pine, Coastal AWPA

Treatment red pine Douglas-fir standard
Limnoria tripunctataonly
Ammoniacalcopper arsenate 40 (2.50), (24 (j•5))8 40 (2.50) C3, C18
Ammoniacalcopper zinc arsenate 40 (2.50), (24 (1.5))a 40 (2.50) C3, C18
Chromated copper arsenate 40 (2.50) (24 (1.5))a Not recommended C3, C18
Creosote 320 (20), (256 (16))a 320 (20) C3, C18
Limnoria tripunctataand Pholads
(dual treatment)
First treatment
Ammoniacalcopper arsenate 16 (1.0) 16 (1.0) C3, C18
Ammoniacalcopper zinc arsenate 16 (1.0) 16 (1.0) C3, C18
Chromated copper arsenate 16 (1.0) 16 (1.0) C3, C18
Second treatment
Creosote 320 (20.0) 320 (20.0) C3, C18
Creosote solution 320 (20.0) Not recommended C3, C18
aLower retentionlevels are for marine piling used in areasfrom New Jersey northward on the
East Coast and north of San Franciscoon the West Coast in the United States.

14-10
ofDouglas-firheartwoodis improved with ACZA becauseof arsenic and has beencommercially used in Sweden since
thechemicalcompositionand stability oftreatingalL elevated 1950. It was includedin stake tests in the UnitedStates in
temperatures. Woodtreatedwith ACZA performs and has 1949 and has beenprovidingexcellent protection.
characteristics similarto those ofwoodtreatedwith CCA
(Table 14—2). 3. CCA Type C (Wolman)—Currently, Type C is by far the
most common formulation ofCCA being used becmse it has
ACZAshould containapproximately 50% copperoxide, thebestleachresistance and field efficacy ofthethreeCCA
25% zinc oxide, and 25% arsenicpentoxidedissolved in a formulations. CCA Type C compositionwas selectedby
solutionofammoniain water (AWPA P5). The weight of AWPAtechnicalcommittees to encouragea single standard
ammoniais at least 1.38 times the weightofcopperoxide. for CCA preservatives. Commercial preservatives ofsimilar
To aid in solution, ammoniumbicarbonate is added (at least composition have beentested andused in Englandsince
equalto 0.92 times the weight ofcopperoxide). 1954, then in Australia, NewZealand,Malaysia,and in
various countries ofAfricaand Central Europe;theyare
A similarformulation, ammoniacal copperarsenate (ACA), performing verywell.
is used in Canada.This preservativeis used most commonly
to treat refractory species, such as Douglas-fir. Service records High retentionlevels (40 kg/in3 (2.5 lb/ft3)) ofthe threetypes
on structures treatedwith ACA showthat this prese:rvative ofCCApreservative will providegood resistance to Lim-
providesprotection againstdecay and termites, Highreten- noriaand Teredomarineborer attack. In general, Douglas-fir
tionlevels ofpreservative will provideextendedservice life heartwoodis very resistantto treatmentwith CCA.
to wood exposedto the marine environment, provided
pholad-type borers are notpresent. ACZA replacedACA in Ammoniacal Copper Quat
the United StatesbecauseACZAhas less arsenic and is less There are basicallytwo types ofammoniacal coppe: quat
expensive than ACA. (ACQ)preservatives (AWPA PS):
Chromated Copper Arsenate • Type B (ACQ—B) [ammoniacal]
Three types ofchromatedcopperarsenate (CCA)—Types A,
B, C—are coveredin AWPA PS, but Type C is by far the • TypeD (ACQ—D) [amine-based]
most commonly used formulation.The compositions ofthe
three types are given in Table 14—4. StandardPS permits The compositions ofthese two types are given in
substitution ofpotassium or sodium dichromate for chro- Table 14—5. ACQ is used formany ofthe same applications
miumtrioxide; coppersulfate, basic coppercarbonate, or as are ACZA and CCA,but it is not recommendedfor use in
saltwater. ACQ—B, the ammoniacal formulation, is better
copperhydroxide for copperoxide; and arsenicacid,sodium abletopenetrate difficulttotreat species such as Douglas-fir;
arsenate, orpyroarsenate forarsenic pentoxide.
ACQ—D providesamore uniform surface appearance. Wood
1. CCA Type A (Greensalt)—Currently, CCA Type A is productstreatedwith ACQ Type B and D are includedinthe
only being used by a few treaters in California. CCA Type A AWPA Commodity Standards (Table 14—2).
is high in chromium.Service data on treatedpoles, posts,
and stakesinstalledin theUnited States since 1938 have Copper bis(dimethyldithiocarbamate)
shownthat CCA Type A providesexcellentprotection Copperbis(dimethyldithiocarbamate) (CDDC)is a reaction
againstdecay fungi andtermites. product formed in wood as a result of the dualtreatmentof
two separate treating solutions. The first treatingsolution
2. CCA Type B (K—33) —Commercialuse ofthis preserva- a
contains maximum of5% bivalentcopper—ethanol amine
tive in the United States started in 1964, but it is no longer (2-aminoethanol), and the secondtreatingsolutioncontains
used in significantquantities. CCA Type B is high in a minimum of2.5% sodiumdimethyldithiocarbamate

Table 14-4. Composition ofthe threetypes of Table 14—5. Composition oftwo typesof
chromated copperarsenatea ammoniacalcopperquata
Chromated copper arsenate Ammoniacal cooper q'at
(parts by weight) (parts by weight)
Component Type A Type B Type C Component Type B TypeD
Chromium trioxide 65.5 35.3 47.5 Copperoxide 66.7 66.7
Copperoxide 18.1 19.6 18.5 Quat as DDACb 33.3 33.3
Arsenic pentoxide 16.4 45.1 34.0 Formulation ammoniacal amine

aAS covered in AWPA P5. aAS covered in AWPA P5.

bODAC is didecyldimethylammonium chloride.

14—11
(AWPAP5). CDDC-treatedwood productsare includedin Fewservicetests include a varietyofpreservatives under
theAWPA CommodityStandards (Table 14—2) foruses comparable conditions ofexposure. Furthermore, service
such as residentialconstruction. Like CCA and ACQ—D, tests maynot showa goodcomparison between different
CDDCis notrecommendedfortreatment ofrefractory species preservatives as a result ofthe difficultyin controllingthe
such as Douglas-fir. previously mentionedvariables. Such comparative data wider
similarexposureconditions, with variouspreservativesand
Ammoniacal Copper Citrate retentionlevels, are includedin the USDAForest Service,
Ammoniacalcoppercitrate (CC)has 62.3%copperas copper Forest Products Laboratory,stake test studyon Southern
oxide and 35.8% citric acid dissolvedin a solution ofam- Pine sapwood(Gutzmer and Crawford1995). A summaryof
monia in water (AWPAPS). CC-treatedwood products are these test results is includedin Table 14—6.
includedin the AWPA CommodityStandards (Table 14—2). Inthesame manner, acomparison ofpreservative treatments
Like other ammonia-basedpreservatives, CC can be used to in marine exposure (Key West, Florida)ofsmallwood
treatrefractoryspecies such as Douglas-fir.
panelsis includedin Johnsonand Gutzmer (1990). These
preservatives andtreatments include creosoteswith and
CopperAzoJe—TypeA withoutsupplements, waterborne preservatives, waterborne
Copperazole—Type A (CBA—A) has 49% copperas Cu, 49% preservative and creosote dual treatments, chemical modifica-
boron asboric acid, and 2% azole as tebuconazoledissolved tions ofwood,and variouschemicallymodifiedpolymers. In
in a solutionofethanolaminein water (AWPA P5). Wood this study, untreated panelswere badly damagedby marine
productstreatedwith CBA—A are includedin the AWPA borersafter 6 to 18 monthsofexposure while some treated
Commodity Standards for aboveground use only panelshaveremainedfree ofattackafter 19 years inthe sea.
(Table 14—2).

Inorganic Boron (Borax/Boric Acid) Effect of Species on Penetration

Boratepreservativesare readily soluble in water,are highly The effectivenessofpreservative treatmentis influenced by
leachable,and should only be used above ground wherethe thepenetration and distributionofthepreservativein the
wood is protectedfrom wetting. Whenusedaboveground wood. For maximum protection,it is desirableto select
andprotectedfrom wetting,this preservative is very effective species forwhichgoodpenetrationis best assured.
againstdecay,termites,beetles,and carpenterants. Borates
areodorlessand canbe sprayed,brushed,or injected. They The heartwoodofsomespecies is difficultto treat. There
will diffuseinto wood that is wet;therefore, these preserva- may be variations inthe resistance to preservative penetration
tives are often used as aremedialtreatment. Borates are ofdifferentwood species. Table 14-7 givestherelative
resistance ofthe heartwoodtotreatmentofvarioussoftwood
widelyused for log homes,naturalwood fmishes,and hard-
wood pallets. and hardwood species (MacLean 1952).

The solid ortreating solutionforboratepreservatives In general, the sapwoodofmost softwood species is not
(borates)should be greaterthan 98% pure, on an anhydrous difficult to treatunderpressure. Examples ofspecies with
basis (AWPA P5). Acceptableborate compounds are sodium sapwoodthat is easily penetratedwhen it is well dried and
octaborate,sodiumtetraborate, sodium pentaborate, and pressuretreatedare thepines, coastalDouglas-fir, western
boric acid. Thesecompoundsare derivedfromthe mineral larch, Sitka spruce,western hemlock, western redcedar,
sodiumborate, which is the same materialusedin laundry northernwhite-cedar, and white fir (A. concolor).Examples
additives. of species with sapwoodand heartwoodsomewhat resistant
topenetrationarethe red and white sprucesand Rocky
Mountain Douglas-fir. Cedarpoles are commonlyincised to
Preservative Effectiveness obtain satisfactory preservative penetration. With round
Preservative effectiveness is influenced not only by the pro- members, such as poles,posts, and piles, the penetrationof
the sapwoodis importantin achievinga protectiveouter
tective valueofthe preservative chemical, but alsoby the zonearoundthe heartwood.
methodofapplication arid extentofpenetration andretention
ofthepreservativein thetreatedwood.Even with an effective The heartwood ofmost species resists penetrationofpre-
preservative, goodprotectioncannotbe expectedwith poor servatives, but well-driedwhite fir, westernhemlock, north-
penetration orsubstandardretentionlevels. The species of ern red oak, the ashes, and tupelo are examples ofspecies
wood, proportionofheartwoodand sapwood, heartwood with heartwoodthat is reasonably easy to penetrate.The
penetrability, and moisturecontent are among the important southernpines,ponderosapine, redwood,Sitka spruce,
variables that influencethe resultsoftreatment. For various coastalDouglas-fir, beech,maples, andbirchesare examples
woodproducts,the preservativesandretentionlevels listed ofspecies with heartwoodthat is moderatelyresistantto
in Federal SpecificationTT—W—571 and theAWPA Com- penetration.
modity Standards are given in Table 14—2.

14—12
Table 14—6. Results of Forest Products Laboratory studieson 5- by 10- by 46-cm (2- by 4- by 18-in.)
Southern Pine sapwood stakes, pressure-treatedwith commonly used wood preservatives,
installed at Harrison Experimental Forest, Mississippi
Average retention Average life (year) or condition
Preservative (kg/rn3 (lb/ft3))a at last inspection
Control (untreated stakes) 1.8 to 3.6 years
Acid copper chromate 2.08 (0.13) 11.6 years
2.24 (0.14) 6.1 years
4.01 (0.25) 70% failed after 24 years
4.17 (0.26) 60% failed after 46 years
4.65 (0.29) 4.6 years
5.93 (0.37) 50% failed after 46 years
8.01 (0.50) 40% failed after 24 years
12.18 (0.76) 20% failed after 24 years
Ammoniacalcopper borate 2.72 (0.17) 65% failed after 16 years
3.52 (0.22) 30% failed after 16 years
5.29 (0.33) 10% failed after 16 years
7.21 (0.45) 5% failed after 16 years
.41 (0.65) 5% failed after 16 years
21.31 (1.33) No failures after 16 years
Ammoniacalcopper arsenate 2.56 (0.16) 60% failed after 16 years
3.52 (0.22) 10% failed after 16 years
3.84 (0.24) 67% failed after 47 years
4.01 (0.25) 20% failed after 24 years
7.37 (0.46) 10% failed after 24 years
8.17 (0.51) 10% failed after 47 years
15.54 (0.97) No failures after 47 years
20.02 (1.25) No failures after 47 years
Chromatedcopper arsenate 2.40 (0.15) 70% failed after 46 years
Type I 3.52 (0.22) 30% failed after 24 years
4.65 (0.29) 30% failed after 46 years
7.05 (0.44) 10% failed after 24 years
7.05 (0.44) 10% failed after 46 years
Type II 3.68 (0.23) 30% failed after 24 years
4.17 (0.26) 10% failed after 42 years
5.93 (0.37) No failures after 42 years
8.33 (0.52) No failures after 42 years
12.66 (0.79) No failures after 42 years
16.66 (1.04) No failures after 42 years
Type Ill 2.24 (0.14) No failures after 12-1/2 years
3.20 (0.20) No failures after 20 years
4.01 (0.25) No failures after 14 years
4.33 (0.27) No failures after 12-1/2 years
6.41 (0.40) No failures after 20 years
6.41 (0.40) No failures after 14 years
6.41 (0.40) No failures after 12-1/2 years
9.61 (0.60) No failures after 20 years
9.93 (0.62) No failures after 12-1/2 years
12.34 (0.77) No failures after 14 years
12.66 (0.79) No failures after 12-1/2 years
Chrornated zinc arsenate 1.76 (0.11) 22.1 years
3.52 (0.22) 33.0 years
4.65 (0.29) 89% failed after 51-1/2 years
3.20 (0.20) 10% failed after 40 years
6.41 (0.40) No failures after 40 years
8.49 (0.53) No failures after 40 years
6.09 (0.38) 40% failed after 51-1/2 years
8.33 (0.52) 10% failed after 51-1/2 years
11.21 (0.70) No failures after 51-1/2 years

14—13
 Table 14—6. Results of Forest Products Laboratory studieson 5- by 10- by 46-cm (2- by 4- by 18-in.)
Southern Pinesapwood stakes, pressure-treatedwith commonly used wood preservatives, installed
at Harrison Experimental Forest, Mississippi—con.
Average retention Average life (year) or condition
Preservative (kg/rn3 (lbIft3))a at last inspection
Chromatedzinc chloride 4.81 (0.30) 14.2 years
7.53 (0.47) 20.2 years
7.37 (0.46) 13.7 years
10.09 (0.63) 20.1 years
9.93 (0.62) 14.9 years
14.74 (0.92) 23.4 years
15.38 (0.96 90% failed after 24 years
28.52 (1.78) 32.7 years
90% failed after 38 years
58.79 (3.67) No failures after 38 years
Oxinecopper 0.16 (0.01) 5.3 years
(Copper-8-quinolinoate) 0.32 (0.02) 4.2 years
Stoddard solvent 0.96 (0.06) 5.6 years
1.92 (0.12) 7.8 years
Oxinecopper 0.22 (0.014) 80% failed after 28 years
(Copper-8-quinolinolate) 0.48 (0.03) 70% failed after 28 years
AWPA P9 heavy petroleum 0.95 (0.059) 20% failed after 28 years
1.99 (0.124) No failures after 28 years

Copper naphthenate
0.11% copper in No. 2 fuel oil 0.19 (0.012) 15.9 years
0.29% copper in No. 2 fuel oil 0.46 (0.029) 21.8 years
0.57% copper in No. 2 fuel oil 0.98 (0.061) 27.2 years
0.86% copper in No. 2 fuel oil 1.31 (0.082) 29.6 years
Creosote, coal-tar 52.87 (3.3) 24.9 years
65.68 (4.1) 14.2 years
67.28 (4.2) 17.8 years
73.69 (4.6) 21.3 years
124.96 (7.8) 70% failed after 49-1/2 years
128.24 (8.0) 80% failed after 51-1/2 years
132.97 (8.3) 40% failed after 42 years
160.2 (10.0) 90% failed after 51 years
189.04 (11.8) 30% failed after 51-1/2 years
211.46 (13.2) 20% failed after 49-1/2 years
232.29 (14.5) No failures after 51 years
264.33 (16.5) No failures after 51-1/2 years
Low residue, straightrun 128.16 (8.0) 17.8 years
Medium residue, straight run 128.16 (8.0) 18.8 years
High residue, straight run 124.96 (7.8) 20.3 years
Medium residue, low in tar acids 129.76 (8.1) 19.4 years
Low in naphthalene 131.36 (8.2) 21.3 years
Low in tar acids and naphthalene 128.16 (8.0) 18.9 years
Low residue, low in tar
acids and naphthalene 128.16 (8.0) 19.2 years

High residue, low in tar acids

and naphthalene 131.36 (8.2) 20.0 years
English vertical retort 84.91 (5.3) 80% failed after 44 years
128.16 (8.0) 18.9 years
161.80 (10.1) 80% failed after 44 years
240.30 (15.0) No failures after 44 years
English coke oven 75.29 (4.7) 16.3 years
126.56 (7.9) 13.6 years
161.80 (10.1) 70% failed after 44 years
237.10 (14.8) 70% failed after 44 years

14—14
Table 14—6. Results of ForestProducts Laboratory studies on 5- by 10- by 46-cm (2- by 4- by 18-in.)
Southern Pine sapwood stakes, pressure-treatedwith commonly used wood preservatives, installed
at Harrison Experimental Forest, Mississippi—con.
Average retention Average life (year) or condition
Preservative (kg/rn3 (lb/ft3))8 at last inspection —

Fluor chrome arsenatephenol 1.92 (0.12) 10.2 years

type A 3.04 (0.19) 18.0 years
3.52 (0.22) 18.3 years
4.97 (0.31) 18.5 years
6.09 (0.38) 24.1 years

Pentachlorophenol (various solvents)

Liquefied petroleumgas • 2.24 (0.14) 90% failed after 30-1/2 years
3.04 (0.19) 15.9 years
5.45 (0.34) No failures after 30-1/2 years
5.45 (0.34) 70% failed after 28 years
7.85 (0.49) No failures after 28 years
9.29 (0.58) No failures after30-1/2 years
10.41 (0.65) No failures after 28 years
Stoddard solvent 2.24 (0.14) 13.7 years
(mineral spirits) 2.88 (0.18) 15.9 years
3.20 (0.20) 9.5 years
3.20 (0.20) 13.7 years
6.09 (0.38) 40% failed after 30-1/2 years
6.41 (0.40) 15.5 years
10.73 (0.67) No failures after 30-1/2 years

Heavy gas oil 3.20 (0.20) 67% failed after 44-1/2 years
(Mid-United States) 6.41 (0.40) 60% failed after 44-1/2 years
9.61 (0.60) 10% failed after 44-1/2 years

No. 4 aromatic oil 3.36 (0.21) 21.0 years

(West Coast) 6.57 (0.41) 50% failed after 42 years

AWPA P9 (heavy petroleum) 1.76 (0.11) 80% failed after 30-1/2 years
3.04 (0.19) No failures after 30-1/2 years
4.65 (0.29) No failures after 30-1/2 years
8.49 (0.53) No failures after28 years
10.73 (0.67) No failures after 30-1/2 years

Tributyltin oxide
Stoddard solvent 0.24 (0.015) 6.3 years
0.40 (0.025) 4.5 years
0.48 (0.030) 7.2 years
0.72 (0.045) 7.4 years
0.75 (0.047) 7.0 years
AWPA P9 (heavy petroleum) 0.38 (0.024) 20.8 years
0.77 (0.048) 24.0 years
Petroleum solvent controls 64.08 (4.0) 7.6 years
65.68 (4.1) 4.4 years
75.29 (4.7) 12.9 years
123.35 (7.7) 14.6 years
126.56 (7.9) 90% failed after 44-1/2 years
128.16 (8.0) 19.7 years
128.16 (8.0) 23.3 years
128.16 (8.0) 14.6 years
129.76 (8.1) 3.4 years
136.17 (8.5) 90% failed after 28 years
157.00 (9.8) 6.3 years
192.24 (12.0) 17.1 years
193.84 (12.1) 20% failed after 44-1/2 years
310.79 (19.4) 9.1 years
8Retention values are based on preservative oxidesor copper metal.

14—15
Table 14—7. Penetration of the heartwood ofvarious softwood and hardwood speciesa

Ease of treatment Softwoods Hardwoods

Least difficult Bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) American basswood (Ti/iaamericana)

Pinyon (P. edulis) Beech(white heartwood) (Fagusgrandifolia)
Pondersosa pine (P. pondersosa) Black tupelo (blackgum) (Nyssa sylvatica)
Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) Green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanicavar. lanceolafa)
Pin cherry (Prunuspensylvanica)
River birch (Betula nigra)
Red oaks (Quercus spp.)
Slipperyelm (Ulmus fuiva)
Sweet birch (Betulalenia)
Water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica)
White ash (Fraxinus americana)

Moderately difficult Baldcypress (Taxodiumdistichum) Blackwillow (Salixnigra)

Californiared fir (Abies magnifica) Chestnutoak (Quercusmontana)
Douglas-fir(coast) (Pseudotsugataxifolia)) Cottonwood (Populussp.)
Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) Bigtooth aspen (P. grandidentafa)
Jack pine (P. banksiana) Mockernuthickory (Carya tomentosa)
Loblollypine (P. taeda) Silver maple (Acer saccharinum)
Longleafpine (P. palustns) Sugar maple (A. saccharum)
Red pine (P. resinosa) Yellow birch (Betula lutea)
Shortleaf pine (P. echinafa)
Sugar pine (P. lambertiana)
Western hemlock(Tsuga heterophylla)
Difficult Eastern hemlock(Tsuga canadensis) American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis)
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmann:) Hackberry(Celtis occidentalis)
Grand fir (Abies grandis) Rockelm (Ulmus thomoasi)
Lodgepolepine (Pinus contortavar. latifolia) Yellow-poplar(Liriodendron tulipifera)
Noblefir (Abies procera)
Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis)
Western larch (Larix occidenfalls)
White fir (Abies concolor)
White spruce (Picea glauca)

Very difficult Alpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa) Americanbeech (red heartwood) (Fagusgrandifolia)
Corkbark fir (A. lasiocarpavar. arizonica) Americanchestnut (Castaneadentata)
Douglas-fir(Rocky Mountain)(Pseudotsuga Black locust (Robiniapseudoacacia)
taxifolia)
Northern white-cedar(Thuja occidentalis) Blackjack oak (Quercusmarilandica)
Tamarack(Larix laricina) Sweetgum (redgum) (Liquidambarstyraciflua)
Western redcedar (Thujaplicata) White oaks (Quercus spp.)
aAS covered in MacLean (1952).

14—16
 thetimber.Machines ofvarious types havebeen developed
Preparation of Timber for peelinground timbers,such as poles,piles, and posts
for Treatment (Fig. 14—1).
For satisfactorytreatmentand goodperformance, the timber
must be soundandsuitablyprepared. Except in specialized Drying
treatingmethods involvingunpeeledorgreen material,the Drying ofwoodbeforetreatment is necessary toprevent
wood shouldbe wellpeeledand either seasoned or condi- decay and stainandto obtain preservative penetratbn. How-
tioned in the cylinderbefore treatment. It is alsohighly ever,fortreatment with waterborne preservatives by certain
desirable that all machiningbe completed beforetreatment. diffusionmethods, high moisture contentlevels may be
Machining may includeincisingto improvethe preservative permitted. For treatmentby other methods,however,drying
penetrationin woodsthat are resistantto treatment,as well beforetreatment is essential. Dryingbeforetreatment opens
as the operations ofcutting orboringofholes. upthechecks beforethe preservative is applied, thus increas-
ing penetration, and reducesthe risk ofchecksopening after
treatment and exposingunpenetratedwood. Good penetration
Peeling ofheated organic-based preservatives may be possible in
Peeling round or slabbedproductsis necessaryto enable the wood with a moisturecontent as high as 40%to 60%,but
wood to dry quicklyenough to avoid decay and insect dam- severe checking while drying aftertreatment can expose
age and to permitthe preservative to penetrate satisfactorily. untreatedwood.
Even stripsofthe thin inner bark may prevent penetration.
Patches ofbark left on during treatment usually fall offin Forlargetimbersand railroadties, air drying is a widely
time and exposeuntreatedwood,thus permitting decay to used methodofconditioning. Despite the increased time,
reachthe interiorofthemember. labor,and storage space required, air dryingis generally the
most inexpensive and effective method,evenfor pressure
Carefulpeelingis especially importantfor woodthat is to be treatment.However,wet, warmclimaticcoadition makeit
treatedby anonpressuremethod.In the more thorough difficult to air dry wood adequately withoutobjectionable
processes,somepenetrationmay takeplace both longitudi- infectionby stain, mold,and decay fungi.Such infected
nally andtangentiallyin the wood; consequently, small woodis often highlypermeable; inrainy weather,infected
strips ofbark are toleratedin some specifications. Processes wood can absorb alarge quantity ofwater,whichprevents
inwhicha preservative is forcedorpermittedto diffuse satisfactory treatment.
throughgreenwood lengthwise do not requirepeelingof

Figure 14—1. Machinepeeling ofpoles. The outerbark has been removed by hand, and the inner bark
is being peeled by machine. Frequently, all the bark is removed by machine.

14—17
How long the timbermust be air driedbeforetreatment
dependson the climate, location,and condition ofthe sea-
Incising
soningyard, methods ofpiling, seasonoftheyear, timber Wood that is resistantto penetrationby preservativesmay be
size,and species. The most satisfactoryseasoning practice incised beforetreatment topermitdeeperand more uniform
for any specific casewilldepend on the individual drying penetration. To incise, lumberandtimbers are passed
conditions and the preservativetreatmentto be used.There- throughrollersequippedwith teeth that sink into the wood
fore, treatingspecifications are not alwaysspecific as to to apredetermined depth,usually 13 to 19 mm (1/2 to
moisturecontent requirements. 3/4 in.). The teeth are spacedto give the desireddistribution
ofpreservativewith theminimumnumberofincisions.A
To prevent decayand other forms offungalinfection during machine ofdifferent design is requiredfordeeplyincising
air drying,thewood shouldbe cutand dried whencondi- thebutts ofpoles, usually to a depth of64 mm (2.5 in.)
tions are less favorable forfungusdevelopment (Ch. 13). If (Fig. 14—2).
this is impossible, chancesfor infectioncan be minimized by
promptconditioning ofthe green material, carefulpilingand The effectiveness ofincisingdepends on the fact that pre-
roofingduringair drying, and pretreating the green wood servatives usuallypenetrateinto woodmuch fartherin the
with preservativesto protect it duringair drying. longitudinal directionthan in a directionperpendicularto the
faces ofthe timber. The incisionsopen cell lumensalongthe
Lumberofall species, including Southern Pine poles, is grain,whichgreatlyenhances penetration. Incisingis espe-
often kiln dried beforetreatment, particularly inthe southern cially effective in improving penetrationin the heartwood
UnitedStateswhereproperair seasoningis difficult. Kiln areas ofsawnsurfaces.
drying has the importantaddedadvantage ofquickly reduc-
ing moisturecontent, therebyreducingtransportation charges Incising is practiced primarilyon Douglas-fir, westernhem-
on poles. lock, andwesternlarchties and timbers for pressuretreat-
ment and on cedarand Douglas-firpoles.Incisingcan result
in significantreductions in strength (Ch. 4).
Conditioning of Green Products
Plants that treat wood by pressureprocessescan condition Cutting and Framing
green materialby meansother than air andkilndrying. All cutting and boring ofholes shouldbe done prior to
Thus,they avoid a long delay and possible deterioration of preservativetreatment. Cuttinginto the wood in any way
thetimberbeforetreatment. after treatment will frequently exposethe untreatedinterior of
thetimberandpermitready access to decayfungi or insects.
Whengreen wood isto be treatedunderpressure, one of
severalmethodsfor conditioning may be selected. The
steaming-and-vacuum processis used mainlyforsouthern
pines,andthe Boultonor boiling-under-vacuum processis
used for Douglas-firandsometimes hardwoods.
In thesteamingprocess,thegreen wood is steamedin the
treatingcylinderfor severalhours,usuallyat a maximum of
118°C (245°F). When steamingis completed,a vacuumis
immediately applied.During the steamingperiod, the outer
part ofthe wood is heated to atemperatureapproaching that
ofthe steam; the subsequent vacuumlowerstheboiling
point so that part ofthe water is evaporatedor forcedout of
thewood by the steam producedwhenthevacuumis
applied. The steamingand vacuumperiodsused depend
upon the wood size, species, and moisturecontent. Steaming
and vacuumusually reducethe moisturecontent ofgreen
wood slightly,and the heating assistsgreatly in getting the
preservative to penetrate. A sufficiently longsteamingperiod
will also sterilizethe wood.
IntheBoultonorboiling-under-vacuum methodofpartial
seasoning, the wood is heatedin the oil preservative under
vacuum, usually at about 82°C to 104°C (180°F to 220°F).
This temperaturerange, lowerthan that ofthe steaming
process,is a considerableadvantage intreatingwoodsthat
are especiallysusceptible to injury fromhigh temperatures.
The Boultonmethodremovesmuch less moisturefrom Figure 14-2. Deep incising permits betterpenetration
heartwoodthan from sapwood. of preservative.

14—18
In somecases, wood structures can be designedso that all 3. Afterthecylinderis filled,pressureis applieduntil the
cuttingand framingis done beforetreatment. Railroadcom- woodwilltake no more preservativeor untilthe required
panieshave followedthis practiceandhave foundit notonly retention ofpreservative is obtained.
practicalbut economical. Many wood-preserving plantsare 4. Whenthepressureperiod is completed,thepreservative is
equipped to carty on such operations as the adzingand bor- withdrawn from the cylinder.
ing ofcrossties; gaining,roofing,and boringofpoles; and
framing ofmaterial forbridgesand specialized structures, 5. A shortfmal vacuummaybe applied to free the tharge
such as water tanks andbarges. from dripping preservative.
Treatmentofthe wood with preservativeoils resultsin little Whenthewood is steamed beforetreatment,the preservative
orno dimensionalchange. Withwaterbornepreservatives, is admittedat theend ofthevacuumperiodthat foLlows
however, some change in the size and shapeofthe wood may steaming. Whenthetimberhas receivedpreliminary condi-
occur eventhough the wood is redriedto the moisture con- tioning by the Boultonor boiling-under-vacuum process,the
tent it had beforetreatment. Ifprecisionfitting is necessary, cylinder can be filled andthe pressureappliedas soonas the
thewood is cutand framedbeforetreatmentto its approxi- conditioning period is completed.
mate final dimensions to allow for slight surfacing, trim-
ming, and reamingofboltholes. Grooves andboltholes for Modified Full-Cell
timberconnectors are cutbeforetreatment andcan be reamed
Themodifiedfull-cellprocess isbasicallythe same as the
outifnecessary aftertreatment. full-cellprocess exceptforthe amountofinitialvacuumand
the occasional use ofan extended finalvacuum.The modified
Application of Preservatives full-cell process uses lowerlevels ofinitialvacuum;the
actualamountis determinedby the wood species,material
Wood-preservingmethodsare oftwo generaltypes:(a)pres- size,and fmalretentiondesired.
sure processes,in whichthe wood is impregnated in closed
vesselsunderpressuresconsiderably aboveatmospheric, and
Empty-Cell
(b) nonpressure processes, whichvary widelyin theproce- The objectiveofthe empty-cellprocess isto obtain deep
dures and equipmentused.
penetrationwith a relatively low net retentionofpreservative.
For treatment with oilpreservatives, the empty-celLprocess
Pressure Processes shouldalwaysbe used ifit will providethe desiredretention.
In commercial practice, wood ismost often treatedby im- Two empty-cell processes, the Ruepingandthe Lowry, are
mersingit in apreservativein ahigh pressureapparatus and commonly employed; both use the expansive force ofcom-
applyingpressureto drive thepreservativeintothe 'wood. pressedair to drive outpartofthepreservative abscrbed
Pressureprocessesdiffer in details, but thegeneralprinciple during the pressure period.
is the same. The wood, on cars or trams, is run into a long The Ruepingempty-cell process,often calledthe empty-cell
steel cylinder(Fig. 14—3), whichis then closedand filled
with preservative. Pressure forcesthe preservative into the processwith initialair, has beenwidelyusedformany years
in Europe and theUnitedStates. The followinggeneral
wood until the desiredamounthas beenabsorbed. Consider-
procedure is employed:
able preservative is absorbed, with relatively deeppenetra-
tion. Threepressureprocessesare commonly used: full-cell, 1. Airunderpressureis forcedinto the treatingcylinder,
modifiedfull-cell,and empty-cell. whichcontains the chargeofwood.The air penetrates
somespecies easily,requiringbut a few minutesapplica-
Full-Cell tionofpressure. In treatingthemore resistantspecies,
The full-cell(Bethel) processis used whenthe retentionofa commonpracticeis to maintainair pressurefrom 1/2 to
maximum quantity ofpreservativeis desired.It is a standard I hbeforeadmittingthepreservative, but thenecessityfor
procedure for timbers to be treatedfull-cell with creosote lengthy air-pressure periods does notseem fullyestab-
whenprotection againstmarineborers is required. Water- lished. The air pressures employed generallyrangebe-
bornepreservatives are generallyapplied bythe full-cell tween 172 to 689 kPa (25 to 100 lb/in2), depending on
process,and controlover preservativeretentionis obtained thenetretentionofpreservative desired and theresistance
byregulatingtheconcentration ofthetreatingsolution. ofthewood.
Steps inthe full-cellprocessare essentially the following: 2. Aftertheperiodofpreliminary air pressure, preservative is
1. The charge ofwood is sealed in thetreating cylinder, and forced into the cylinder. As the preservativeis pumped in,
apreliminary vacuumis applied fora half-houro:r moreto theair escapes from thetreating cylinder into an equaliz-
remove the air from the cylinder and as much as possible ing or Rueping tank,at a rate that keeps the pres sure con-
from thewood. stant withinthe cylinder.Whenthe treating cylinderis
filledwith preservative, the treatingpressureis increased
2. The preservative, at ambient or elevatedtemperature above that ofthe initial air and is maintained until the
depending on the system, is admittedto the cylinder wood will absorbno more preservative, oruntilenough
without breakingthe vacuum. has beenabsorbed to leavethe requiredretentionofpre-
servative inthe wood afterthe treatment.

14—19
 Figure 14—3. Interiorview of treatingcylinderat wood-preserving plant, with a loadabout to come in.

3. At the end ofthe pressure period, the preservative is The Lowryprocesshas the advantage that equipmentfor the
drainedfrom the cylinder, and surplus preservative is re- full-cell process canbeused withoutother accessoriesthat
movedfrom the wood with a fmal vacuum. The amount of theRuepingprocess usuallyrequires, such as an air com-
preservative recoveredcan befrom 20%to 60% ofthe pressor,an extracylinder or Rueping tank for the preserva-
gross amount injected. tive, or a suitable pumpto force the preservativeintothe
cylinder against the air pressure. However,both processes
The Lowry is often calledthe empty-cell processwithout have advantages and are widelyand successfully used.
initial air pressure. Preservative is admittedto the cylinder
without eitheran initialair pressure or a vacuum, and the air Withpolesand other productswherebleedingofpreservative
originallyin the wood at atmosphericpressureis imprisoned b
oil is objectionable, the empty-cell process is followed
duringthe fillingperiod.After the cylinder is filledwith the eitherheating inthe preservative (expansion bath) at a
preservative, pressureis applied, andthe remainder ofthe maximum of 104°C (220°F) orafmal steamingfor a specified
treatmentisthe same as describedforthe Ruepingtreatment. time limit at a maximum of 116°C (240°F) prior to the final
vacuum.

14—20
Treating Pressures and Southern Pine poles requiresthat 63 mm (2-1/2
in.?
or 85%
Preservative Temperatures ofthesapwoodthickness be penetrated for 96 kglm (6 lb/ft3)
The pressuresused intreatmentsvary from about 345 to retentionofcreosote. This appliesonly to the smallerclass
1,723 kPa (50 to 250 lb/in2), depending on the species and ofpoles. The requirements vary, dependingon the species,
the ease with which the wood takes the treatment; most size,class,and specifiedretentionlevels.
commonly, pressuresrange from about 862 to 1,207 kPa At onetime, allpreservativeretentionlevels were specified
(125 to 175 lb/in2). Many woodsare sensitiveto high treat- interms ofthe weightofpreservative per cubicfoot
ing pressures,especiallywhen hot. For example,AWPA (0.028 m3) ofwood treated,basedon total weightofpre-
standards
?ermit
a maximum pressureof 1,034 kPa servative retained andthe total volumeofwood treatedin a
(150 lb/in in the treatmentofDouglas-fir, 862 kPa charge. This is commonly called gauge retention. However,
(125 lb/in2)forredwood,and 1,723 kPa (250 lb/in2) for oak. specifications for most productsnow stipulatea minimum
In commercial practice, even lowerpressures are frequently retentionofpreservative as determined from chemical analy-
usedon such woods. sis ofborings from specified zonesofthe treatedwood,
The AWPA Cl standardrequires that the temperature of knownas a "assay-retention" or results-type specification.
creosoteand creosotesolutions, as well as that ofthe oil- Thepreservativesand retentionlevelslistedin Fedral
borne preservatives, duringthepressureperiod shallnot be
Specification TT—W—571 and the AWPACommodity
greaterthan 93°C (200°F) for Westernredcedarand 99°C Standards are shown in Table 14—2. The retention [evels are
(210°F) forall other species. With anumberofwaterbome often a range. The current issuesofthese specifications
preservatives, especially those containing chromium salts, shouldbe referenced forup-to-date recommendations and
maximumtemperaturesare limitedto avoidprematurepre- otherdetails.In many cases, theretentionlevel is d:[fferent
cipitationofthe preservative. The AWPA specifications depending on species and assayzone. Higherpreservative
requirethat the temperature ofthe preservative duringthe retentionlevels arejustified in productsto be installed under
entirepressureperiodnot exceedthe maximum of49°C severeclimaticor exposure conditions. Heavy-duty transmis-
(120°F) for ACC and CCA and 60°C (150°F) for ACA, CC, sion poles and itemswith a high replacementcost, such as
ACQ Type B, ACQ Type D, ACZA, CBA-A, and CDDC. structural timbersand house foundations, are requiredtobe
The limit for inorganic boron is 93°C (200°F). treatedto higherretentionlevels. Correspondingly, deeper
Penetration and Retention penetration or heartwoodlimitations are alsonecessary for
thesame reasons.
Penetration andretentionrequirements are equallyimportant
in detenniningthequality ofpreservativetreatment. Penetra- It maybe necessary to increase retentionlevels to erisure
tionlevelsvary widely,even in pressure-treated material.In satisfactory penetration, particularly whenthe sapwoodis
most species,heartwoodis more difficult to penetrate than either unusually thick or is somewhat resistantto treatment.
sapwood. In addition, species differ greatlyin the degree to To reducebleeding ofthepreservative, however, it maybe
whichtheirheartwoodmaybe penetrated.Incising tends to desirableto use preservative-oil retentionlevels less than the
improve penetrationofpreservative in many refractory spe- stipulated minimum. Treatment to refusal is usuallyspeci-
cies,but those highly resistant to penetrationwillnot have fiedforwoodsthat are resistantto treatmentand will not
deep oruniformpenetrationevenwhen incised. Penetration absorbsufficient preservativetomeet the minimum retention
inunincisedheartfaces ofthese species mayoccasionally be requirements. However, sucharequirement doesnot ensure
as deep as 6 mm (1/4 in.) but is often not more than 1.6 mm adequatepenetration ofpreservative, shouldbe avoded, and
(1/16 in.). must notbe considered as asubstituteforresults-typespeci-
ficationin treatment.
Experiencehas shownthat evenslight penetrationhas some
value, althoughdeeperpenetrationis highlydesirableto Nonpressure Processes
avoid exposinguntreatedwood whenchecksoccur, particu-
larly forimportantmembersthat are costly to replace.The The numerousnonpressureprocessesdiffer widelyinthe
heartwoodofcoastalDouglas-fir, southernpines, andvarious penetration and retentionlevels ofpreservative attained, and
hardwoods, although resistant,will frequentlyshow trans- consequently inthe degree ofprotection they providetothe
verse penetrationsof 6 to 12 mm (1/4 to 1/2 in.) and some- treatedwood.When similarretentionand penetration levels
times considerably more. areachieved, wood treated by a nonpressure methodshould
havea servicelife comparable to that ofwoodtreatedby
Completepenetrationofthe sapwoodshouldbe the ideal in pressure. Nevertheless, results ofnonpressure treatments,
all pressuretreatments.It can oftenbe accomplished in ar
small-size timbers ofvarious commercial woods, andwith particularlythose involvingsurface applications, not
skillfultreatment,it may often be obtainedin piles, ties, and generallyas satisfactory as those ofpressuretreatment. The
structural timbers.Practically, however, the operatorcannot superficial processes do serve ausefulpurposewhenmore
thoroughtreatments are impractical or exposure conditions
alwaysensurecomplete penetration ofsapwoodinevery aresuchthat little preservative protectionis required.
piecewhentreating largepieces ofroundmaterialwith thick
sapwood, forexample,poles andpiles. Therefore, specifica- Nonpressure methods, in general, consistof(a) surfuce
tions permitsome tolerance.For instance,AWPAC4 for application ofpreservatives by brushingorbriefdipping,

14—21
(b) soakingin preservativeoils or steeping in solutions of Pine posts treatedby cold soaking for 24 to 48 h or longerin
waterbome preservatives, (c) diffusion processes with water- a solutioncontaining 5% ofpentachlorophenol in No. 2 fuel
bornepreservatives, (d)vacuumtreatment,and (e) avariety oil haveshown an average life of 16 to 20 years or longer.
ofmiscellaneous processes. The sapwoodin these posts was well penetrated,and
Surface Applications preservativesolution retentionlevels ranged from 32 to
96 kg/rn3(2 to 6 lb/fl3). Most speciesdo nottreat as satisfac-
The simplesttreatment is to apply the preservative to the torily as do the pines by cold soaking,and test posts of such
wood with a brush or by dipping.Preservatives that are woodsas birch, aspen,and sweetgum treatedby this method
thoroughlyliquid when cold should be selected,unless it is have failedin much shortertimes.
possibleto heat the preservative. The preservativeshouldbe Preservative penetration and retentionlevels obtainedby cold
flooded over the wood rather thanmerelypainted. Every
check and depressionin the wood shouldbe thoroughly soakinglumber for severalhours are considerably betterthan
filled with the preservative, becauseany untreatedwood left those obtainedby briefdippingofsimilarspecies.Howeer,
preservative retentionlevels seldom equal those obtainedin
exposedprovidesready access for fungi. Rough lumber may
requireas much as 40 L ofoil per 100 m2 (10 gallons ofoil pressure treatmentexcept in cases such as sapwoodofpines
per 1,000 if2) ofsurface, butsurfaced lumberrequires consid- that has become highlyabsorptivethroughmold and stain
infection.
erably less. Thetransversepenetrationobtainedwill usually
be less than2.5 mm(1/10 in.), although in easilypenetrated Steeping with waterbome preservatives has very limiteduse
species,end-grain (longitudinal)penetrationis considerably in theUnited Statesbut it has beenused formany years in
greater.The additionallife obtainedby such treatments over Europe. Intreating seasonedwood, both thewater and the
that ofuntreatedwood willbe affected greatlyby the condi- preservative salt in the solutionsoak into the wood. With
tions ofservice. For wood in contactwith the ground, green wood,the preservative entersthe water-saturated wood
servicelife may be from I to 5 years. by diffusion. Preservative retentionand penetrationlevels
Compared with brushing, dippingfor a few secondsto sev- vary over a wide range,and the processis notgenerally
eral minutesin a preservativegives greaterassurance that all recommended whenmore reliabletreatmentsare practical.
surfaces and checksare thoroughly coated withthe preserva-
tive; it usuallyresults in slightly greater penetration. It is a Diffusion Processes
common practiceto treat window sash, frames,and other In addition to thesteepingprocess, diffusionprocessesare
miliwork,either beforeor afterassembly, by dippingthe used with green orwet wood. These processesemploy
item in a water-repellentpreservative. Suchtreatmentis waterborne preservatives that will diffuseout ofthe water of
coveredby NWWDA IS 4—94,which also providesfor thetreating solution orpaste into thewater ofthe wood.
equivalenttreatmentby the vacuumprocess.AWPAalso has The double-diffusion process developedby the Forest Prod-
a new nonpressurestandard,Ni, that includes preservative
treatments by nonpressure processesforall miliwork ucts Laboratory has shown very goodresultsin fencepost
tests and standard 38- by 89-mm (nominal2- by 4-in.) stake
products.
tests, particularlyfor full-lengthimmersiontreatments.This
In somecases,preservativeoil penetrates theend surfaces of process consistsofsteepinggreen orpartially seasonedwood
ponderosapine sapwoodas much as 25 to 76 mm(1 to first in one chemicalsolution, then in another(Fig. 14—4).
3 in.).However,endpenetrationin such woodsas the heart- The two chemicals diffuseinto the wood, then react to pre-
wood ofSouthernPines and Douglas-firismuch less. cipitate an effective preservative with high resistance to leach-
Transverse penetrationofthe preservative appliedbybrief ing. The process has had commercial application in coolEng
dipping is very shallow,usuallyonly less than a millimeter towersand fence posts wherepreservative protection is
(a few hundredths ofan inch). Theexposedend surfaces at neededto avoid earlyreplacementofthe wood.
joints are the most vulnerableto decay in millworkproducts;
therefore, good endpenetrationis especially advantageous.
Dip applications provide very limitedprotectionto wood
used in contactwith theground or under very moist condi-
tions, and they provide very limitedprotection againstattack Sodium fluoride Copper sulfate Copper fluoride
by termites. However,they do have valuefor exteriorwood- solution + solution = (leach resistant)
work and millworkthat is painted,not in contactwith the (first soak) (secondsoak) preservative

ground, and exposedto moistureonly forbriefperiods.

Cold Soaking and Steeping
Cold soakingwell-seasonedwood for several hours or days
in low viscositypreservativeoils or steepinggreen or
seasoned wood for several days in waterbome preservatives
has providedvarying success on fenceposts, lumber, and Step 1 Step 2
timbers.
Figure 14—4. Double-diffusion stepsfor applying
preservatives.

14—22
 Figure 14—5. Methods of applying groundline treatment to utility poles. Preservative
is injectedinto the poleatthe groundline with a special tool or applied on the pole
surface as a paste or bandage.

Otherdiffusionprocessesinvolveapplying preservatives to 3 mm. The vacuumprocesstreatmentis includedin

thebuttor around thegroundline ofposts or poles. In treat- NWWDA IS—94for"Water-RepellentPreservativeNonpres-
ments ofstandingpoles,the preservativecan be injectedinto sure TreatmentforMillwork."In this treatment,a ciuick, low
thepole at groundline with a specialtool, appliedon the initialvacuumis followedby fillingthe cylinderunder
pole surfaceas apaste or bandage(Fig. 14—5), or pouredinto vacuum, releasingthe vacuumand soaking,followedby a
holes bored in the pole at the groundline.These treatments fmal vacuum. The treatmentis betterthanthe 3-mm dip
haverecognizedvaluefor application to untreated standing treatmentbecauseofbetterpenetration and retention, and the
surface ofthe wood is quicklydried, thus expeditingglazing,
poles andtreatedpoleswherepreservativeretentionlevels are priming, andpainting.The vacuumtreatment is a15o re-
determinedto be inadequate.
portedto be less likelythan dip treatmentto leave objec-
tionably high retentionlevels in bacteria-infected wood
Vacuum Process referredto as "sinkerstock."
The vacuumprocess,or "VAC—VAC"as referredto in
Europe, hasbeen usedtotreat miliworkwith water-repellent Lumberintendedfor buildings has been treatedby the vac-
preservativesand construction lumberwith waterbome and uum process,eitherwith a waterbome preservativeor a
water-repellent preservatives. water-repellent pentachiorophenol solution, with preservative
retentionlevels usually less than thoserequiredfor pressure
In treating millwork,theobjectiveis to use a limitedquan- treatment. The process differs from that used in treating
thy ofwater-repellentpreservativeand obtain retentionand miliwork in employinga higher initial vacuumand. a longer
penetrationlevels similarto those obtainedby dippingfor immersion or soaking period.

14—23
In a studyby the Forest ProductsLaboratory,an initial
vacuumof—93 kPa (27.5 inflg)was appliedfor 30 mm, Handling and Seasoning of
followedby a soaking for 8 h, and a final or recovery vacuum
of—93 kPa (27.5 inHg) for 2 h. Results ofthe studyshowed
Timber After Treatment
goodpenetrationofpreservative in the sapwoodofdry lum- Treated timber shouldbe handledwith sufficient care to
ber ofeasily penetrated species such as the pines. However, avoid breakingthroughthe treatedareas. The use ofpikes,
in heartwoodand unseasonedsapwoodofpine and heartwood cant hooks, picks,tongs, or other pointed tools that dig
ofseasoned andunseasonedcoastalDouglas-fir, penetration deeply into the wood should be prohibited. Handlingheavy
was much less than that obtainedby pressuretreatment. loads oflumberor sawntimber in rope or cable slingscan
Preservative retentionwas less controllable in vacuumthan crushthe corners or edgesofthe outside pieces.Breakage or
in empty-cell pressuretreatment. Good control over retention deep abrasions can also result from throwingor dropping the
levels is possiblein vacuumtreatmentwith a waterbome lumber. Ifdamage results,the exposedplaces shouldbe
preservativeby adjustingconcentration ofthe treating retreated, ifpossible.
solution.
Woodtreatedwith preservativeoils should generally be
Miscellaneous Nonpressure Processes installed as soonas practicable aftertreatmentto minimize
lateralmovementofthe preservative, but sometimes cleanli-
Several othernonpressuremethods ofvarious types have nessofthe surface can be improved by exposing the treated
been used to a limitedextent. Many ofthese involve the woodtothe weatherfor a limitedtime before installation.
application ofwaterbomepreservatives to livingtrees. The Waterbome preservatives orpentachiorophenol in a volatile
Boucherie process for the treatmentofgreen,unpeeled poles solvent arebest suitedto uses wherecleanlinessor
has beenusedfor many years inEurope. This process in-
paintability is ofgreatimportance.
volvesattachingliquid-tightcaps to the butt ends ofthe
poles. Then, through a pipelineor hose leadingto the cap, Lengthy, unsheltered exterior storage oftreatedwood before
awaterbomepreservativeis forcedunderhydrostatic pressure installation shouldbe avoidedbecausesuch storage encour-
into the pole. ages deepand detrimental checkingand can also result in
significantloss ofsomepreservatives. Treatedwood that
A tire-tubeprocessis a simple adaptation oftheBoucherie must be stored beforeuse shouldbe coveredfor protection
processused for treatinggreen, unpeeled fenceposts.In this from the sun andweather.
treatment,a Section ofused inner tube is fastenedtight
aroundthe buttend ofthe post to make a bag that holds a Although cuttingwood after treatment is highlyundesirable,
solution ofwaterbomepreservative. There are limitations for it cannot alwaysbe avoided. When cutting is necessary, the
application ofthis processin the UnitedStatesbecauseofthe damage can be partly overcome in timberfor landor fresh-
loss ofpreservativeto the soil aroundthe treatmentsite. a
wateruse by thoroughapplication ofcoppernaphthenate
(2% copper)to the cut surface. This providesa protective
Effect on Mechanical Properties coating ofpreservative onthe surface that may slowlymi-
grate into the end grain ofthe wood. A specialdevice is
Coal-tar creosote,creosotesolutions,and pentachlorophenol available forpressuretreatingboltholes that are boredafter
dissolvedin petroleumoils are practicallyinert to wood and treatment. For wood treatedwith waterborne preservatives, a
haveno chemicalinfluence that would affectits strength. 2% (as copper) solutionofcoppernaphthenate shouldbe
Chemicalscommonlyused in waterbome saltpreservatives,
includingchromium, copper,arsenic, and ammonia, are
used.Thoroughly brushingcut surfaces with two coats hoto
creosote (applicator license required) is alsohelpful,although
reactivewith wood. Thus, these chemicalsare potentially brush coatingofcut surfaces provideslittle protectionagainst
damaging to mechanical propertiesand may alsopromote marineborers.
corrosion ofmechanical fasteners.
Fortreatingtheend surfaces ofpileswherethey arecutoff
Significantreductionsin mechanical propertiesmaybe ob- afterdriving,at least two generouscoats ofcreosote should
servedifthe treatingand subsequent dryingprocessesare not be applied. A coat ofasphaltor similar material may be
controlled within acceptablelimits.Factorsthat influence the thoroughlyappliedover the creosote, followedby some
effectofthe treatingprocesson strength include (a) species of protectivesheetmaterial,such as metal, roofingfelt, or
wood, (b) size and moisturecontent ofthe timberstreated, saturated fabric,fittedover the pile head and broughtdown
(c) type and temperatureofheatingmedium,(d) length ofthe thesides far enoughto protect againstdamageto thetreat-
heating period in conditioningthe wood for treatment and ment and againstthe entrance ofstorm water.AWPA M4
time the wood is in the hot preservative, (e) post-treatment containsinstructions for the care ofpressure-treated wood
drying temperatures, and (f) amount ofpressureused. Most aftertreatment.
important ofthosefactorsarethe severity and durationofthe
in-retort heating orpost-treatmentredryingconditions used. Withwaterborrie preservatives, seasoning after treatment is
The effectofwoodpreservatives onthe mechanical properties important for wood that will be used in buildingsor other
ofwood is coveredin Chapter4. placeswhereshrinkage afterplacementin the structure would
be undesirable. Injecting waterborne preservatives puts large
amounts ofwater into the wood,and considerableshrinkage

14—24
is to be expectedas subsequentseasoning takes place. For biodeterioration risk to whichthe productwill be exposed.
best results, the wood shouldbe dried to approximately the The UCS is expectedto appear in the 1998AWPA Bookof
moisturecontent it will ultimatelyreach in service. During Standards for information only andwith standardization
drying, the wood shouldbe carefully piled and, whenever parallel to the currentC-Standards in 1999.
possible,restrainedby sufficientweighton the top cfthe pile
to preventwarping. Inspection
With somewaterbome preservatives, seasoning aftertreat- There are two importantfactorsto consider depending upon
ment is recommended. Duringthis seasoning period, volatile the intendedend use ofpreservative-treated wood: (a)the
chemicals canescapeand chemical reactions are completed grade or appearance ofthe lumber and (b) the qualityofthe
withinthe wood. Thus,the resistanceofthe preservative to preservative treatmentin the lumber. The U.S. Department
leachingby water is increased. This physicalor chemical ofCommerce American LumberStandardCommittee
processwherebyawood preservative systemisrendered (ALSC), an accrediting agency fortreatment quality assur-
leachresistant in both water and soil application is called ance,has an ink stampor end tag foreach grade stamp
"fixation."In this process,the active ingredient or ingredi- (Fig. 14—6) and quality mark (Fig. 14—7). These marks
entsmaintain fungalorinsecticidal efficacy. indicatethat the producerofthe treated-wood productsub-
scribesto an independent inspectionagency. However, there
The Western WoodPreservers'Institute and the Canadian arenon-ALSC end tags or ink stamps that are simiFarto
Institute ofTreatedWood(1996)have developed a publica- ALSCtags. Only end tags or ink stamps with the logo ofan
tion to addressbestmanagement practices(BMPs)forthe accredited ALSC—QA agencyare acceptable. (A cuirentlist is
use oftreatedwood in aquatic environments. Theirpurpose available from ALSC.)
is to protect thequalityofthewater and diversity ofthe
variouslife forms found in the lakes, streams, estuaries,bays, Quality control overview by ALSC is preferable to simple
and wetlandsofNorth America.The document is continually treatingplantcertificates or other claims ofconformance made
updatedas better methods for risk assessment andresearch by theproducerwithout inspectionby an independent
aredeveloped. agency. Thesethird-party agencies verifyfor customers that
thewoodwas properlytreatedin accordance with AWPA
standards. Thus,the purchasermay eitheracceptthe stamps
Quality Assurance for as their qualityassurance or havean independent inspector
Treated Wood inspect and analyze the treatedproductsto ensurecompliance
withthe specifications. The latter is recommended fur
Treating Conditions and Specifications treated-wood products used for criticalstructures. Railroad
companies andother corporations that purchaselargequanti-
Specifications on the treatment ofvariouswoodproductsby ties oftreatedtimberusuallymaintaintheirown in5pection
pressureprocesseshavebeen developedby AWPA. These services.
specifications limitpressures, temperatures, andtime of
conditioning and treatmentto avoid conditions that will
cause serious injuryto the wood.The specifications also Purchase of Treated Wood
contain minimumrequirements forpreservative penetration To obtain a treated-woodproduct ofhigh quality, the
and retentionlevels andrecommendations for handling wood purchaser shoulduse the appropriate specifications.
aftertreatmentto provideaqualityproduct. Specifications andstandards ofimportance here are Federal
Specification TT—W—57 1, "Wood Preservation—Treating
Specifications arebroad in some respects, allowingthe pur- Practices;"Federal Specification TT—W—572,"Fungicide:
chasersomelatitudein specifying the details ofindividual
Pentachlorophenol;" and theAWPABookofStandcrds. The
requirements. However,the purchasershouldexercise great
care so as not to hinderthe treatingplant operatorfrom doing inspection ofmaterial for conformity to the minimum re-
a goodtreatingjoband not torequire treatingconditionsso quirements listedinthese specifications shouldbe in accor-
dance with the American WoodPreservers'M2, "Standard
severethat they will damage the wood.Federal Specification forInspection ofTreatedTimberProducts."
TT—W--571 lists treatmentpracticesfor use on U.S. Gov-
ernment ordersfortreatedwood products; other purchasers
have specifications similarto thoseofAWPA.
The AWPAis working on the development ofa Use Cate-
gory System (UCS),which is a new way to organize the
CommodityStandards.The system utilizes seven different
exposure categories for treated-wood products, with each
exposure category representing adifferent degree ofbiodeteri-
orationhazard and/orproductexpectation. Productuserswill
be able to specify treated-wood productsbased on the

14—25
 No.1
(a)

(b)
(C)

(e)
References
AWPA.Annualproceedings. (ReportsofPreservations arid
TreatmentCommittees containinformation on new wood
preservatives considered in the development ofstandards. i
Granbury,TX: American WoodPreservers'Association.
AWPA. 1995. Answersto often-askedquestionabout treated
12 S-DRY wood.Vienna, VA:American WoodPreservers'Institute.
AWPA. 1997. BookofStandards. (Includesstandardson
preservatives, treatments,methods ofanalysis, and inspec-
tion.) Granbury, TX: American WoodPreservers'
Association.
a Trademark indicates agencyquality supervision.
b MUI identification—firm name, brand, or assigned ASTM. 1992. Standard specification for coal-tarcreosote for
mill number
c Grade Designation—grade name, number, or thepreservative treatment ofpiles, poles,and timbersfor
abbreviation marine, land,and freshwateruse. ASTM D390.Philadel-
d SpeciesIdentification—indicates species phia, PA: American Society for Testingand Materials.
individuallyor in combination
e Conditionof Seasoningat time ofsurfacing ASTM. 1994. Standard specification forcreosote-coal tar
S-DRY — 19%max. moisture content solution. ASTM D391. Philadelphia, PA: American Society
MC 15 — 15% max. moisture content for Testing and Materials.
S-GRN — over 19%moisture content
(unseasoned) Baechler, R.H.; Roth, H.G. 1964. The double-diffusior
methodoftreating wood: a reviewofstudies. Forest
Figure 14—6. Typicallumber grade stamp as approved ProductsJournal. 14(4): 171—178.
by ALSC and its interpretation for Douglas Fir lumber.
Baechler, R.ll; Blew, J.O.; Roth, H.G. 1962. Studies on
theassayofpressure-treated lumber. Proceedings ofAmerican
WoodPreservers'Association. 58: 21—34.
1919(c) Baechler, R.H.; Gjovik, L.R.; Roth, H.G. 1969. Assay
GROUND CONTACT() zonesfor specifying preservative-treated Douglas-fir and
(a) Southern Pine timbers.Proceedings ofAmericanWood
Preservers'Association. 65: 114—123.
AWPA ___STDS(b) Baechler, R.H.; Gjovik, L.R.; Roth, H.G. 1970. Marine
XXX(g) PRESERVATIVE(d) tests on combination-treated round and sawed specimens.
KDAT(h) Proceedings ofAmerican WoodPreservers'Association.
(i) 66: 249—257.
Blew, JO.; Davidson, H.L. 1971. Preservativeretentions
a Identifyingsymbol, logo, or name of the accredited agency. and penetration in the treatment ofwhite fir. Proceedings of
b ApplicableAmerican Wood Preservers'Association (AWPA) American Wood Preservers'Association. 67: 204-221.
commodity standard.
c Yearof treatment, if required byAWPA standard. Boone, R.S.; Gjovik, L.R.; Davidson, H.L. 1976. Treat-
d Preservative used, which may be abbreviated. ment ofsawn hardwoodstockwith double-diffusion and
e Preservative retention. modifieddouble-diffusion methods.Res. Pap. FPL—RP--265.
Exposure category (e.g. Above Ground, Ground Contact, Madison, WI: U.S. Departmentof Agriculture,Forest
etc.). Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
g Plant name and location, plant name and number, or Cassens, D.L.; Johnson, B.R.; Feist, W.C.; Dc Groot,
plant number. R.C. 1995. Selectionanduse ofpreservative-treated wood.
h If applicable, moisture content aftertreatment. PublicationN. 7299. Madison, WI: Forest Products
I If applicable, length, and/or class.
Society.
Figure 14—7. Typicalqualitymark for preservative- Eaton, R.A.; Hale, M.D.C. 1993. Wood: decay, pests and
treated lumberto conform to the ALSC accreditation protection.New York, NY: Chapman& Hall.
program.
Gaby, L.I.; Gjovik, L.R. 1984. Treating and drying com-
posite lumberwith waterbomepreservatives: Part I. Short
specimen testing.Forest ProductsJournal. 34(2): 23—26.
Gjovik, L.R.; Baechler, R.H. 1970. Treated wood founda-
tions for buildings. Forest Products Journal. 20(5): 45—48.

14—26
Gjovik, L.R.; Baechler, R.H. 1977. Selection, production, Mac Lean,J.D. 1952. Preservationofwoodby pressure
procurement anduse ofpreservative treatedwood.(len. methods. Agric. Handb. 40. Washington, DC: U. S.
Tech.Rep. FPL—l 5. Supplementing FederalSpecification Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service.
TT—W--571. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,
Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory. Micktewright, J.T.; Gjovik, L.R. 1981. Wood preserving
statistics: update. Proceedings ofAmerican Wood
Gjovik, L.R.; Davidson, H.L. 1975. Servicerecords on Preservers'Association. 77: 143—147.
treatedand untreatedposts. Res. Note FPL—068. Madison, NFPA. 1982. The all-weather wood foundation. NFPA
WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest Tech. Rep. 7. Washington, DC: National Forest Products
ProductsLaboratory. Association.
Gjovik, L.R.; Roth, H.G.; Davidson, H.L. 1972. Treat- NFPA. 1982. All-weatherwoodfoundationsystem, design
ment ofAlaskan species by double-diffusion andmodified fabrication installation manual.NFPA report;Was iington
double-diffusion methods.Res. Pap. FPL—182. Madison, DC: NationalForest ProductsAssociation.
WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest Service, Forest NWWDA. 1994. Industry standard forwater-repellent pre-
Products Laboratory.
servative non-pressure treatmentfor millwork. IS—4—94. Des
Gjovik, L.R.; Johnson, D.B.; Kozak, V.; [and othersi. Plaines, IL: NationalWoodWindowand Door Association.
1980. Biologicand economic assessment ofpentachlorophe- Naval Facilities Engineering Command. 1990. Wood
nol, inorganicarsenicals,and creosote. Vol. I: Woodpre- Protection. NAVFACMO—312, Philadelphia,PA: Naval
servatives.Tech. Bull 1658—1. Washington,DC: U.S. Facilities Engineering Command. Wood Protection. May.
Department ofAgriculture,in cooperation with State
AgriculturalExperimental Stations, Cooperative Extension Naval Facilities Engineering Command. 1992. Wood
Service,other state agenciesand the Environmental ProtectionTrainingManual. NAVFAC MO—312.4, Phila-
ProtectionAgency. delphia, PA: Naval Facilities EngineeringCommand.Wood
Protection. March.
Gutzmer,D.I.; Crawford,D.M. 1995. Comparisonof
wood preservativein stake tests. 1995 ProgressReport.Res. Nicholas,D.D.; Schultz, T.P. 1994 Biocides that have
Note FPL—RN--02. Madison, WI: U.S. Departmentof potentialas woodpreservatives—an overview. In: Wood
Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest ProductsLaboratory. preservatives inthe '90sandbeyond.Proceedings, confer-
ence sponsored by the Forest ProductsSociety; 1994
Hunt, G.M.; Garratt, G.A. 1967. Woodpreservation. 3d September 26—28; Savannah, GA.
ed. The American ForestrySeries. New York, NY: USFSS. 1968. Woodpreservationtreating practices. Federal
McGraw-Hill.
Specification TT—W—57 1. Washington,DC: U.S. Federal
Johnson, B.R.; Gutzmer,D.I. 1990. Comparison ofpre- SupplyService.
servativetreatmentsin marine exposure ofsmallwood pan- USFS.S. 1969. Fungicide: Pentachiorophenol. Federal
els. Res. Note. FPL—RN—0258. Madison, WI: U.S. De-
SpecificationTT—W---572.Washington,DC: U.S. Federal
partmentofAgriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products SupplyService.
Laboratory.
Western Wood Preservers Institute and Canadian
Lebow, S. 1996. Leachingofwood preservativecomponents Institute of TreatedWood. 1996. Best managementprac-
andtheirmobility in theenvironment—summary ofperti- tices for the use oftreatedwood in aquatic environments.
nent literature. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—93.Madison, Vancouver, WA: Western WoodPreservers Institute and
WI: U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Canadian Institute ofTreated Wood. (USA Version),
ProductsLaboratory. July rev.

14—27
 I Chapter5 I
Finishing of Wood
R. Sam Williams

Contents
AffectingFinishPerformance 15—1
Factors
WoodProperties 15—1
Wood Extractives 15—2
WoodProductCharacteristics 15—4
4 heprimaty function ofany wood finish(paint,
varnish, and stain, for example)is to prctect the
wood surface, help maintain a certain appearance,
andprovidea cleanable surface. Although wood can be used
both outdoorsand indoorswithout finishing, unfinished
wood surfaces exposed tothe weatherchange color., are
Weathering 15—6
ControlofWateror Moisture in Wood 15—9 roughened by photodegradation and surface checking, and
MoistureContent 15—9 erode slowly. Unfinished wood surfaces exposed indoors may
WaterRepellents 15—10 alsochangecolor; moreover, unfinishedwood is more diffi-
FinishMoisture-Excluding Effectiveness 15—10 cult to clean than is finishedwood.
EffectofFinish on LiquidWaterand WaterVaporAbsorption 15—11

TypesofExteriorWoodFinishes 15—14
WeatheredWoodas NaturalFinish 15—16 Woodand wood-based productsin a varietyofsperies, grain
Penetrating WoodFinishes 15—16 patterns, textures, and colors can be finished effectively by
Film-Forming Finishes 15—18 many different methods. Selection ofa finishwill cepend on
Compliance ofVOCFinishesWithPollution Regulations 15—19 theappearance and degreeofprotection desired and onthe
Application ofWoodFinishes 15—19 substrates used.Becausedifferent finishes givevaryingde-
Type ofFinish 15—19
Porches, Decks, and Fences 15—21 grees ofprotection,the type offinish, its quality and quan-
Treated Wood 15—22 tity, and the methodused to apply the finishmust be con-
MarineUses 15—22 sidered when finishing or refmishing wood and wood
Refinishing 15—22
products.
Back-Priming 15—23
FactoryFinishing 15—24
FinishFailureor Discoloration 15—24
MoistureBlisters 15—25 Factors Affecting Finish
Mill Glaze 15—25
IntercoatPeeling 15—26 Performance
Cross-GrainCracking 15—26
Chalking 15—26 Satisfactoryperformance ofwood finishes is achievedwhen
Mildew 15—27 themany factors that affectthese fmishes are givenfull
Discoloration From Water-Soluble Extractives 15—28 consideration. Thesefactors include the effectoftht wood
BlueStain 15—29
Iron Stain 15—29 substrate, properties ofthe fmishingmaterial,details of
Brown StainOver Knots 15—29 application, and severityofexposure. Someimportantcon-
Finishing ofInteriorWood 15—30 siderations are reviewed in this chapter. Sourcesofmore
TypesofFinishandWoodFillers 15—30 detailedinformation are providedin a listofreferences at
Finishes for Floors 15—32 the end ofthis chapter.
Finishes forItemsUsed for Food 15—32
TypesofFinish 15—32
EatingUtensils 15—32
ButcherBlocksand Cutting Boards 15—33
Wood Properties
WoodCleanersand Brighteners 15—33 Wood surfacesthat have the least tendencyto shrink and
Paint Strippers 15—33 swell are best for painting.Forthis reason, vertical.or
Mechanical Methods 15—34
Chemical Methods 15—34 edge-grainsurfaces are far betterthan flat-grain surfaces
Avoidance ofProblems 15—35 (Fig. 15—1), especially when the wood is used outside where
Disposal ofOld Paint 15—35 wide ranges ofrelative humidityand periodic wettingcan
Lead-Based Paint 15—35
References 15—36
producewide ranges ofswelling and shrinking.In addition,
becausethe swelling ofwood is directlyproportionalto
specific gravity, species with low specific gravity are preferred
to those with high specific gravity. Vertical-grain heartwood

15—1
 in small-diameter logs,theyield ofvertical-grain lumberis
small. It is not practicalto cut the log to maximizethe
vertical grain becausesuch cuttingwould substantially
decrease overall yieldfrom the log.

Speciesnormally cut as flat-grainlumberthat arehigh in

specific gravityand swelling, orhave defectssuch as knotsor
pitch, are classified in GroupsII throughV, dependingupon
theirgeneralpaint-holding characteristics. Manyspecies in
GroupsII through IV are commonlypainted, particularlythe
pines, Douglas-fir, and spruce; however, these species gener-
allyrequiremorecarefulsurface preparation than do the
vertical-grain (also callededge-grain) surfaces ofGroup I.
Exterior paintwill be more durableon vertical-grain boards
than on flat-grain boardsforany species with marked differ-
ences in specific gravitybetween earlywood and latewood,
evenifthe species are rated in GroupI (Fig. 15—2). Flat-
grain lumberwill hold paint reasonably well ifit is used in
areasprotectedfrom rain and sun, particularly ifthe wood is
rough sawn orscuffsanded.
Otherwood properties that affectwood finishing are defects
such as knots and colored materials (extractives) in the
wood. Thesecoloredmaterials include a widerange of
chemicals with different solubilitiesin water,organicsol-
vents,and paintpolymers. Theireffects on wood finishing
are coveredin detail later in this chapter. See Chapters 1 to 3
for more detailedinformation on wood properties.

Wood Extractives
Water-solublecoloredextractivesoccurnaturallyin the
Figure 15—1. Lumber grain affectsfinish performance: heartwood ofsuch species as westernredcedar, cypress, and
(a) edge-grain (vertical-grain or quartersawn) board; redwood. Thesesubstances give the heartwoodofsome
(b) edge-grain board containing pith; (c) flat-grain
(slash-grain or plainsawn) board. Arrowsshow radial species their attractive color,water repellency, and natural
(R), tangential (T), and longitudinal (L) orientation of decay resistance. However, discoloration ofpaint mayoccur
woodgrain. whenthe extractives are dissolvedand leachedfrom the wood
by water. The watercarriesthe extractives to thepainted
surface, then evaporates, leaving the extractives as a yellow
to reddish brown stainon thepaint. The water that gets
ofwesternredcedarand redwood arethespecies usually behindthepaint and causes moistureblistersalso causes
recommendedfor use as exteriorsidingand trim whenpaint- migration ofextractives.
ing is desired. These species areclassifiedin Group I, woods
with the best paint-holding characteristics (Table 15—1). Wood alsocontains resins and oils that are insoluble in
Although vertical-grain surfacesofmost species are consid- water. The type and amount ofthese compoundsin lumber
ered excellentfor painting, most species are generallyavail- dependon the wood species.For example,many pines
able only as flatgrainlumber. containpitch and the knotsofalmost all wood speciescon-
tain sufficient oils and resins to cause discoloration oflight-
Very few woodspeciesare gradedaccording to vertical- or coloredpaint. Since these oils andresins are organicin
flat-grainspecifications. Withouta grade formarketing the nature,they are similarchemicallyto oil-basedand/or ailcyd
lumber, there is no incentivefor a millto either cutto paints;therefore, they cannotbe blockedby typical oilbome
maximizethe yield ofvertical-grain lumberorto select stain-blocking primers as can the water-solubleextractives.
vertical-grain lumberfrom the millrun. Exceptions are red- Latex-based formulations are alsoineffective. Knots can be
woodand westernredcedar, whichare marketedin a range of sealedprior to primingwith shellacor similarfinishes spe-
grades, including verticalgrain. The premiumgrade is all- cifically formulated to block oils and resins.Becauseshellac
heartwoodand vertical-grain.This grade is usuallysold as is sensitiveto moisture, it is essentialto use it only over the
resawnbevel siding and it demandsahigh price; it is knots and to seal it into the knots with a good paint system.
worthwhile fora mill to cut to maximize the yield ofthis in many species, bleeding ofoils and resins from knots is a
grade.Most often,cutting is only practicalwith fairly large- difficult problem. At present,there is no easy fix other than
diameterlogs. Forthose species that are primarily available the extra stepofsealingknotsbeforepriming.

15—2
Table 15—1. Characteristics ofselected woods for painting
Paint-holding
characteristic Weathering
(I, best; Conspicu-
V, worst Resistance ousness of
Specific Shrinkage (%)b Oil- to cupping checking
gravity° Flat Vertica' based Latex (1, most; (1, least; Color of
Wood species green/dry grain grain paint paint 4, least) 2, most) heartwood

Softwoods
Baldcypress 0.42/0.46 6.2 3.8 1 I Light brown
Cedars
Incense 0.35/0.37 5.2 3.3 — Brown
Northern white 0.29/0.31 4.9 2.2 — Light brown
Port-Orford 0.39/0.43 6.9 4.6 I Cream
Western red 0.31/0.32 5 2.4 I 1 Brown
Yellow 0.42/0.44 6 2.8 I 1 'Yellow
Douglasfird 0.45/0.48° 7.6 4.8 IV U 2 2 Pale red
Larch, western 0.48/0.52 9.1 4.5 IV II 2 2 Elrown
Pine
Easternwhite 0.34/0.35 6.1 2.1 II II 2 2 Cream
Ponderosa 0.38/0.42 6.2 3.9 III II 2 2 Cream
Southernd O.471O.5lf 8 5 IV III 2 2 Light brown
Sugar 0.34/0.36 5.6 2.9 II II 2 2 Cream
Westernwhite 0.36/0.38 7.4 4.1 II II 2 2 Cream
Redwood, old growth 0.38/0.40 4.4 2.6 I I I Darkbrown
Spruce, Engelmann 0.33/0.35 7.1 3.8 Ill II 2 2 White
Tamarack 0.49/0.53 7.4 3.7 IV — 2 2 E;rown
White fir 0.37/0.39 7.0 3.3 III — 2 2 White
Western hemlock 0.42/0.45 7.8 4.2 III II 2 2 Palebrown
Hardwoods
Alder 0.37/0.41 7.3 4.4 Ill — Palebrown
0.55/0.60 8 5 VorIll — 4 2 Light brown
Ash, white
Aspen, bigtooth 0.36/0.39 7 3.5 III II 2 Palebrown
Basswood 0.32/0.37 9.3 6.6 III — 2 2 Cream
Beech 0.56/0.64 11.9 5.5 IV — 4 2 Palebrown
Birch, yellow 0.55/0.62 9.5 7.3 IV — 4 2 Light brown
Butternut 0.36/0.38 6.4 3.4 V or III — Light brown
0.47/0.50 7.1 3.7 IV — Brown
Cherry
Chestnut 0.40/0.43 6.7 3.4 V or III — 3 2 Light brown
Cottonwood, eastern 0.37/0.40 9.2 3.9 III II 4 2 V/hite
Elm, American 0.4610.50 9.5 4.2 V or Ill — 4 2 Brawn
Hickory, shagbark 0.64/0.72 11 7 VorIV — 4 2 Light brown
Lauan plywood _g 8 4 IV — 2 2 Brown
0.46/0.50 6.6 5.4 Ill — 2 — Palebrown
Magnolia,southern
0.56/0.63 9.9 4.8 IV — 4 2 Light brown
Maple, sugar
Oak
White 0.60/0.68 8.8 4.4 VorIV — 4 2 Brown
Northern red 0.56/0.63 8.6 4.0 VorIV — 4 2 Brown
Sweetgum 0.4610.52 10.2 5.3 IV III 4 2 Brown
Sycamore 0.46/0.49 8.4 5 IV Palebrown
Walnut 0.51/0.55 7.8 5.5 V or Ill — 3 2 Darkbrown
Yellow-pplar 0.40/0.42 8.2 4.6 III II 2 I Palebrown
aSpecific gravity based on weight ovendryand volumeat green or 12% moisture content.
bValue obtained by drying from green to ovendry.
CWOOdS ranked in Group V have large pores that requirewood filler for durable painting. When pores are properlyfilled
before painting, Group II applies. Vertical-grain lumberwas used for cedars and redwood. Other specieswere primarily
flat-grain. Decreasein paintabilityis caused by a combination of speciescharacteristics, grain orientation,and greater
I
dimensional changeof flat-grain lumber. Flat-grain lumber causes at least unit decreasein paintability.
dLumber and plywood.
eCoastal Douglas-fir.
LobloIIy, shortleaf, specific gravity of 0.54/0.59for longleafand slash.
9Specific gravity of different speciesvaries from 0.33 to 0.55.

15—3
. —'- •-----—:; — — ::--
:- —
— —-_ I
E:arll'wood

.- -'-
--—--—
—

'i
-,'...-- -a--

- -.-.
•--_-

•:- -
—-—
—. —

Latewood

Figure 15—3. Earlywood and latewood bands in

- - --.---- -—: _____ --—-__—-.——---

_;___. -
Southern Pine.

same specific gravity(0.38),but their shrinkage values for

flat- and vertical-grain wood are different (4.4% and 2.6%for
redwoodand 7.4% and 4.1% for westernwhite pine, respec-
tively)(Table 15—1). Redwoodhas a paintabilityrating of!
and westernwhite pine, arating ofII. The greater dimen-
Figure 15—2. Paint applied overedge-grain boards sionalinstability ofthe flat-grain westernwhite pine results
(topand bottom) performs better than that applied to
flat-grainboards (middle). in lowerpaintability compared with that ofthe vertical-grain
redwood.

The shrinkage valuesgiven in Table 15—1 were obtained

Wood Product Characteristics from dryingwood from its green state to ovendry.The el-s
ling rateswould be aboutthe same. The paintability values
Five generalcategories ofwood products are commonly used
in exteriorconstruction: (a) lumber, (b) plywood, (c) finger- for western redcedar and redwood were obtainedfrom vertical-
jointed wood, (d) reconstitutedwoodproducts(suchas grain lumber; otherspecies were primarilyflat-grain. Note
that the shrinkage values for vertical-grain lumberare about
hardboard,orientedstrandboard (OSB), andparticleboard), halfthat offlat-grain lumber. The paintability ratingforflat-
and(e) preservative—fire-retardant-treatedwood. Eachproduct
has uniquecharacteristics that affectthe application and grain lumberis probablyat least one unit lowerthan that For
vertical-grain lumber. The values given in Table 15—1 for
performance offinishes. oil-based paintswere obtainedfrom researchconductedin the
1930s and 1940s using lumberfrom large-diameterlogs.
Lumber It is not known how thepropertiesoflumber from small-
Although severalalternative materials are beingused for diameter logs and new paint formulations would affectthese
siding (such as vinyl, aluminum,OSB, and hardboard), ratings.Therefore,the ratingsgiven in Table 15—1 should
lumberis still the preferredchoice forsidingin many areas of be used to rank paintabilityratherthan obtain absolute
thecountry and for a varietyofarchitectural designs. Many paintability values.
older homes have wood siding. The ability oflumberto
retainand hold afmish is affectedby species, grain orienta- Somespecies havewide bands ofearlywoodand latewood
tion,and surface texture. (Fig. 15—3). These distinctbands often lead to early paint
failure. Wide, prominent bands oflatewood are characteristic
The specificgravityofwood variestremendously among ofthesouthernpines and Douglas-fir, and paint will not hold
wood species(Table 15—1). The specificgravityofwood is well on these species. In contrast,redwoodand cedardo not
important becausedenserwoodsgenerallyshrink and swell havewide latewood bands,andthese species are preferred
more than less dense woods. In lumber, this dimensional forpainting.
change occurs as the wood gains or loses moisture. Exces-
sivedimensionalchangein wood constantlystressesa paint Grainorientation alsoaffectspaint-holding characteristics
film and may cause earlypaint failure. Iftwo species havethe and is determined by the way lumber is cut from a log
same specific gravitybut shrink and swelldifferently, their (Fig. 15—1). Most standardgrades oflumbercontain a high
paintability will be greatlyaffectedby dimensional changes. percentage offlat-grain lumber. Lumberusedforboardand
Forexample,redwoodandwesternwhite pine have about the

15—4
batten, drop,orshiplapsiding is frequently flat-grain. Bevel rough sawn.Smooth-sanded plywoodis not recommended
siding is commonlyproducedin severalgrades. The highest for siding, although it is often used for soffits.The flat-grain
grade ofredwoodandwesternredcedarbevelsidingis verti- patternin nearly all plywoodcan contribute to earLypaint
cal-grainall-heartwood. Othergradesofredwood andwestern failure. Therefore, ifplywoodisto bepainted,take special
redcedarmay be flat, vertical, ormixed grain and maynotbe careto prepare the surface anduse high qualitylatex paint.
requiredto be aIl-heartwood. Rough-sawn plywoodholds paint much better than does
smoothplywood. Smoothplywoodshould be scuff-sanded
The texture(roughness or smoothness) ofthe wood surface with 50-grit sandpaper prior to priming,and both smooth
has an importanteffecton the selection, application, and andrough plywoodshouldbe edge-treated with a water-
servicelife offinishes.Until recently, a general rule ofthumb repellent preservative. Penetrating stainsare often more
for matchingsubstrates to finishes was to paint smoothwood appropriate for rough-sawn thansmooth-sawn exte:'rior
and stainrough-sawnwood. This easy rule ofthumbno plywood surfaces.
longerapplies. Although it is true that penetratingfinishes
such as semitransparent stainsgivemuch betterservicelife Fingerjointed Lumber
on rough-sawn wood comparedwith smoothwood,many In recentyears,many mills havebeen producing lumberthat
film-forming fmishessuch as opaque stainsand paintsalso consistsofmany smallpieces ofwoodthat are gluedtogether
give much better service life on rough-sawn wood.The paint and have fmgeijoints to improvestrength(Chs. 9 md 11).
adheresbetter,the film buildup is better, andthe servicelife
is longeron a roughenedthan a smooth (planed)surface, This processis done to eliminateknotsand other defects
fromthe lumber. The lumberis commonly used for fascia
particularlywhen flat-grainlumberorsiding is used. boards, interiorand exteriortrim, windows and doors, and
Surface texture is discussedinmore detail in later sections
ofthis chapter. siding. Although fmgerjointedlumbercontainsno knots or
other defects, the wood pieces are generallynot sortedin
regardto heartwoodor sapwoodorto grain orientation prior
Plywood to gluing.However,with some suppliers, care is taken to
As with lumber,species, grainorientation, and surface tex- decreasevariability in fmgerjointedlumber. For esample,
ture are important variables that affect the finishing ofply- fmgerjointed redwoodsidingis available in ClearAll Heart
wood. In addition,plywoodcontainssmallchecks(face verticalgrain and Clearflat grain. Fingerjointed lumberis
checks)that are causedby the lathe whenthe venee:ris cut usuallysold as aparticularspecies, althoughthis is not
duringplywoodmanufacture. Cycles ofwettinganddrying alwaysthe case. Becausea particularboardmay centain
with subsequent swellingand shrinkingtend to worsenface- pieces from many trees and in many grain orientatiLons, the
checking ofplywoodveneer. Facechecking sometimes ex- finishingrequirements are determined by the worst pieceof
tends throughpaintcoatingsto detractfrom the appearance wood in a single board. It is quitecommonforpaint failure
and durability ofthe paint. Facecheckscan leadto early to occurin a"patchwork"manneraccording to thepaintabil-
paint failure,particularlywith oil or alkyd paint systems ity ofthe particularpieceofwood in the board (Fig. 15—5).
(Fig. 15—4). Latex primer and top coat paint systemsgener- The fmishing offmgeijointed lumberrequiresspecialcareto
ally performbetter than oil or alkyd systems. For use as ensurethat the finishwill adhereto the wholeboard.Rough-
exteriorsiding, plywoodis often overlaidwith resin-treated sawn lumbershouldhold paintbetter than willplaned lum-
paper (medium-density overlay (MDO)); MDO eliminates ber. Planedwood shouldbe scuff-sanded with 50-grit sand-
crackscausedby lathe checkingand providesplywoodwith paper prior to priming.
excellentpaintability(equal to or betterthan that ofGroup I
vertical-grain lumber).

Plywoodfor exterior use nearlyalwayshas a flat-grain sur-

face,and ifit is used for exteriorwood siding, the surface is

Figure 15—5. Differences in stain from extractivieson

Figure 15—4. Early paintfailureon plywood caused by fingerjointed yellowpine(probably ponderosa pine)
penetration ofmoistureinto surface face-checks. painted with acrylicsolid-colorstain.

15—S
Particleboard and Similar The threemaintypes ofpreservatives are (a) preservative oils
Reconstituted Wood Products (such as coal—tar creosote), (b) organic solventsolution(such
Reconstituted wood productsare thosemade by forming as pentachlorophenol), and (c) waterbomesalts (suchas
smallpieces ofwood into large sheets, usually 1.2 by 2.4 m chromatedcopper arsenate (CCA))(Ch. 14). Thesepreserva-
tives can be appliedin severalways, but pressuretreatment
(4 by 8 Ii) oras requiredforaspecialized use such as clap-
boardsiding. Theseproductsmaybe classifiedas fiberboard generallyprovides the greatestprotectionagainstdecay.
or particleboard, depending upon thenature ofthebasic Woodpreservativesmay also improve the wood'sresistance
wood component(see Ch. 10). toweathering, particularlyifthepreservativecontains chro-
mium salts. Chromium-containing preservativesprotect
Although wood characteristics such as grain orientation, wood againstultravioletdegradation, an importantfactor in
specific gravityofearlywoodand latewood, warping, and theweathering process.
splittingare not considerations with reconstituted wood Woodtreatedwith waterbornepreservatives, such as CCA,
products, other characteristics mustbe addressed whenfinish- can be paintedorstained ifthe wood is clean and dry. Wood
ing these products. The surface offiberboard acceptsand treated with a water-repellent preservative, by vacuum-
holds paint very well, and it can be improvedwith the addi-
tionofa resin-treatedpaper overlay.Film-forming finishes pressureor dipping, is paintable. Woodtreated with coal—tar
such as paints and solid-colorstains will provide the most creosoteorother dark oily preservatives is not paintable;
evenifthe paintadheresto thetreatedwood, the dark oils
protectionto reconstitutedwood products. Somereconsti- tend to discolorthe paint, especiallylight-coloredpaint.
tuted wood productsmay be factoryprimedwith paint, and
factory-applied top-coatsare becoming more common. The Fire-retardant treatment ofwood does notgenerallyinterfere
edgesofthese productsare sensitive to moisture, andextra with adhesionofpaint coatings, unless the treated woodhas
care shouldbe usedto assurethatedges get agood coat of
extremely high moisture contentbecauseofits increased
paint.Betteryet, edgescan be sealedwith a paintable water- hygroscopicity. Fire-retardant-treated wood is generally
repellentpreservative.Reconstituted wood productsshould paintedaccording to themanufacturer'srecommendations
not be fmishedwith semitransparent stainor other penetrat- rather thanleft unfinished because the treatment and subse-
ing finishes. quent dryingoften darkenand discolorthe wood.It is critical
Fiberboardis producedfrom wood that is pulpedby me- that woodto be used outside betreated with only those fire-
chanicalmeans.Hardboardis arelativelyheavy typeof retardanttreatments that are specifically recommended for
outdoor exposure.
fiberboard. The temperedortreatedform ofhardboard is
designedforoutdoorexposureandis usedforexteriorsiding.
Hardboardis often sold in 1.2- by 2.4-rn (4- by 8-ft) sheets Weathering
and in 152- to 203-mm (6- to 8-in.) widths as a substitute
for solid-woodbeveledsiding. Weathering is the generalterm used to describethe degrada-
tionofmaterials exposed outdoors. This degradation occurs
Particleboard ismanufactured from wholewood in the form on the surface ofall organic materials,includingwood and
ofsplinters, chips, flakes,strands, or shavings. Flakeboardis fmishes used on wood such as paints and stains.The process
atype ofparticleboardmadefrom relatively largeflakesor occurs through photo-oxidation ofthe surface catalyzed by
shavings. Orientedstrandboard (OSB)is arefmement of ultraviolet(UV) radiationin sunlight,and it is augmented
flakeboard in that the flakeshave a largelength-to-width by otherprocessessuch as washingby rain, changesin
aspectratio and are laid down in layers,with the flakes in temperature, changesin moisture content,and abrasion by
each layeroriented 90° to each other as areveneersin ply- windblown particles.The weathering processcantakemany
wood (Ch. 10). Particleboardthat is to be used outdoors forms depending onthe exposedmaterial;in general,the
must be overlaidwith eitherwood veneeror resin-treated processbegins with acolor change, followedby slow erosion
paper;exteriorparticleboard can be finishedin the same way (loss ofmaterial) from the surface. The surface initiallyde-
as are other paper over-laidproducts. As with fiberboard, velops slight checking; with some materials,deep cracks
special care must taken to assure agood paint film onthe mayultimatelydevelop. Weathering is dependenton the
edgesofparticleboard. chemical makeup ofthe affected material. Becausethe surface
ofa material may be composed ofmany differentchemicals,
TreatedWood not all materials on the surface may erode at the same rate.
Wood used in severeoutdoorexposures requires special
treatmentfor properprotectionand best service. Themost Effect on Wood
common hazard in such exposuresis decay (rot) and insect The surfaceofwood consistsoffourtypes oforganic materi-
attack, particularlyby termites. Marine exposure alsore- als: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and extractives.Bach of
quireswood to beprotectedwith specialtreatment.Many these materials is affected by the weathering processin a
building codesrequirefire-retardant treatment ofwood for different way. The extractives (that is, the materialin the
some uses. wood that giveseach species its distinctive color)undergo
changes upon exposure to sunlightand lighten or darkenin
When wood is used in situationswith high decay andter- color.With some wood species, this color changecan take
mite hazards, it is usuallytreatedwith a wood preservative. placewithinminutesofexposure. Changesin the color ofthe

15—6
surface are accompaniedby otherchanges that affect the wet- hardwoods and faster for certain softwoods. Otherfuictors like
tabilityand surface chemistryofthe wood.The mechanism growthrate, degreeofexposure, grainorientation, tempera-
ofthese early changesis notvery well understood, but these ii
ture, and wetting and dryingcycles are important deter-
changes canhave adrasticeffect onthe surface chemistry of miningthe rate oferosion. Table 15—2 shows erosi.onrates
wood and thus the interaction ofthe woodwith other chemi- forseveral woodspecies that weremeasuredover a 16-year
cals, such as paint and other fmishes. period.
From20% to 30% ofthe wood surface is composed ofhg- Waterandthe swelling and shrinking stressesset up by
nm, a polymeric substancethat is the adhesivethat holds fluctuations in moisture contentaccelerate erosion. Cyclic
woodcelluloses together.Becauseligninis affected by pho- wettingand dryingroughen the surface,raisethe grain,cause
todegradation more than are celluloses,lignin degrades and differential swelling ofearlywood and latewood bands,and
cellulosefibersremainloosely attachedto the wood surface. result in many small, parallelchecks and cracks. Largerand
Furtherweathering causes fibersto be lostfrom the surface deeper cracksmayalso develop. Fewerchecksdevelopin
(a processcalled erosion);but this process is so slowthat on woodswith moderateto low specificgravitythan in those
theaverageonly about 6 mm (1/4 in.) ofwood is lost in a with high specific gravity, and vertical-grain boards have
century(Fig. 15—6). This erosionrate is slowerfor most fewerchecks than do flat-grain boards. Flat-grain lumber
frequently warpsas well.

Figure 15—6. Artist's rendition of weathering process of round and square timbers.As cutaway shows, interior
woodbelow surface is relatively unchanged.

15—7
 Table 15—2. Erosion of earlywood and latewood on smooth planed surfaces ofvariouswoodspecies
afteroutdoor exposurea
Erosion (urn) after various exposu re timesc

Avg 4 years 8 years 10 years 12 years 14 years 16 years

Wood species SGb LW EW LW EW LW EW LW EW LW EW LW EW

Western redcedar — 170 580 290 920 455 1,095 615 1,165 805 1,355 910 1,475
plywood
Redwood plywood — 125 440 295 670 475 800 575 965 695 1,070 845 1,250
Douglas-fir ply- — 110 270 190 390 255 500 345 555 425 770 515 905
wood
Douglas-fir 0.46 105 270 210 720 285 905 380 980 520 1,300 500 1,405
Southern Pine 0.45 135 320 275 805 315 710 335 710 445 1,180 525 1,355
Western redcedar 0.31 200 500 595 1,090 765 1,325 970 1,565 1,160 1,800 1,380 1,945
Redwood 0.36 165 405 315 650 440 835 555 965 670 1,180 835 1,385

Loblollypine 0.66 80 205 160 345 220 490 — — — — — —

Western redcedar 0.35 115 495 240 1,010 370 1,225 — — — — — —
Southern Pine 0.57 95 330 180 640 195 670 — — — — — —
0.47 — 220 — 530 — 640 — — — — — —
Yellow-poplar
0.48 75 255 175 605 225 590 — — — — — —
Douglas-fir
Red oak 0.57 180 245 340 555 440 750 — — — — — —

Ponderosa pine 0.35 130 270 315 445 430 570 Decay Decay Decay Decay — —
0.38 105 255 265 465 320 580 475 745 560 810 — —
Loblollypine
390 650 505 795 590 950 — —
Engelmannspruce 0.36 125 320 310 545
Western hemlock 0.34 145 320 310 575 415 680 515 1,255 600 1,470 — —
Red alder 0.39 — 295 — 545 — 620 — 920 — 955 — —
aData from three studies are shown. Specimenswere exposed verticallyfacing south. Radial surfaces
were exposedwith the grain vertical.
bSG is specific gravity.
cAll erosion values are averagesof nine observations (three measurements of three specimens).
EW denotes earlywood; LW, latewood.

The time requiredfor wood to becomefully weathered de- it may developa silvery-gray sheen. This formation ofa
pends on the severityofthe exposure. Onceweathered, and bright,light gray, silvery sheenon weatheredwood occun
in theabsenceofdecay, stain, and mildew,wood remains most frequently wheremicro-organism growth is inhibited
nearlyunalteredin appearance (Fig. 15—7). As a result of by a hot, arid climateor a salty atmospherein coastalre-
weathering, boardstend to warp (particularly cup) and fasten- gions. The microorganisms primarilyresponsiblefor gray
ers are loosened. The tendencyto cup varies with the specific discoloration ofwood are commonly found onweathered
gravity, width,and thicknessofthe board. The greaterthe wood (see subsection on mildewunder Finish Failureor
specificgravityand the greater the width in proportionto Discoloration).
thickness,the greaterthe tendencyto cup. For bestresistance
to cup, thewidth ofa board shouldnot exceedeight times Effect on Paint Adhesion
its thickness.Warping alsois more pronounced in flat-grain Althoughthe erosionofthe wood surface throughweathering
boardsthan in vertical-grain boards. is a slowprocess,thechemicalchangesthat occur within a
few weeksofoutdoorexposure can drastically decrease the
Biological attackofa wood surface by microorganisms is adhesionofpaintssubsequently appliedto the weathered
recognized as a contributing factor to color change or graying surface. It is fairlyobviousthat a badly weathered, powdery
ofwood. This biological attack, commonly called mildew, wood surface cannot hold paint very well. This fact is not so
does not cause erosionofthe surface,but it maycause initial obviousforwood that hasweatheredfor only 2 to 3 weeks.
grayingor an unsightlydark gray and blotchy appearance. The wood appears soundand much the same as when it was
Thesecolor changesare causedby dark-colored fungal spores installed. The extent ofdamage to the wood surfaceafter such
and myceliaon the wood surface. In advanced stages of a shortexposure has yetto be determined. However,
weathering, whenthe surface has beenenrichedby cellulose,

15—8
 Effect on Wood Finishes
Finishesusedon woodalsoundergosurface photodegrada-
tion becausethe primaryingredient that holdsa paint film
together or seals the wood surface is an organic poymerand
thus is susceptible to photo-oxidative degradation, The UV
radiationin sunlight breaks down the polymer in paint,
causing a slowerosionsimilar to that which occurs on
wood.The pigments in paint are not usuallyaffectd by UV
radiation. Therefore, as flhn-forming finishes such as paints
orsolid-color stainsweather,they do soby the slowbreak-
down ofthe polymer, which loosens the pigments The
surface becomes chalkybecauseoftheloose pigments. Even-
tually, these pigmentsandthe degraded polymererode from
thesurface. The rate ofweathering primarilydepenils onthe
resistance ofthe polymerto UV radiation. Paints arid stains
basedon acrylic polymers are more UV-resistant thanthose
based on oil and oil—alkyds. Weathering is strictly a surface
phenomenon on the finish,and as with wood, a pa:nted
surface can be attackedby mildew.

Control of Water or
Figure 15—7. Weatheredsurfaces ofsoftwoodafter Moisture in Wood
15yearsof exposure in Madison, Wisconsin.
Moisture Content
The moisture content ofwood is the amountofwater con-
long-term outdoorexposure ofpanels that had beenpre-
weatheredfor 1, 2, 4, 8, or 16 weeksbeforebeing painted tainedin the wood (see Ch. 3). Moisturecontent includes
showeda directrelationship betweenpreweathering time and both water absorbed into the wood cell walland free water
thetime whenthe paint startedto peel. Forpanels that had withinthe hollowcenter ofthe cell, and it is expressed as a
beenpreweathered for 16 weeks, the paint peeled within weightpercentage. The amountofwater that wood canab-
3 years; forpanelspreweathered for only I week,the paint sorb (that is, that can be bound in the cell wall) depends on
the wood species;most species can absorb about 3C%water.
peeled after 13 years. Panels that were not preweathered
showedno sign ofpeeling after 13 years. The paintsystem This limitto the amountofwater that can be bound in the
was a commercial oil—alkyd primerwith two acrylic latex wood cellwall is calledthe fiber saturation point. Woodcan
top-coats overplaned all-heartwood vertical-grain western reachthe fibersaturation point by absorbingeitherliquid
redcedar. water orwater vapor.

Several otherwood species were tested in addition to western The amount ofwatervaporthat can be absorbedprimarily
a
redcedar. In general, therewas directrelationship between depends onthe relativehumidity(RH) ofthe surrounding
wood specific gravity and amount oftime the wood couldbe air. Ifwood is storedat zero RH, the moisturecontentwill
exposed withouta deleterious effecton paintperformance. eventually reach 0%. Ifwood is storedat 100% RH, itwill
More densewood species such as Douglas-firandthe south- eventually reachfibersaturation (about 30%water). Of
ern pines showednopreweathering effectuntil they hadbeen course, ifkept at a constantRH betweenthese two extremes,
preweathered for 3 to 4 weeks.For species with low specific the wood will reachamoisture content between0 and 30%.
gravity, it is essentialto finishthe wood as soon as possible The moisturecontent is controlled by the RH, and when the
after installation, or betteryet, to preprimeit beforeinstalla- moisture contentis in balancewith the RH, the wood is at
tion. The wood could be back-primedat the same time (see its equilibrium moisturecontent. This rarelyhappensbe-
sectionon back-priming). cause as the RB changesso does the moisturecontentofthe
wood,and atmospheric RH is almost always changing. It
The bestremedyforrestoringaweatheredwood surface is to variesthroughdaily and seasonal cycles,thus drivingthe
sand it with 50- to 80-gritsandpaper.Sanding can easily be moisture contentofwood through dailyand seasonalcycles.
done by hand using a sheet rock sander. This toolconsists See Chapter3 for a more detaileddiscussion ofmoisture
ofa sandingpad attachedto a polewith a swivelconnection. contentand equilibrium moisture content.
Large areas ofsiding canbe quickly scuff-sanded to remove
the weatheredsurface. Even ifwoodhas not beenweathered, Equilibrium moisture content cannotbe changedthroughthe
scuffsanding providesamuch bettersurface forpainting, application offinishes. The only way that finishes canaffect
increases the servicelife ofthe paint,and improves the paint absorption ofwater orwatervaporis to affecttherate at
bond. which absorption occurs. Finishescan decreasedaily and
seasonal moistureabsorptionand desorption, but they do not

15—9
changethe equilibrium moisture content. See the sectionon The recommended moisturecontentforwood usedin exte-
moisture-excluding effectiveness offmishes fordiscussion of rior applications variessomewhatdepending on climatic
this topic. conditions. Theseconditionsinclude,but are not limited to,
coastalexposure, rainfall,elevation, and wind.However,
Woodexposedoutdoorscycles arounda moisture contentof problemsassociated with changesin moisture contentshould
about 12% in most areas ofthe United States. In the South- be minimized ifthe moisturecontent is between9% and
east, averagemoisturecontent can be slightlyhigherand in 14%. Most lumber is kiln dried to less than 20% moisture
the Southwest, the averagecan be lower(9%) (Ch. 12, contentbeforeshipment. Material that has beenkeptdry
Table 12—1). Daily and annualmoisturecontentwillvary
during shipment and storageat the constructionsite should
from these averagevalues. in general, forwoodexposed be close to thedesiredmoisturecontent.
outdoors, moisturecontent decreases during the summerand
increases during the winter. (For wood in interioruse in Lumberis often marketedfor construction purposesinthe
northernclimates,moisturecontentincreases duringthe kiln-driedcondition,but it is sometimesexposed to mois-
summerand decreasesduringthe winter.) Even in very ture later duringshipping, storage,and/or at the construction
humid areas, the RH is rarely high enoughfor long enough site. Woodthat is obviously wet and sometimesdiscolored
to bring themoisture contentofwood above 20%. Wood may not give optimumperformance. Ifwet wood is used, it
that is warmedby the sun experiences avirtualRH far below will dry in service, but shrinkage and accompanying warp-
the ambientRH. Woodwilldry faster and becomedrierthan ing,twisting, and checkingcan occur. Ifthe moisturecontent
expectedgiven the ambient RH. This is why checking often ofthewoodexceeds20% whenthewood is painted,the risk
occurs on deckingboards;the surface is much drierthan the ofblistering and peelingis increased. Moreover,dark wa-
restoftheboard. Shrinkage ofthe top portion ofthe board ter-soluble extractives in woodslike redwoodandwestern
commensurate with this drynessgoes beyondthe elastic redcedarmaydiscolorthe paint shortlyafterit is applied.
limit ofthe wood at the surface and checks form parallel to
thegrain. Plywood, particleboard, hardboard,and other wood compos-
ites undergo a significant changein moisture contentduring
As mentioned, fibersaturation is thegreatestamount ofwater manufacture. Frequently, the moisturecontentofthese mate-
that can be absorbedby wood via water vaporabsorption. rials is not knownand may vary dependingon the manufac-
This absorptionis rather slowcomparedwith the moisture turing process. To improve the service life ofthe finish,
changesthat can occur throughabsorptionofliquid water.
Liquidwater can quicklycause the wood to reachfiber satu-
wood composites shouldbe conditioned prior to fmishin
as are other wood products.
,
ration, and it is the only wayto bring the moisturecontent
ofwood abovefiber saturation. Liquidwater mustbepresent. Water Repellents
Liquidwater can reachwood throughwindblownrain, leaks,
condensation, dew, melting ice and snow, and other ways. The control ofwater and/orwater vaporrequiresdifferent
As wood continuesto absorb water aboveits fibersaturation types offinishes. Waterrepellentis agenericname for a wide
point, the water is storedin the hollowcenter ofthe wood variety ofscalers andwood treatments that changethe surface
cell; whenall the air in the hollow centerhas been replaced properties ofwood so that the wood sheds liquid water.
by water, thewood is waterloggedand moisture content can Water repellents havealmostno effecton the transmissionof
be as high as 200%. The sources and ways by whichwood water vapor;that is, they havelittle effect on the changein
can get wet sometimesseem endless. The result is always wood moisturecontentcausedby changes in RH. Water
thesame—poorperformance, both ofthewoodand of repellents work exceptionally wellto retard the absorption of
the finish. water into the end grain ofwood,the most absorptive ofthe
wood surfaces. Although water repellentsdo not stop all
Wooddecay (rot) cannot occurunless the moisture contentof water absorption, they are an excellent treatmentforwood
thewood isnearfiber saturation. This requireswater. Water used outdoorsbecausethey inhibitthe absorptionofliquid
alsocausespeelingofpaint.Even ifother factors are in- water duringrain,yet allow the wood to dry afterrain.
volved, water accelerates paintdegradation. Fortunately, the Water-repellent formulations usually include amildewcideor
moisture contentof lumbercan be controlled. But all too a woodpreservative and are then referredto as water-repellent
often,this critical factor is neglectedduring the construction preservatives. Thesefinishesare discussedin greaterdetail in
and finishingprocesses. It is best to paint wood when its later sections ofthis chapter.
average moisturecontent is aboutthat expectedtoprevail
during its servicelife. Painting atthistime can preventa Finish Moisture-Excluding
drasticchange in wood dimension,which occurs as wood
equilibrates to ambient conditions. The moisture contentand Effectiveness
thus the dimensionsofthe piece will still fluctuate some-
The moisture-excludingeffectivenessofa finishis a measure
what,dependingon the cyclic changesin atmospheric RH, ofits resistance to thetransmissionofwater vapor tothe
but thedimensionalchangewill not be excessive. Therefore, finishedwood. Itis basicallyameasure ofthe permeabilityof
film-formingfmishes (such as paints) will not be stressed acoatingto water vapor. It is not ameasureofwaterrepel-
unnecessarily, and servicelife shouldbe better.
lency. Moisture-excluding effectiveness is determinedby
comparing the moisture pickupofa coatedspecimenwith

15—10
that ofa matched uncoatedcontrol. A coatingthat blocksall The numerical valuesforpercentage ofeffectiveness in
moisturewould be 100% effective; however, no coating is Table 15—3 should be considered relativerather than absolute
entirelymoistureproof. There is as yet no way ofcompletely becausethe percentage ofeffectiveness variessubsiantially
keepingmoisture out ofwood that is exposed to prolonged with exposure to moisture conditions.The valueslbr effec-
periods ofhigh RH. As wood is exposed to varyingRH tive coatings(60%) are reliablein the sensethat they canbe
conditions,it absorbs or desorbsmoisture depending onthe reproduced closely on repeatingthe test; valuesfor ineffective
R}1.A coatingthat is effective at excluding moisture merely coatings (<20%)must be regardedas rough approximations
slowsabsorptionor desorptionofmoisture; it cannotchange only. Thesepercentages are basedon averageamounts of
theequilibriummoisture content (Ch. 3). moistureabsorbed perunitsurface areaby newlycoated and
uncoated wood panels. In addition,the valueswer deter-
To achievea high degreeofmoisture-excluding effectiveness, mined from specimens coated on all sides. Since wood used
it is necessary to form a moisture barrieron the wood surface. in normal construction is seldom coated on all sices, the
In additionto repellingliquidwater, this film willslowthe actualabsorption—desorptionwill differ from the valueslisted
diffusionofwater vaporinto or out ofthewood. Water- in Table 15—3.
repellent treatments differ frommoisture-excluding coatings
in that they do not slowtheabsorption—desorptionofwater Effect of Finish on Liquid Water
vapor. They repel liquid water only. For example, awater-
repellenttreatment,which mayhave no moisture-excluding and Water Vapor Absorption
effectiveness againstwatervapor,mighthave morethan60%
The variousdimensions ofwood andwood-basedbuilding
waterrepellencywhen tested usingstandardimmersion tests.
materials are constantly changing becauseofchanges in
The high degree ofprotectionprovidedby waterrepellents
moisture content,whichin turn are causedby fluctuations in
and water-repellent preservativesto shortperiodsofwetting
atmospheric RH as well as the periodic presence offreemois-
by liquidwater is the major reason they are recommended for ture such asrainordew. Waterrepellentsprovide protection
exteriorfmishing.
againstliquidwater but are ineffective againstwater vapor
The protection affordedbycoatingsin excluding moisture (humidity). Film-forming fmishes such as paint and varnish
from wood depends on a greatnumberofvariables. Among shed liquid water and retardthe absorptionofwater vapor,
them are coating film thickness, defects and voidsin the providedthe films are thick enough. Becausefilm-forming
film, type ofpigment,chemical composition ofthe oil or wood finisheslike paint will last longeron stable wood, it is
desirable to stabilizethe wood by fmishingit with a water-
polymer,volumeratio ofpigmentto vehicle (pigmentvol-
ume concentration), vapor-pressure gradient acrossthe film, repellentpreservativeas the first step in the finish system. As
and length ofexposure. Values in Table 15—3 indicatethe mentionedpreviously, there is no way to completely elimi-
range in protection againstmoisturein vapor form forsome nate the changing moisture contentofwood in response to
conventionalfmish systemswhen exposed to continuous changing RH. The coating simply slows down the rate at
high humidity. The degree ofprotectionprovidedalso whichthewood changes moisturecontent.
depends on the kind ofexposure.
Film-forming finishes slow both the absorption of'water
Porouspaints, such as latex paints andlow-luster(flat)or vapor anddryingofwood (Fig. 15—8). Aluminumflakepaint
breather-type oil-based paints formulated at apigmentvol- is a laboratory formulation designedto block water vapor
ume concentration usually above40%, affordlittle protection movementinto wood.It is about 80% effective at blocking
againstmoisture. Thesepaints permitrapid entry ofwater watervaporabsorptioncompared with watervapor absorp-
tion in an unpaintedcontrol. Almost all commonwood
vapor andwater from dew and rain unless appliedover a
nonporousprimeror pretreated with apaintable water- finishes,both oil and latex,are less effective than aluminum
repellentpreservative. In addition to beingporous,latex flakepaint atblockingwater vapor absorption. However, oil-
finishes containsurfactants that can encourage absorption of basedformulations aremore effective than latex formulations.
water into the coatingandwood, particularly justafter the The coatingslows the rate ofdrying. In cyclic high and low
coatinghas been applied.It is thoughtthat these surfactants RH, the moisture contentofthe wood increases with time
wash out ofthe coatingafter a short time, but detailedinfor- (Fig. 15—9).
mation on this is not available.
The moisture-excluding effectiveness describedin the previ-
The moisture-excluding effectiveness ofcoatings changes ous section was obtainedfrom specimens consisting ofsingle
only slightly with age. As long as the original appearance pieces ofwoodthat were paintedon all sides. In normal
and integrity ofthe coatings are retained, most effectiveness construction, wood is seldomcoatedon all sides. ]In addition
remains. Paint that is slowly fadingor chalkingwill remain to absorbing watervapor,paint coatingsusually crackat the
effective at excluding moisture; thepaint is still effective if jointbetweentwo piecesofwood,particularlyifthy have
there is a glossy film underneath the chalk(whichcan be differentgrain orientations (and thus differentdimensional
removed byrubbing).Deep chalking, checking, orcracking stability). Waterenters the wood throughthese cracksand is
indicates serious impairment ofmoisture-excluding trappedby the coating, thus causing an increase in moisture
effectiveness. content much higher than that shown in Figure 15--9.

15—Il
Table 15—3. Moisture-excluding effectiveness of various finishes on ponderosa pinea
Moisture-excluding Moisture-excluding
No. effectiveness (%) No. effectiveness (%)
of 1 7 14 of 1 7 14
Finish coats day days days Finish coats day days days
Linseed oil sealer (50%) I 7 0 0 Alkyd house primer paint 1 85 46 24
2 15 1 0 (tall maleic alkyd resin) 2 93 70 49
3 18 2 0 3 95 78 60
Linseedoil 1 12 0 0 Enamel paint, satin 1 93 69 50
2 22 0 0 (soya/tung/alkyd; 2 96 83 70
3 33 2 0 interior/exterior) 3 97 86 80
Tungoil 1 34 0 0 4 98 92 85
2 46 2 0 5 98 93 88
3 52 6 2 6 98 94 89
Paste furniturewax I 6 0 0 Floorand deck enamel 1 80 31 18
2 11 0 0 (phenolic alkyd) 2 89 53 35
3 17 0 0 3 92 63 46
Water repellent 1 12 0 0 Shellac 1 65 10 3
2 46 2 0 2 84 43 20
3 78 27 11 3 91 64 42
Latex flat wall paint 1 5 0 0 4 93 75 58
(vinyl acrylic resin) 2 11 0 0 5 94 81 67
3 22 0 0 6 95 85 73
Latex primerwall paint 1 78 37 20 Nitrocellulose lacquer 1 40 4 1

(butadiene—styrene resin) 2 86 47 27 2 70 22 8
3 88 55 33 3 79 37 19
Alkyd flat wall paint 1 9 1 0 Floor seal 1 31 1 0
(soya alkyd) 2 21 2 0 (phenolic resin/turg oil) 2 80 37 18
3 37 5 0 3 88 56 35
Acrylic latex house I 43 6 1 Spar varnish 1 48 6 0
primer paint 2 66 14 2 (soya alkyd) 2 80 36 15
3 72 20 4 3 87 53 30
Acrylic latex flat I 52 12 5 Urethanevarnish 1 55 10 2
house paint 2 77 28 11 (oil-modified) 2 83 43 23
3 84 39 16 3 90 64 44
Solid-colorlatex stain 1 5 0 0 4 91 68 51
(acrylic resin) 2 38 4 0 5 93 72 57
3 50 6 0 6 93 76 62
Solid-coloroil-based stain 1 45 7 1 Aluminum flake pigmented 1 90 61 41
(linseedoil) 2 84 48 26 urethane varnish 2 97 87 77
3 90 64 42 (oil-modified) 3 98 91 84
FPL natural finish (linseed- 1 62 14 3 4 98 93 87
oil-based semitransparent 2 70 21 6 5 98 94 89
stain) 3 76 30 11 6 99 95 90
Semitransparentoil-based 1 7 0 0 Polyurethane finish, clear 1 48 6 0
stain (commercial) 2 13 0 0 (two components) 2 90 66 46
3 21 1 0 3 94 81 66
Marine enamel, gloss (soya 1 79 38 18 Polyurethane paint, gloss (two 1 91 66 44
alkyd) 2 91 66 46 components) 2 94 79 62
3 93 74 57 3 96 86 74
Paraffin wax, brushed 1 97 82 69
Paraffin wax, dipped 1 100 97 95
asapwoodwas initiallyfinished and conditioned to 26°C (80°F) and 30% RH, then exposedto the same temperatureand
90% RH.

15—12
18.5
o I ——Unfinished wood
I —Alkyd paint
o I
oa) 15.5 AdsorptIon Desorption
0 atgO%RH at 30% RH
o

_:

I
ii; -
.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time(days)
Figure 15—8. Change in moisturecontent ofponderosa Figure 15—10. Decay in wood railing fully exposed
pine sapwood finishedwith three coats ofaluminum to weather.
pigmented alkyd paintand exposed to 90%and 30% RH
at 26C(80F), compared with moisture content of
unfinished wood.

21 x——x Unfinished wood

o o-—-o AlkydpaInt— 1 coat
—.Alkydpaint-3coats
30%RH 90%RH 30%RH 90%RH 30%RH
18
0)
.90%RH
i
_-4
o I I
/I
I

15 - / I
/
/1 'I/0I\
I

I I' /
\
.9?12 I
1

I
o'

'0

Xr—..y ' Figure 15—11. Paint failure at ends of boards.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Time(days)
Figure 15—9. Change in moisture content ofponderosa
pine sapwood finishedwith three coatsofaluminum particularlythe endgrain. The end grain ofwood absorbs
pigmented alkyd paintand exposed to alternating cycles moisture much faster than does the face grain,and finishes
of90% and 30% RH at 26C(80F), compared with generallyfail in the end grain first(Fig. 15—Il).Coatings
moisturecontentofunfinished wood. with goodmoisture-excluding effectiveness that are applied
to only one side ofthewood willcause unequalsorptionof
moisture, increasing the likelihood that the wood will cup
The paint film inhibitsdrying, as shown. This retardation of (warp). When finishingsiding, it is important to al[ow the
dryingcan havea drasticeffectonthe durability ofpainted back sideofthe wood to dry, particularlyifit is finished
wood fuliyexposedto the weather. The moisture content of with paint with high moisture-excluding effectiveness. Ap-
thewoodcan approach therange wheredecayfungican plyinga water-repellent preservativeorprimerto the end
become active.This type ofwood paint failure usual:ly occurs grain andback ofsiding(see sectionon back-priming) prior
on paintedfencesand porchrailings that are fullyexposed to to installingthesidingimprovesresistanceto water yet
theweather(Fig. 15—10). Applying a water-repellent pre- allows the sidingto dry. Cuppingcan be minimizedby
servative orprimingthe end grain ofwood used in these usingvertical-grain lumber and byminimizingthe
applications inhibits the absorption ofwater at the end grain aspectratio.
and thus works in concertwith the coatingto keepthe
wood thy. In those houses wheremoisturemovesfrom thelivingquar-
ters to the outside wallbecauseofthe lack ofavapor barrier
Fora coatingto be effective in minimizingmoisturecontent
changes in the wood, it must be appliedto all surfaces,

15—13
(or apoorvapor barrier), the application ofmoisture- character ofthe wood to show throughthe finish.Also, in
excluding fmishesto the outside will not preventpaint general, the more natural a fmish,the less durableit is.
peeling. In fact, finisheswith higher moisture-excluding Natural fmishes may bepenetratingfinishessuch as semi-
effectiveness are more proneto fail by peeling becausethey transparent stains or film-forming finishes such as varnish.
trap moisture. The penetrating naturalfinishes generallygive betterper-
formance and are easierto refinish. This sectionalsoad-
dresses weatheredwood as a "finish."
Types of Exterior The properties, treatment,andmaintenanceofexterior fin-
Wood Finishes ishes are summarizedin Table 15—4. The suitabilityand
The types ofexterior finishesfor wood are separated into two expectedlife ofthe most commonly used exteriorfinishes on
groups,those that penetratewood and those that form a film. severalwood and wood-based productsare summarizedin
As a generalrule, penetratingfinishes tend to give amore Table 15—5. The information in these tables shouldbe con-
"natural" look to the wood. That is, they allow some ofthe sidered as ageneralguideline only. Many factors affectthe
performance and lifetime ofwood finishes.

Table 15—4. Initial application and maintenance of exteriorwood finishesa

Initial application Maintenance
Finish Process Cost Appearance ofwood Process Cost Service lifeb

Water-repellent Brushing Lv Grainvisible; wood Brush to remove Lo.w 1—3 years

preservative brown to black, fades surface dirt;
slightlywith age remove mildew

Waterborne Pressure Medium Grain visible; wood Brush to remove Nil, unless None, unless
preservativec (factory applied) greenish or brownish, surface dirt; stained or stained, or
fades with age remove mildew painted painted

Organic solvent Pressure, steeping, Lowto Grain visible; color as Brush and Medium 2—3 years
preservatived dipping,and medium desired reapply orwhen
brushing preferred

Water repellente One or two brush Lrw Grain and natural Clean and Low to 1—3 years
coats of clear color visible, be- reapply medium orwhen
material or, pref- coming darkerand preferred
erably, dip applica- roughertexturedwith
tion age

Semitransparent One or two brush Low to Grain visible; color as Clean and Lowto 3—6 years
stain coats medium desired reapply medium orwhen
preferred

Clear varnish Three coats High Grain and natural Clean, sand, and High 2 years or at
(minimum) color unchanged if stain bleached breakdown
adequatelymain- areas; apply two
tamed more coats

Paint and solid- Brushing: water Medium Grain and natural Clean and apply Medium 7—10 years
color stain repellent, prime, to high color obscured top coat, or for paint;
and two top-coats re-move and 3—7 years for
repeatinitial solid-color
treatment if stain
damaged

aCompilation of data from observationsof many researchers.

bFor vertical exposure.
cAithough wood treated with waterbornepreservative may be left unfinished, it is bestto finish it with water-
repellent preservativeor semitransparent stain. See maintenanceof water repellent and semitransparentstain.
dPentachlorophenol bis(tri-n-butyltin oxide), copper naphthenate, copper-8-quinolinolate, and similar materials.
ewth or without added preservatives. Additionof preservative helps control mildew growth.
f1f top-quality acrylic latex top-coats are used.

15—14
Table 15—5. Suitability and expected servicelife offinishesfor exteriorwoodsurfacesa
Paint and solid-colorstain
Water-repellent Expected lifed
preservative and oil Semitransparent stain (years) —
Suit- Expected Expected Solid-color
Type of exteriorwood surface ability lifeb (years) Suitability lifec (years) Suitability Paint stain —
Siding
Cedarand redwood
Smooth (vertical grain) High 1—2 Moderate 2—4 High 4-6 3—5
Rough-sawn High 2—3 High 5-8 Moderate 5—7 4—6
Pine, fir, spruce
Smooth (flat grain) High 1—2 Law 2—3 Moderate 3—5 3-4
Rough (flat grain) High 2—3 High 4—7 Moderate 4—6 4—5
Shingles
Sawn High 2—3 High 4-8 Moderate 3—5 3—4
Split High 1—2 4-8 — 3—5 3—4
High
Plywood (Douglas-firand
Southern Pine)
Sanded Law 1—2 Moderate 2—4 Moderate 2—4 2—3
Textured (smooth-sawn) Law 1—2 Moderate 2—4 Moderate 3-4 2—3
Textured (rough-sawn) Law 2—3 High 4-8 Moderate 4—6 3—5
MDO plywood, cedar and Excellent 6—8 5—7
redwoode
Sanded Law 1—2 Moderate 2—4 Moderate 2—4 2—3
Textured (smooth-sawn) Law 1—2 Moderate 2—4 Moderate 3-4 2—3
Textured (rough-sawn) Law 2—3 High 5-8 Moderate 4-6 3—5
Hardboard, medium density
Smooth-sawn
Unfinished High 4-6 3—5
Preprimed High 4—6 3—5
Textured
Unfinished High 4—6 3—5
Preprimed High 4—6 3—5
Miliwork (usually pine) Highh — Moderate 2—3 High 3—6 3-4
Decking
New(smooth-sawn) High 1—2 Moderate 2—3 Law 2—3 1—2
Weathered(rough-sawn) High 2—3 High 3-6 Law 2—3 1—2
Glued-laminatedmembers
Smooth-sawn High 1—2 Moderate 3-4 Moderate 3-4 2—3
Rough-sawn High 2—3 High 6-8 Moderate 3—5 3—4
Oriented strandboard Law 1—3 Moderate 2—4 2—3

aData were compiledfrom observations of many researchers. Expected life predictionsare for average location in
continental United States; expected life will vary in extremeclimates or exposure(such as desert, seashore, and
deep woods).
bDevelopment of mildew on surface indicates need for refinishing.
cSmooth unweathered surfacesare generallyfinishedwith only one coat of stain. Rough-sawn or weathered sur-
faces, which are more adsorptive,can be finished with two coats; second coat is applied while first coat is still wet.
dExpected life of two coats, one primerand one top-coat. Applying second top-coat(three-coatjob) will
approximatelydouble the life. Top-qualityacrylic latex paints have the best durability.
eMedium..density overlay (MDO) is generallypainted.
1Semitransparent stains are not suitable for hardboard. Solid-color stains (acrylic latex) will perform like paints.
Paints are preferred.
shutters, doors, exterior trim.
hExterior millwork, such as windows, should be factory treated according to Industry Standard 1S4—99 of the Window
and Door Manufacturer'sAssociation.Other trim should be liberallytreated by brushing before painting.

15—15
 Penetrating Wood Finishes
Penetrating fmishes constitute a broadclassificationofnatural
wood finishesthat donot form a film onthe wood surface.
Penetrating finishes are classified as (a)transparentor clear
systems, (b) lightly colored systems, (c) pigmentedor semi-
transparent systems, and (d) oils.

Transparentor Clear Finishes

Penetrating transparent or clear finishes are generallyatype of
waterrepellent orwater-repellent preservative. Water-
repellentpreservativesmay be usedas anatural fmish.They
differfromwater repellents inthat theycontaina fungicide
such as 3-iodo-2-propynyl butyl carbamate.As with water
repellents, water-repellent preservatives containa small
15—12. Frontview of exterior grade of plywood amount ofwax, a resin, or a dryingoil. They were tradition-
Figure
siding after 10 years of exposure. ally formulatedusing a solvent such as turpentineor mineral
spirits, but they are presentlyavailablein a wide range of
other solvent systems, including waterbomeformulations.
Weathered Wood as Natural Finish Penetrating fmishes that use paraffmoil as the solvent system
are also available. Theseformulations penetrate wood like
The simplestfinish forwood is that createdby the weather- solventbome formulations do and the oil helps improve
ing process. Withoutpaintor treatmentofany kind, wood water repellency. Since penetrating finisheswith paraffinoil
surfaces graduallychangein color and texture, and theymay
are usuallyformulatedwithout any volatilesolvents,they
stay almostunalteredfor a long time ifthe wood does not meet air qualityrequirements. (See sectionon VOC-
decay.Generally,dark-colored woodsbecome lighterand compliantfmishes.)They are usually agood valuebecause
light-coloredwoodsbecomedarker. As weathering contin- virtuallyall ofwhat comesinthe can ends up in the wood.
ues, all woodsbecomegray becauseofthe loss ofcolored
components from the wood surface andthe growthofmil- Water-repellent preservatives maintainthe originalappear-
dew.As the surface erodes,it becomes unevenbecauseof ance ofthe wood,butthey are not very durable.Treating
thedifferenterosionratesofearlywood and latewood. wood surfaces with a water-repellent preservative will protect
(Fig. 15—6). wood exposed outdoors with little initial changein appear-
ance. A bright, golden-tan color can be achievedwith most
Althoughleaving wood to weatherto a natural finishmay wood species. The treatmentdecreases warpingand cracking,
seem like an inexpensivelow-maintenance alternative to
fmishing, there are many problemsto this approach. To preventswater stainingat edgesand ends ofwood siding,
and helpscontrolmildewgrowth. The first applicationofa
avoid decay,wood must be all heartwoodfrom a decay-
water-repellent preservative may protectexposed wood sur-
resistantspecies such as redwoodor western redcedar. faces for only ito 2 years,but subsequent reapplications may
Woodshouldhave verticalgrain to decrease the potential for last 2 to 4 years because the weatheredboardsabsorbmore
splitting,grain raising, and cupping. Composite wood fmish. Whena surface startsto showblotchy discoloration
products,such as plywood, must never be left unprotected to causedby extractives ormildew,it should be cleanedwith a
weather. The surface veneerofplywoodcanbe completely commercial cleanerorliquid householdbleachanddetergent
destroyedwithin 10 years ifnot protectedfrom weathering. solution, allowedto dry, and retreated.
Figure 15—12shows weathering ofunfmishedplywood; the
intact portionofthe plywood(left)hadbeen coveredwith a Caution: Because ofthe toxicityofsome fungicides
boardto give a board-and-batten appearance. inwater-repellent preservativesolutions and some
semitransparent stains,care shouldbe exercisedto
To allow a wood structureto weatherto a natural finish, the avoid excessive contact with the solutionor its va-
structuremust be designedto keep the wood from getting
wet from wind-driven rain (for example,wide roofover- por. Shrubsand plants should also be protected
fromaccidental contamination.
hangs). In most climates in the United States,exteriorwood
developsblotchymildew growthand there is no protection Paintable water-repellent preservatives may also be used as a
againstsurface erosion or decay.It is very difficult to obtain treatment for barewood beforeprimingand painting or in
thesilvery-gray weatheredpatinathat weathering cangive. areas whereold painthas peeledand the bare wood is ex-
The climate along the coastal regionsofNew England and in posed, particularlyaround buttjoints or in corners. This
some high mountainsseemsto encouragethe development of treatmentkeepsrain ordewfrom penetratinginto the wood,
this fmish. Even when the climaticconditions favorthe especiallyatjoints andend grain, andthus decreasesshrink-
development ofaweatheredfinish, it takes severalyearsto ing and swelling ofthe wood. As a result, less stress is
achieve an evensilvery-gray appearance. placedonthe paint film and its service life is extended

15—16
 formulations form a slight film onthe wood surface. This is
particularly true forthe waterbome formulations. A; with the
uncoloredclearfinishes,the durability oflightlycolored
finishes is somewhat limited. AlthoughtheirduraIility is
improvedby the inclusion ofUV stabilizers and finely
groundpigment, lightly coloredfmishes still lack sufficient
pigment to stop UV degradation ofthe wood.

SemitransparentStains
Inorganicpigmentscan also be addedto water-repe.lent
preservative solutions to providespecialcolor effeci:s, and the
mixture is then classified as a semitransparent stain. A semi-
transparent stain is a pigmentedpenetratingstain. Colors
that matchthe natural colorofthe wood and extractives are
usually preferred. The addition ofpigmentto the finishhelps
stabilize the color and increase the durability ofthe finish,
but theygive a less naturalappearance becausethe pigment
partially hides the original grain and color ofthe wood.
Semitransparent stains are generallymuch more durablethan
are water-repellent preservatives andprovidemore protection
Figure 15—13. Effectofwater-repellent preservative against weathering. Thesestainsslowweatheringby retard-
treatment. A, Windowsashand frame treated with ing the alternate wetting and dryingofwood, andthe pig-
a water-repellent preservative and then painted; ment particles on the wood surface minimize the degrading
B, windowsashand frame nottreated before painting. effects ofsunlight. The amountofpigmentin semitransparent
Both windowsash—frame sets wereweathered for stains canvary considerably, thus providing differer.t degrees
5 years. ofprotection against UV degradation andmaskingofthe
original wood surface. Higherpigment concentration yields
greaterprotection againstweathering,but it alsohi(les the
naturalcolor ofthe wood.
(Fig. 15—13). This stabilityis achievedby the smallamount
ofwax present inwater-repellent preservatives. The wax Solventbome oil-based semitransparent penetratingstains
decreasesthe capillary movementorwickingofwater up the penetrate the wood surface, are porous, and do notThrma
back side oflap or drop siding. The fungicideinhibits decay. surface film like paints. As a result,they will not blister or
peel even ifmoisturemoves throughthe wood. Seniitrans-
A largenumberand variety ofwaterborne penetrating clear parentpenetratingstainsare only moderately pigmentedand
finishes are availablefor use on wood.The formulations of do not totally hidethe wood grain. Penetrating stains are
these finishes are generallyproprietary, and it is difficultto alkyd or oil based, and somemay contain a fungicide as well
determine the natureofthese finishes. Theseformulations are as awater repellent. Moderately pigmentedlatex-ba;ed
usuallywater emulsionsofsyntheticpolymers. The poly- (waterborne) stains are also available, but they do not pene-
mers do not penetrate the lateralsurface ofthe woodvery trate thewood surface as well as the oil-based stains.Some
well,butthey can changethe surface properties. The polymer latex-based formulations are oil modified. Theseformulations
helpsseal the surface and provides somewaterrepellency. givebetterpenetration than do the unmodifiedformulations.
The formulations may includeadditionaladditives such as
UV stabilizers, additionalwaterrepellents,mildewcides, and Semitransparent stainsare most effective on rough lumberor
colorants. rough-sawn plywoodsurfaces. Theymay be used on smooth
surfaces but haveless thanhalfthe service life compared with
Lightly Colored Finishes that on rough surfaces. Stains are available in avariety of
Traditionalsolventbomeformulationsofwater-repellent colors and are especially popularin the brownor red earth
tones becausethese give a naturalor rustic appearanceto the
preservatives did not containany coloringpigments. There-
fore, theresultingfinish variedlittle from the original color wood. They are anexcellentfinishfor weathered wood.
ofthewood.Many ofthenewerformulations areslightly Semitransparent stains are not effective whenappliedovera
colored andhave other additivessuch as UV stabilizers. As solid-color stain or old paint.
with traditionalformulations, the preservative also prevents
wood from darkening(graying)throughmildewgrowth. Many resinand paintmanufacturers havetriedto achieve the
properties ofsolventborne semitransparent stainsusing
Theselightlycoloredfmishes may be water-or solventborne waterbome formulations. Someofthese fmishes achieveda
formulations. The color may be obtainedfrom dyes orfinely semitransparent appearance by the formation ofa ratherthin
groundpigment.Although they are still classifiedas a coatingon the wood surface. The resins used in these formu-
penetrating finishor sealer forwood,many ofthe newer lationsdid not penetrate the wood surface. Therefore, these
finishes wereproneto fail withina fewyears throughflaking

15—17
ofthethin coating from thesurface. Whenthe surfaces were Solid-Color Stains
refmished, the subsequent finish increased the film thickness Solid-colorstainsare opaque finishes (also calledhiding,
andobscuredthe original appearance ofthewood.Because heavy-bodied, orblocking)that comein awide range of
thefilm buildup is not sufficientto give the good perform- colorsand are madewith amuch higherconcentration of
ance providedby a film-forming fmish, waterbomesemi- pigmentthanare semitransparent penetratingstains. As a
transparentstainsgenerallycontinue to fail by flaking. Many result, solid-color stainstotally obscurethe natural color and
new formulations are modifiedwith oil—alkyds. The oil grain ofthe wood. Solid-color stains (both oil- and latex-
penetrates the surface, thus improving the performance ofthe based)tend to form a film much like paint, and as aresult
finish. Efforts are continuing to improve these formulations; they can alsopeelfrom the substrate. Both oil and latex
it is advisableto checkwith a local paint supplierfor the solid-color stainsare similar to paints and can usuallybe
latest developments in this area. appliedover old paintor to unfinishedwood ifadequately
primed. As with any film-forming finish,good service life
Oils requires4- to 5-mildry film thickness.
Drying oils, such as linseed and tang, are sometimes used
by themselvesas natural fmishes.Suchoils are not recom- Paint
mendedfor exterioruse unless they are formulated with a Paints are highlypigmentedfilm-forming coatingsthat give
mildewcide. Theseoils are naturalproductsand therefore the mostprotectionto wood. Paintsareusedfor esthetic
providefoodfor mildew.Whendryingoils are used on purposes,to protectthe wood surface from weathering, and to
highlycoloredwoods such as redwoodor the cedars, they conceal certain defects. They alsoprovideacleanable surface.
tend to increase problemswith mildew. Ofall thefmishes,paintsprovide themost protection for
woodagainstsurface erosion and offerthe widestselectionof
Film-Forming Finishes colors. Paints are the only way to achieve a bright white
fmish. A nonporouspaint film retardspenetrationofmoisture
Clear Varnish and decreases discoloration by wood extractives as well as
Clearvarnishisthe primarytransparent film-forming material checking and warpingofthe wood. Paint is not a preserva-
used for anatural wood finish, and it greatlyenhances the tive. It will not prevent decay ifconditions are favorablelir
naturalbeauty and figureofwood.However, varnishlacks fungalgrowth.
exterior permanence unlessprotectedfrom directexposure to Paints do notpenetrate the surface ofthe wood exceptto Fill
sunlight, and varnish fmishes on wood exposedoutdoors cutcells and vessels. They do not penetrate thecell wall of
withoutprotectionwill generallyrequirerefinishing every thewood as do some penetratingfmishes.The wood grain is
1 to 2 years. Thus, varnish is not generallyrecommended for
exterioruse on wood. Varnishcoatingsembrittleby expo- completely obscured as the surface film is formed.Paints
sureto sunlightand developseverecrackingandpeeling. perform beston vertical-grain lumber ofspecies with low
Varnishused in areas that are protectedfrom direct sunlight specificgravity. As with other film-forming finishes, paints
can blister or peel ifthe wood is wetted or ifinsidewater
by an overhangor used onthe north side ofthe structurewill vapor movesthroughthe house wall to the wood.
last considerably longer. However, evenin protectedareas,a
minimum ofthree coats ofvarnish is recommended, andthe Latexpaintsare generallyeasierto use becausewater is used
wood shouldbe treatedwith a paintable water-repellent in cleanup.They arealso porous and thus allow some mois-
preservative beforefinishing.The use ofpigmented stains ture movement. In comparison, oil-basedpaints require
and sealers as undercoats willalsocontribute to greaterlife of organic solvents forcleanup,and some oil-basedpaints are
theclear finish. In marine exposures, up to six coats ofvar- resistantto moisturemovement. Latex paints mainly formu-
nish shouldbe used forbest performance. latedwith acrylic resins are extremely resistantto weathering
and maintaintheir gloss better than do oil-based paints.
Pigmented Varnish Suchlatex paintsremain flexiblethroughouttheir service
Several finishmanufacturers have formulated varnish with life. Oil-based paints tend to losegloss within a year ortwo
fmely ground inorganic pigmentsthat partiallyblockUV and are prone to embrittle over time.
radiationyet allow much ofthe visible light to pass through
thefinish. Theseproductsgivemuch betterperformance than The cost offmishes varieswidelydependingon thetype of
do traditional clear varnishes,andifa clear film is desired for fmish and quality(Table 15—4). Within a particulartype of
exterior use, they may be abetter choice.Pigmentedvarnish finish(for example, oil-based paint, all-acrylic latex paint,
oil-based solid-color stain),cost usually correlateswith
givesexcellent performance on structures that are protected
from sunlightby wide overhangsand woodedsurroundings. quality. Betterquality paints usuallycontain higher amounts
The degradation ofpigmentedvarnishinitiallyoccurs on the ofsolids by weight.Paints with a lowerpercentageofsolids
film surface as crazingandchecking. Thesesurface checks can may cost less by the unit butbe more expensiveper unit of
be repairedby refmishingin atimelymanner.Eventually, solids,and more or heaviercoats willhave to be appliedto
achieve equal coverage. Comparing solids content andprice
however, the buildup ofcoats will block much ofthe visible
light and the wood will appear dark. can bethe firstcriterion forselectingthe bettervaluebecause
only the solidsare left on the surface after the solvent

15—18
evaporates. For example,ifone paint is 50% solids and costs not previouslyhad to complywith VOC regulations. Many
$20 and a second paint is 40% solids and costs $18, all traditionalwood finishesmayno longerbe acceptable, in-
other thingsbeing equal the $20 paint is a better value (25% cludingoil-based semi-transparent stains,oil- and alkyd-
more solids for about 11% more money).Anothercriterion is basedprimersand top coats, solventbome water-repellents,
the amountand type ofpigmentbecausethese determine the and solventborne water-repellent preservatives. Many current
hidingpower ofthe fmish. Paint that containsprimarily wood fmishes, including some latex-based materiaL s, may be
titaniumdioxidepigmentwillhave betterhiding power than reformulated. Thesechanges affectthe properties ofthe fmish,
that with calciumcarbonatefiller. A paint with poorhiding application, interaction with the wood (for example,adhe-
powermay require the application ofmore coats.Finally, the sion,penetration, moisture-excluding effectiveness), and
type and amount ofbinderaffectthe qualityofthe paint.For possiblydurability.
latexpaints,all acrylicbindersare more weather-resistant
than are vinyl and vinyl—acrylicbinders. Manypenetratingfinishes,such as semitransparent stains,
have low solids content(pigment, oils, polymers) Levels and
Fire-Retardant Coatings are being reformulated to meet low-VOC regulatios.To
meetthe VOCrequirements, these reformulated fmishes may
Many commercialfire-retardantcoatingproductsare available containhighersolidscontent, reactivediluents, new types of
to providevaryingdegrees ofprotection ofwoodagainstfire. solvents and/or cosolvents, or other nontraditional substi-
Thesepaintcoatingsgenerallyhavelow surface flammability tuents. These low-VOC formulations are proneto form films
characteristics and"intumesce"to form an expandedlow- rather thanpenetrate the wood surface. There is little informa-
density film upon exposureto fire, thus insulating the wood tion about the way these new penetratingfmishes interact
surface fromheatandretardingpyrolysis reactions. The with the substrateto protectthe wood or about the degrada-
paints have addedingredients to restrict the flamingofany tion mechanisms ofthese finisheswhenexposed to various
releasedcombustiblevapors. Chemicals mayalso be present outdoor conditions. Becausesuch formulations may not
in these paintsto promotedecomposition ofthewood surface interact with the wood in the same way as do traditional
to charcoal andwater ratherthantheformation ofvolatile fmishes, the effect ofmoisture maybe different.
flammable products. Most fire-retardant coatingsare intended
for interioruse, but someare available for exteriorapplica-
tion. Wood shakesand shinglesare often impregnatedwith a
fireretardant.
Application of Wood Finishes
Type of Finish
Compliance of VOC Finishes Water-Repellent Preservatives
With Pollution Regulations The most effective method ofapplying a waterrepellentor
water-repellent preservative isto dip the entireboad into the
Volatile organiccompounds(VOCs)are those organic mate- solution. However,other application methodscan be used if
rials in fmishesthat evaporate as the fmishdries andLIor cures. they are followedby backbrushing. It is advantageous to
These materials are regardedas air pollutants, and the treat the back side ofthe siding, particularlywith highly
amountthat can be releasedfor a given amountofsolids(for coloredwood species.(See section on back-priming.) When
example,binder, pigments)in the paints is now regulatedin wood is treatedinplace, liberalamountsofthe solution
many areas. Regulationsthat restrict the amountofVOCs in should be appliedto all lap and buttjoints, edges and ends
paintshave been enactedin many states, including Califor- ofboards,and edgesofpanelswith end grain. Otherareas
nia, New York, Texas, Massachusetts, New Jersey, and especially vulnerable to moisture, such as the bottcmsof
Arizona, and legislation is pending in many others. doors andwindowframes,shouldalso be treated.Coverage
The result ofsuch legislationis that all major paint compa- is about 6.1 m2/L (250 ft2/gal) on a smooth surface or
flies have had to eitherchangetheir paintformulation or 3.7 m2/L (150 ft2/gal) on a rough surface. Smoothwood will
market additional low-VOC formulations. Somesmaller usuallyacceptonly a single coat; a second coat willnot
companies have beenunaffected by VOCregulations because penetrate the wood. Water-repellent preservative treatment
they markettheirproductsin limitedgeographic areas out- generallylasts longeronrough surfaces than on smooth
side those affectedby existingStateand local legislation. surfaces because more finishpenetrates the wood.As anatu-
This situationis slated to change soon. Under the 1990 New ral fmish, the life expectancy ofawater-repellent preservative
Clean Air Act, the U.S. EnvironmentalProtectionAgency is only I to 2 years,dependingupon thewood and exposure.
(EPA)has been chargedto enactaregulation that aflèctsall of However, reapplication is easy, particularlyon decksand
theUnitedStates.This regulation will take effect in 1999 fences. Multiplecoats brush-applied to thepoint ofrefusal
and will regulatethe amountofVOC in all types ofarchitec- (failure to penetrate) will enhance durability andperformance
tural fmishes,includingpaints, solid-color stains, and pene- ofthe wood.
tratingfmishes, such as semitransparent stainsand water-
Water-repellent-preservative-treated woodthat is paintedwill
repellent preservatives. not needretreatment unless the protectivepaint layerhas
Existingand pendingregulations are a serious concern peeled orweathered away. The water-repellent preservative
throughoutthe U.S. paint industry,particularly with regard shouldbe appliedonly to the areas wherethe paini has
to a nationalrulethat will affectareas ofthe countrythat have peeled. The water-repellent preservative shouldbe allowed

15—19
 smooth wood is only 2 to 4 years; successiverecoats last
longer (Table 15—5).
Caution: Sponges or clothsthat are wet with oil-
based stainare particularlysusceptible to spontane-
ouscombustion. To preventfires, immersesuch
materials in water and seal in a water-filled air-tight
metal container immediately afteruse.

Waterborne Semitransparent Stains

stainsdo not penetrate the wood
Waterbomesemitransparent
surface as well as oilborne semitransparent stains, but the'
areeasy to apply and less likelyto form lapmarks. These
stains form athinfilm, and a second coat will improvetheir
Figure 15—14. Lap marks on woodfinishedwith
semitransparent stain. durability. Apply the second coat any time after the first
has dried.

Solid-Color Stains
to dry for 3 days,and thepeeledareashouldbe reprimed Solid-colorstainsmay be appliedto a smoothwood surface
before it isrepainted. by brush, spray, or roller; ifthefinish is applied by sprayor
roller, it is necessaryto "back-brush" immediately after
Semitransparent Penetrating Stains application. Solid-colorStains act much like paint. One coat
Semitransparent penetratingstainsmay be brushed, sprayed, ofsolid-color stainis notconsidered adequatefor siding.
or rolledon, but they must be back-brushed. Brushing works Somemanufacturers recommend usingthe firstcoat as a
the fmish into the wood and evens out the application so that primer,but a primerpaint mightbe better, particularlyif
thereis less chance for lap marks. Semitransparent penetrat- there is a possibility forextractives bleed. Two coats of
ing stains are generallythinand runny, so application can be solid-color stain appliedover a quality latex or oil primer
messy. Lap marksmay form ifstains are improperly applied, shouldgive service life similar to that ofa good paint sys-
but such marks canbe prevented by stainingonly a small tem. Solid-colorstains are not generallyrecommendedfor
number ofboards or one panel at atime (Fig. 15—14). This horizontal wood surfaces such as decks,roofs,and
methodpreventsthe frontedge ofthe stained area from dry- window sills.
ing out before a logicalstoppingplace is reached.Working
in the shadeis desirablebecausethedryingrate is slower. Unlikepaint, solid-color stain is subjectto lap marks during
Coverageis usually about 4.9 to 9.8 m2fL (200 to application. Latex-based stains are particularlyfast-drying
400 ft2/gal) on a smoothwood surface and from 2.4 to and are more likelyto showlap marksthan are oil-based
4.9 mfL (100 to 200 ft2/gal) on a rough or weathered stains. To prevent lap marks, followthe proceduressug-
surface.Stainsperformmuch betteron rough-sawn wood. gestedin the sectionon application ofsemitransparent perle-
trating stains.
To give penetratingoil-basedsemitransparent stains a long
life onrough-sawnorweatheredlumber, use two coats and Paint
apply the second coatbefore the firstis dry (wet on wet Wood andwood-based productsshould be protectedfrom
application). Applythe firstcoatto a panelor areain aman- sunlightand water while storedprior to deliveryto a con-
ner to prevent lap marks. Then,work on another areaso that structionsite and while stored on the constructionsite. The
the first coat can soak into the wood for20 to 60 mm. Apply finish shouldbe appliedas soon as possible after the wood is
thesecondcoat beforethefirstcoat has dried.Ifthefirstcoat installed.Surface contamination from dirt, oil, and other
dries completely, it may seal the wood surface so that the
secondcoat cannotpenetrate the wood.About anhour after foreignsubstances must be eliminated. The paint bond with
thewood is greatly increased ifthewood is painted within
applying the second coat, use a cloth, sponge, or dry brush 1 week, weatherpermitting,after installation (see Weather-
lightly wettedwith stain to wipe offexcessstain that has not ing—Effect ofweathering on paintadhesion). To achieve
penetratedinto the wood. Otherwise, areas ofstainthat did maximum paint life, do the following:
not penetrate may form an unsightlyshinysurface film.
Avoid intermixingdifferentbrandsor batches ofstain. Stir 1. Treat wood sidingand trim with a paintable water-
thestainoccasionallyand thoroughlyduringapplicationto repellentpreservative or waterrepellent.Waterrepellents
preventsettlingand color change. protectthe wood againstthe absorptionofrain and dew
and thus help to minimize swellingand shrinking.Water
A two-coatsystem ofsemitransparent penetrating stainmay
lastas long as 10 years on roughwood in certain exposures repellentscan be appliedby brushing or dipping.Lap and
buttjoints andtheedges ofpanel productssuch as ply-
as a result ofthe largeamountofstain absorbed. By com-
wood,hardboard,and particleboardshould be especially
parison, the life expectancyofone coat ofstain on new welltreatedbecause these areas are proneto absorb

15—20
 moisture, whichleads to paint failure.Allow at least three deteriorated paint.Then rinse the cleanedwood with water
warm, sunnydays for adequatedrying beforepainting the and allow all surfaces to dry beforepainting.
treatedsurface. Ifthe wood has been dip treated, allow at
least 1 weekoffavorable weatherbeforepainting. 5. To avoid temperature blistering,do not apply oi].-based
paint on a cool surface that will be heatedby the sun
2. Primethe bare woodafter the water-repellent preservative withina few hours.Temperature blisteringis most com-
has dried (see sectiononback-priming). The primercoat mon with thick coats ofdark-colored paint appliedin cool
forms abase forall succeeding paintcoats.Forwoods weather. The blisters usually show up in the last coat of
with water-soluble extractives, such as redwoodand cedar, paintand occur within a few hours or up to 1 or 2 days
primersblock the bleed ofextractives into the top coat. after painting. They do not containwater.
Usea primerthat is labeledto "blockextractives bleed," 6. Apply latex-based waterborne paintswhenthe temperature
usually a qualityalkyd-based paint.Many manufacturers is at least 10°C (50°F); oil-basedpaint may be applied
are also fonnulatingstain-blocking acrylic-latex-based whenthe temperature is at least4°C(40°F).For proper
paints. Allow a latex stain-blockingprimer to dry for at
least 24 to48 h beforeapplyingthe top coat. Ifthe primer curingoflatex paint films,the temperatureshouldnot
has not fully cured, extractives may bleedinto the top drop below 10°C (50°F) for at least 24 h afterpaint appli-
cation. Lowtemperatures willresult in poor coalescence of
coat.Apply a primerregardlessofwhetherthe top coatis thepaintfilm and earlypaint failure. Somenew latex for-
an oil-based or latex-based paint.Forspeciesthat are pre-
mulations arebeing developedfor application at lower
dominantly sapwoodand free ofextractives, such as pine,
temperatures. Refer to application instructions on the label
using aquality primer is still necessary to give a good ofthepaintcan.
base forthe top coat.Apply enoughprimerto obscure the
wood grain. Followthe applicationratesrecommendedby 7. To avoid wrinkling, fading,or loss of gloss ofoil-based
themanufacturer. Donot spreadtheprimertoo thinly.A paints and streaking oflatex paints,do not apply the paint
primer coat that is uniformand ofthe properthickness during autunmdays or cool spring eveningswhenheavy
willdistributethe swelling stressesthat developin wood dews form during the night. Serious water absorption
and thus help to preventpremature paint failure. problemsandmajor fmish failure can occurwith some
paints whenappliedunder these conditions.
3. Applytwocoats ofa good-quality acrylic latex house
paint over the primer. Oil-based, alkyd-based, and vinyl—
acrylicpaints can also be used. Ifit is notpracticalto Porches, Decks, and Fences
apply two top-coatsto the entirehouse, considertwo top- Exposedflooringonporches is usually painted. Since
coats forfully exposed areas on the southand west sides porchesoften get wetfrom windblownrain, it is particularly
as a minimumforgood protection.Areasfullyexposedto important to pretreatthe wood surface with a water-repellent
sunshine and rain arethe firstto deteriorate and therefore
preservative prior topainting.Use primersandpaints spe-
shouldreceivetwo top-coats.On thosewood surfaces best
suited for painting,one coat ofa goodhouse paint over a ciallyformulated forporches.Thesepaints are formulated to
resist abrasion and wear.
properlyappliedprimer (a conventional two-coatpaint
system)should last 4 to 5 years, but two topcoaitscan Manyfullyexposed decks are more effectively fmished with
last 10 years (Table 15—5). only a water-repellent preservative or a penetrating-type
semitransparent pigmentedstain. Decks fmishedw:iith these
Primerwillcover about 6.1 to 7.4 m2/L (250 to fmishes will needmore frequentrefmishing than dc painted
300 ft2/gal) on smoothbare wood; forrepainting, coverage surfaces, butrefmishing is easybecausethere isno :ieed for
will be about9.8 m2fL (400 ft2/gal).However,coverage the laborious surface preparation required for painted surfaces
can vary with differentpaints,surface characteristics, and that have peeled. It is essentialto limitthe application of
application procedures. Research has indicated that the op- semitransparent stainto what the surface can absorb. Roller
timal thicknessfor the total dry paintcoat(primer and two and spray application may put too much stainon the hori-
top-coats)is 0.10to 0.13 mm(4 to 5 mils) (or about the zontalsurfaces ofdecks. Thebest application method for
thicknessofa sheet ofnewspaper).The qualityofpaintis such smoothsurfaces is bybrush. Unlessspeciallyformu-
usually,but not always,relatedto price.Brush applica- lated foruse on decks,solid-colorstainsshould not be used
tion is always superior toroller or spray application, espe- onany horizontal surface becausetheylackabrasion
cially forthe first coat. resistance, and becausethey form afilm, they tend to fail by
flaking.
4. To avoid peelingbetweenpaint coats, apply thefirst top-
coat within2 weeks after theprimer andthe secondcoat Like decks, fencesare fullyexposed to the weatherandat
within2 weeksofthe first. As certainpaintsweather,they least some parts (suchas posts) are in contactwith the soil.
can form a soaplikesubstance on their surface that may As aresult,wood decayand termiteattack are potential
prevent properadhesionofnewpaint coats.Ifmore than problems. Oftenin the designoffences, little consideration is
2 weeks elapsebeforeapplyinganother paintcoat, scrub given to protecting exposed end-grainofvariousfencecom-
theold surface with water using a bristle brush or sponge. ponents or to avoidingtrappedmoisture. Ifa film-forming
Ifnecessary, use a mild detergentto remove all dirtand a
fmishis to be usedon fence, it is extremely

15—21
important to sealthe end grain andprotect exposed end-grain semitransparent penetrating stainscan be usedon these
whereverpossible. Use lumberpressure-treated with preserva- products, but only after the preservative-treated woodhas
tives or naturallydurablewood species for all posts and other weatheredfor 1 to 2years, depending on exposure.
fencecomponents that are in groundcontact.
The only preservative-treated woods that should be painted
In regardto theservicelife ofnaturallydurable wood species or stained immediately after treatmentand without further
compared with wood pressure-treated with preservatives, exposure arethe waterbome preservative treatments (suchas
there are no absolute"rules." In groundcontactuses, pres- CCA-treated wood). Since wood treatedwith these preserva-
sure-treated wood species often outperform naturally durable tivesis often usedfor residential structures, it needs to be
species inwarm wet climates, but less difference in service finishednot only for estheticreasons,but alsoto protect it
life often occurs in thy climates. The servicelife ofnaturally from weathering. Many manufacturers ofchemicals fortreat-
durable and preservative-treated woodsis quitecomparable in ing woodwith waterborne preservatives includeawater-
aboveground exposures,such as deckingboards,railing,and repellent treatment to give the treatedwood better resistance
fenceboards. In selectingwood forporches,decks, and to weathering, particularly checkingand splitting.Even ifthe
a
fences, whetherpreservativetreatedor naturally durable woodwas treatedwith waterrepellentby the manufacturer, it
species,consideration must be given tothe exposure condi- shouldbe maintainedwith a fmishto extend its service life.
tions, designofthe structure,andpropertiesofthe wood, Woodused in aboveground applications that has beenprop-
including its variability. erly treatedwith preservative is usuallyreplaced becauseof
weathering, not decay.
In aboveground uses,theweathering ofwood can be asmuch
a factorin long-term service lifeas is decay resistance.
Whethernaturallydurable wood species or preservative- Marine Uses
treated wood is usedin full exposures to weather, it is neces- The marineenvironmentis particularlyharsh on wood. As
sary toprotect the wood with a finish. Periodictreatment discussed, thenaturalsurfacedeterioration processoccurs
with a penetrating sealer,such as a water-repellent preserva- slowly. Marine environments speedup the natural weather-
tive, will decreasecheckingand splitting, and pigmented ing process to some extent, andwood for marine uses is
finishes will retard weathering. oftenfmishedwith paint orvarnishforprotection.CertairL
antifouling paints are also used to protect piers and ship
Treated Wood hulls againstmarine organisms.
Treatedwood is often used to constructporches,decks, and Forbest protection, wood exposedto marine environments
fences, particularlywoodtreatedwith chromatedcopper above waterand abovegroundshould betreatedwith a
arsenate (CCA). Woodsthat havebeen pressure treatedfor paintable water-repellent preservative, paintedwith a suitable
decay sometimeshave specialfinishingrequirements. Wood paint primer, and top coated (at least two coats) with quality
pressuretreatedwith waterbornechemicals, such as copper, exterior marineproducts.
chromium, and arsenicsalts (CCA),thatreact with the wood Note: Any wood in contactwith water or the
orform an insolubleresidue presentsno majorproblemin
groundshouldbe pressure treatedto specifications
finishingifthe wood is properlyredriedandthoroughly recommended for in-ground or marineuse. Such
cleaned after treating. The fmishingcharacteristics are more treatedwoodsare not alwayspaintable.As indi-
controlled by species and grain orientation than by preserva-
tive treatment.Woodtreatedwith solvent-or oilbornepre- catedpreviously, CCA-treated woodsare paintable
whenthy and clean.
servative chemicals, such as creosote or pentachiorophenol,
is not consideredpaintable. Woodtrim on boats is often varnished. When applied to
boats, varnishis subjectedto greater exposureto sunlight
Noneofthe commonpressurepreservative treatments and waterthan whenused on structures; therefore,it needs
(creosote, pentachlorophenol, water-repellent preservatives, regularandfrequentcareand refmishing. Varnishesshouldbe
andwaterborne preservatives) will significantly change the speciallyformulated forharsh exposure; threeto six coats
weathering characteristics ofwoods.Allpreservative-treated shouldbe appliedfor bestperformance. The durabilityofthe
wood will weatherwhenexposedabovegroundand may varnishcanbe extended by finishingthe wood with a semi-
developsevere checkingand cracking. Finishing generally transparentstainprior to varnishing,but this obscuresmany
retardsthis weathering.However,there is one exception: naturalcharacteristics ofthe wood.Keeping the appearance of
waterbome treatmentscontainingchromiumdecrease the varnishedwood trim bright and new is labor intensivebut
degrading effectsofweathering. oftenwell worth the effort
Creosoteandpentachiorophenol are generally used only for
industrial and commercialapplications where applying a Refinishing
finishis not consideredpractical.Creosoteis oily and there- Exterior wood surfaces need to be refinishedonly whenthe
foredoes notaccept a finishvery well. Pentachlorophenol is old fmishhas worn thin and no longer protectsthewood. In
often formulatedin heavyoil, higeneral, preservatives formu- repainting, one coat may be adequateifthe old paint surface
lated in oil will not accept a finish.In some cases, oil-based is in good condition. Dirty paint canoften be renewedand

15—22
cleanedbywashingwith detergent. Too-frequent repainting blue—black stainsonthe surface (see subsectionon
with an oil-based systemproducesan excessivelythick film iron stainunder Finish Failure or Discoloration).
that is likelyto crackabnormallyacrossthe grain ofthe
wood. Complete removalofthe paintand repainting are the Paint and Solid-Color Stains
only cure for cross-grain cracking(see subsection on cross- Inrefinishing painted (or solid-color stained)surfaoes, proper
grain crackingunder Finish Failureor Discoloration). Latex surface preparation is essentialifthe new coatis to havea
paintsseldom developcross-grain crackingbecause they are long service life. First, scrapeaway all loose paint;. Sand
more flexiblethan are oil-basedpaints. Since latex paints areas ofexposed woodwith 50- to 80-gritsandpaper to
havereplacedoil-based paintsformost exteriorapplication remove the weathered surface andto featherthe abrupt paint
on residential structures, cross-grain crackingis rather rare
unlessthe latexpaint has been appliedover many coats of edge. Then scrubany remainingold paint with a brush or
sponge and water.Rinsethe scrubbedsurfacewith clean
oil-basedpaint. However,evenwith latex paints,excessive water,then wipe the surface with yourhand orcloth (see
paint buildup should be avoided.Additionaltop-coats subsectionon chalkingunder Finish Failureor Diicolora-
should be applied only when the primer beginsto show.
tion). Ifthe surface is still dirtyor chalky,scrub it again
usinga detergent. Use a commercial cleaner or a dilute
Water-Repellent Preservatives householdbleach solution to remove mildew (see subsection
Water-repellent preservativesusedas naturalfmishes can be on mildew under Finish Failure or Discoloration) Rinsethe
renewed by simplybrushing the old surface with adry stiff- cleanedsurface thoroughlywith freshwaterand al[ow itto
bristle brushto removedirt and applyinga new coat of dry before repainting. Treatbare wood with awater-repellent
fmish. To determineifawater-repellentpreservative has lost preservative and allow itto dry forat least 3 days before
its effectiveness, splash a smallquantity ofwater against the priming. Topcoats can then be applied.
wood surface. Ifthe waterbeadsup and runsoffthe surface,
Note: Special precautions are necessary ifthe old
thetreatment is still effective.Ifthewater soaks in, thewood
needsto be refmished. Refmishingis alsorequiredwhenthe paint contains lead. See sectionon lead-based paint.
wood surface shows signs ofgraying. Gray discoloration can It is particularly importantto cleanareas that areprotected
be removedby washingthewood with a commercial mildew from sunandrain, such as porches,soffits, and side walls
cleaneror liquidhouseholdbleach(seesubsectiononmildew protectedby overhangs. Theseareas tend to collectdirt and
under Finish Failure or Discoloration). water-soluble materials that interfere with the adhesionof
new paint. It is probablyadequateto repaintthese protected
Semitransparent Penetrating Stains areas every other time the house is painted.
Surfaces finishedwith semitransparent penetrating stains are
Latexpaint or solid-color stain can be appliedove:freshly
relativelyeasyto refinish; heavyscraping and sandingare
generallynot required. Simply use a dry stiff-bristle brush to primedsurfaces and on weathered paintsurfaces ifthe old
removeall surface dirt, dust, and loose wood fibers, and then paint is cleanandsound(chalk-free). Before repainting sur-
faces with latex paint,conducta simpletest. After cleaning
apply a new coatofstain. The secondcoat ofpenetrating thesurface, repainta small, inconspicuous area with latex
stain often lasts longerthanthe firstbecauseit penetrates into
small surface checks that open asthe wood weathers. paint and allow it to dry at least overnight. Then, to test for
adhesion, firmly press one endofan adhesivebandageonto
In refmishing surfaces originally fmished with semitranspar- therepaintedsurface. Removethebandagewith a snapping
ent stains, it is extremelyimportantthat the wood acceptthe action. Ifthe tape is free ofpaint,the freshlatex paint is well-
stain. That is, the stainmust penetratethe wood. Since the bondedandthe old surfacedoes not needprimingor addi-
weatheringrate ofa stain varieswith exposure, the stainmay tional cleaning. Ifthe fresh latex paintadherestothe tape, the
notpenetratewell in some areas. For example,an area under old surface is too chalky andneeds more cleaningorpriming
theeaves, evenon thesouth sideofa structure, may be with an oil-based primer. Ifboth the freshlatex paint and the
relativelyunweathered. Whenapplyingstainto such an area, old paint coat adhere to the tape, the old paint is notwell-
featherthe new stain into the old. Ifthe stain does notpene- bondedto thewood and must be removedbeforerepainting.
trate the wood withinan hour, remove the excess.Ifthe
excessstain is not removed itwillform shinyspots, which Back-Priming
will flakefrom the surface as it weathers. The north sideofa
structure may notneed to be restainednearlyas often as the Back-primingsimplymeansthe application ofa primeror
southside (northernhemisphere). water-repellent preservative to the back sideofwood(usually
wood siding)beforethe wood is installed.Back-priming
Note: Steelwool andwire brushes shouldnotbe retards absorption ofwater,thus improving dimensional
usedto cleansurfacesto be fmishedwith semitrans- stability and extending the service life ofthe paint;.It
parentstainorwater-repellent preservatives because improves the appearance ofthe wood by decreasing extrac-
small iron depositsmay be left behind.Thesesmall tivesstaining, particularly run-downextractives bleed. Treat-
irondepositscan react with certain water-soluble ing the back sideofsidingwith a water-repellent preservative
extractives inwoodslike western redcedar, red- is probably more effective thanback-priming forimproving
wood,Douglas-fir,andthe oaks,to yield dark dimensional stability and retardingextractives bleed.
Water-repellentpreservatives are particularly effective ifused

15—23
as apretreatmentbeforeback-priming. However, back- ished siding. The end-grainseal greatly increases resistance
primingwith a stain-blocking primer alonehas some benefit. ofsidingto end-grainabsorption ofwater,thus decreasing
extractives bleedand other problemsrelatedto moisture.
By slowingthe absorptionofwater, the primerorwater-
repellentpreservativeimprovesdimensional stability of
siding. Sidingis less likelyto cup, an importantconsidera- Finish Failure or Discoloration
tion for flat-grain wood. By decreasingshrinking and swel-
Paint is probablythe most commonexterior fmish in use on
ling, less stress is placed on the fmish,therebyextending its woodtoday.It appearssomewhere on practicallyevery resi-
service life. At the same time that the siding is back-primed,
dential structure and on most commercial buildings.Even
theend grain should be sealedwith primer. This processhas
an evengreatereffect in stoppingwaterabsorption. Most brick and aluminum-sided structures usuallyhave some
paintfailurenear the end grain ofsidingcan be eliminatedby painted wood trim. Whenproperlyapplied to the appropriate
includingend-grainprimingalong with the back-priming. type ofwood substrate, paint shouldhave aservice life ofat
When boards are cut during installation, the cut ends should least 10 years. Ifit does not, the selectionofthe paint, appli-
be spot-primed. cation, type ofsubstrate, type ofstructure,and construction
practiceswere notdone properly orwere not compatible.
Run-down extractives bleedoccurs becausewaterfrom wind-
blown rain, leaks, and/or condensationofmoisturewets the Modempaint formulations based on acrylicpolymersare
back ofsidingand absorbsextractives from the wood. If extremely resistant to degradation by ultraviolet(UV)radia-
water from one courseofsiding runsdownthe front face of tion. These paintsdegradeby a slow erosionprocess,which
thecoursebelow it, the water may deposittheextractives on eventually exposesthe primer.The erosionprocessdepends
this surface, causingunsightlystreaks(see subsection on on the exposure to theweather. Areasthat deteriorate rapidly
arethose exposed to thegreatest amountofsunshineand
extractives bleed under Finish Failureor Discoloration).
rain, usuallyon the west and southsides of a building(in
Back-primingstops extractives bleedby forming a barrier thenorthern hemisphere). Thenormal deterioration process
betweenthe water and the extractives. The primer shouldbe
beginswith soilingor a slight accumulationofdirt and then
stain-blocking, just as the primer used for the front (outside) leads togradualchangeand erosionofthe coating.Whenthe
surfaceofthe siding. When finishis appliedto sidingin the
factory, the back surface ofthe siding is routinely fmished at primerbeginsto show,that side ofthe structureshould be
thesametime as thefront surface. repainted. It may not be necessaryto paint all sides ofthe
structure, sincethe erosion rate variesdependingon expo-
sure. This is particularlytrue for structures finishedwith
Factory Finishing white paint.
Many siding, trim, and deckingproductsare now available Note: The most common cause ofpremature paintfailure
prefmished. Althoughit has been standard industry practice on wood is moisture.
to preprimehardboardsiding, factoryfinishingofsolid wood
productshas rapidly grown duringthe last severalyears. The Earlypaintfailure may developundercertainconditions of
service. Excessivemoisture, flat grain,high coating porosity,
industry is currentlygrowing at about 60% peryear, and this and application ofanewpaint coat withoutproperprepara-
growthis anticipatedto continueinto the earlypart ofthe tion ofthe oldsurface can all contribute to earlypaint failure.
nextcentury.Coatingsuppliersfor this industry predictthat
more than halfofall wood siding materials willbe factory Paint on the outsidewalls ofresidentialstructuresis subject
fmishedby that time. In additionto siding, other wood to wettingfrom rain, dew, and frost. Equallyserious is
"unseen"moisturethat moves from inside the structureto
productslike interiortrim and panelingare being prefmished. the outside. This is particularlytrue for buildingsin cold
Much ofthis factoryfinishinghas been madepossible bythe
northern climates that donot haveeffective air and vapor
development ofrapid-curefinish systemsandthe availability barriers. Many moisture-related problems can be prevented
ofefficientequipmentto apply the fmish.
by furring out the siding9 to 19 mm (3/8 to 3/4 in.) prior to
installation. For siding placeddirectly on insulationboard or
Prefmishingwood at the factoryratherthan after installation
results in overall cost savings as well as severalother advan- awind barrier, placingwedgesbetweenthesidingcourses
tages. Weatherand climateconditionsduringconstruction can reduceproblemswith moisture.
do not affectprefmishedwood.This is a crucial consideration
in northern climateswhereacceptableexteriorfinishingis The next most common cause ofpaint failure is a poor bond
betweenthe substrateandthe coating. Even in the absenceof
impossible duringthewinter. In factoryfinishing, coverage
can be controlledto give a consistent100 to 127 p.m (4 to moisture,paint can peel ifit does notbondwell to the
5 mil) dry film. The controlled conditions enablemany wood. Ifmoisture is also present,paint failure is accelerated.
The wide bands oflatewood on flat-grainsurfaces hold paint
factory finisherstoguaranteetheirproductsagainst cracking,
peeling, and blisteringfor 15 years.Anotheradvantage of very poorly. Ifpossible, flat-grain boardsshouldbe exposed
"bark-side"outto minimizeraisingand separationofgrain,
factoryfmishingis that sidingis finished on all sides, in- andthe boards shouldeitherbe rough-sawn or scuff-sanded
cluding the end grain. Whenprefmishedsiding is installed,
theend grain is sealed after any cross-cuts aremade. This with 50-gritsandpaperprior to priming. Wood must be
end-grainsealingis seldom done during installation ofunfm- protectedfrom theweatherprior to installationand paintedas
soonas possible afterwards. Exposure to theweatherfor as

15—24
little as 2 weeks will reduce the paint-holding properties of
smoothwood. Scuffsandingprior to painting is necessaryif
thewood is exposedto theweatherfor more than 2 weeks.
In fact, scuffsanding is alwaysagood idea onplaned lumber.

Moisture Blisters
Moistureblisters are bubble-like swellings ofthe paintfilm
on the wood surface. As the name implies, these blisters
usuallycontainmoisture when they are formed.Moisture
blisters may occurwhere outside moisture,such as rain,
entersthroughjoints and other end-grain areas ofboards and
siding. Moisture may also enteras a result ofpoor construc-
tion andmaintenancepractices.The blisters appear after
spring rains and throughoutthe summer. Paint failure is
most severeonthe sidesofbuildingsthat face the prevailing
winds andrain. Blistersmay occur in both heated and
unheatedbuildings.
Moistureblistersmay alsoresult from the movementof
water from the inside ofa structureto the outside.Plumbing
leaks,humidifiers,overflow(sinks,bathtubs), and shower
sprayare sources ofinsidewater, and improperly sealedwalls
can contributeto the problem. Suchblisters are not seasonal Figure 15—15. Paint can peel fromwood when
excessive moisture moves through house wall. Some
and occur whenthe faulty condition develops.
cross-grain cracking is also evident on this older home.
Moisture blistersform betweenthe wood substrateand the
firstcoatofpaint.After the blisters appear, they may dry out
and collapse.Smallblistersmay disappearcompletely and condition, but it seems to occur as a result ofplaning and/or
fairlylarge onesmay leaverough spots;in severecases, the diying ofthe lumber. The condition seemsto be causedby
paint peels (Fig. 15—15). Thincoatings ofnew oil-based dullplanerbladesand is exacerbated on flat-grain urfaces,
paint are the most likely to blister. Old, thick coats are whichare more difficultto plane. The problem is most
usually too rigid to swelland form blisters;crackingand severe on flat-grain boards becauseofthe orientation oflate-
peelingusuallyresult. Elimination ofthe moisture problem woodto earlywood. Dull bladestendto burnish the surface
is the only practicalway to preventmoistureblisters in and crushthe less dense earlywood bands that lie directly
paint.In addition,eliminationofmoistureproblemscan help beneath themore dense latewood bands atthe sun ce. Later,
preventmore seriousproblems such as decay (rot), warp, and whenthese boardsare exposed to weather, particularly cyclic
splittingofthe wood substrate. moisture conditions,the crushedearlywoodabsorbsmoisture
and rebounds, whichcauses the surface latewood bandsto
To preventmoisture-related paint problems, followgood raise. In vertical-grain wood,the earlywood—latewoodbands
construction and paintingpractices.First,do whatever is are perpendicular to the surface and the lumberis easierto
possible to keepthe wood dry. Provide an adequateroof plane, even with dull tooling.
overhangand properlymaintainshingles,gutters,anddown-
spouts. Windowand door casingsshould slope away from Duringthe planingor millingprocess,overheatingmay
thehouse, allowingwater to drain away rapidly. Vent bringmore water-soluble extractives to the surface, creatinga
clothesdryers, showers, and cookingareas to the outside, hard, varnish-like glaze. Excesswater-soluble extractives can
nottothe crawl space or attic.Avoid the use ofhumidifiers. alsoform (bleed) on the surface duringkiln drying.As these
Ifthehousecontainsa crawl space,coverthe soilwith a extractives age, particularlyin directsunlight, they become
vapor-retarding materialtopreventmigration ofwater vapor insoluble andare difficult to remove.Ifextractives bleedto
into the livingquarters. In northernclimates,use a vapor the surface prior to final planingor sanding ofthe lumber,
retarderon the interiorside ofall exteriorwalls and an air this fmal surface preparation usuallyremovestheni.
barrierto preventcondensationin the wall.In buildingsin
southernclimatesthat are air conditioned a substantial part of Sanding may remove some extractives buildup,but it is not
theyear, placethevaporretarderdirectlyunderthe sheathing. likelyto remove all the crushedwood. Subsequentwetting
may still cause the surface to deform. Oneormore wetting
and drying cycles are necessary to remove these p]aner-
Mill Glaze inducedstressesin the wood,but the wood shouldnot be
Since the mid-1980s, a conditionknown as "mill glaze" exposed to sunlightformore than 2 weeks beforeapplication
(also calledplaner'sglaze)has occasionally occurred on ofa film-forming finishbecauseexposure decreases the
smoothflat-grain westernredcedarsidingas well as other adhesionofthe coating (see Weathering, Effectsen Paint
species.There is controversy over the exactcause ofthis Adhesion).

15—25
 Mill glazecan cause failureofthe fmish. Failureis most
commonon flat-grainsidingfmishedwith one ortwo thin
coats ofoil-based solid-colorstain (also called opaque or full-
bodiedstain). These low-solids coatingsprovide only 25 to
50 tm (1 to 2 mil) ofdry-filmthickness, whereasa brush-
appliedthree-coatpaint system (primerand two top-coats)
provides 100 to 127 m (4 to 5 mu) ofdry-filmthickness.
Thin coatingsofsolid-colorstain do not build up enough
film to withstandthe stressescausedby raised grain,particu-
larly ifthe coating—woodbond is weakenedby extractives
buildup on the wood surface.
Whenusing flat-grainbevel siding, the simplestand best Figure 15—16. Intercoat peeling of paint, usually
solutionto the problem ofmill glaze and fmishfailureis to caused by poorpreparation of old paintsurface.
install the sidingrough-sideout. The rough side is the side
ofchoice for application ofpenetrating semi-transparent
staids,and althoughsolid-colorstains form films,they also applyingthe primercoatand top coat in a new paintjob. if
will providemuch betterservice life whenappliedto the more than 2 weekselapsebetweenapplyingan oil-based
rough-sawn side. In addition to the lack ofmill glaze,the primer and a top coat, soap-like materialsmay form onthe
surface and interfere with bonding ofthe next coat ofpaint.
rough sidegives two additionaladvantages. The film Whentheperiodbetweenapplications exceeds2 weeks,
buildup on the rough side willbe greater and the film will scrub the surface before applying the secondcoat.Do not
have greatermechanicaladhesionor"bite." The best film
buildup is obtainedby brush application. Ifthe finish is apply aprimer coat in the fall and wait until spring to fmish
with the top coat.
appliedby roller or spray, it is advisable to back-brush
immediately after application to evenoutthe fmishand to
work it into the wood surface,thus avoidingbridging,gaps, Cross-Graän Cracking
and lap marks.
Cross-grain crackingoccurs whenoil-basedor alkydpaint
Ifthe flat-grainsiding must be installedsmooth-sideout, coatingsbecometoo thick (Fig. 15—17). This problem often
removetheplaning stressesby wetting the surface,then occurs on older homesthat havebeen painted many times.
allow 2 to 3 days for the surface to dry beforeapplying the Paint usually cracks parallelto the wood grain; cross-grain
fmish. Scratch-sanding the surface with 50- to 80-gritsand- cracksrun acrossthe grain. Once cross-grain crackinghas
paper also improvespaint adhesion. Use either a top quality occurred,the only solutionis to completelyremovethe old
three-coatpaint system or apply a stain-blocking primerprior paint and apply a new finishingsystem to the bare wood. To
to applyingsolid-colorstain. In selectingfmishesfor highly prevent cross-grain cracking, follow thepaint manufacturer s
coloredwood such as westernredcedaror redwood, choosea recommendations for spreading rates. Do notrepaint Un-
primerthat is imperviousto bleed ofwater-soluble exirac- weathered, protected areas such as porch ceilings androof
tives. Althoughmany waterbome primers are beingmarketed overhangs as often as the rest ofthe house. Ifpossible,re-
for use on westernredcedarand redwood,many paintmanu- paint these areas only as they weatherand requirenew paint.
facturers still recommend an oil-based, stain-blocking primer
followedby two coats ofhigh quality,acryliclatex top coat. Chalking
Solid-colorstains,particularlythe latex formulations, do not
blockwater-soluble extractives very well,especially when Chalkingresultsfromweathering ofthe paint's surface,
only one coatis applied. whichreleasespigmentand degraded resin particles.These
a
particles form fme powderon the paint surface. Most paints
Mill glazehas not been common inrecentyears because chalkto someextent. This phenomenonis desirablebecause
paint companiesare recommending the use ofaprimerprior it allows thepaint surface to self-clean, and it is themost
to theapplicationofa solid-colorstain, andpaintingcontrac- desirable mechanism forremovingdegraded paint.However,
tors are generally following these recommendations. chalking is objectionable when the paint pigmentwashes
down a surface with a different color orwhen it causes prema-
Intercoat Peeling ture paint failure through excessiveerosion.
Intercoatpeeling is the separation ofthenewpaintfilm from The paint formulation determines how fastthe paint chalks;
theold paint coat, whichindicatesa weak bondbetweenthe discoloration from chalkingcan be decreasedby selectinga
two (Fig. 15—16). Intercoatpeelingusuallyresultsfrom paint with a slowchalkingrate. Therefore,ifchalkingis
inadequate cleaningofweatheredpaintand usually occurs likelyto be a problem, selectapaint that the manufacturer
within 1 year ofrepainting.This type ofpaintpeeling can be has indicated will chalk slowly. Latexpaints, particularly
prevented by followinggoodpaintingpractices. Intercoat those based on acrylicpolymers, chalk very slowly.
peeling can also result from allowing too much time between

15—26
 , I

Figure 15—17. Cross-grain crackingfrom excessive

buildupof paint

Whenrepainting surfaces that have chalked excessively,

properpreparation ofthe old surface is essential toprevent
premature paintpeeling. Scrub the old surface thoroughly
with a detergentsolutionto removeall old deposits and dirt. Figure 15—18. Mildew is mostcommon in shaded,
Rinsethoroughlywith clean waterbefore repainting. To moist, or protected areas.
check for excessive chalking, lightly rub thepaint surface
with a dark (for light-colored paint) orwhite (for dark-colored
paint) cloth. The amountofpigmentremovedby the cloth is whenthe surface is damp orwet, the fungusis characterized
a good indicationofthe chalking. Ifthesurface is still chalky by its threadlikegrowth. In the dormantstage, whenthe
after cleaning,it may needto be primedprior to repainting. surface is dry, the fungus has numerous egg-shaped spores;
Otherwise, the new paint coatmay peel. Discoloration or by contrast, granularparticles ofdirtappearirregularin size
chalkthat has run down a lowersurface may be removed, by and shape. A simpletest forthe presenceofmildewon wood
vigorous scrubbing with a good detergent. This discolora- orpaint is to apply a drop ortwo ofliquid householdbleach
tionwillgradually weatheraway ifchalkingon the painted solution (5% sodium hypochiorite) to the discoloredsurface.
surface abovethe discolored surface is corrected. The dark color ofmildewwillusually bleach out in
1 or 2 min. A surface discoloration that does notb[each is
Mildew probablydirt. It is importantto use freshbleach solution
becausebleach deteriorates upon aging and losesits potency.
Mildew is probablythe most commoncause ofhouse paint
discoloration and gray discoloration ofunfinishedwood Inwann, damp climates wheremildew occursfrequently, use
(Fig. 15—18). Mildew is a form ofmicroscopicstain fungi. a paintcontainingzinc oxide and a mildewcide forboth the
The most commonfungal species are black, but some are primerandtop coats.Beforerepainting mildew-infected
red, green, or other colors. Mildewgrowsmost extensively wood or painted wood, the mildewmust be killed or it will
in warm, humid climates,but it is also found in cold north- grow throughthe new paint coat. To kill mildewon wood
em climates. Mildewmay be foundanywhereon building,a or on paint, and to cleanan areaforgeneralappearance or for
althoughit is most common on walls behind trees or shrubs repainting, use a bristle brush or spongeto scrubthe painted
whereair movementis restricted. Mildew may also be asso- a
surface with commercial cleaner formulated formildew
ciated with the dew pattern ofthe house.Dewwill form on removal.Mildewcan alsobe removedusing a dilite solu-
those parts ofthe house that are not heatedand tend to cool tion ofhouseholdbleachwith detergent:
rapidly, such as eaves and ceilingsofcarports and porches.
The dew thenprovidesa source ofmoisture for mildew . 1 part household detergent
fungi. . 10 parts(5%)sodiumhypochiorite(householdbleach)
Mildew ftrngi canbe distinguished from dirtby examination . 30 partswarmwater
under a high-powermagnifyingglass. In the growingstage,

15—27
 Warning: Do not mix bleach with ammoniaor
with any detergentsor cleansers that containam-
monia. Mixedtogether,bleachand ammoniaform a
lethal combination,similarto mustard gas. Many
householdcleanerscontain ammonia, so be ex-
tremelycareful in selectingthe type ofcleanerto
J
mix with bleach. Avoid splashing the cleaningso-
lutionon yourselfor on shrubbery or grass.
Rinsethe cleanedsurface thoroughly with freshwater.Before
thecleanedsurface can becomecontaminated, repaintit with
a paint containinga mildewcide. When fmishingnew wood
or refmishing areas that havepeeled, pretreatment ofwood
surfaces with a water-repellent preservative priorto priming
can also help determildewgrowth, evenafter thewood has
beenpainted. Oil-basedpaints are somewhatmore proneto
mildew than are latexpaints becausethe oils may be a food
source for mildew.

Discoloration From
Water-Soluble Extractives
In somewoodspecies, theheartwoodcontainswater-soluble
extractives. (Sapwooddoes not contain extractives.) These
extractives can occur in both hardwoodsand softwoods.
Westernredcedarand redwood aretwo common softwood
species that contain large quantities ofextractives. The ex-
tractivesgivethese speciestheir attractivecolor, goodstabil-
ity,and natural decayresistance,butthey canalso discolor
paint.Extractivestainingproblemscan occur occasionally
with such woodsas Douglas-firand southernyellowpine.
When extractives discolor paint, moistureis usually the
culprit.The extractives are dissolved and leachedfrom the
wood by water. The water then moves to the paint surface,
evaporates, and leavesthe extractives behindas areddish
brownstain (Fig. 15—19).Diffuseddiscoloration from wood
extractives is causedby water from rain and dew that pene-
tratesa porous or thin paint coat. It may also be causedby
rainand dew that penetrates joints in the siding orby water
from faultyroofdrainage and gutters.
Diffused discoloration is best prevented by following good Figure 15—19. Water-soluble extractive discoloration
can resultfromwater wettingthe back of the siding and
paintingpractices.Apply a water-repellent preservative or then running down the front(top). Water causing
water repellentto the bare wood beforepriming. Use an oil- discoloration also leads to paintfailure(bottom).
based, stain-resistant primer or a latex primerespecially
formulated for use over woodslikely to discolorfrom extrac-
tives. Do not use porouspaints such as flat alkyds and latex Water that produces a run-down discoloration can result from
directly over these extractive-rich woods.Ifthe wood is themovementofwater vapor withinthehouseto the exterior
alreadypainted, cleanthe surface,apply an oil-based or latex walls and condensation during coldweather.Major sources
stain-resistantprimer andthen the top coat. Be sure to allow ofwater vaporarehumidifiers, unventedclothesdryers,
sufficienttime for the primer to cure so that it blocksthe showers,and moisturefrom cookingand dishwashing. Run-
extractives stain. Beforeprimingand repainting, apply a down discoloration may also be causedby draining ofwater
water-repellent preservative or waterrepellent to any wood into exteriorwalls from roofleaks, faulty gutters,ice dams,
exposedby peeledpaint. and wind-drivenrain blown beneaththe siding.
Water-soluble extractives can also cause a run-down or Run-downdiscoloration can be prevented by decreasing
streakedtype ofdiscoloration.This discoloration results condensationorthe accumulation ofmoisturein the wall.
whenthe back ofsiding is wetted, the extractives are dis- The same precautions to avoid moisturebuildup in walls as
solved,and the coloredwater thenruns downthe face ofthe describedin the section on moisture blisters will also pre-
adjacentpainted board belowthe lapjoint. vent extractives bleed. Waterfrom rain and snow can be

15—28
prevented from entering the wallsby propermaintenance of qualitygalvanized nails can corrode easily and, liko steel
theguttersand roof. The fonnationofice dams can be pre- nails, can cause unsightlystainingofthe wood and paint.
ventedby installingadequateinsulation in the attic and by The galvanizing on nailheads shouldnot "chip locse" as
providing adequateventilation. Ifdiscoloration is to be the nails are driven into the wood.
stopped,moistureproblemsmust be eliminated. Unsightly rust stains may alsooccur when standardsteel
Extractives discoloration will usually weatherawayin a few nailsare used in association with finishingsystemssuch as
monthsoncethe cause ofthe extractives bleedis eliminated. solid-color oropaque stains, semitransparent penetating
However, discoloration inprotectedareas can become darker stains, andwater-repellentpreservatives. Ruststair.'Ls can also
and more difficulttoremovewith time. In these cases, wash resultfrom screens and other steel objects or fasteners, which
thediscolored areas with amild detergentsoon after the corrodeandlorreleaseiron compounds.
problem develops. Paint cleaners are effective on darker A chemical reaction of ironwith tanninsinwood results in
stains. an unsightlyblue—blackdiscoloration ofwood. In this case,
Highlycoloredwoods such as redwoodandthe cedarsbenefit discoloration resultsfromthe reactionofironwith certain
from back-priming ortreatmentwith awater-repellent pre- wood extractives. Steel nailsare the most common source of
servative. Althoughsuch methodswill not completely iron for such discoloration, butproblemshave alsobeen
eliminateextractivesstaining,they willhelp reducestaining, associatedwith traces of ironleft from cleaning the wood
particularlyfrom wind-driven rain blownunderneath siding surfacewith steelwool or wire brushes.The discoloration
(see subsectionon back-priming in Application ofWood cansometimes becomesealedbeneathanewfinishingsys-
Finishes). tem. Whenthis happens,the problemis extremelydifficult
to fix. The coatingmust be strippedbeforethe iron staincan
Blue Stain be removed.
Blue stain is causedby microscopicfungi that commonly Oxalicacidwillremovethe blue—black discoloration from
infectonly the sapwoodoftrees. In some species, these fungi iron. Apply a saturatedsolutioncontainingabout 0.5 kg
are proneto developablue—blackdiscoloration ofthe wood. (1 lb) ofoxalicacid per4 L (1 gal) ofhot waterto the stained
Bluestain does not weaken wood structurally, but condi- surface. Many commercial brighteners containoxalic acid,
tions that favorblue stainare alsoideal forwood decay and andthese areusuallyeffective for removing iron stains. A
saturated solutionofsodium bifluoride (NaHF2)worksas
paintfailure.
well but it may be more difficultto obtain than oxslic acid.
Woodin servicemay containblue stain, andno detrimental Afterremovingthe stain, wash the surface thoroughlywith
effectswill result as long as the moisturecontentis kept warmfreshwaterto remove the oxalic acid.Ifall sources of
below20%. (Wood in properlydesignedandwell- iron are notremovedor the wood is not protectedfrom
maintained structuresusuallyhas a moisture contentof8% corrosion,the discoloration will recur.
to 13%.) However,ifthewood is exposed to moisturefrom
sourcessuch as rain, condensation,or leakyplumbing,the Caution: Use extremecare whenusing oxalic acid,
moisturecontentwill increaseand the blue-stain fungimay which is toxic.
developand becomevisible. Ifironstain is aseriousproblemon apainted surface,the
A commercial mildewcleaneror a 5% sodiumhypochlorite nails can be countersunk and caulked,and the area spot
solution(ordinaryliquidhouseholdbleach)with detergent primed and top coated.This is a costly and time-consuming
may remove some blue discoloration,but it is not a perma- processthat is only possible with opaquefmishes.Little can
nent cure.The bleachremovesthe stainfromthe surface be done to give apermanentfix to iron stainson natural
finishes otherthanremovingthe fasteners, cleaning the af-
only. To preventblue stain, the lumbermust be cut and
dried as soon as possible after harvestingthe logs.The fectedareas with oxalic acid solution, andreplacingthe
lumber must then be kept dry untilused and while it is in fasteners. It is best to use corrosion-resistant fastenerssuch as
service. With some wood speciesthat are prone to develop stainless steel rather than risk iron stain, particularlywhen
bluestain, the logs areoften treatedwith afungicide while in usingnatural finishes on wood containinghigh amountsof
storage beforethe lumberis cut. tannin,such as westernredcedar, redwood,andoak.

Iron Stain Brown Stain Over Knots

Ironstainsonwoodcanoccurthrough rusting offastenersor The knots in many softwoodspecies, particularlypine,
by the reaction ofiron with tanninsin thewood. When containan abundance ofresins and other highlycolored
standardsteel nails are usedon exteriorsidingand then compounds. Thesecompoundscan sometimescause paint to
painted,a reddishbrown discoloration may occur through peel orturn brown. The resins that composepitch can be
thepaint in the immediatevicinity ofthenailhead.This "set"or hardened by thehigh temperatures usedin kiln
reddish browndiscoloration is rust, and it can be prevented dryingconstruction lumberifthe properkiln schedule is
by using corrosion-resistant nails, whichincludehigh- used. Someofthe othercompoundsare not affectedby
qualitygalvanized,stainless steel, and aluminumrLails. Poor kilndrying.

15—29
The eliminationof stainingofpaint by coloredresins and kitchens. When fmishingfingerjointedlumber, it is prudent
water-soluble extractives in knotsis often difficult because to use a high-qualitystain-blockingprimerto minimize
theresinsare solublein oil-based primersand diffusethrough discoloration.
them.Latex-based formulations are alsonot very effective in
this regard.It is generallynecessaryto treat the knot with a
Types of Finish and Wood FiDers
speciallyformulated knot sealer or shellac. Do not use ordi-
nary shellac or varnishto seal knotsbecausesuch finishesare Opaque Finishes
not formulated for this use;they can cause earlypaintfailure Theprocedures used topaint interiorwood surfaces are
in outdoorexposure.After sealingtheknots, apply primer, similartothose used for exterior surfaces.However,interior
followedbytwotop-coats. woodwork, especiallywood trim, requiressmoothersurfaces,
bettercolor,and amore lastingsheen. Therefore, enamels or
Finishing of Interior Wood semigloss enamels are preferable to flat paints.Imperfections
such as planermarks, hammermarks, and raised grain are
Interior finishingdiffers from exteriorfinishingprimarily in accentuated by high-gloss finishes.Raisedgrain is especially
that interior woodworkusually requiresmuch less protection troublesome on flat-grain surfaces ofthe densersoftwoods
againstmoisturebut more exacting standards ofappearance becausethe hard bands oflatewood are sometimes crushed
andcleanability. A much widerrange offinishes and finish into the soft earlywoodin planing,and later expandwhen the
methodsare possible indoors becauseweathering does not wood moisturecontent changes. To obtain the smoothest
occur. Good fmishesusedindoors should lastmuch longer wood surface,it is helpfulto spongeit with water, allow to
than paint or other coatingson exteriorsurfaces. The finish- dry thoroughly, and sand beforefinishing. Removesurface
ing ofveneeredpanels and plywoodmay stillrequireextra dust with a tack cloth. In new buildings, allow woodwork
care becauseofthe tendencyofthese wood composites to adequatetime to cometo equilibriummoisturecontent in
surface check. thecompleted buildingbeforefmishingthewoodwork.
Much ofthe variationin finishingmethodsfor wood used To effectively painthardwoods with large pores, such as oak
indoors is causedby the wide latitude in the uses ofwood— and ash, the poresmust be filledwith wood filler (seesub-
from wood floors to cuttingboards.There is a wide range of sectionon wood fillers). The pores are first filledand sanded,
finishingmethods forjust furniture.Factoryfmishingof then interiorprimer/sealer, undercoat, and top coat are ap-
furniture is often proprietary and may involve more than a plied.Knots, particularlyin the pines, should be sealed ith
dozen steps.Methodsforfurniturefinishingwill notbe shellacor a specialknot-sealer beforeprimingtoretard dis-
includedin this publication;however, most public libraries coloration oflight-colored fmishes by coloredresins in the
containbooks on furniture finishing. In addition,product heartwood ofthesespecies. One ortwo coats ofundercoat are
literature often containsrecommendations forapplication next applied, whichshould completely hide the wood and
methods.This section will includegeneral information on alsoprovidea surface that can be easily sanded smooth. For
wood properties, someproductsforuse in interiorfinishing, bestresults,the surface shouldbe sandedjust beforeapplying
and briefsubsectionson finishingofwood floors and the coats offmish. After the final coat has been applied, the
kitchen utensils. fmishmay be left as is, with its natural gloss, or rubbed to a
soft sheen.
Colorchangeofwood can sometimes cause concern when
using wood in interiors, particularlyifthe wood is fmished Transparent Finishes
to enhance its natural appearance. This color changeis a Transparent finishes are often used onhardwoodsand some
natural aging ofthe newlycut wood, andnothing can be sothvoodtrim andpaneling.Most finishprocessesconsistof
done to prevent it, except, ofcourse,to keep the wood in the
somecombination ofthe fundamental operationsofsanding,
dark. The color changeis causedby visible light,not the
staining, filling, sealing, surface coating, and sometimes
UV radiationassociatedwith weathering.It .is best to keep waxing. Beforefmishing, planermarks and other blemishes
all paintingsand other wall coveringsoffpanelinguntil most on the wood surface that would be accentuated bythe finish
ofthecolor changehas occurred. Mostofthis changeoccurs must be removed.
within 2 to 3 months, dependingon the light intensity. Ifa
picture is removed from panelingandthere is a color differ- Stains
ence causedby shadowing by the picture,it canbe corrected
by leavingthe wood exposedto light. The color will even Somesoftwoods and hardwoods are often finishedwithout
out within severalmonths. staining, especially ifthe wood has an attractivecolor. When
stainisused,however, itoften accentuates color differences
To avoid knots, the use offmgerjointedlumberhas become inthewoodsurface becauseofunequalabsorptioninto differ-
commonfor interiortrim. As with exteriorwood,the quality ent parts ofthe grain pattern.With hardwoods,such empha-
ofthe lumber is determinedby thepoorestboard.Piecesof sis ofthe grain is usuallydesirable; the best stains forthis
wood for fingerjointed lumberoften comefrom many different purposeare dyes dissolved in either water or solvent. The
treesthat havedifferentamounts ofextractives and resins. water-solublestains give the most pleasing results, but they
Theseextractives andresins can discolorthe finish, particu- raisethe grain ofthe woodand requireextrasandingafter
larly in humid environmentssuch as bathrooms and they thy.

15—30
The most commonlyusedstains are those that do not raise Table 15—6. Classification of hardwoods by size of
grain and are dissolvedin solvents that dry quickly. These poresa
stainsoften approach the water-soluble stainsin clearness and
Large pores Small pores
uniformity ofcolor. Stainson softwoods color the earlywood
more strongly than the latewood,reversingthe natural grada- Ash Aspen
tionin color unless thewood has been initially sealed. To Butternut Basswood
give more nearly uniform color, soitwoods may be coated Chestnut Beech
with penetratingclear sealerbeforeapplying any type of Elm Cherry
stain. This sealer is often called a "wash coat." Cottonwood
Hackberry
Ifstainabsorbsintowood unevenly causinga blotchyap- Hickory Gum
pearance, the tree was probablyinfected with bacteriaand/or Lauan Magnolia
blue-stain fungiprior to being cut for lumber. Oncethe log is Mahogany Maple
cutinto lumber, the infectionoccurs across grain boundaries Mahogany, African Red alder
and makesinfectedareas more porousthannormalwood. Oak Sycamore
When such areas are stained, they absorbexcessive amounts Sugarberry Yellow-poplar
ofstain veiy quickly,givingthewood an uneven blotchy Walnut
appearance. Althoughthis problem is not very common,
should it occur it can be difficultto fix. Blue stainon lumber aBirch has pores large enoughto take wood filler effec-
can easily be seen; the infectedpieces can eitherbe discarded tively, but small enough to be finished satisfactcrrily
orsealedbeforestaining. However, bacteria-infected areas without filling.
cannotbe detectedprior to staining. Ifthe wood is tobe used
for furnitureor fme woodwork, it mightbe a good ideato
checkthe lumber, before planing,by applyinga stain. Pieces Surface Coats
on which the stain appearsblotchy shouldnot be used. Transparent surface coatingsover the sealermay be gloss
Sealingthe lumberwith varnish diluted 50/50with mineral varnish, semigloss varnish, shellaO, nitrocelluloselacquer, or
spiritsprior to stainingmay help; commercial scalersare wax. Waxprovidesprotection without forming athick coat-
alsoavailable. Bacteria or blue-stain infectionmay occur in ing and withoutgreatlyenhancingthe natural lusterofthe
thesapwoodofany species,but it seems to be more prob- wood. Othercoatings are more resinous, especiallylacquer
lematicwith the hardwoodsbecausethese species tend to be and varnish; theyaccentuatethe natural luster ofsomehard-
used for furniture,cabinets, and fine woodwork. woods and seem to givethe surface more "depth.' Shellac
appliedby the laborious processofFrenchpolishingproba-
Fillers bly achievesthis impression of depth most fully, but the
In hardwoods with largepores, the poresmust be filled, coatingis expensive and easily marredby water. Rubbing
varnishes madewith resins ofhigh refractive index for light
usuallyafter stainingandbefore varnishor lacqueris applied,
ifa smooth coatingis desired.The fillermay be transparent (ability to bend light rays) are nearlyas effective as shellac.
and not affectthe color ofthe fmish, or it may be colored to Lacquers havethe advantages ofdrying rapidlyandforminga
eithermatch or contrastwith the surrounding wood. For hard surface, butmore applications oflacquer than varnish are
finishingpurposes,hardwoodsmay be classifiedas shown in requiredto build up a lustrouscoating. Ifsufficientfilm
Table 15—6. Hardwoodswith smallpores may be finished buildup is not obtainedand the surface is cleanedoften, such
with paints,enamels,and varnishesin exactlythe same as thesurface ofkitchencabinets, these thin films can fail.
manneras softwoods. A fillermay be apaste or liquid, Varnishand lacquerusually dry to a high gloss. To decrease
natural or colored. Applythe fillerby brushingit first across thegloss, surfaces may be rubbedwith pumice stoneand
and then with the grain. Remove surplus filler immediately water orpolishingoil. Waterproofsandpaperand watermay
afterthe glossywet appearance disappears. First,w:ipeacross be used insteadofpumicestone. The final sheen varieswith
thegrain ofthewood to packthe filler into the pores; then, thefineness ofthepowdered pumice stone; coarse powders
wipe with a few light strokes along the grain.Allow the makea dull surface andfine powders producea brightsheen.
filler to dry thoroughlyand lightlysand it beforefinishing Forvery smoothsurfaceswith high polish,the final rubbing
thewood. is done with rottenstorie and oil. Varnishand lacquermade
to producea semigloss or satin finisharealso available.
Sealers
Scalersare thinnedvarnish, shellac, orlacquerthat are used Flat oil finishescommonlycalledDanish oils are alsovery
to preventabsorptionofsurfacecoatings andto prevent the popular. This type offinishpenetratesthewood and does not
form anoticeablefilm on the surface. Two ormore coats of
bleedingofsome stainsand fillers into surface coatings, oil are usually applied; the oil may be followedby a paste
especially lacquercoatings. Lacquer and shellac scalers have wax. Suchfinishes are easily appliedand maintainedbut
theadvantage ofdryingvery quickly.
they are more subjectto soilingthan is a film-forming type
offinish. Simple boiled linseedoil or tang oil arealso used
extensively as wood finishes.

15—31
Finishes for Floors can be obtainedfrom flooring associations or individual
flooring manufacturers.
Woodpossessesa variety ofpropertiesthat make it a highly
desirable flooringmaterialfor homes,factories, andpublic The durabilityof floor finishescan be improvedby keeping
buildings. A varietyofwood flooringproductsare available, them waxed. Pastewaxesgenerallyprovidethe best appear-
both unfmishedand prefmished,in many wood species, grain ance and durability. Two coats are recommended, and ifa
characteristics, flooringtypes, and flooringpatterns. liquid waxis used, additionalcoats may be necessaryto get
an adequate film for goodperformance.
The natural color and grain ofwood floors accentuate many
architectural styles.Floorfmishesenhance the naturalbeauty
ofwood,protect it from excessivewear and abrasion, and Finishes for Items Used
make the floor easier to clean. The fmishingprocessconsists
offour steps:sandingthesurface, applying a filler (for open-
for Food
grain woods),stainingto achievea desired color effect, and The durabilityand beautyofwood make it an attractive
fmishing. Detailed procedures andspecifiedmaterials depend materialfor bowls,butcherblocks,and other items used to
to a great extentonthe species ofwood used and fmish serve orpreparefood.A finishalso helpskeep the wood dry,
preference. whichmakes it less prone to harborbacteriaand less likely
to crack. When wood soaks up water, it swells; when it dries
CarefW sandingto providea smooth surface is essential for a out, it shrinks. Ifthe wood dries out rapidly,its surface dries
good finish becauseany irregularities or roughness in the faster thanthe inside,resultingin cracksand checks.
surface willbe accentuatedbythe finish. Development ofa Finishes that repelwaterwill decrease the effects ofbrief
top-qualitysurface requires sandingin several stepswith periodsofmoisture(washing), makingthe wood easier to
progressively fmer sandpaper, usually with amachineunless clean.
the area is small. When sandingis complete, all dust must
be removedwith a vacuumcleaner and then atackcloth. Finishesthat form a film on wood, such as varnish or lac-
Steelwool should not be used on floors unprotected by quer, may be used butthey may eventually chip,crack, and
fmishbecauseminute steel particles left inthe wood later peel. Penetrating fmishes,eitherdryingor nondrying, are
cause iron stains.A filler is required forwood with large often a betterchoice for someproducts.
pores, such as oak and walnut,ifa smooth, glossy varnish
fmishis desired (Table 15—6). Types of Finish
Stainsare sometimes used to obtain a more nearly uniform Sealers and Drying Oils
color when individual boards vary too much in theirnatural Scalers anddryingoils penetrate the wood surface, then
color.However,stainsmay alsobe usedto accentthe grain
solidify to form abarrierto liquidwater. Many commercial
pattern. The stain should be an oil-basedor non-grain-raising scalers are similartothinnedvarnish. These fmishescan
type. Stainspenetrate wood only slightly; therefore, the includea wide rangeofformulations including polyurethane,
fmishshouldbe carefullymaintained to preventwearing
alkyds, and modifiedoils. Unmodifiedoils such as tung,
throughtothe wood surface;the clear top-coats must be linseed, and walnut oil can also be used as scalersifthey are
replacedas they wear.It is difficultto renewthe stainat thinnedto penetratethe wood.
worn spots in a waythat will match the color ofthe
surrounding area. Nondrying Oils
Finishes commonly used forwood floors are classifiedas Nondrying oils simply penetratethe wood. They include
sealers or varnishes. Sealers,whichare usually thinned both vegetableand mineral oils. Vegetableoils (such as
varnishes, are widely used for residential flooring. They olive, corn,peanut,and safflower) are edibleandare some-
penetrate the woodjust enoughto avoidformation ofa sur- timesused to finishwood utensils. Mineral(or paraffin)oil
face coatingofappreciablethickness. Waxis usually applied is a nondryingoil from petroleum.Since it is not a natural
over the sealer; however, ifgreatergloss is desired, the sealed product, it is not proneto mildeworto harborbacteria.
floormakesan excellent base forvarnish. The thin surface
coat ofsealerandwaxneeds more frequentattentionthan do Paraffin Wax
varnished surfaces. However,rewaxing or resealing and Paraffinwaxis similarto paraffmoil but is solid at room
a
waxingofhigh traffic areas is relatively simplemaintenance temperature. Paraffinwaxis one ofthe simplestways to
procedure, as long as the stainedsurfaceofthe woodhasn't fmishwood utensils,especiallycountertops, butcher blocks,
beenworn. and cuttingboards.
Varnishmay be based on phenolic, alkyd,epoxy, or polyure-
thaneresins. Varnishforms a distinctcoating over the wood Eating Utensils
and gives a lustrousfmish. The kind ofservice expected
Wood salad bowls,spoons, and forks used for food service
usually determines the type ofvarnish. Varnishes especially
designedfor homes, schools,gymnasiums, or other public need a fmishthat is resistantto abrasion,water, acids, and
buildingsare available. Information ontypes offloorfmishes stains anda surfacethat is easy to cleanwhen soiled.

15—32
Appropriate finishes are varnishes and lacquers, penetrating Wood Cleaners and
wood scalersand dryingoils, and nondryingvegetableoils.
Many varnishes and lacquersare available, and someofthese
Brighteners
arespecifically formulated for use on wood utensils, bowls, The popularity ofwood decks andthe desire to keep them
and/orcuttingboards.These film-forming fmishes resist lookingbrightand new has ledto aproliferationolcommer-
stainingand providea surface that is easy to keep clean; cial cleaners and brighteners. Theremovalofmildwfrom
however, they may eventually chip, peel, alligator, or crack. woodwas discussed in an earliersectionofthis chapter(see
Thesefilm-forming finishes shouldperformwellifcare is Finish Failureor Discoloration). Mildew growthon un-
takento minimize their exposure to water.Utensilsfmished paintedand paintedwood continues to be theprimarycause
with such finishes shouldnever be placed in a dishwasher. ofdiscoloration. Althoughit canbe removedwith a dilute
solutionofhouseholdbleachand detergent, many commer-
Penetratingwood scalers and dryingoils may also be used cial products are availablethat can both remove mildewand
for eatingutensils. Someofthese may be formulated for use
brighten the wood surface.
on utensils. Wood scalers and oils absorbinto the poresof
thewood and fill thecavitiesofthewood cells. This de- The active ingredient in many ofthese productsis sodium
creases the absorption ofwater and makes the surface easyto percarbonate (disodium peroxypercarbonate). This chemical
clean andmore resistantto scratching compared with unfin- is an oxidizing agentas is bleach,and it is an effectivemil-
ished wood.Penetratingwood scalers are easy to apply and dew cleaner. It alsohelpsbrightenthe wood surface. Some
dry quickly.Wornplaces in the fmish may be easily cleaners andbrighteners are reportedto restorecolortowood.
refinished. Someofthese fmishes,particularlydrying oils, It is not possibleto add color to wood by cleaningit. Re-
shouldbe allowedto dry thoroughlyfor several weeks movingthe discoloration revealsthe originalcolor. Bright-
before use. ening the wood may make it appearas ifit has more color.
Onceallthe colored components ofthe wood surface have
Nondrying vegetableoils are edibleand are sometimes used beenremoved through theweathering process, the surface
to finishwood utensils. They penetrate thewood surface, will be a silvery gray. Ifcolor is desiredafterweathering
improveits resistance to water, and can be refurbished easily. occurs, it must be addedto the wood by staining.
However, such finishescan become rancid and can some-
times impart undesirableodors and/orflavorsto food. In addition to sodiumpercarbonate, other oxidizirLg products
Ofthese fmishtypes,the impermeable varnishes and lacquers may containhydrogen peroxideby itselfor in combination
with sodiumhydroxide.Ifsodiumhydroxideis used without
may be the best option for bowls and eating utensils; this a brightener, it will darkenthewood. Commercial products
kind offinish is easiestto keep clean and most resistantto arealsoformulatedwith sodiumhypochiorite and/orcalcium
absorption of stains. hypochlorite (household bleach is a solutionofsodium
Note: Whateverfmishis chosen forwood utensils hypochlorite). Theseproductsusuallycontaina surfactant or
usedto store, handle, or eat food, it is importantto detergentto enhance the cleansing actionofthe oxidizing
be sure that the finishis safeand nottoxic agent. Othertypes ofbrighteners containoxalicacid. This
(poisonous). Also be surethat the finishyou select chemicalremoves stainscausedby extractives bleedand iron
isrecommendedfor use with food or is describedas stains and alsobrightensthe wood,but it is not very effec-
foodgrade. For information on the safetyandtoxic- tive for removingmildew.
ity ofany finish, check the label,contactthe
manufacturerand/orthe Food and Drug Administra- Paint Strippers
tion, orcheck with your local extensionhome eco-
nomicsexpert or countyagent. Removing paint andother film-forming fmishes from wood
is atime-consuming andoften difficultprocess. It is gener-
Butcher Blocks and Cutting Boards ally not done unless absolutelynecessary torefmi$hthe
wood. Removing the finish is necessary ifthe oldfmish has
Oneofthe simplesttreatmentsfor wood butcher blocks and extensive cross-grain crackingcausedby buildupofmany
cuttingboardsis the application ofmeltedparaffmwax(the layersofpaint,particularly oil-based paint.Ifcracdng and
a
type used for home canning). The waxis meltedin double- peelingare extensive, it is usually bestto removeall the
boiler over hot water and liberallybrushedon the wood paintfrom the affected area. Totalremoval ofpaint is also
surface. Excesswax, whichhas solidified onthe surface, can necessary ifthe painthas failedby intercoat peeling. It may
be melted with an ironto absorb it into thewood, or it may be necessary to remove paint containing lead; however, ifthe
be scrapedoff. Refinishing is simpleandeasy. Otherpene- paint is still sound and it is not illegal to leave it on the
tratingfinishes(scalers,dryingand nondryingoils;) may also structure, it is best to repaint the surface without removing
be used forbutcherblocksand cuttingboards.As mentioned the old paint(see Lead-Based Paint).
in the subsectionon eatingutensils,vegetableoils may
becomerancid.Ifa nondryingoil is desired, mineral oil may This discussionofpaint strippersis limitedto film-forming
finishes on wood used in structures. Removingpaint from
be used.Film-forming finishes arenot recommended for furniture can be done usingthe same methods as described
butcherblocks or cutting boards.
here.Companiesthat specialize in strippingfurnitureusually

15—33
immerse the furniturein a vat ofpaint stripperandthen clean up" with paint than equipmentthat merely sands the surface.
and brighten the wood. This procedureremoves the paint Some ofthis equipmentis advertisedin the Old House
very efficiently. Journal and the JournalofLight Construction. Please
consult the manufacturers' technicaldata sheetsfor detailed
Some ofthe same methodscanbe used for the removal of information to determinethe suitabilityoftheir equipment
interiorand exteriorpaint.Becauseofthe dust causedby foryour needsand to meet governmentregulations on lead-
mechanical methodsorthe fumesgiven offby chemical containingpaint.
strippers, it is extremelyimportanttouse effectivesafety
equipment, particularlywhen workingindoors.A good Paint can be removed by heatingthen scrapingit from the
respiratoris essential,even ifthe paintdoes not containlead wood, but this method must not be used for paint that con-
(seeLead-BasedPaint). tains lead.Paint can be softened by usingelectrically heated
Note: The dust masks sold in hardwarestores do not pads, hot air guns, or blow torches. Heated pads and hot air
block chemical fumesand arenot very effective guns are slow methods,but they cause little damage to the
wood. Sanding is still necessary,but the wood should be
against dust. sound afterthe paint is removed.Blowtorcheshavebeen
Twogeneral types ofstrippingmethodsare discussedhere: used to removepaintand, ifcarefullyused,do notdamage
mechanical and chemical. The processes are discussedin thewood. Blowtorches areextremely hazardous; theflames
general terms primarilyin regardtotheir effectonwood; caneasily ignite flammable materials beneaththesiding
someattentionis given to their ease ofuse and safetyre- through gaps in the siding. These materials may smolder,
quirements. Consultproduct literature foradditionalinforma- undetected, for hours beforebursting into flameandcausing
tion on appropriateuses and safetyprecautions. loss ofthe structure.
Note: Removing paint with a blow torch is not
Mechanical Methods recommended.
Finishescan be removedby scraping, sanding,wet or dry
sandblasting, sprayingwith pressurized water(powerwash-
Chemical Methods
ing), andusing electrically heatedpads, hot air guns, and If all thepaintneedsto be removed,then mechanical meth--
blowtorches. Scrapingis effective only in removingloosely ods should be used in concertwith other methods,such as
bondedpaint or paintthat has alreadypartially peeled from chemical paint strippers. For all chemicalpaint strippers, the
thewood.It is generallyusedwhen paintneeds to be re- process involves applyingpaint stripper, waiting,scraping
movedonly from smallareas ofthe structure,and it is gener- offthesoftened paint,washingthewood (and possiblyneu-
ally combined with sandingto featherthe edgeofthepaint tralizingthe stripper), and sanding the surfaceto removethe
still bondedto the wood (see Lead-BasedPaint). wood damagedby the stripperandlorthe raisedgrain caused
Whenthe paint is peeling and partially debonded on large by washing. Chemical paint strippers,although tedious to
areas ofa structure,the fmish is usually removedby power use, are sometimes the most reasonablechoice.A range of
washingorwet sandblasting. Thesemethodswork well for paintstrippersare available. Someare extremelystrong
chemicals that quickly removepaint but are dangerousto
paint that is looselybonded to the wood. Ifthe paint is well use. Others removethe paint slowly but are safer. With the
bonded, complete removalcan be difficult withoutseverely
damaging the wood surface. The pressure necessary to de- exception ofalkali paint stripper(discussed below),there
bond paintfrom the wood can easily cause deeperosionof appears tobe an inverse correlation betweenhowsafe a
thewood. The less dense earlywooderodesmore than the product is and how fast it removesthe paint.
dense latewood, leavingbehinda surface consisting oflate-
wood, which is more difficult to repaint.Powerwashing is Solvent-Based Strippers
less damagingto the wood than is wet or dry sandblasting, Fast-workingpaint strippersusually containmethylene
particularlyiflow pressureis used. Ifhigh pressureis neces- chloride, a possible carcinogenthat can bum eyes and skin.
sary to remove the paint, it is probablybondedwell enough Eye and skin protection and a supplied-air respiratorare
that it does notneed to be removedfornormalrefinishing. If essentialwhen using this paint stripper. Paint strippers
more aggressivemechanical methods are required, wet sand- havingmethylene chloride can remove paint in as little as
blastingcan remove evenwell-bondedpaint, but it causes 10 min.Becauseofconcernswith methylene chloride, some
more damageto the wood than does water blasting.Dry paint strippersare being formulated using other strong sol-
sandblasting is notvery suitableforremovingpaint from vents;the same safetyprecautionsshould be used with these
woodbecauseit can quicklyerode the wood surface along formulations as with those containingmethylene chloride.
with the paint, and it tends to glaze the surface. To remain effective in removingpaint,a paint strippermust
remain liquidor semiliquid; slow-acting paint stripersare
A numberofpower sanders and similardevices are available often coveredto keepthem active. Solvent-type strippers
for complete paint removal. Many ofthese devicesare suit- contain awax that floats to the surfaceto slowthe evapora-
able forremovingpaintthat containslead; theyhave attach- tionofthesolvent.Coveringthepaint stripper with plastic
ments for containingthe dust. Equipment that has a series of
blades similarto a power hand-planeris less likely to "gum wrap alsohelps to containthe solvent.

15—34
Alkali-Based Strippers Avoidance of Problems
As an alternativeto strong solvents,some paint strippers Failure ofthe fmishon woodthat has been stripped can be
containstrong bases (alkali). Like solvent-based paint strip-
avoidedby usingmethodsthat do not damage the wood
pers, alkali-based strippersrequireeye and skin protection. surface. The bestway toremove paintmay involvea combi-
Followthemanufacturer'srecommendations aboutwhethera
nation ofmethods.For example,use power washingto
respiratoris necessaryas well.Althoughalkali-based paint remove as much paint as possible.Then, use a solvent-based
stripperssoftenthe paint rather slowly, they are strong chemicalpaint stripperon paint that could not be removed
chemicals and can severelydamage the wood substrate.
Becausethey degradethe paint slowly, these strippersare by power washing. Avoid usingexcessiveamounisof
often left onthe paintedwood a full day or overnight. They chemicalstripper. Applyingtoo much stripperor leaving it
on the painted wood for too long can damagethe wood. It is
areusuallycoveredwith a cloth,which helps in peelingthe
weakened paint from the surface. betterto use less stripperand reapplyit, ifnecessary, thanto
try to removeall thepaint with one application, leavingthe
Thesecloth-covered types ofproductshavethe advantage of stripperon the paint for an extendedperiod.
containingthe paint stripperand paint extremely well, an The problemofpaint removal is complicated by the wide
important consideration whenremovingpaint containing
lead. They havethe disadvantage ofseverely degrading the range ofpaint types and wood species. Companies that make
wood substrate. Strong alkali actuallypulps the wood sur- paint strippers may optimize the formulations withoutcon-
face. Once the paint is removed,it is essential to neutralize sidering theireffectson the wood. Removing the paintfrom
thesurface with acid.Oxalicacidis frequently used for this thewood is only halfthetask. Gettinga paintable surface is
theother half. Companies that formulate paint strippersmust
process.Unfortunately, it is extremely difficulttobalancethe consider this other half. Those who use paint strippers need
acid andbase concentrations. Ifexcessalkali is left inthe
to understand theaddedburdenofsurface preparation.
wood, it willcontinueto degradeit and to degradethe sub-
sequentpaint coating. Excess oxalicacid can also damage
thewood.The neutralization procedure leavesbehindreac- Disposal of Old Paint
tion productsofthe acidandbase (waterand a salt). Often,
thesaltis hygroscopic(absorbsmoisturefrom theair) and No matterwhatmethodyouuseto removepaint,be careful
causes the wood to get wet. Wetwood does not hold paint in disposingoftheold paint,particularlypaint that contains
lead.Leadis considered hazardous waste, and there are regu-
very well. lations that restrict the handlingand disposalofthis mate-
Note: Alkali-based strippers require extracare to rial. Be sure to follow all regulations,both national and
ensure that the wood is neutralizedand that residual local,duringthe removal, storage,and disposalofpaint,
salts are washed from the wood.The surface must especially paintcontaininglead (seeLead-BasedI'aint).
besandedbeforerepainting.
Since the surface must be sandedbeforerepainting, paint Lead-Based Paint
performance might be improvedby letting the woodweather The informationin this sectionis takenfrom materialpre-
for an extended period(possibly as long as a year) before
pared bythe NationalAssociation ofHomeBuilders
repainting to let rain leachunwantedchemicals fromthe (NAHB) and is contained in RehabilitationofWood-Frame
wood. In addition,rinse the sidingperiodicallyusing a hose, Houses(USDA 1998). Lead-basedpaintwas widelyused in
particularlyareas that rain does not reach, such as siding residential applications in the UnitedStates until the early
undereaves and porches. Once all theresiduehas been 1940s, and its use was continued to some extent, particularly
removed, the surface can be sanded(50-gritsandpaper) fortheexteriorofdwellings, until 1976. In 1971, Congress
and painted.
passedthe Lead-BasedPaint PoisoningPrevention Act, and
Although alkali paint stripperscan cause burns on unpro- in 1976, the ConsumerProduct SafetyCommission(CPSC)
tected skin,the fumesare notnearly as toxic as those in issued a ruling underthis Act that limitedthe leadcontent
solvent-type strippers. Alkali paint strippers are an excellent ofpaintusedin residential dwellings, toys, andfurniture
choiceforindooruse such as door and windowtrim and to 0.06%.
fireplace mantles.Indoors, the weakenedwood surface may Lead-basedpaint is still manufactured today for applications
notbe as much ofa concernbecauseless stress is placedon not coveredby the CPSCruling, such as paint for metal
thewood—paint interface; thewood is notexposedto products, particularlythosemade ofsteel.Occasionally, such
weather extremes. lead-based paint(for example,surplus paint from ashipyard)
inadvertently gets into retail stores andthe hands ofconsum-
"Safe" Paint Strippers ers. A studyconducted forthe Environmental Protection
Several paint strippersare being marketedunderthe "safe" Agency in 1986 indicatedthat about 42 millionU.S. homes
caveat. These stripperswork much slowerthanthose having still containinteriorand/orexteriorlead-based paint.As
strong chemical solvents.The active ingredient in such paint rehabilitation ofthese homesincreases, howto abatethe
strippers is usually proprietary.In regardto safety,follow the toxicityoflead-based painthas become the subjectofin-
manufacturer's recommendations. creased public and official concern.

15—35
Studies have shownthat ingestion ofeven minute amounts filtration apparatus, use ofpropanetorches, contained water
oflead can have serious effects on health, including hyperten- blasting, washing, and repainting.
sion,fetal injury, and damageto the brain, kidneys,and red
blood cells. Low levels ofingestion can also cause partial Removaloflead-based paintby scrapingorapplication of
loss ofhearing,impairmentofmentaldevelopment and IQ, heat does not so've the problemoflead-particulate dust.
growth retardation, inhibitedmetabolism ofvitaminD, and Scraping shouldbe accompaniedby misting.Dry scrapingis
disturbances in blood formation. The American Academyof prohibitedby Maryland abatementregulations.Sanding
Pediatrics regards lead as one ofthe foremosttoxicological withouta HEPA-filteredvacuumshouldnot be used as a
dangers to children. finishingmethod after scraping or any other methodoftoxic-
ity abatement. The HEPA sandersare recommendedfor
Lead-basedpaint applied to the exterior ofhomes disinte- limited surface areas only; they are most appropriate for flat
gratesinto chalkand powderas a result ofthe effects ofmois- surfaces such as doorjambs and stairrisers. Open abrasive
ture and ultravioletradiation. This extremely fine lead dust blastingis also prohibitedby some regulations.
can accumulatein the soil nearthe house and can ultimately
enterthe house. Poor quality lead-basedpaintusedon inte- High levels ofairbornelead can be producedby heatguns,
rior surfaces can also produce dust. Leaddust canbe gener- and the use ofa respiratoris essential. Someleadis likelyto
ated whencoatingson surfaces are brokenthroughaging or be volatilizedat theoperating temperaturesofmost heat
as a result ofrehabilitation. The dust cannotbe completely guns. Lead fumes are released at about 371°C (700°F). Heat
removedby conventionalhouse-cleaning methods. gunscapableof:-eachingor exceeding this temperature
shouldnot be operatedin that range.
Methods usedto abate the toxicity oflead-based paint orto
remove the paint can themselvesgeneratelead dust. This is Chemicalmethods for removinglead-based paint mayrequire
particularlytrue whenunacceptable methods andwork prac- multipleapplications, dependingon the number ofpaint
tices are used.Poorly performed abatement canbe worsethan coats. Causticand solvent-based chemicalsshouldnot be
no abatement. The micron-sizedlead dust particles can allowedto dry on the lead-painted surface. Ifdrying occurs.
remain airbornefor substantial periodsand cannotbe fully paint removal will not be satisfactoryand the potentialfor
removedby standard cleaning methods from the surfaces on creatinglead dust will be increased.
which they have settled. When working on old painted Chemicalsubstances used for paintremovalare usually
surfaces, the worker shouldassumethat one or more ofthe hazardous and shouldbe used with great care. Some sol-
paint coats contain lead.Proper precautionsshouldbe taken vent-based chemical strippers are flammable and require
accordingly. ventilation. They may contain methylenechloride,which is
Paint coats may be checkedfor lead content. Aportable x-ray a central nervoussystemdepressantthat at high concentra-
fluorescence (XRF) analyzeris commonly used to determine tions can cause kidneyand liver damageand is a possible
the level oflead in paint.Becausethis device has thepoten- carcinogen. Sup?lied-air respirators shouldbe used when
tial forgivingvery inaccurateresults ifusedby an inexperi- working with stripperscontainingthis substance. If the
solvent-based strippersdo not contain methylenechloride,
enced person,the analysisshouldbe done by a qualified
organic vapor fiters must be added to respirators. Caustic
professional. Chemicalspot testing,using a solution of6% chemical strippersalsohave a very high pH (alkalinecon-
to 8% sodiumsulfide in water, is sometimes usedto screen
tent), whichcan cause severeskin and eye injuries.
paintedsurfaces forthe presence oflead. Be certain to check
all paint coats, becausethe older ones are more likelyto be Caution: Remodelingor refinishing projectsthat
lead based.Test kits for detecting lead-based paint are avail- requiredisturbing, removing, or demolishingpor-
able in most paint andhardwarestores. tions ofthe structure that are coatedwith lead-based
Removaloflead-basedpaints can presentsomeserious health paint pose seriousproblems. The consumershould
seek information, advice,and perhaps professional
problems. The U.S. Department ofHealthand Urban Devel- assistance for addressing these problems. Contact
opment(HUD)has taken a leadingrole in developing guide- HUDfor the latestinformation onthe removalof
linesfor the removaloflead-basedpaints.Atthistime, HUD lead-based paints. Debris coated with lead-based
has approvedthree approaches to abatingthe toxicityof
lead-based paint: paint is regardedas hazardous waste.
1. Covering the paintedsurface with wallboard, a fiberglass References
clothbarrier, orpermanentlyattached wallpaper
APA. 1979. Stains and paints on plywood. Pamphlet
2. Removing thepaint B407B. Tacoma, WA: American PlywoodAssociation.
3. Replacing the entiresurface to whichlead-based painthas
beenapplied Black, J.M.; Mraz,E.A. 1974. Inorganicsurface treatments
forweather-resistant natural finishes.Res. Pap. FPL—232.
Certainpracticesare prohibitedin residential structures Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest
ownedandoperatedby HUD: machine sanding withoutan Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
attached high-efficiency particulate air (HEPA) vacuum

15—36
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980. Wood fmishing:Finish- Kalnins, M.A.; Feist, W.C. 1993. Increase in wettability
ing exteriorplywood,hardboard and particleboard.North ofwood with weathering. ForestProductsJournal.
CentralRegion ExtensionPub. 132. West Lafayette,IN: 43(2): 55—57.
Purdue University,Cooperative ExtensionService. McDonald, K.A.; Falk, R.H.; Williams, R.S.; Winandy,
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980. Wood finishing:paint J.E. 1996. Wooddecks: materials,construction,and
failure problemsand their cure. North CentralRegion Exten- finishing.Madison, WI: Forest Products Society.
sion Pub!. 133. West Lafayette,iN: Purdue University, Niemiec, S.S.; Brown, T.D. 1988. Care and maintenance of
Cooperative ExtensionService. wood shingle and shake roofs. Corvallis, OR: OregonState
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980. Wood finishing: discol- UniversityExtensionService.EC 1271, September.
oration ofhouse paint—causes and cures.North Central Richter, K.; Feist, W.C.; Knaebe, M.T. 1995. The effect
Region ExtensionPub!. 134. West Lafayette,iN: Purdue ofsurface roughness ontheperformance offmishes. Part 1.
University, Cooperative ExtensionService. Roughness characterization and stainperformance. Forest
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980. Wood finishing:selec- Products Journal. 45(7/8): 91—97.
tion and application ofexteriorfinishesfor wood.I4otth Ross, A.S.; Feist, W.C. 1993. The effectsofCCA-treated
CentralRegionExtensionPubl. 135. West Lafayette,IN: wood ontheperformance ofsurface finishes. American Paint
PurdueUniversity, Cooperative ExtensionService. and CoatingsJournal. 78(9): 41—54.
Cassens, D.L.; Feist, W.C. 1980. Woodfmishing:fmih- Ross, A.S.; Bussjaeger, R.C.; Feist, W.C. 1992.Profes-
ing and maintainingwood floors. North CentralRegion sionalfmishingofCCA pressure-treated wood.American
ExtensionPub!. 136. West Lafayette,iN: PurdueUniversity, paintingContractor. 69(7): 107—114.
Cooperative Extension Service. Sell, J.; Feist, W.C. 1986. Role ofdensity in the erosion
Feist, W.C. 1979. Protectionofwood surfaces with chro- ofwood duringweathering.Forest Products Journal.
mium trioxide. Res. Pap. FPL—339. Madison, WI: U.S. 36(3): 57—60.
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Tichy, R.J. 1997. Interiorwood finishing: industrialuse
Laboratory. guide. Madison, WI: Forest Products Society.
Feist, W.C. 1982. Weatheringofwood in structuraluses. USDA. 1998. Rehabilitation ofwood-frame houses.Agric.
In: Meyer, R.W.; Kellogg, R.M., eds. Structural use of Handb. 804. Washington, DC: U.S. DepartmentofAgricul-
wood in adverseenvironments. New York: Van Nostrand
Reinhold Company: 156—178. ture, Forest Service.
WDMA.1999. Industry standard forwater-repellntpreserva-
Feist, W.C. 1982. Weathering characteristics offinished tive treatmentfor millwork.IS4—99. Des P!aines, IL:
wood-basedpanelproducts.Journal ofCoatingTechnology. Window andDoor Manufacturer'sAssociation.
54(686): 43—50.
Williams,R.S. 1986. Effects ofacid rain on paintedwood
Feist, W.C. 1990. Outdoor wood weathering and protection. surfaces: importance ofthe substrate. In: Baboian,R., ed.
In: Rowe!!, R., ed. Archaeological wood, properties, chemis- Materials degradation causedby acid rain. ACS Symposium
try, and preservation. Advanced in Chemistry Series No. Series318. Washington DC: AmericanChemicalSociety:
225. Washington, DC: American ChemicalSociety. 310—331.
263—298. Chapter 11.
Williams, R.S. 1990. Effectsofacidic deposition on painted
Feist, W.C. 1996. Finishing exteriorwood. Federation wood.In: Effectsofacidicdeposition on materials. Stateof
Series on CoatingsTechnology. Blue Bell, PA: Federation Scienceand State of Technology, Report 19. Nai:ionalAcid
ofSocietiesforCoatingsTechnology.
Precipitation AssessmentProgram: 19/165—19/202.Vol. 3.
Feist, W.C.; Hon, D.N.—S. 1984. Chemistry ofweathering Williams, R.S.; Feist, W.C. 1993. Durabilityofpaint or
and protection. In: Rowe!!, R.M., ed. The chemistry ofsolid solid-color stain appliedto preweathered wood. Forest
wood. Advances in ChemistrySeries No. 207. Washington Products Journal. 43(1): 8—14.
DC: American ChemicalSociety: 401—451. Chapter11.
Williams, R.S.; Feist, W.C. 1994. Effectofpreweathering,
Feist, W.C.; Mraz, E.A. 1980. Performance ofrnildewcides surface roughness, and wood species onthe performance of
in a semitransparentstain wood fmish. Forest Products
Journal. 30(5): 43—46. paint and stains. JournalofCoatingsTechnology.
66(828): 109—121.
Feist, W.C.; Ross, A.S. 1995. Performance and durability of Williams, R.S.; Winandy, J.E.; Feist, W.C. 1.987. Adhe-
fmishes on previouslycoatedCCA-treated wood. Forest sion ofpaintto weatheredwood. Forest ProductsJournal.
ProductsJournal.45(9): 29—36.
37(11/12): 29—3!.
Gorman, T.M.; Feist, W.C. 1989. Chronicle of65 years of Williams, R.S.; Winandy, J.E.; Feist, W.C. [987. Paint
wood finishingresearchofthe Forest Products Laboratory. adhesionto weatheredwood.JournalofCoatings
Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—60. Madison, WI: U.S.
Technology. 59(749): 43—49.
Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,ForestProducts
Laboratory. Williams, R.S.; Knaebe, M.T.; Feist, W.C. 1996.
Finishesfor exteriorwood.Madison, WI: Fores: Products
Society.

15—37
 I Chapter 16 I
Use of Wood in Buildings
and Bridges
Russell C. Moody and Anton TenWolde

Contents n NorthAmerica, most housingand conimercial

structures built prior to the 20th centuryused
Light-Frame Buildings 16—i wood as the major structuralmaterial. The abun-
dant woodresource formed the basic structure formost
Foundations 16—2
houses,commercial buildings, bridges,and utility poles.
Floors 16—2 Today,houses andmany light commercial and industrial
buildingsare madeusingmodem wood structural materials.
ExteriorWalls 16—3
Recently, therehas beenincreasedinterest inusingwood for
Ceiling and Roof 16—4 varioustypes oftransportation structures, including bridges.
WoodDecks 16—4 In this chapter, thefeaturesofvarioustypes ofbuilding
systemsare described. Emphasis is placedon how these
Post-Frameand Pole Buildings 16—4 systemshave adapted to the use ofmodemmaterials and
Log Buildings 16—6 techniques. For example, where floor,wall, and roofsheath-
ing forlight-frame construction were oncecommonly made
HeavyTimber Buildings 16—6 from wood boards, sheathing is now commonly made from
Timber Frame structural panelproducts,such as plywoodand structural
16—6
flakeboard. Compared with boards, these panelproducts are
Mill Type 16-7 quickerto install andprovide improvedstructural resistance
GlulamBeam 16—8
to wind and earthquake loadings. Furthermore, prefabricated
floor and wallpanelsalong with prefabricated roofand floor
Arch Structure 16-8 trusses or I-joists are replacingpiece-by-piece on-site
construction with dimensionlumber. A structure can be
Dome 16-8 enclosedwithin a shorttime on site using factory-made
TimberBridges 16-9 panelizedsystems.
Log Stringer 16-9 Glulam andother panelizedwoodsystemsare being used
Sawn Lumber 16-9 increasingly for both highwayandrailroadbridges. A brief
description ofthe uses ofwood in these types ofstructures is
Glulam 16—10 included.
Structural Composite Lumber 16—10
Considerations for Wood Buildings 16—10 Light-Frame Buildings
Structural 16—10 Historically,two general typesoflight-frame construction
havebeenused—balloon andplatformframing. Balloon
Thermal Insulationand Air InfiltrationControl 6-11
IL framing, whichwas usedinthe early part ofthe 20th century,
consists offull-height wall framingmembers fortwo-story
MoistureControl 16—12
construction. Additionalinformation onballoon framingis
Sound Control 16—13 available from older construction manuals. In the latter part
References
ofthe20th century,platformframinghas dominatedthe
16—14
housingmarket and is widelyusedin commercial and light
industrial applications. Platform framingfeaturesthe con-
struction ofeach floor on top ofthe one beneath. Platform
framing construction differs from that of50 years ago inthe
use ofnew and innovative materials, panelproductsfor floor

16—1
androofsheathing,and prefabricated components and mod- designedtopermiteasy drainageand providedrainagefrom
ules as opposed to "stick built" or on-siteconstruction. A the lowest level ofthefoundation.
detaileddescription ofthe platform-type ofconstruction is Because a foundation wall needs to be permanent, the pre-
given in Wood FrameHouse Construction(Sherwood and servative treatment oftheplywoodand framingas well as the
Stroh 1989); additionalinformationis given in the Wood fasteners used for connections are very important. A special
Frame ConstructionManualfor One- and Two-Family
foundation (FDN)treatment has been established forthe
Dwellings, 1995 SBCHigh Wind Edition (AF&PA 1995).
plywood and framing, with strictrequirements fordepth of
chemical penetration and amountofchemical retention.
Foundations Corrosion-resistant fasteners (for example, stainless steel)are
recommended for all preservatively treatedwood. Additional
Light-frame buildingswith basements are typicallysupported
on cast-in-place concretewalls orconcrete blockwalls sup- information and materials andconstruction procedures are
ported by footings.This type ofconstruction with a base- given in Permanent Wood FoundationBasic Requirements
ment is commonin northernclimates. Anotherpracticeis to (AF&PA 1987).
have concrete block foundations extenda shortdistance
above groundto supporta floor system over a "crawlspace." Floors
In southernand western climates, some buildings have no
foundation; the walls are supported by aconcreteslab, thus For houseswith basements, thecentral supporting structure
havingno basementor crawl space. may consist of wood posts on suitable footings that carry a
built-up girder, which is frequently composed ofplanksthe
Treatedwood is alsousedfor basementfoundation walls. same width as thejoists (standard38 by 184 mmto 38 by
Basically, such foundations consistofwood-frame wall 286 mm (nominal2 by 8 in. to 2 by 12 in.)), face-nailed
sectionswith studs and plywood sheathingsupported on together,and set on edge. Becauseplanks are seldomsuffi-
treatedwood plates, all ofwhich are preservatively treated to ciently long enoughto span the full length ofthe beam, butt
a specified level ofprotection.To distribute the load, the joints arerequired in the layers.Thejoints are staggeredin
plates are laid on a layerofcrushed stoneor gravel.Walls, theindividual layers near thecolumnsupports.The girder
whichmust be designedto resist the lateral loads ofthe may alsobe aglulambeam or steel I-beam, often supported
backfill,are built usingthe same techniquesas conventional on adjustable steel pipe columns.Similardetails may be
walls.The exteriorsurface ofthe foundation wallbelowgrade appliedto a house over a crawl space.The floor framingin
is drapedwith a continuousmoisturebarrierto prevent direct residentialstructures typicallyconsistsofwoodjoists on
water contactwith the wall panels.The backfill must be 400- or 600-mm (16- or 24-in.) centerssupportedby the
foundation walls andthe centergirder (Fig. 16-1).

Double joists
under partitions
Solid bridging
under loadbearing
partitions only

Figure 16—1. Typicalfloor details for platform construction with joistsspliced on centerbeam.

16—2
Joist size depends on the anticipatedloading,spacing be- Exterior Walls
tweenjoists, distancebetween supports (span),species,and
grade oflumber.Commonlyusedjoists are standard38- by Exterior wallsoflight-frame structures aregenerallyload
184-mm or 38- by 235-mm(nominal2- by 8-in, or 2-by bearing; they support upperfloors and the roof. An exception
10-in.) lumber, prefabricatedwood I-joists,orparallelchord is the gable ends ofa one- or two-storybuilding. Basically,
trusses.Lumberjoists typically span from 3.6 to 4.8 m (12 wall framingconsistsofvertical studs andhorizoni:almem-
to 16 fi). Spantablesareavailable from theAmerican Forest bers, includingtop and bottom plates and headers (or lintels)
& PaperAssociation(AF&PA 1993). Spancapabilities of over window and door openings. The studs are generally
theprefabricated wood I-joists orparallel chordtrusses are standard 38- by 89 mm, 38- by 114-mm, or 38- by 140-mm
recommended by the manufacturer. (nominal 2- by 4-in., 2- by 5-in., or 2- by 6-in.) members
spaced between300 and 600 mm (12 and 24 in.) en center.
Floor openings for stairways, fireplaces, and chimneys may Selection ofthe stud size depends on the loadthe 'wall will
interruptone ormore joists. Preferably, such openings are cany, the needforsupport ofwall-covering materials, and the
parallelto the length ofthejoists to reducethe numberof need for insulation thickness inthe walls. Headers over
joists that will be interrupted. At the interruption, a support openings up to 1.2 m (4 ft) are often 38 by 140 mm (2 by
(header)is placedbetweentheuninterrupted joists and at- 6 in.),nailedtogether face to face with spacersto bring the
tachedto them.A single headeris usuallyadequatefor open- headersflushwith the faces ofthe studs. Specialheadersthat
ings up to about 1.2 m (4 ft) in width,but doubleheaders matchthe wallthicknessare alsoavailablein the form of
are requiredfor wideropenings. Special care must be takento eitherprefabricated I-joistsor structural composite lumber.
provide adequatesupportat headers(usingjoisthangers,for Wall framingis erected over the platformformed by the first-
example). floorjoists and subfloor. In most cases, an entirewall is
framedin a horizontal positionon the subfloor, then tilted
Cutting offramingmembersto install items such as plumb- into place. Ifa wall is too long to make this procedure prac-
ing lines and heating ducts should be minimized. Cut mem- tical, sections ofthe wall can be formed horizontal [y and
bers may requirea reinforcing scab, or a supplementaiy tilted up, then joined to adjacent sections.
membermay be needed. Areas ofhighlyconcentrated loads,
such asunderbathtubs,requiredoublingofjoists or other Cornerstuds areusuallyprefabricated in such a configu-
measuresto provide adequate support. One advantage of ration as to provideanailing edge forthe interiorfinish
framingfloors with parallel-chord trusses orprefabricated I- (Fig. 16—2). Studs are sometimes doubledat the pointsof
joists is that theirlonger span capabilities may eliminate the intersection with an interiorpartition to providebackup
needfor interiorsupports.Anadditionaladvantage is that the supportforthe interiorwall finish. Alternatively, a horizontal
web areas ofthese components are designedfor easypassing block is placedmidheightbetweenexteriorstuds to support
ofplumbing, electrical, and heatingducts. thepartition wall. In such a case,backupclips on theparti-
tion stud are needed to accommodate the interiorfinish.
Floorsheathing,or subflooring, is used over the floor fram-
ingtoprovide a workingplatformand a base for thefmish Upperplates are usually doubled, especially whenraftersor
flooring. Olderhomeshave board sheathing butnewerhomes floorjoists will bearon the top plate between studs. The
generallyuse panel products. Common sheathingmaterials secondtop plate is addedin such a way that it overlaps the
includeplywoodand structural flakeboard, which are avail- firstplate at corners and interiorwall intersections. This
able in anumber oftypesto meet varioussheathing require- providesatie and additionalrigidity to the walls. In areas
ments. Exterior-type panelswith water-resistant adhesive are subjectto high winds or earthquakes, ties should be pro-
desirablein locations wheremoisture may be a proiblem, vided betweenthe wall, floor framing, and sillplate that
such as floors near plumbingfixturesor situations wherethe shouldbe anchoredtothe foundation. Ifa second storyis
subfloormaybe exposedtothe weatherfor sometime during added to the structure,the edgefloorjoist is nailed to the top
construction. wall plate,and subfloorand wall framingare added inthe
same way asthe firstfloor.
Plywoodshouldbe installedwith the grain directionofthe
face plies atright angles to thejoists. Structural flakeboard Sheathing for exteriorwalls is commonly sometype ofpanel
alsohas apreferreddirectionofinstallation. Nailing patterns product. Here again, plywood or structural flakeboard may be
are eitherprescribed by codeorrecommendedbythe manu- used. Fiberboard that has been treatedto impartsome degree
facturer. About 3 mm (1/8 in.) ofspace shouldbe left be- ofwaterresistance is another option. Several types offiber-
tween the edgesand ends ofabutting panelsto providefor board are available. Regular-density boardsometimes re-
dimensional changesassociatedwith moisturecontent. quires additional bracingto providenecessaryresistanceto
lateralloads. Intermediate-density board is used wherestruc-
Literature from APA—TheEngineered WoodAssociation tural support isneeded. Numerous foam-typepanelscan also
includes information onthe selectionand installation ofthe beused to impartgreater thermalresistance tothe walls.
typesofstructuralpanels suitable for subfloors (APA 1996).
In cases where the sheathingcannotprovidethe required
rackingresistance, diagonalbracingmust be used. Many
foam sheathings cannotprovideadequate rackingresistance,

16—3
 Ceiling and Roof
Roofsystems are generally madeofeitherthejoists-and-rafter
systemsor with trusses.Engineeredtrussesreduce on-site
labor and can span greater distances withoutintermediate
support, thus eliminating the needfor interiorload-carrying
partitions.This provides greaterflexibilityin the layout of
interiorwalls. Prefabricated rooftrusses are used to form the
ceiling and sloped roofofmore thantwo-thirdsofcurrent
light-frame buildings.For residentialbuildings,the trusses
are generallymadeusing standard38- by 89-mm(nominal
2- by 4-in.) lumberandmetal plate connectors with teeth
that are pressedinto the pieces that form thejoints (TPI
1995).
(a) Joists andrafter systemsare found in most buildingscon-
structedpriorto 1950. Rafters are generallysupported on the
top plate ofthewall and attachedto a ridge board attheroof
peak. However, becausethe rafters slope,they tend to push
out the tops ofthe walls. This is preventedby nailing the
rafters to the ceiling joists and nailing the ceilingjoists to
thetop wall plates (Fig. 16—3a).
A valleyorhip is formedwheretwo roofsectionsmeet
perpendicular to each other.A valleyrafter is usedto support
short-lengthjackraftersthat are nailedto the valleyrafterand
theridge board (Fig. I6—3b). In some cases,the roofdoes
not extendto a gable end but is slopedfrom some point
down to the end wallto form a "hip" roof. A hip rafter sup-
portsthejackrafters, andthe other ends ofthejackraftersare
attachedto the top plates (Fig. 16—3c). In general,the same
materials used forwall sheathingand subflooring are used or
roofsheathing.

Wood Decks
A popularmethodofexpanding thelivingarea of ahome is
to builda wood deckadjacentto one oftheexteriorwalls.
Decks are madeofpreservatively treatedlumber, which is
generallyavailablefrom the local buildingsupplydealerand,
depending upon the complexity, may be built by the "doit-
yourselfer." To ensure long life, acceptable appearance, and
structural safety, several important guidelinesshould be
followed. Propermaterial selectionis the first step. Then,
properconstruction techniquesarenecessary. Finally, proper
(c) maintenance practicesare necessary. Detailed recommenda-
tions forallthese areas are includedin Wood Decks: Materi-
Figure 16—2. Cornerdetails for wood studwalls that
provide support for interior sheathing: (a) traditional als, Construction, and Finishing (McDonaldand others
three-stud cornerwith blocking; (b) three-stud corner 1996).
withoutblocking; (c) two-stud corner with wallboard
backup clips. Post-Frame and Pole Buildings
Inpost-frame and pole buildings, roundpoles or rectangular
so either diagonalbracesmust be placedat the corners or posts serveboth asthe foundation andthe principalvertical
structural panels must be appliedover the first 1.2 m (4 ft) of framingelement.This type ofconstructionwas knownas
thewall from thecorner. When light-weight insulating foam "pole buildings"but today, with the extensiveuse ofposts,
sheathingsare used, bracingis commonly providedby stan- is commonly referredto as "post-frame"construction. For
dard 19- by 89-nun (nominal1- by 4-in.) lumber or steel relatively low structures, light wall androofframingare
strapping. nailedto poles orposts set at fairlyfrequent centers, com-
monly 2.4 to 3.6 m (8 to 12 ft). This type ofconstructior

16-4
 Ridge board

End stud

Ceiling

(a)

rafter

Top plates

for
(b) cornice trim (c)

Figure 16—3. (a) A rafter-type roofwith typicalframingdetails for (b) a valley and (c) a hip corner.

wasoriginallyusedwith roundpoles foragriculturalbuild- Rectangular posts are the most commonly usedand may be
ings,but the structuralprinciplehas been extendedto com- solid sawn, glulam, or built-up by nail laminating. Built-up
mercial and residentialbuildings(Fig. 16—4). posts are advantageous becauseonly thebase ofthe post
must be preservativelytreated.The treatedportion. in the
Roundpoles presentsome problemsfor connecting framing
groundmay havelaminations ofvarying lengths that are
members; these problemscan be eased by slabbing the outer matched with the lengths ofuntreatedlaminations in the
face ofthe pole.For cornerpoles, two faces maybe stabbed
at right angles. This permitsbetter attachmentofboth light upperpart ofthe post. The designofthese types ofposts
must consider the integrity ofthe splice betweenthe treated
andheavy framingbynails or timberconnectors. Whenthe and untreatedlumber. The wall systemconsistsofhorizontal
pole is left round, the outer face may be notchedto provide girts often coveredby light-gauge metal that providessome
seats forbeams.
degree ofracking resistance.

16-5
 Roofstructure

Roofstructure

Perimeterplate
Panel top plate
— Conventional
stud wall
Round pole orsquare post Post
Finish floor
Sole plate
Subfloor floor
Roundpole Q•
'Ju.JuI'J'J'
orsquare post
Joist I —Joist
Ribbonplate

Concrete
Gravelor concrete
Auger-drilled hole
Auger drilled hole
Concrete pad

Figure 16—4. Pole and post-frame buildings: (left)poleor postforms both foundation and wall; (right)
pole or postforms only the foundation for conventional platform-framed structure.

Rooftrussesmadewith metal plate connectors are attachedto rounded,but the interiorsurfaces may be eitherflat or round.
each pole, or posts, and roofpurlins are installed perpendicu- The interface between logs is machinedto form an interlock-
lar to the trusses at spacingsfrom 1.2 to 3.7 m (4 to 12 ft), ing joint.
with 2.4 m (8 ft) as a common spacing. For 2.4-rn (8-fl)
truss spacing,these purlins are often standard 38 by 89 mm Consensus standards have beendevelopedfor loggrading
(nominal 2 by 4 in.) spaced on 0.6-rn (2-fl) centers and and the assignmentofallowableproperties, and these stan-
attachedto either the top ofthe trussesor betweenthe trusses dardsare being adoptedby buildingcodes (ASTM 1996).
usingjoists hangers.The roofing is often light-gauge metal Builders and designers need to realize that logs canreachthe
that providessome diaphragm stiffnessto the roofand trans- buildingsite at moisturecontent levels greaterthan ideal.
mits a portion ofthe lateral loading to the walls parallel to The effectsofseasoning andthe consequences ofassociated
thedirectionofthe load.Detailedinformation onthedesign shrinkage and checking must be considered. Additional
ofpost-framebuildingsis given in the NationalFrame information on log homesis available from The Log Home
BuildersAssociation([n.d.]) or Walkerand Woeste(1992). Council, NationalAssociation ofHome Builders,
Washington, DC.

Log Buildings
Interestis growingin log houses—fromsmall, simple
Heavy Timber Buildings
houses forvacationuse to large,permanentresidences Timber Frame
(Fig. 16—5). Many U.S. firms specialize in the designand Timber framehouseswere common in earlyAmericaand are
material for log houses. Loghomesnearlyalwaysfeature
wall systemsbuilt from naturalor manufactured logs rather enjoying some renewedpopularitytoday.Most barns and
than from dimensionlumber. Roofand floor systems may be factory buildingsdating prior to the middle ofthe 20th
also be built with logs or conventionalframing.Log home century were heavytimberframe. The traditionaltimber
frame is madeoflargesawn timbers(largerthan 114 by
companies tend to categorizelog types into two systems:
round and shaped. In the round log system, the logs are 114 mm (5 by 5 in.)) connected to one anotherby hand-
machinedto a smooth, fully rounded surface,and they are fabricated joints, such as mortiseand tenon. Construction
generallyall the same diameter.In the shaped system, the
a
ofsuch frameinvolves rathersophisticated joinery, as
logs are machinedto specificshapes, generallynot fully illustratedin Figure 16—6.
round.The exteriorsurfaces ofthe logs are generally

16—6
Figure 16—5. Modern log homes are available in a variety of designs.

In today's timberframe home, aprefabricated, composite United States. This type ofconstruction usestimbers oflarge
sheathing panel (1.2 by 2.4 m (4 by 8 ft)) is frequently ap- cross sections with columns spacedin a grid according to the
plied directlyto the frame. This panel may consistofan availablelengths ofbeamand girdertimbers.The size ofthe
inside layer of13-mm (1/2-in.)gypsum, a core layerofrigid timbersmakesthis type ofconstruction resistant to fire. The
foam insulation,and an outsidelayerofexteriorplywood or good insulating qualities ofwood as well as the charthat
structuralflakeboard. Finish sidingis appliedover the com- developsduring fire result inslow penetration offire into the
positepanel. In somecases, a layerofstandard 19-mm large members. Thus,the members retaina largeproportion
(nominal1-in.)tongue-and-groove, solid-wood boards is oftheir original load-canying capacityand stiffness fora
appliedto the frame, and arigid, foam-exterior, plywood relatively lengthy periodafter the onsetoffire. Mill-type
compositepanelis then appliedover the boardsto form the construction is recognizedby somebuildingcodes as a 1-h
buildingexterior.Local fire regulations shouldbe consulted fire-resistant construction, with some limitations.
aboutthe acceptance ofvariousfoam insulations.
Tobe recognizedas mill-typeconstruction, the structural
Framing members are cut in large cross sections; therefore, elementsmust meet specific sizes—columns cannotbe less
seasoning them beforeinstallation is difficult, ifnot impossi- than standard 184 mm (nominal8 in.) in dimensionand
ble. Thus,the builder (and the owner) shouldrecognizethe beamsand girderscannotbe less than standard 140 by
dimensionalchangesthatmay occur as the members thy in 235 mm (nominal6 by 10 in.) in cross section. Other limi-
place.The structuremust be designedto accommodate these tationsmust be observedas well. For example, alls must
dimensional changesas well as seasoning checks,whichare be made ofmasonry, and concealed spaces must beavoided.
almost inevitable. The structural frame has typically beenconstructedofsolid-
sawn timbers,which shouldbe stress graded.These timbers
Mill Type can now be supplanted with glulamtimbers,and ]onger
spans arepermitted.
Mill-typeconstruction has been widely used for warehouse
andmanufacturing structures, particularlyin the eastern
 Plan

Figure 16-6. Timberframe structurewith typical

L
Elevation -
joint details. Figure 16—7. Member layoutfor a radial-rib dome.

Glulam Beam Arch Structure

A panelizedroofsystemusing glulamroofframingis widely Arch structures areparticularlysuitedto applications in
usedfor single-story commercial buildingsin thesouthwest- whichlarge, unobstructed areas are needed, such as churches,
ern United States. This system is based on supporting col- recreational buildings, andaircrafthangars.Many arch forms
umns locatedat the corners ofpre-establishedgrids. The arepossiblewith the variety limitedonly by theimagination
main glulam beams supportpurlins, whichmay be sawn ofthearchitect. Churches haveused archesfrom thebegin-
timbers,glulam, parallel chordtrusses,orprefabricatedwood ning ofglulammanufacturein the United States. Additional
I-joists. These purlins,which are normallyon 2.4-rn (8-fl) information on the use and design ofarchesis given in The
centers, supportpreframedstructural panels. The basic unit of Timber ConstructionManual (AITC 1994b).
thepreframedsystem is a 1.2- by 2.4-rn (4- by 8-fl) structural
panelnailed to standard38- by 89-mm or 38- by 140-mm Dome
(nominal2- by 4-in, or 2- by 6-in.) stiffeners (subpurlins).
The stiffenersrun parallelto the 2.4-rn (8-fl)dimension ofthe Radial-ribdomesconsistofcurved membersextending from
structural panel. Onestiffeneris located at the centerline of the base ring (tensionring) to a compressionring at thetop
thepanel;the other is locatedat an edge, with the plywood ofthe dome along with other ring members at various
edge at the stiffener centerline. The stiffeners are precutto a elevations betweenthe tension and compression rings
length equal to the long dimensionofthe plywoodless the (Fig. 16—7). The ring members may be curvedor straight. If
thicknessofthe purlin, with a smallallowance for the they are curvedto the sameradius as the rib and havetheir
hanger. centersatthe centerofthe sphere,the dome will have a
sphericalsurface. Ifthering members are straight,the dome
In some cases, thepurlins areerectedwith thehangersin willhave an umbrellalook. Connections betweentheribs
place. Theprefabricatedpanelsare liftedand set into place in andthe ringmembers are criticalbecauseofthe high com-
thehangers,and theadjoiningbasic panelsare then attached pressiveloads in the ring members.Duringconstruction,
to each other. In other cases,thebasic panelsareattachedto care mustbetakento stabilizethe structure becausethe dome
one purlin on the ground. An entirepanel is liftedinto place has atendencyto rotate aboutthe centralvertical axis.
to support theloose ends ofthestiffeners. This systemis
fully describedin the LaminatedTimber DesignGuide Otherdome patternscalledVaraxand Triax are alsoused.
(AITC 1994a). Theirgeometries are quitecomplexand specializedcomputer

16—8
Figure 16—8. This 161.5-rn- (530-ft-) diameter Tacoma dome (Tacoma,Washington), built in 1982—1983,is one of
the longest clear roofspans in the world. (Photo courtesy ofWestern Wood Structures, Inc., Tualatin, Oregon.)

programsare used in their design. Steel hubsused at the Log Stringer

joints and supports are critical.An exampleofa Triaxdome
is shown in Figure 16—8. A simplebridgetype that has beenused for centuries con-
sistsof one ormore logs used to span the opening. Several
logs may be laid side-by-side and fastenedtogether. The log
Timber Bridges stringerbridgehas been usedto accessloggingareas and is
Priorto the 20th century,timberwas the major materialused advantageous whenadequate-sized logs are available and the
for both highwayandrailroad bridges. The development of bridge is only needed for a short time. Unless bui]twith a
steel andreinforcedconcrete providedother options, and durablespecies, the life span oflog stringerbridges is usu-
these have becomemajor bridgebuildingmaterials. How- ally limited to less than 10 years.
ever,the U.S. inventorydoes containa significantnumberof
timberbridges,many ofwhich continue to carry loadsbe- Sawn Lumber
yondtheirdesignlife. A recent initiativein theUnited States
has focusedresearchand technology transferefforts on im- Several types ofbridgescan be built with sawn lumber. Even
proving the designand performance oftimberbridges. As a though the span is usually limitedto about 9 m (30 ft)
result,hundredsoftimberhighwaybridges werebuiltacross becauseofthe limited size oflumberavailable, this span
theUnited States duringthe 1990s; many using innovative length entailsthe majority ofbridges in the United States.
designs and materials. Several timbers can be used to span the opening,nd a
transverse lumberdeck can beplacedover them to form a
Bridgesconsistofa substructureand a superstructure. The
substructureconsists of abutments, piers, or piling, and it stringer and deckbridge. Lumbercan be placed side-by-side
supportsthe superstructure that consistsofstringersand/ora a
and used to span the entire opening, forming longitudinal
deck. The deckis oftencoveredwith awearingsurface of deckbridge. The lumbercan be fastenedtogether with large
asphalt. Timbermay be combinedwith other materials to spikes or held togetherwith tensionedrods to form a "stress-
form the superstructure, for example,timberdeckover steel laminated" deck.
stringers. Coveredbridges, although once popular, are usu-
ally not economically feasible.The various typesoftimber
bridgesuperstructures are describedin the following sections.
Detailedinformation on modemtimberbridges is given in
Timber Bridges:Design, Construction, Inspection,and
Maintenance(Ritter 1990).

16—9
Figure 16—9. GIulam beam bridge over the Dangerous River, near Yukatat, Alaska, consistsofthree 43.5-rn (143-ft)
spans. Each span is supported by four 2.3-rn-(91.5-in.-)deep glularn beams.

Glulam Considerations for

Structuralglued-laminated(glulam)timbergreatly extends Wood Buildings
thespan capabilities ofthesame types ofbridges describedin
thepreviousparagraph. Glulamstringersplaced0.6 to 1.8 m Many factorsmust be considered whendesigningand con-
(2 to 6 fi) on center can supporta glulam deck systemand structing wood buildings, including structural,insulation,
result in spans of 12 to 30 m (40 to 100 ft) ormore moisture, and sound control. The followingsections provide
(Fig. 16—9). Using glulam panels to span the openingresults a briefdescription ofthedesign considerations forthese
a
in longitudinaldeck system, but this is usually limitedto factors.Fire safety, another importantconsideration, is
about 9-rn (30-fl)spans.These panelsare either intercon- addressed in Chapter17.
nectedor supported at one or more locationswith transverse
distributorbeams. Glulambeams can be used to form a solid Structural
deckand are held togetherwith tensionedrods to form a The structuraldesignofany building consistsofcombining
stress-laminated deck. Curvedglulam members canbe used theprescribed performance requirements with theanticipated
to produce variousaesthetic effectsand special typesof
loading. One major performance requirement is that there be
bridges (Fig. 16—10). an adequate marginofsafetybetweenthe structures ultimate
capacityand the maximum anticipatedloading.The prob-
Structural Composite Lumber abilitythat the buildingwill ever collapseis minimized
Twotypesofstructuralcompositelumber(SCL)—laminated usingmaterial property information recommendedby the
material manufacturers alongwith code-recommended design
veneerand orientedstrand—are beginningto be usedto loads.
build timber bridges.Most ofthe same type ofbridgesbuilt
with eithersolid sawn or glulam timbercan be built with Another structural performance requirement relatesto service-
SCL (Ch. 11).
ability. Theserequirements are directed at ensuringthat the
structure is functional, andthe most notable one is that

16—10
 16—10. Three-hingeglulam deckarch bridgeat the Keystone Wye interchange offU.S. Highway 16, near
Figure
MountRushmore,South Dakota. The arch spans47 m (155ft) and supports an 8-rn-(26-ft-)wide roadway.

deformations are limited. It is importantto limit deforma- sidesofthe interiorpartitions. In addition,prefinished

tions so that floors are not too "bouncy" or that doors do not insulation can underlay other fmishes.
bind under certainloadings.Buildingcodes often include
recommendedlimitson deformation, but the designermay Atticconstruction with conventionalrafters and ceilingjoists
be providedsome latitude in selectingthe limits. The basic orrooftrusses canbe insulated betweenframingmembers
reference forstructuraldesign ofwood in all building systems with batt, blanket,or loose-fillinsulation. In some warm
is theNational Design Specflcationfor Wood Construction climates, radiantbarriersandreflective insulations canpro-
(AF&PA 1991). vide an additionalreductionin cooling loads. The "Radiant
Barrier AtticFact Sheet"from the U.S. Department ofEn-
Thermal Insulation and ergy (1991) providesinformation on climatic areas that are
bestsuited for radiantbarrierapplications. This document
Air Infiltration Control alsoprovidescomparative information on the relative
For most U.S. climates, the exteriorenvelopeofa building performance oftheseproductsand conventional fibrous
insulations.
needs to be insulatedeitherto keepheatin the buildingor
preventheat from entering.Woodframe constructio:nis well- Existing frame construction can be insulatedpneumatically
suitedto application ofboth cavityinsulation and surface-
usingsuitable loose-fill insulating material. When loose-fill
appliedinsulation. The most commonmaterialsused for materials are usedinwall retrofitapplications, extra care
cavityinsulation are glass fiber, mineral fiber, cellulose must be taken during the installation to eliminatethe exis-
insulation, and spray-applied foams. For surface applications, tence ofvoidswithin the wall cavity. All cavitieshouldbe
a wide variety ofsheathinginsulations exist, such as rigid checked prior to installation forobstructions, such as fire
foam panels. Insulatingsheathingplacedon exteriorwalls
stop headers andwiring,that wouldpreventthe cavity from
mayalsohave sufficient structural properties to provide being completely filled. Caremust also be taken to install
requiredlateral bracing. Prefinishedinsulating panelingcan thematerial atthemanufacturer's recommendeddensity to
be used as an inside finishon exteriorwalls or one orboth ensure that the desired thermalperformance is obtained.

16-11
Accessible space can be insulatedby manualplacement of at room temperature, but will not surviveat sustainedrela-
batt, blanket,or loose-fillmaterial. tive humidity levels less than 50%.However,these relative
humiditylevels relate to local conditions in the typical
In additionto being properly insulated, theexteriorenvelope placesthat mitestendto inhabit (for example,mattresses,
ofall buildingsshouldbe constructedto minimize air flow carpets, soft furniture).
into or throughthe buildingenvelope. Air flow can degrade
thethermalperformance ofinsulation and cause excessive Paint Failure and OtherAppearance Problems
moisture accumulation in the buildingenvelope.
Moisturetrappedbehindpaint films maycause failureofthe
Moreinformation on insulation and air flow retarders can be paint (Ch. 15). Water or condensationmay also cause streak-
found inthe ASHRAEHandbookofFundamentals,chapters ing or staining. Excessive swings in moisture contentof
22 to 24 (ASHRAE1997). wood-based panels orboards may cause bucklingor warp.
Excessive moisture inmasonryand concretecan produce
efflorescence, a white powderyareaorlines. Whencombined
Moisture Control with low temperatures, excessive moisture can cause freeze—
Moisture controlis necessaryto avoid moisture-related thaw damage and spalling(chipping).
problemswith buildingenergyperformance, buildingmain-
tenance and durability, and humancomfortandhealth. Mois- Structural Failures
ture degradation is the largestfactor limitingthe usefullife of Structural failures caused by decay ofwood arerare buthave
a buildingand can be visible or invisible. Invisible degrada- occurred. Decaygenerally requiresawood moisturecontent
tion includesthe degradation ofthermalresistance ofbuild- equalto or greaterthanfiber saturation (usually about 30%)
ing materials and the decrease in strength and stiffness of and between 10°C (50°F) and 43°C (100°F). Wood moisture
somematerials.Visible degradation maybe in the form of contentlevels above fibersaturation are only possible in
(a) mold andmildew,(b) decay ofwood-based materials, green lumberorby absorption ofliquid water from condensa-
(c) spallingcausedby freeze—thaw cycles, (d) hydration of tion, leaks, groundwater, or other saturatedmaterialsin
plasticmaterials, (e) corrosionofmetals,(f) damagecaused a
contact with the wood. To maintaina safety margin, 20%
by expansion ofmaterials from moisture (for example, buck- moisture content is sometimes used duringfield inspections
lingofwood floors), and(g) decline in visualappearance (for as themaximum allowable level.Once established,decay
example, bucklingofwood sidingor efflorescence ofmasoniy fungi produce water that enables them to maintainmoisture
materials).In addition,high moisture levels can leadto conditions conducive to their growth. See Chapter 13 for
mold sporesin indoorair and odors, seriously affectingthe more information on wood decay.
occupant's health and comfort. Detailed discussions on the
effectsofmoisture can be found in the ASHRAE Handbook Rustingor corrosion ofnails, nail plates, or other metal
ofFundamentals,chapters22 and 23, (ASHRAE 1997) and buildingproductsis also apotentialcause of structural fail-
Lstiburekand Carmody(1991). ure. Corrosionmay occur at high relative humiditylevels
near the metal surface or as a result ofliquidwater from
elsewhere. Woodmoisture content levels >20% encourage
Mold, Mildew, Dust Mites, and Human Health
corrosion ofsteel fasteners in wood,especiallyifthe wood is
Moldand mildewin buildingsare offensive,and the spores treatedwith preservatives. In buildings, metal fastenersare
can cause respiratory problemsand allergic reactions in often the coldest surfaces, whichencourages condensation and
humans.Mold andmildew will grow on most surfaces ifthe corrosion offasteners.
relativehumidityatthe surface is above a criticalvalueand
thesurface temperaturesareconducive to growth. The longer Effect on Heat Flow
thesurface remainsabove this criticalrelativehumiditylevel, Moisture in the building envelope can significantly degrade
themore likely mold will appear;thehigherthehumidityor thethermalperformance ofmost insulation materialsbut
temperature, the shorterthe time needed for germination. The
surface relative humidityis a complexfunction ofmaterial especially the thermalresistance offibrous insulations and
moisturecontent,materialproperties, local temperature, and open cell foams. The degradation is most pronounced when
humidityconditions. In addition,mold growth depends on daily temperature reversalsacrossthe insulation drive mois-
thetype ofsurface.Mildewand mold canusually be avoided tureback and forth throughtheinsulation.
by limitingsurfacerelative humidityconditions >80%to Moisture Control Strategies
shortperiods. Only for nonporoussurfaces that are regularly
cleanedshould this criterionbe relaxed. Most moldsgrow at Strategies to controlmoistureaccumulation fall into two
temperaturesapproximately above4°C(40°F).Moisture generalcategories: (1) minimizemoistureentry intothe
accumulation at temperaturesbelow 4°C (40°F)maynot buildingenvelope and (2) removemoisture from the building
cause mold andmildew ifthe material is allowedto dry out envelope. Whenbasic moisturetransportmechanisms and
belowthe criticalmoisturecontentbeforethe temperature specific moisture control practicesare understood,roof, wall,
increases above4°C(40°F). and foundation constructions forvarious climates canbe
reviewed in a systematic fashionto determine ifevery poten-
Dust mitescan triggerallergiesand are an important cause of tially significantmoisture transportmechanismis explicitly
asthma. They thrive at high relativehumiditylevels (>70%) controlled.It is not possible to prevent moisture migration

16—12
completely; therefore, construction shouldinclude drainage, Sound Control
ventilation, and removal by capillarysuction, or other
provisions to carry awayunwanted water. An important design consideration forresidential and office
buildings isthe control ofsoundthat either enters the struc-
The major moisturetransportmechanisms, in orderofim- ture from outside or is transmittedfrom one room to another.
portance, are (a) liquid watermovement,including capillary Woodframe construction can achievethe levels ofsound
movement;(b)water vapor transportby air movement; and controlequal to or greaterthan more massiveconstruction,
(c) water vapordiffusion. Inthe past, much attentionhas such as concrete. However, to do so requiresdesigning for
focusedon limitingmovementby diffusionwith vaporre- both airborneand impact noise insulation.
tarders(sometimescalledvaporbarriers),eventhoughvapor
diffusionis the least important ofall transportmechanisms. Airborne noise insulation is the resistance to transmissionof
Controlofmoistureentry shouldbe accomplished in accor- airborne noises, such as trafficor speech, eitherthroughor
dancewith the importance ofthe transportmechanism: aroundan assemblysuch as awall.Noises createvibrations
(a) controlofliquidentry by propersite gradingand install- on the structural surfaces that theycontact, and the design
ing guttersand downspouts and appropriate flashing around challenge is to prevent this vibrationfrom reachingand
windows, doors, and chimneys;(b) controlofair leakageby leavingthe opposite sideofthe structural surface. Sound
installingair flow retardersorcareful sealing bytaping and transmission class (STC) is the rating used to characterize
caulking; and (c) control ofvapor diffusion by placingvapor airbornenoise insulation. A wall systemwith a hgh STC
retarders on the "warm"side ofthe insulation. rating is effective in preventing the transmission ofsound.
Table 16—1 lists the SIC ratingsfor severaltypes ofwall
Optionsformoisturecontrolunder heatingconditions often systems; detailedinformation forboth wall and floorare
differ from those under cooling conditions, eventhoughthe given in FPL—GTR—43 (Rudder 1985).
physicalprinciples ofmoisturemovementare the same.
Whichmoisture controloptions apply depends on whether Impactnoise insulation is the resistance to noise generated
thelocal climate is predominantly a heatingor cooling by footstepsor dropping objects, generallyaddressed at
climate. In heating climates, ventilationwith outdoorair and floor—ceiling assemblies in multi-family dwellings. Impact
limitingindoorsourcesofmoisture (wet fire wood, unvented insulation class (TIC) is the rating used to characterize the
dryers, humidifiers) canbe effective strategies. In cooling impactnoise insulation ofan assembly. Both the characterof
climates, properdehumidification can providemoisture theflooring material and the structural details ofthefloor
control. More information on the defmition ofheatingand influence the IIC rating.Additionalinformation or TIC
coolingclimatesand specific moisturecontrol strategies can ratingsforwood construction is given in FPL—GIR—59
be foundin theASHRAEHandbookofFundamentals, (Sherwoodand Moody 1989).
chapter23 (ASHRAE 1997).

Table 16—1. Sound transmission class (STC) ratings for typicalwood-frame walls
STC
rating Privacy afforded Wall structure
25 Normal speech easily understood 6-mm (1/4-in.) wood panels nailed on each side of standard38- by 89-mm
(nominal 2- by 4-in.) studs.
30 Normal speech audible but not 9.5-mm(3/8-in.) gypsumwallboard nailed to one side of standard 38- by
intelligible 89-mm (nominal 2- by 4-in.) studs.
35 Loud speech audible and fairly 20-mm (518-in.) gypsumwallboardnailed to both sides of standard 38- by
understandable 89-mm (nominal 2- by 4-in.) studs.
40 Loud speech audible but not Two layers of 20-mm (5/8-in.) gypsumwallboard nailed to both sides of stan-
intelligible dard 38- by 89-mm (nominal 2- by 4-in.) studs.
45 Loud speech barely audible TWO sets of standard 38- by 64-mm (nominal 2- by 3-in.) studs staggered
0.2 m (8 in.) on centers fastened by standard38- by 89-mm (nominal 2- by
4-in.) base and head plates with two layers of 20-mm (5/8-in.) gypsumwall-
board nailed on the outer edge of each set of studs.
50 Shouting barely audible Standard 38- by 89-mm (nominal 2- by 4-in.) wood studswith resilient channels
nailed horizontallyto both sideswith 20-mm (5/8-in.) gypsumwallboard
screwedto channels on each side.
55 Shouting not audible Double row of standard 38- by 89-mm (nominal 2- by 4-in.) studs 0.4 m
(16 in.) on centersfastenedto separate plates spaced 25 mm (1 in.) apart.
Two layers of 20-mm (5/8-in.) gypsumwallboardscrewed0.3 m (12 in.) on
centerto the studs. An 89-mm- (3.5-in.-) thick sound-attenuation blanket is
installed in one stud cavity.

16-13
References McDonald, K.A.; Falk, R.H.; Williams, R.S.; Winandy,
J.E. 1996. Wood decks: materials,construction, and finish-
AF&PA. 1987. Permanentwood foundation basic require- ing. Madison, WI: Forest Products Society.
ments. Tech. Rep. 7. Washington,DC: AmericanForest &
PaperAssociation. National Frame Builders Association. [n.d.} Recom-
mendedpracticesforthe designand construction ofagricu]-
AF&PA. 1991. Nationaldesignspecification forwood con- tural and commercial post-frame buildings. Lawrence, KS
struction. Washington,DC: AmericanForest & Paper NationalFrameBuilders Association.
Association.
AF&PA. 1993. Spantables forjoists and rafters. Washing. Ritter, M.A. 1990. Timber bridges—design, constructior,
ton, DC: AmericanForest & PaperAssociation. inspectionandmaintenance. EM 7700-8. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Engineering
AF&PA. 1995. Woodframe construction manualfor one- Staff.
and two-familydwellings, 1995 SBC high wind edition.
Washington, DC: AmericanForest & Paper Association. Rudder, F.F. Jr. 1985. Airbornesound transmissionlos;
characteristics ofwood-frame construction. Gen. Tech.Rep.
AITC. l994a. Laminatedtimber designguide. Englewood,
FPL—GTR—43. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgricu!-
CO: AmericanInstitute ofTimber Construction.
tare, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
AITC. 1994b. Timber construction manual.American
Institute ofTimber Construction. New York: John Wiley& Sherwood, G.E.; Moody, R.C. 1989. Light-frame wall
Sons, Inc. and floor systems—analysis andperformance. Gen. Tech.
Rep. FPL—GTR—59.Madison, WI: U.S. Department of
APA. 1996. Residentialand commercial design/construction Agriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products Laboratory.
guide. E3OP, April. Tacoma, WA: APA—The Engineered
Wood Association,Tacoma, WA. Sherwood, G.E.; Stroh,R.C. 1989. Wood frame house
ASHR4E.1997. Handbookoffundamentals. Atlanta, GA: construction. Agric. Handb. 73. Washington,DC: U.S.
American Society ofHeating, Refrigerating and Air- Government PrintingOffice. (also available from Armonk
ConditioningEngineers. Press,Armonk, NY).
ASTM. 1996. Standardmethodsfor establishing stress TPI. 1995. Nationaldesign standards for metal plate con-
gradesfor structural members usedin log buildings. ASTM nected wood truss construction. ANSI/TPI—l995. Madison,
D3957-80. Philadelphia, PA: American Society for Testing WI: Truss Plate Institute.
and Materials.
U.S. Department ofEnergy. 1991. Radiantbarrier attic fact
Lstiburek, J.; Carmody, J. 1991. The moisture control sheet.OakRidge,TN: Oak RidgeNationalLaboratory.
handbook—newlow-rise,residential construction.
ORNL/Sub/89-SD350/1. OakRidge, TN: MartinMarietta Walker,J.N.;Woeste, F.E. 1992. Post-framebuilding
Energy Systems, Inc., OakRidgeNationalLaboratory. design. ASAE MonographNo. 11, St. Joseph, MI.

16—14
 I chapter 1 7
Fire Safety
Robert H. White and Mark A. Dietenberger

ire safety is an important concernin all types of

Contents construction. The high level ofnationalconcern
forfire safetyis reflected in limitations and design
FireSafetyDesignand Evaluation 17—1
requirements in buildingcodes. Thesecode requirements are
Types ofConstruction 17—2 discussedinthe contextoffire safetydesignand evaluation
intheinitialsectionofthis chapter. Sincebasic dataon fire
Fire Growth Within Compartment 17—2 behavior ofwoodproductsare neededtoevaluatefire safety
Flashover 17—4 for wood construction, the secondmajor section ofthis
chapter covers fire performance characteristics ofwood
Containmentto Compartment of Origin 17—4 products. The chapterconcludes with a discussion of
flame-retardant treatments that can be usedtoreducethe
Fire SafetyEngineering 17—6
combustibility ofwood.
FirePerformance Characteristics ofWood 17—6

Ignition 17—6
Fire Safety Design
HeatRelease 17-7 and Evaluation
FlameSpread 17—8 Firesafetyinvolves prevention, containment, detection,and
evacuation. Fire prevention basicallymeanspreventingthe
Smoke and Toxic Gases 17—9
ignition ofcombustible materialsby controllingeitherthe
Charringand Fire Resistance 17—10 sourceofheat or the combustible materials.This involves
properdesign,installation or construction, and maintenance
Flame-Retardant Treatments 17—12 ofthe buildingand its contents. Properfire safetymeasures
dependuponthe occupancy orprocessestakingplace inthe
Fire-Retardant-Treated Wood 17—12 building. Design deficiencies are oftenresponsible Jbrspread
Flame-RetardantPressureTreatments 17—13 ofheatand smoke in afire. Spreadofa fire can be prevented
with design methodsthat limit fire growthand spreadwithin
Flame-RetardantCoatings 17—13 a compartment andwith methods that containfire;o the
compartment oforigin.Egress,orthe abilityto escapefrom a
References 17—13 fire, often is a criticalfactorin life safety Earlydetection is
essentialforensuringadequate time foregress.

Statutory requirements pertaining to fire safetyare epecified

in thebuildingcodesor fire codes. Theserequirements fall
into two broad categories: materialrequirements and build-
ingrequirements. Material requirements include such things
as combustibility, flame spread, and fire endurance. Building
requirements include area andheight limitations, firestops
and draftstops, doors and other exits, automatic sprinklers,
and fire detectors.
Adherence to codeswill result in improvedfire safety. Code
officials shouldbe consultedearly in the design ofa building

17—i
becausethe codesoffer alternatives. Forexample, floor areas In protected light-frame construction, most ofthestructural
can be increasedifautomatic sprinklersystemsare added. elements have a 1-hourfire resistance rating. There are no
Code officials havethe optionto approvealternative materi- general requirements for fire resistance forbuildings ofunpro-
als and methods ofconstruction and to modify provisions of tectedlight-frame construction.
thecodeswhenequivalentfire protection and structural
integrityis documented. Based ontheirperformance in the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM)El 36 test, both untreated
Most buildingcodes in the United Statesare based on model andfire-retardant-treated wood are combustible materials.
buildingcodesproducedby the three buildingcodeorganiza- However, the buildingcodespermitsubstitutionoffire-
tions (BuildingOfficialsand Code Administrators Interna- retardant-treated wood for noncombustible materialsin some
tional, Inc.; International ConferenceofBuildingOfficials; specific applications otherwiselimitedto noncombustible
and the SouthernBuildingCode Congress International, materials.
Inc.). Thesethree organizations are developing a single
international building codethat will replacethe existing In addition to the type ofconstruction, the height and area
three model buildingcodes. In additionto the building limitations alsodependon the use or occupancyofa struc-
codesand the fire codes, theNationalFire Protection Asso- ture. Fire safety is improvedby automatic sprinklers,
ciation'sLife Safety Code providesguidelines for life safety propertyline setbacks, ormore fire-resistant construction.
from fire in buildingsand structures. As with the model Buildingcodesrecognize the improvedfire safetyresulting
buildingcodes, provisionsofthe life safetycodeare statutory from application ofthese factors by increasing the allowable
requirements when adoptedby local or State authorities. areas and heights beyondthat designatedfor a particulartype
ofconstruction andoccupancy. Thus, propersite planning
In the followingsections, variousaspects ofthe building and building design may result in a desired buildingarea
codeprovisions pertainingto fire safetyofbuildingmaterials classification being achievedwith wood construction.
are discussedunderthebroad categories of(a) typesofcon-
struction, (b) fire growthwithin compartment, and (c) con- Fire Growth Within Compartment
tainmentto compartmentoforigin. Theseare largely
requirements formaterials.Information on prevention and A second majorset ofprovisions in the buildingcodesare
buildingrequirements notrelatedtomaterials(for example, those that regulate the exposed interiorsurface ofwallsand
detection) can be found in publicationssuch as those listedat ceilings(that is, the interiorfinish). Codes typically exclude
theend ofthis chapter.Centralaspects ofthefire safetypro- trim andincidental fmish,as well as decorationsand furnish-
visions ofthe building codesare the classification ofbuild- ings that are not affixedto the structure, from the more rigid
ings by types ofconstruction and the use or occupancy. requirements for walls and ceilings.Forregulatorypurposes,
interior finishmaterials are classified according totheirflame
Types of Construction spread index. Thus, flamespreadis one ofthe most tested
fire performance properties ofa material. Numerous flame
Based on classificationsofbuildingtype and occupancy, the spreadtests are used,but the one cited by buildingcodes is
codesset limits on the areas and heightsofbuildings. Major ASTM E84, the "25-ft tunnel" test. In this test method, the
buildingcodesgenerallyrecognizefive classifications of 508-mm-wide, 7.32-rn-long specimen completes the top of
construction based on types ofmaterials andrequiredfire thetunnel furnace. Flames from aburnerat one end ofthe
resistance ratings. The two classifications knownas fire- tunnel providethe fire exposure, whichincludes forceddraft
resistant construction (TypeI) and noncombustible construc- conditions. The furnace operator recordsthe flame front
tion(Type II) basicallyrestrict theconstruction to noncom- position as a functionoftime and the time ofmaximum
bustiblematerials. Woodis permittedto be usedmore flame fronttravel during a 10-mm period. The standard
liberally in the other three classifications, whichare ordinary prescribes a formulato convertthese datato a flamespread
(TypeIII), heavy timber (TypeIV), and light-frame (Type index (FSI),which is a measureofthe overall rate offlame
V). Heavytimber construction has wood columns,beams, spreading in the directionofair flow. Inthe codes, the
floors,and roofs ofcertainminimumdimensions. Ordinary classesforflame spread index are I (PSI of0to 25), II (FSI of
construction has smallerwood membersused for walls, 26 to 75), and III (FSI of76 to 200). Some codes use A, B,
floors, and roofs includingwood studs, woodjoists, wood and C insteadofI, II, and III. Generally,codes specifyFSI
trusses,andwood I-joists. In both heavy timberand ordinary for interiorfinishbased on buildingoccupancy, location
construction, the exteriorwalls must be ofnoncombustible within the building, and availabilityofautomaticsprinkler
materials. In light-frameconstruction, the walls, floors,and protection. The more restrictiveclasses,ClassesI and II, are
roofs may be ofany dimensionlumberandthe exteriorwalls generallyprescribed for stairways and corridors that provide
may be ofcombustiblematerials.Type II, III, and IV con- access toexits. In general, the more flammable classification
structions are furthersubdivided basedon fire-resistance (Class III) is permittedforthe interiorfmishofother areas of
requirements. Light-frame construction, or Type V, is subdi- thebuildingthat are not consideredexit ways or wherethe
vided into two parts,protected(1-hour)and unprotected. area in questionis protectedby automatic sprinklers. In other
areas,thereare no flammability restrictions onthe interior
fmishand unclassified materials(that is, more than 200 FSI)
can be used.

17—2
 Table 17—I. ASTM E84flame spread indexes for 19-mm-thicksolid lumberofvariouswood species
as reported in theliterature
Flame spread Smoke developed
Speciesa indexb indexb Sourcec

Softwoods
Yellow-cedar(PacificCoast yellowcedar) 78 90 CWC
145—150 — UL
Baldcypress (cypress)
70—100 — UL
Douglas-fir
Fir, Pacific silver 69 58 CWC
— UL
Hemlock, western (West Coast) 60—75
Pine, easternwhite (eastern white, northern white) 85, 12o215d 122, — CWC, UL
Pine, lodgepole 93 210 CWC
Pine, ponderosa 105-230d — UL
Pine, red 142 229 CWC
— UL
Pine, Southern (southern) 130—195
— UL
Pine, westernwhite 75e
Redcedar, western 70 213 HPVA
Redwood 70 — UL
65 — UL, CWC
Spruce, eastern (northern, white)
Spruce, Sitka (western, Sitka) 100, 74 —, 74 UL, CWC
Hardwoods
105-110 — UL
Birch, yellow
Cottonwood 115 — UL
104 — CWC
Maple (maple flooring)
Oak (red, white) 100 100 UL
140-1 55 — UL
Sweetgum(gum, red)
Walnut 130—140 — UL
170-1 85 — UL
Yellow-poplar(poplar)
an cases where the name given in the source did not conformto the official nomenclatureof the
Forest Service,the probableofficial nomenclaturename is given and the name given by the source is
given in parentheses.
bData are as reported in the literature(dash where data do not exist). Changes in the ASTM E84 test
method have occurredover the years. However, data indicate that the changeshave not significantly
changed earlierdata reported in this table. The changein the calculation procedure has usually resulted
in slightly lower flame spread resultsfor untreated wood. Smokedeveloped index is not known to exceed
450, the limiting value often cited in the building codes.
CCWC CanadianWood Council (CWC 1996); HPVA, Hardwood Plywood
Manufacturers Association (Tests) (now Hardwood Plywood & VeneerAssoc.);UL, Underwriters
Laboratories,Inc. (Wood-firehazard classification. Card Data Service, Serial No. UL 527, 1971).
dFootnote of UL: In 18 tests of ponderosa pine, three had values over 200 and the averageof all tests
is 154.
eFootnote of UL: Due to wide variationsin the different speciesof the pine family and local connotations
of their popular names,exact identification of the types of pine tested was not possible. The effects of
differing climatic and soil conditions on the burning characteristics of given species have not been
determined.

The PSI formost domesticwood speciesis between 90 and AdditionalFSIformany solid-sawn andpanel productsare
160 (Table 17—1). Thus, unfmishedlumber, 10 mm or providedin theAmericanForestand PaperAssociation's
thicker,is generallyacceptable forinteriorfmishapplications (AF&PA) design for codeacceptance(DCA)No. 1, "Flame
requiringaClass III rating.Flame-retardant treatments are SpreadPerformance ofWoodProducts"(AWC 1999).
usually necessarywhena ClassI or II flamespreadindex is
There are many othertest methods for flamesprea1or flam-
required fora wood product. A few domestic softwoodspe-
cies can meetthe ClassII flamespreadindexand only mability. Most are usedonly for researchand development or
require flame-retardant treatments to meet a ClassI rating. qualitycontrol, but some are usedin productspecifications
A few importedspecies have reportedFSIs ofless than25. and regulations ofmaterials in avariety ofapplications.

17—3
Since the fire exposureis on the underside ofa horizontal Flashover
specimen in the ASTM E84 test, it is not suitablefor mate-
rials that melt and drip or are not self-supporting. Code With sufficient heatgeneration, the initial growth ofa fire in
provisions pertainingto floors and floor coverings maybe a compartment leadsto the condition knownas flashover.
basedon anothertest criterion,the criticalradiant fluxtest The visualcriteria for flashoverare full involvement ofthe
(ASTME648, Critical Radiant Flux ofFloor-Covering compartment and flamesout the dooror window. The inten-
SystemsUsing a RadiantHeat Energy Source). The critical sity over time of a fire starting in one room or compartment
radiant fluxapparatusis also used to test the flammability of ofa buildingdepends on theamountand distributionof
cellulosicinsulation (ASTM E970,Critical RadiantFlux of combustible contents in the room and the amountof
ExposedAttic Floor InsulationUsing a RadiantHeat Energy ventilation.
Source). In the criticalradiant fluxtest, the placementofthe
radiantpanel is such that the radiantheatbeing imposedon The standard ful[-scale test for pre-flashover fire growthis the
the surfacehas a gradientin intensitydown the length ofthe room/corner test (International Organization for Standardiza-
horizontal specimen.Flamesspreadfrom the ignition source tion (ISO) 9705, Fire Tests—Full-Scale Room Test for
at the end ofhigh heatflux (or intensity) to the other end Surface Products). In this test, a gas burneris placed in the
until they reacha location wherethe heat flux is not sufficient cornerofthe room,whichhas a single door for ventilation.
forfurtherpropagation. This is reportedas the criticalradiant Three ofthe walls are lined with the test material,and the
flux. Thus, low criticalradiant fluxreflectsmaterials with ceilingmay also be linedwith the test material.Other
high flammability. Typicalrequirements are for a minimum room/corner tests use a wood crib or similar item as the
critical radiant flux level of2.2 or4.5 kW/m2 depending on ignition source. Sucha room/cornertest is used to regulate
locationand occupancy. Datain the literatureindicatethat foam plastic insulation, a material that is not properlyevalu-
oak flooringhas a critical radiantflux of3.5 kW/m2 ated in the ASTM E84 test.
(Benjaminand Adams 1976). Observations are madeofthe growth ofthe fire and the dura-
There is also a smolderingcombustiontest for cellulosic tion ofthe test until flashoveroccurs. Instruments recordthe
insulation. Cellulosic insulation is regulatedby a product heat generation, temperature development within the room,
safetystandardofthe U.S. ConsumerProduct Safety Com- andthe heatflux to the floor.Resultsoffull-scaleroom!
mission (Interim SafetyStandardfor Cellulosic Insulation: cornertests are used to validatefire growthmodels and
Cellulosic InsulationLabeling and Requirements, 44FR bench-scale test results. Fire endurance tests evaluatethe
39938, I6CFR Part 1209, 1979; also Gen. Serv. Admin. relative performance ofthe assemblies during a post-flashoi'er
fire.
Spec. HH—I—515d). Properchemicaltreatments ofcellulosic
insulation are requiredto reduce its tendencyfor smoldering
combustion and to reduceflame spread. Proper installation Containment to Compartment
aroundrecessed light fixturesand other electrical devices is of Origin
necessary.
The growth, intensity, and duration ofthe fire is the "load"
Othertests for flammability include those that measureheat that determines whethera fire is confined to the room of
release. Other flammabilitytests and fire growthmodeling
origin. Whetheragiven fire will be containedto the com-
arediscussed intheFire Performance Characteristics of partmentdepends on the fire resistance ofthe walls,doors,
Wood section. ceilings, and floors ofthe compartment. Requirements for fire
resistance or fire endurance ratings ofstructural members and
Rated roofcoveringmaterials are designated eitherClass A,
assemblies are another major component ofthe buildingcode
B, or C according to their performance in thetests described
in ASTM E108, Fire Tests of Roof Coverings. This test provisions. Fire resistance is the abilityofmaterialsor their
assemblies to prevent or retard the passageofexcessiveheat,
standard includes intermittent flameexposure, spread of hot gases, or flames while continuingto support their struc-
flame,burning brand, flying brand, and rain tests. There is a tural loads. Fire-resistance ratings are usually obtainedby
different version ofthe pass/fail test for each ofthe three
classes. Class A test is the most severeand Class C the conducting standard fire tests. In the standardfire-resistance
test (ASTMEl 19), there are three failure criteria: element
least. In the caseofthe burningbrand tests, the brandfor the
ClassB test is larger thanthat for the Class C test. Leach- collapse, passage offlames, orexcessivetemperature rise on
the non-fire-exposedsurface (average increase ofseveral loca-
resistantfire-retardant-treated shingles are available that carry tions exceeding 139°C or 181°C at a single location).
a Class B or C fire rating.
Information on ratingsfor differentproductscan be obtained The self-insulating qualities ofwood,particularlyin the large
from industry literature,evaluation reports issuedby the wood sections ofheavy timberconstruction, are an important
factor in providing adegreeoffire resistance. In Type IV or
model code organizations, and listings publishedby testing
laboratories or qualityassuranceagencies. Products listedby heavytimber construction, the needfor fire-resistance re-
UnderwritersLaboratories, Inc., and other such organizations quirements is achievedin the codesby specif,'ingminimum
arestampedwith the ratinginformation. sizes for the various membersor portionsofa buildingand
other prescriptive requirements. In this type ofconstruction,
the wood members are not required tohave specific

17—4
fire-resistance ratings. The acceptance ofheavytimber Therelativelygoodstructuralbehaviorofa traditionalwood
construction is based on historicalexperience with its per- member in a fire test results from the fact that its strengthis
formance in actual fires. Properheavytimberconstruction generally uniformthroughthe mass ofthe piece. Thus,the
includesusingapprovedfastenings, avoidingconcealed unburned fraction ofthe memberretainshigh strength, and
spaces under floors or roofs,and providing requiredfire its load-carrying capacity is diminishedonly in prportionto
resistance in the interiorand exteriorwalls. its loss ofcross section. hmovativedesigns for structural
woodmembers may reducethemass ofthememberand
In recent years,theavailability andcode acceptance ofa locatethe principalload-cariyung components at the outer
procedure to calculate thefire-resistance ratings for large edgeswheretheyare most vulnerable to fire, as in structural
timberbeamsand columnshave allowedtheir use in fire- sandwich panels. Withhigh strengthfacings attachedto a
ratedbuildingsnot classifiedas heavytimberconstruction
low-strength core, unprotected load-bearing sandwich panels
(Type IV). In the other types ofconstruction, the structural have failedto support their loadin less than 6 miii when
members and assemblies arerequiredto havespecified fire- tested in the standard test. Ifa sandwich panelis to be used
resistance ratings.Detailson the procedure for largetimbers as a load-bearing assembly, it shouldbe protectedwith
can be found in American InstituteofTimberConstruction gypsumwallboardor someother thermalbarrier.In any
(AITC) Technical Note 7 and the AF&PADCA #2 "Design protected assembly, the performance ofthe protective mem-
ofFire-Resistive ExposedWoodMembers"(AWC 1985). brane is the criticalfactor in theperformance ofthe assembly.
The fire resistance ofglued-laminated structural members, Unprotected light-frame wood buildingsdo not have the
such as arches, beams, and columns,is approximately naturalfire resistance achievedwith heavierwood members.
equivalentto the fire resistance ofsolid members ofsimilar In these, as in all buildings,attentionto good construction
size.Availableinformation indicatesthat laminated members detailsis important to minimize fire hazards. Quality of
glued with phenol,resorcinol,or melamine adhesivesare at workmanship is importantin achieving adequatefire resis-
least equalintheir fire resistance to a one-piece member of tance.Inadequate nailing andless thanrequiredthickness of
the same size.Laminatedmembers glued with caseinhave theinterior finishcan reducethefire resistance ofan assem-
only slightlyless fire resistance. bly. The methodoffastening the interiorfmish to the fram-
Light-frame wood construction canprovidea high degreeof ing members and the treatmentofthejoints are significant
fire containment throughuse ofgypsumboardas the interior factors in the fire resistance of an assembly. The type and
fmish. This effective protectivemembrane provides the initial quantity ofany insulation installedwithinthe assemblymay
fire resistance rating.Many recognizedassemblies involving alsoaffectthe fire resistance ofan assembly. Electdcal recep-
wood-frame walls, floors, androofs providea 1- or 2-hourfire tacle outlets, pipe chases, and other throughopeningsthat
resistance rating. Fire-rated gypsumboard (TypeX or C) is are not adequately firestopped can affect the fire resistance. In
used in rated assemblies.Type X and the higher grade Type addition to the designofwalls, ceilings, floors,androofs for
C gypsumboardshave textile glass filaments and other fire resistance, stairways, doors,and firestops are olparticular
ingredients that help to keepthe gypsumcore intact duringa importance.
fire. Fire-resistance ratingsofvarious assemblies are listedin Fires in buildings can spreadby the movementof hot fire
themodel codes and other publicationssuch as theFire gasesthrough open channelsin concealed spaces. Codes
ResistanceDesignManual (GypsumAssociation). Tradi-
specify wherefirestops and draftstops are required in con-
tional constructions ofregular gypsumwallboard(that is, not cealedspaces,and theymust be designedto interfere with the
fire rated) or lath andplaster over woodjoists and studs have
passage offlames up or across a building. In additionto
fire-resistance ratingsof 15 to 30 mm.
going along halls, stairways,and other largespaces,heated
Whilefire-resistance ratings are for the entire wall, floor, or gasesalso follow the concealed spaces betweenfloorjoists
roofassembly, thefireresistance ofawall or floorcan be and betweenstuds inpartitionsandwalls offrame construc-
viewedasthe sum ofthe resistance ofthe interior finishand tion. Obstruction ofthese hidden channels providesan effec-
theresistance ofthe framing members. In acode-accepted tive meansofrestricting fire from spreading to other parts of
thestructure. Firestops are materials used to block offrela-
procedure, the fire rating ofa light-frame assembly is calcu-
latedby addingthe tabulated times forthe fire-exposed tively small openings passingthroughbuilding components
membrane to the tabulatedtimesforthe framing. For exam- such as floors and walls. Draftstops are barriersin larger
concealed spaces such asthose found withinwood.joist floor
ple, the fire-resistance rating ofawood studwall with
16-mm-thick Type X gypsumboard and rock wool insula- assemblies with suspended dropped ceilingsor within an
tiOn is computedby addingthe 20 min listed for the stud attic space with pitchedchord trusses.
wall,the 40 miiilisted forthe gypsumboard, andthe Doors canbe criticalinpreventing the spreadoffres. Doors
15 mm listed forthe rock wool insulation to obtain a rating left open or doors with little fire resistance can easily defeat
for the assemblyof75 mm. Additionalinformation onthis the purposeofafire-ratedwall or partition. Listingsoffire-
component additivemethod(CAM) can be found in the rateddoors,frames, and accessories are provided1y various
AF&PADCA No. 4 "ComponentAdditive Method(CAM) fire testingagencies. Whena fire-rated door is selected,
for Calculatingand Demonstrating AssemblyFireEndur- details aboutwhichtype ofdoor, mounting, hardware,and
ance" (AWC 1991). More sophisticated mechanistic models
are being developed. closing mechanism need to be considered.

17—5
 Fire Safety Engineering heatedobjects. This flow ofenergyor heat flux can have both
convective and radiativecomponents.
The field offire safetyengineering is undergoing rapid
changes becauseofthe development ofmore engineering and Pilotedignition abovea singleflat surfacehas recentlybeen
scientific approaches to fire safety. This development is studied in somedepth becauseofthe adventoffire growth
evidenced by thepublicationofThe Society ofFireProtec- research. The surface temperature ofwood materials has been
tion EngineersHandbookofFire ProtectionEngineering measuredsomewhere between300°C to 400°Cprior to pi-
andformation offire safety engineering subcommittees in lotedignition.Surfacetemperatureat ignition is an illusive
ISO and ASTM. Steadyadvances are being made in the quantity that is experimentally difficultto obtain. Equipment
fields offire dynamics, firehazard calculations, fire design such as the Ohio State University(OSU) apparatus(ASTM
calculations, and fire risk analysis. Such efforts support the E906), the cone calorimeter (ASTM 1354), and the lateral
worldwide trend to developalternativebuilding codesbased ignition and flame spread test (LIFT) apparatus(ASTM
on performance criteria ratherthan prescriptive requirements. 1321) are usedto obtain data on time to piloted ignitionas a
Additionalinformation on fire protection can be found in the functionofheaterirradiance. Table 17—2 indicatesthe de-
various publicationsofthe NationalFire Protection crease in time to ignitionwith the increasein imposed heat
Association(NFPA). fluxfor different species ofwoodmeasuredwith the OSU
apparatus. Similar, perhaps identical, materialshave been
tested recently in conecalorimeter and LIFT apparatuses
Fire Performance with somewhat similar results. From such tests, values of
Characteristics of Wood ignitiontemperature, critical ignition flux(heat flux below
whichignition wouldnot occur), and thermophysical proper-
Wood will burnwhen exposedto heatand air. Thermal ties have beenderivedusinga transientheatconduction
degradation ofwood occursin stages. The degradation proc- theory. Theseproperties are alsomaterialdependent;they
essandthe exactproductsofthermaldegradation depend depend heavilyon density ofthe material and moisture
upon therate ofheating as well as the temperatures. The content. A range ofwood productstested have ignition
sequence ofeventsforwood combustion is as follows: surface temperatures of300°C to 400°C and a criticalignition
• The wood, respondingto heating,decomposesor pyro- fluxofbetween 10 and 13 kW/m2 in the cone calorimeter.
The ignition surface temperature is lowerfor low density
lyzes into volatilesand char. Char is the dominant prod- woods. Estimates ofpiloted ignition in various scenarioscan
uctat internaltemperatures less than 300°C, whereas be obtainedusing the derivedthermalpropertiesandan
volatilesbecome much more pronounced above 300°C.
applicable heat conduction model.
• The volatiles,someofwhich are flammable, canbeig-
nitedifthe volatile—airmixture is ofthe right composition Some, typically old, apparatuses for testing piloted ignition
in a temperaturerange ofabout 400°C to 500°C withinthe measuredthe temperature ofthe air flow ratherthan the im-
mixture.This gas-phase combustion appearsas flames. posed heat flux with the time to ignitionmeasurement.
These results were often reportedas the ignitiontemperature
• With air ventilation, the char oxidation becomes signifi- and as varying with time to ignition,which is misleading.
cant around 200°Cwith two peaks in intensityreportedat Whenthe imposed heatflux is due to a radiant source, such
360°C and 520°C. This char oxidationis seen as glowing reportedair flow ignition temperature can be as much as
or smolderingcombustionuntil only ash residueremains. 100°C lowerthanthe ignitionsurface temperature. For a
This solid-phasecombustionwill not proceedif flaming properheat conduction analysis in derivingthermalproper-
combustion preventsa supplyoffreshair to the char ties, measurements ofthe radiantsourcefluxand air flow rate
surfaces. arealsorequired. Since imposed heat flux to thesurface and
thesurface ignition temperature arethefactorsthat directly
Several characteristics are usedto quantifj this burning determineignition,somedataofpiloted ignitionare
behaviorofwood, includingignitionfrom heatsources,
inadequate or misleading.
growingrate ofheat releaseleadingto room flashover, flame
spread in heatedenvironments, smoke andtoxic gases, Unpilotedignitiondepends on special circumstancesthat
flashover, and charringrates in a contained room. result in differentranges ofignitiontemperatures. Atthis
time, it is not possibleto give specificignition datathat
Ignition apply to a broadrange ofcases. For radiantheating ofcellu-
losic solids, unpiloted transientignition has been reported at
Ignition ofwood takes placewhen wood is subjectto suffi- 600°C. Withconvective heating ofwood, unpilotedignition
cient heatand in atmospheresthat have sufficient oxygen. has been reportedas low as 270°C and as high as 470°C.
Ignitioncan be oftwo types: piloted or unpiloted.Piloted
ignition occursin the presenceofan ignition source(suchas Unpilotedspontaneous ignitioncan occur whenaheatsource
a sparkor a flame). Unpilotedignitionis ignitionthat occurs withinthe wood productis locatedsuch that the heatis not
whereno pilot sourceis available. The wood surface is readily dissipated. This kind ofignition involves smoldering
ignitedbythe flow ofenergyorheatflux from a fireor other and generally occurs over a longerperiod oftime. Smolder-
ing isthermal degradation that proceedswithout flamesor

17—6
 Table 17—2. Flammability data for selected wood species
Effective heat of Average heat release
Ignition tirneb (s) Higher combustio nd (MJ/kg) rateb (kW/m2) —
18- 55- heating 18- 55- 18- 55-
kW/m2 kW/m2 valuec kW/m2 kW/m2 kW/m2 kW/rn2
Densitt heat flux heat flux heat flux heat flux heat flux heat flux
Species (kg/rn) (MJ/kg)

Softwoods
Pine, Southern 508 740 5 20.5 9.1 13.9 40.4 119.6
Redwood 312 741 3 21.1 10.7 14.2 39.0 85.9

Hardwoods
Basswood 312 183 5 20.0 10.9 12.2 52.8 113.0
Oak, red 660 930 13 19.8 9.0 11.7 48.7 113.3
8Based on weightand volume of ovendned wood.
bignition times, effective heat of combustion, and average rate of heat release(HRR) obtained using an ASrM
E906 heat release apparatusmodified to measured heat releaseusing oxygen consumption method.
Test durationswere 50 to 98 mm for I 8-kW/m2 heat flux and 30 to 53 mm for 55-kW/m2 heat flux. Test was
terminatedprior to the usual increasein HRR to a second peak as the specimenis consumed.
cFrom oxygen bomb calorimetertest.
dApparent effective heat of combustion based on average HRR and mass loss rate, which includes the
moisturedriven from the wood. See footnoteb.

visibleglowing.Examples ofsuch fires are (a)panelsor Buildingcodes do not generally regulate buildingmaterials
paperremovedfrom thepress orchyer and stacked in large on the basis ofignitionor ignitability. As a result, general
pileswithout adequatecoolingand (b) very largepilesof fire safety designcriteria havenot beendeveloped. Rather,
chipsor sawdustwith internalexothermicreactions such as this subjectis considered in conjunction with limits on
biologicalactivities. Potentialmechanismsofinternalheat combustibility and flamespread.
generationincluderespiration, metabolismofmicroorgan-
isms, heat ofpyrolysis,abiotic oxidation,and adsorptive Heat Release
heat. These mechanisms, often in combination, may proceed
to smoldering or flamingignitionthrougha thermalrunaway Heatreleaseratesare important becausethey indicate the
effectwithinthepile ifsufficient heatis generated and is not potentialfire hazardofamaterialand alsothe cornbustibility
dissipated. The minimumenvironmental temperature to ofa material. Materials that releasetheirpotentialchemical
achieveignitionis calledthe self-accelerating decomposition energy(and alsothe smokeandtoxic gases) relatively
temperature and includes the effectsofspecimen massand air quicklyare more hazardous thanthose that releaseit more
ventilation. slowly. There are materials that will not pass the current
defmition ofnoncombustible in the model codesbut will
Unpilotedignitions that involvewood exposed to low level releaseonly limitedamounts ofheat duringthe initialand
external heatsources over very longperiods is an area of criticalperiodsoffire exposure. There is also some criticism
dispute. This kind of ignition,whichinvolvesconsiderable ofusinglimitedflammability to partiallydefine noncombus-
charring, does appearto occur,based on fire investigations. tibility. One earlyattemptwas to defme combustibility in
However, these circumstances do not lendthemselves easily terms ofheatrelease in a potentialheatmethod(NFPA259),
to experimentation and observation. Thereis some evidence with the low levels used to defme low cornbustibillityor
that the charproducedunder low heatingtemperatures can noncombustibility. This test methodis being usedto regu-
havea differentchemicalcomposition, whichresultsin a late materials under somecodes.The ground-upwood sam-
somewhat lowerignitiontemperature than normally re- plein this methodis completely consumedduring the expo-
corded.Thus,a major issue is the question ofsafe working sure to 750°C for 2 h, whichmakesthe potentialheatfor
temperature for wood exposed for long periods. Temperatures wood identicalto the grossheatofcombustion from the
between80°C to 100°C have beenrecommended as safe oxygenbombcalorimeter(the higherheatingvalue in Table
surface temperatures for wood. Since thermaldegradation is a 17—2). The typicalgrossheatofcombustion averagedaround
prerequisite forignitionofthe char layer, conservative criteria 20 MJ/kg for ovendriedwood, depending on the lignin and
fordetermining safeworkingtemperatures can bethetem- extractive content ofthe wood.
perature anddurationneededforthermaldegradation.Schaffer
(1980)used a residualweightcriterionof40% ofthe initial A betteror a supplementary measureofdegreesof combusti-
weightto suggestthat wood can safelybe heatedto 150°C bility is adetermination oftherate ofheat release(RHR)or
forayear ormore beforesatisfying thisconservative predictor heatreleaserate (HRR). This measurement efficiently
ofheatingtime to reachan incipient smolderingstate. assesses the relativeheatcontribution ofmaterials-—thick,

17—7
thin, untreated, or treated—under fire exposure. The cone averagedHRR at 1-, 3-, and 5-minperiods for variouswood
calorimeter(ASTM El 354) is the most commonly used species.
bench-scale HRR apparatus and is basedon the oxygen
consumptionmethod.An averagevalueof 13.1 kJ/g of Heatreleaserate depends uponthe intensity ofthe imposed
oxygenconsumed was the constantfound fororganic solids heat flux. Table 17—2 provides the average effective heat of
and is accuratewith very few exceptionsto within 5%. Thus, combustion and average HRR for four wood species andtwo
it is sufficient tomeasurethemass flow rate ofoxygen con- levels ofheatflux(18 and 55 kW/m2).Theseresultswere
sumedin a combustionsystem to determinethe net HRR. obtainedin an OSU apparatus modifiedby the Forest Prod-
The procedureknownas ASTM E906 (the OSU apparatus) ucts Laboratory (FPL). Similarvalueswere also obtainedin
is a well-knownand widelyused calorimeter basedon meas- theconecalorimeter (Table 17—3). Generally, theaveraged
urements ofheatcontentofincoming and exitingair flow effective heat ofcombustion is about 65% ofthe oxygen
through the apparatus. Becauseofthe errors causedby the bombheatofcombustion (higherheatingvalue) with a small
heatlossesandthefact that themass flow rate is controlled linearincrease with irradiance. The HRR itselfhas a large
in the OSU apparatus, several researchershavemodifieditto linearincrease with the heatflux. Data indicatethat HRRs
theoxygenconsumptionmethod.Thesebench-scale appara- decreasewith increasing moisture content ofthe sampleand
tuses use a radiant source toprovide the external heat expo- are markedly reducedby fire-retardant treatment (Fig. 17—1).
sure to the test specimen.The imposedheat flux is kept
constantat a specifiedheatfluxlevel.The intermediate-scale Flame Spread
apparatus(ASTM E1623)fortesting 1- by 1-rn assemblies
or compositesand theroom full-scaletest(ISO 9705)also The spreadofflamesover solids is a very importantphe-
use the oxygen consumption technique to measurethe HRR nomenoninthe growthofcompartment fires. Indeed,in fires
offires at larger scales. wherelargefuel surfaces are involved, the increase in HRR
with time is primarilydue to the increase in burning area.
The conecalorimeteris ideal forproduct development with Many data havebeen acquiredwith the flame spread tests
its small specimensizeof 100 by 100 mm. The specimenis usedin buildingcodes. Table 17—1 lists theFSI and smoke
continuously weighedby use ofa load cell. In conjunction index ofASTM E84 for solid wood. Some consistenciesin
with HRR measurements, the effective heatofcombustion as theFSI behavior ofthe hardwood speciescan be relatedto
a functionoftime is calculated by the ASTME1354 their density. Considerable variations are found forwood-
method.Basically, the effectiveheat ofcombustion is the basedcomposites; for example, the FSI offour structural
HRR dividedbythe mass loss rate as determinedfrom the flakeboards rangedfrom 71 to 189.
conecalorimetertestas a functionoftime. A typicalHRR
profile as shownin Figure 17—1 for plywoodbegins with a As a prescriptive regulation, theASTM E84 tunnel test is a
sharppeakupon ignition,andas the surface chars,the HRR successinthe reduction offire hazardsbut is impracticalin
drops to some minimumvalue. After the thermalwave providing scientific datafor firemodelingor in usefulbench-
travels completelythroughthe wood thickness, the back side scaletests forproductdevelopment. Otherfull-scaletests
ofa wood samplereachespyrolysistemperature, thus giving (suchas the ISO 9705roomlcornertest) also use both an
rise to a second,broader, and evenhigher HRR peak. For ignitionburner and the ensuingflamespreadto assistflow
fire-retardant-treated wood products, the firstHRR peakmay but can produce quitedifferent results becauseofthesize of
be reducedor eliminated. Table 17—3 providesthepeak and theignitionburneror thetestgeometry.This is the case
with foam plasticpanelsthat melt and drip duringa fire test.
In thetunnel test, with thetestmaterialon top, a material
that melts can have low flammabilitysince the specimen
200 does not stay in place.With an adequateburnerin the
FRT room/corner test, the same materialwill exhibit very high
Untreated flammability.
150
('A A flamespreads over a solid material whenpartofthefuel,
E aheadofthe pyrolysis front, is heatedto the critical condition
ofignition. The rate offlame spread is controlledby how
100
rapidlythe fuel reaches the ignition temperaturein response
toheatingby theflamefront and externalsources.The mate-
rial'sthermal conductivity, heat capacitance, thickness, and
50 blackbody surface reflectivity influence the material'sthermal
response,and an increase in the valuesofthese properties
corresponds to a decrease in flamespread rate. On the other
hand, an increase invaluesofthe flame features, such astFLe
0 200 400 600 800 imposed surface fluxes and spatial lengths,corresponds to a
Time (s) increase in the flame spread rate.
Figure 17—1. Heat release curves for untreated and
FRT plywood exposed to 50-kW/m2 radiance.

17—8
 Table 17—3. Heat release data for selected wood speciesa
Ave rage effective
Densityb Heat release rate (kW/rn2) heat of combustionc Ignition
Species (kg/rn3) Peak 60-s avg 180-s avg 300-s avg (MJ/kg) time (s)
Softwoods
Pine, red 525 209 163 143 132 12.9 24
Pine, white 359 209 150 117 103 13.6 17
Redcedar, eastern — 175 92 95 85 11.7 25
Redwood 408 227 118 105 95 13.2 17

Hardwoods
Birch 618 218 117 150 141 12.2 29
Maple, hard 626 218 128 146 137 11.7 31
Oak, red 593 214 115 140 129 11.4 28
aDatafor 50-kW/m2 heat flux in cone calorimeter. Tested in specimen holderwithout retaining frame.
Specimensconditioned to 23°C, 50% relative humidity.
bOvendry mass and volume.
cTests terminated when averagemass loss rate dropped below 1.5 g/s m2 during 1-mm period.

Flame spread occurs in different configurations, whichare Smoke and Toxic Gases
organized by orientation ofthe fuel and directionofthe main
flow ofgasesrelativeto that offlamespread. Downward and Oneofthe most importantproblemsassociatedwith fires is
lateralcreepingflamespreadinvolves afuel orientation with the smoke they produce. The term smoke is frequentlyused
buoyantlyheated air flowingopposite ofthe flamespread in an all-inclusive sense to meanthemixtureofpyrolysis
direction.Relatedbench-scale test methodsare ASTM E162 productsand air that is present near the fire site. In this
for downward flamespread,ASTME648forhorizontal flame context, smokecontains gases, solid particles,and droplets
spreadto the critical flux level, and ASTM El 321 (LIFT ofliquid. Smokepresents potentialhazardsbecauseit inter-
apparatus) forlateral flamespread on vertical specimen to the acts with lightto obscurevision andbecause it contains
criticalfluxlevel.Theheattransfer from the flameto the noxiousandtoxic substances.
virgin fuel is primarilyconductive withina spatialextentof a
few millimeters and is affectedby ambientconditions such as Generally, two approaches are usedto deal with the smoke
oxygen, pressure, buoyancy, and external irradiance. For problem: limit smoke productionand controlthe smokethat
most woodmaterials,thisheattransferfrom the flameis less has beenproduced. The controlofsmokeflow is most often
thanorequalto surfaceradiant heat loss in nonnal ambient a factorinthedesignand construction oflargeor till build-
conditions,so that excess heat is not availableto furtherraise ings. In these buildings, combustionproductsmay have
thevirginfuel temperature; flamespreadisprevented as a serious effects in areasremotefromthe actualfire site.
result.Therefore, to achieve creepingflamespread, an exter-
nalheatsource is requiredin thevicinityofthepyrolysis Currently, severalbench-scale testmethodsprovidecompara-
front. tive smoke yield information on materialsand assemblies.
Each method has entirely differentexposure conditions; none
Upwardor ceiling flame spread involves a fuel orientation is generally correlatedto full-scalefire conditions cr experi-
with the main air flowingin the same directionas the flame ence.Until the middle 1970s, smokeyieldrestriciions in
spread(assistingflow). At present, thereare no small-scale buildingcodeswere almostalways basedon data from
tests for upwardflame spreadpotential. Thus,testing of ASTME84. The smoke measurement is basedon percent- a
flame spread in assistingflow existsmostly in both the age attenuation ofwhite light passingthroughthe tunnel
tunnel tests and the room/cornerburn tests. The heat transfer exhauststream and detectedby a photocell. This is con-
fromthe flame is both conductiveandradiative,has a large vertedto the smokedevelopmentindex (SDI), with red oak
spatial feature, andis relatively unaffectedby ambient condi- flooring set at 100. The flamespreadrequirements for interior
tions.Rapidacceleration in flame spread can develop because finishgenerally are linked to an addedrequirement that the
ofalarge,increasing magnitudeofflameheat transfer as a SDIbe less than 450.
result ofincreasingtotal HRR in assistingflows. These
Inthe 1970s, the apparatus knownas theNBS smoke cham-
complexities and the importance ofthe flamespread proc-
esses explain the many and often incompatible flamespread berwas developed and approved as anASTM standardfor
tests and modelsin existenceworldwide. research and development (ASTM E662). This test is a
staticsmoketest becausethe specimen is tested in a closed

17—9
chamberoffixed volumeand the lightattenuation is recorded oftest fUrnace andtheadjustmentmethods used in a stan-
over a known opticalpath length.The corresponding light dardizedtoxicitytest.
transmissionis reportedas specificoptical density as a func-
tionoftime. Samplesarenormallytestedin both flaming Charring and Fire Resistance
(pilotflame)and nonflamingconditionsusinga radiantflux
of25 kW/m2. As noted earlierin this chapter, wood exposedto high tem-
peratures will decomposeto providean insulatinglayerof
The dynamicmeasurement ofsmoke inthe heatrelease charthat retards further degradation ofthe wood.The load-
calorimeter (ASTM£906and £1354) has recently gained carryingcapacity ofa structural wood memberdepends upon
increasing recognitionand use. The £906and El354 tests its cross-sectional dimensions. Thus,the amountofcharring
aredynamicin that the smoke continuously flows out the ofthecross section is themajorfactorin thefire endurance of
exhaust pipewhere the opticaldensityis measuredcontinu- structural wood members.
ously. The appropriate smoke parameteris the smoke release When woodis firstexposedto fire, the wood chars and
rate (SRR), which is the optical density multipliedby the
volumeflow rate ofair into the exhaustpipe and divided by eventually flames. Ignitionoccurs in about 2 min under the
theproductofexposedsurface areaofthespecimen and the standardASTM£119 fife-testexposures. Charringinto the
depth ofthe woodthen proceedsat arate ofapproximately
light path length.Often the smoke extinction area, which is 0.8 mmlmin for the next 8 mm (or 1.25 minlmm).There-
theproductofSRR andthe specimen area,is preferred be-
cause it can be correlatedlinearlywith HRR in many cases. after,the charlayerhas an insulating effect, and the rate
decreasesto 0.6 mm/min(1.6 mm/mm).Consideringthe
This also permits comparisonwith the smokemeasuredin initial ignition delay, the fast initial charring, and then the
theroom/comerfiretestbecauseHRR is areadily available
testresult. Although SRR canbe integratedwith time to get slowingdown to a constantrate, the averageconstantchar-
the same units as the specificopticaldensity,they are not ring rate is about 0.6 mmfmin(or 1.5 in/h) (Douglas-fir,
7% moisturecontent). In the standard fire-resistance test,
equivalent becausestatictests involve the directaccumula- this linearcharring rate is generallyassumedfor solid wood
tionofsmokein a volume,whereas SRRinvolves accumula-
tionoffreshlyentrainedair volumeflow foreachunit of directlyexposed to fife.
smoke. Methods investigated to correlate smokebetween There are differences among species associated with their
different tests includedalternative parameters suchas density, anatomy, chemicalcomposition, and permeability.
particulatemass emittedper area ofexposed sample. Moisture content is amajor factor affecting charringrate.
Density relates to the massneededto be degradedandthe
Toxicityofcombustionproductsis an area ofconcem.About thermalproperties, whichare affectedby anatomical features.
75% to 80% offire victimsare not touchedby flamebut die
Charringin the longitudinal grain directionis reportedly
as aresult ofexposureto smoke, exposure totoxic gases, or double that in the transverse direction,and chemicalcompo-
oxygendepletion. These life-threatening conditions can sition affectsthe relative thickness ofthe char layer. Perme-
result from buming contents, such as furnishings, as well as abilityaffectsthemovementofmoisturebeing drivenfrom
from the structural materialsinvolved. The toxicity resulting the wood orthat being driven into the wood beneaththe char
from thethermal decomposition ofwood and cellulosic layer. Normally,a simplelinearmodel for charringwhere (is
substances is complexbecauseofthe wide variety oftypes of x
time (min), C is char rate (mm/mm),and is char depth
wood smoke. The compositionand the concentrationofthe (mm) is assumed:
individual constituentsdependon such factors as the fire
exposure, the oxygen and moisturepresent,the species of t = C; (17--i)
wood, any treatments or fmishes that may havebeen applied,
and other considerations. Toxicitydata may be more widely The temperature at the base ofthe char layeris generally
availablein the fUturewith therecent adoption ofastandard takento be 300°Cor 550°F (288°C). With this temperature
testmethod (ASTM £1678). criterion, empirical equations for charring rate have been
developed. Equationsrelatingcharringrate under ASTM
Carbon monoxideis a particularlyinsidious toxic gas. Small £119 fire exposure to density and moisturecontentare avail-
amounts ofcarbonmonoxideare particularly toxic because able for Douglas-Fir, SouthernPine, and White Oak. These
thehemoglobinin theblood is much more likely to com- equationsforratestransverse to the grain are
bine with carbon monoxidethan with oxygen, even with
plenty ofbreathableoxygen.This poisoning is called car- C = (0.002269 ± 0.00457)p + 0.331 for DouglasFir
boxyhemoglobin. Recent researchhas shownthat the kind of (i7—2a)
flies that kill people by toxicityare principallythose that C = (0.000461 * 0.00095p)p + 1.016 for Southem Pine
reach flashover in acompartmentorroom somedistance from (i7—2b)
thepeople.The vastmajorityoffires that attainflashover
generate dangerous levels ofcarbonmonoxide, independent C = (0.001583 + 0.00318p)p+ 0.594 for White Oak
ofwhat is burning. The supertoxicants, such as hydrogen (17—2c)
cyanide andneurotoxin,have beenprovento be extremely where p. ismoisturecontent(fraction ofovendry mass) and
rare, evenin the laboratory. These factors impact the choice p is density,dry mass volume at moisturecontent p.
(kg/m3).

17—I 0
Table 17—4. Charring rate data forselected woodspecies
Wood exposedtoASTM El19exposure8 Wood exposedto a constantheatfluxb
Linear charring rate° Thermal penetra- Average mass loss
N tion depth d9(rnrn rate 'g/m2s)
(mm/mm)
Linear linear Thermal
Char charring charring penetra- 55- 18- 55- 55-
Den- contrac- rate° rater tion 18- kW/m2 kW/m2 kW/m2 18- kW/rn2
tion (min/ (mini depth9 kW/m2 heat heat heat kWim2 heat
Sityc
factord mm) rnm1) (mm) heatfiux flux flux flux heatfiux flux
Speaes (kg/rn3)
Softwoods
Southern Pine 509 0.60 124 0.56 33 227 1.17 38 26.5 3.8 8.6
310 0.83 1.22 0.56 33 — — — — — —
Western
redcedar
Redwood 343 0.86 128 0.58 35 1.68 0.98 36.5 24.9 2.9 6.0
1.56 0.70 34 — — — — — —
Engelmann 425 0.82
spruce

Hardwoods
Basswood 399 0.52 1.06 0.48 32 1.32 0.76 382 22.1 4.5 9.3

691 0.59 1.46 0.66 31 — — — — — —

Maple, hard
0.70 1.59 0.72 32 256 1.38 27.7 27.0 4.1 9.6
Oak, red 664
0.67 1.36 0.61 32 — — — — — —
Yellow- 504
poplar
8Moisturecontents of8%to 9%.
bChamng rateandaverage mass loss rateobtained usingASTM E906 heat releaseapparatus.Test durationswere 50 to98 mm for18-lW/rn2
heat fluxand 30 to53 mm for55-kW/m2heatflux. Charring ratebased ontemperaturecriterion of300°C and linear model.Mass loss rate based
on initial and final weight ofsample, which includes moisture driven fromthewood. Initial average moisture content of8%to 9%.
csed onweightand volume ofovendriedwood.
dThicknessofcharlayeratend offire exposure divided byoriginalthickness ofcharredwood layer (char depth).
ontemperature criterion of288°C and linear model.
Basedontemperaturecriterionof288°C and nonlinearmodelofEquation (17—3).
9Asdefined inEquation (17—6).Notsensitive to moisture conitent.

Anonlinearchar rate model has beenfounduseful. This Charring rate is alsoaffectedbythe severityofthe fire expo-
alternativemodel is sure.Dataon charringrates for fire exposures otherthan
ASTMEli9 havebeen limited. Datafor exposureto con-
t= (17—3) stanttemperatures of 538°C, 815°C, and 927°Care available
in Schaffer (1967). Datafor a constant heat fluxaregiven in
wherem is charrate coefficient (min/mm23). Table 17—4.
Based on datafrom eightspecies(Table 17—4), the following The temperature at the innermost zoneofthe char layeris
equation was developedforthe charrate coefficient: assumedto be 300°C. Becauseofthe low thermal conductiv-
m =—0.147 + 0.000564p+ l.21i + 0.532f f '
" 7_4\
ity ofwood,the temperature 6 mm inwardfrom the base of
the charlayer is about 180°C. This steep temperaluregradi-
wherep is density, ovendry mass and volume,and[f is char ent meansthe remaining uncharred cross-sectional area ofa
contraction factor(dimensionless). largewoodmemberremainsat a low temperatureandcan
continueto carry a load.Moistureis driven into the wood as
The char contractionfactor is the thicknessofthe residual charringprogresses. A moisture content peak is created
charlayer dividedby theoriginal thickness ofthewood layer inwardfrom the charbase. The peakmoisturecontentoccurs
that was charred (char depth). Average values forthe eight wherethetemperatureofthe wood is about 100°C, whichis
species tested inthe development ofthe equationare listedin at about 13 mm from thechar base.
Table 17—4. Once aquasi-steady-state charring rate has been obtained, the
Theseequationsand data are valid whenthe memberis thick temperature profilebeneaththe charlayer canbe expressed as
an exponential term or a power term.An equation.based on a
enoughto be a semi-infinite slab. For smaller dimensions,
the charring rate increases oncethe temperature has risen power term is
abovethe initialtemperatureat the centerofthe member or at
theunexposed surface ofthe panel. As abeamorcolunm T= i' +(300_l'i)(1_x/d)2 (17—5)
chars,the corners becomerounded.

17—11
where Tis temperature(°C), 7 initial temperature(°C), Whilefire-retardant-treated wood is not considered anon-
x distance from thechar front (mm),and dthermalpenetra- combustible material,many codeshave acceptedthe use of
tiondepth (mm). fire-retardant-treated woodand plywood in fire-resistive and
noncombustible construction forthe framingofnonload-
In Table 17—4, values for thethermalpenetrationdepth bearing walls,roofassemblies, anddecking.Fire-retardant-
parameterare listedfor both the standard fire exposure and treatedwood is alsoused for such special purposesas wood
theconstantheatflux exposure. As with thecharringrate, scaffolding and for the frame, rails, and stiles ofwood fire
these temperatureprofilesassumeasemi-infmite slab. The doors.
equationdoes not provideforthe plateauin temperatures that
often occurs at 100°C in moist wood. In additionto these In addition to specifications for flamespreadperformance,
empirical data,there are mechanisticmodelsfor estimating fire-retardant-treated wood foruse in certainapplications is
thecharringrate and temperature profiles. The temperature specified to meet other performance requirements. Wood
profile withinthe remainingwood cross-section can be used treatedwith inorganic flame-retardant salts is usuallymore
with other datato estimatethe remaining load-carrying hygroscopic than is untreatedwood,particularlyat high
capacity ofthe uncharredwood during a fire andthe residual relativehumidities. Increasesin equilibrium moisture con-
capacity afterafire. tent ofthis treated wood will depend upon the type ofchemi-
cal, level ofchemical retention,and size and species ofwood
involved. Applications that involvehigh humiditywill
Flame-Retardant Treatments likely require wood with low hygroscopicity. The American
To meet building code and standards specifications, lumber WoodPreservers'Association (AWPA)Standards C20 and
and plywoodare treatedwith flameretardants to improve C27 requirements for low hygroscopicity(InteriorType A
their fire performance. The two generalapplication methods treatment)stipulate that the material shallhave an equilib-
are pressure treatingand surface coating. rium moisture content ofnot more than 28% whentested ia
accordance with ASTMD3201 proceduresat 92%relative
humidity.
Fire-Retardant-Treated Wood
Exterior flame-retardant treatments shouldbe specified when-
To meet the specifications in the buildingcodes and various ever the wood is exposed to exteriorweathering conditions.
standards, fire-retardant-treated lumberandplywoodis wood The AWPAStandards C20 and C27 also mandatethat an
that has beenpressure treatedwith chemicals to reduceits exteriortype treatment is one thathas shown no increase in
flame spreadcharacteristics. Flame-retardant treatment of
wood generally improves the fire performance byreducingthe fire hazardclassification after beingsubjectedtothe rain test
amount offlammable volatiles released during fire exposure specified in ASTM D2898 as MethodA.
orby reducingthe effective heatofcombustion, orboth. Forstructural applications, information on thefire-retardant-
Both resultshave the effectofreducingthe HRR, particularly treatedwood productneedsto be obtainedfrom the treater or
during the initial stagesoffire, and thus consequently chemicalsupplier. This includesthe designmodification
reducing the rate offlame spread over the surface. The wood factors forinitial strength properties ofthe fire-retardant-
maythen self-extinguishwhenthe primaryheat sourceis treatedwood, including valuesfor the fasteners. Flame-
removed. retardanttreatmentgenerally results in reductions in the
mechanical properties ofwood.Fire-retardant-treated wood is
Theperformance requirement forfire-retardant-treatedwoodis oftenmore brashthan untreatedwood.
that its FSI is 25 or less when tested accordingto the
ASTM E84 flame spreadtest and that it shows no evidence Infield applications with elevatedtemperatures, such as roof
ofsignificantprogressivecombustion whenthis I0-min test sheathings, there isthe potentialfor furtherlosses in strength
is continued for an additional20 min. In addition,it is with time. For such applications in elevatedtemperatures
requiredthat the flame front in the test shall not progress andhigh humidity, appropriate designmodification factors
more than 3.2 m beyondthe centerline ofthe burneratany needto be obtainedfromthe treater orchemicalsupplier.
given time duringthe test. UnderwritersLaboratories, Inc., The AWPAStandards C20 and C27 mandatethat fire-
assigns the designationFR—S toproductsthat satisfythese retardant-treated woodthat will be used in high-temperature
requirements. In applications wherethe requirement is notfor applications (InteriorType A High Temperature), such as
fire-retardant-treated woodbut onlyforClassI orII flame roofframingandroofsheathing, be strengthtested in accor-
spread,the flame-retardant treatmentsonly needto reducethe dance with ASTM D5664 (lumber)or ASTM D5516
FSI to the required level in the ASTM E84 flame spread test (plywood) or by an equivalent methodology. Someflame-
(25 forClassI, 75 for ClassII). Variouslaboratories perform retardanttreatments arenot acceptable becauseofthermal
fire-performance ratingtests onthese treatedmaterials and degradation ofthe wood that will occur with time at high
maintain listsofproductsthat meet certainstandards. temperatures. Screw-withdrawal tests topredict residual
in-place strength offire-retardant-treatedplywoodroofsheath-
Fire-retardant-treated wood andplywoodare often used for
inghave beendeveloped(Winandyand others 1998).
interiorfmish and trim in rooms, auditoriums, and corridors
wherecodesrequirematerials with low surface flammability. Corrosion offasteners canbe accelerated underconditions of
high humidityand in the presenceofflame-retardant salts.

17—12
Forflame-retardant treatments containinginorganic salts, the Flame-Retardant Coatings
type ofmetal and chemicalin contact with each other greatly
affects the rate ofcorrosion. Thus, information on proper For someapplications, the altemativemethodofapplying
fasteners also needsto be obtainedfrom the treaterorchemi- theflame-retardant chemical as a coating tothewood surface
cal supplier. Otherissues that may requirecontactingthe may be acceptable. Suchcommercial coatingproducts are
treater or chemicalsupplierincludemachinability, gluing available to reduce the surface flammability characteristics of
characteristics, and paintability. wood. The two types ofcoatingsare intumescent and
nonintumescent. The widelyusedintumescent coatings
Flame-retardant treatmentofwood does not prevent the wood "intumesce" to form an expandedlow-density film upon
from decomposing and charring underfire exposure (the rate exposure to fire. This multicellular carbonaceous ffilm insu-
offife penetration through treatedwood approximates therate lates the wood surface belowfrom the high temperatures.
through untreatedwood). Fire-retardant-treated woodusedin Intumescent formulations includea dehydrating agent, a char
doors andwalls can slightly improvefife endurance ofthese former,and a blowing agent. Potentialdehydratingagents
doors and walls. Most ofthis improvement is associated include polyammonium phosphate. Ingredients forthe char
with the reduction in surface flammability ratherthan any formerinclude starch, glucose,and dipentaerythritol. Poten-
changes in charringrates. tial blowingagents for the intumescent coatings includeurea,
melamine, and chlorinate parafins. Nonintumescent coating
Flame-Retardant Pressure Treatments productsinclude formulations ofthe water-soluble salts such
as diammonium phosphate,ammoniumsulfate, and borax.
In theimpregnation treatments,wood is pressure impreg-
natedwith chemicalsolutionsusingpressureprocesses
similarto thoseusedfor chemical preservativetreatments. References
However, considerably heavierabsorptions ofchemicals are General
necessary for flame-retardant protection. Standards C20 and
C27 ofthe AWPA recommend thetreating conditions for APA—TheEngineered Wood Association.[Current
lumberand plywood. The penetrationofthe chemicals into edition]. Fire-ratedsystems.Tacoma, WA: APA-—The
thewood depends on thespecies,wood structure,and mois- Engineered WoodAssociation.
turecontent. Since some species are difficultto treat, the
degree ofimpregnation neededto meet the performance re- Browne, F.L. 1958. Theories ofthe combustion ofwood
quirements for fire-retardant-treated woodmay not bepossi- and its control—asurveyofthe literature. Rep. No. 2136.
ble. One option is to incise the wood prior to treatmentto Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest
improvethe depth ofpenetration. Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory.
Inorganicsalts are the most commonly used flameretardants CWC. 1996. Fire safety designin buildings. Ottawa, ON,
for interiorwoodproducts,and theircharacteristics have Canada: Canadian Wood Council.
beenknownfor more than 50 years.These salts include
monoammonium and diammonium phosphate,ammonium NFPA. 1995. Guide for fife and explosioninvest:[gations.
sulfate,zinc chloride,sodium tetraborate, and boric acid. NFPA 921. Quincy, MA:NationalFire Protecticn
Guanylureaphosphateis also used.These chemicals are Association.
combined informulations to developoptimum fire perform-
ance yet still retainacceptablehygroscopicity, strength, NFPA. [Current edition].Fire protectionhandbook. Quincy,
MA: NationalFire ProtectionAssociation.
corrosivity, machinability, surface appearance, glueability,
and paintability. Cost is also a factor in these formulations.
Schaffer, E.L.; White, R.H.; Brenden,J. 1989. Part II.
Many commercial formulations are available. The AWPA Firesafety. In: Light-frame wall and floor systems—analysis
StandardP17 providesinformation on formulations ofsome and performance. Gen. Tech. Rep. FPL—GTR—59.Madison,
current proprietary waterbome treatments. The fire-retardant WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest
salts arewater soluble and are leached out in exterior applica- Products Laboratory: 51—86.
tions or with repeatedwashings. Water-insoluble organic
flameretardants havebeen developed tomeet theneed for SocietyofFire Protection Engineers. [Current edition].
leach-resistant systems. Suchtreatments are alsoan altema- The Society ofFireProtectionEngineershandbook offire
tive whena low hygroscopictreatmentis needed. These protection engineering. Quincy, MA:NationalFire
water-insoluble systemsinclude (a)resins polymerized after ProtectionAssociation.
impregnation into woodand (b) graftpolymerflameretar-
dantsattached directlyto cellulose.An amino resin system
based on urea,melamine,dicyandiamide, and related
compounds is ofthe firsttype.

17—13
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ASTM E970.Criticalradiant flux ofexposed attic floor Kubler, H. 1990. Self-heatingoflignocellulosic materials.
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materialsandproductsusing an oxygenconsumption smolderingcombustion in cellulosicinsulation.Joumal of
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R.H. 1979. Fireperformance ofstructural flakeboard from
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design manual. Washington,DC: Gypsum Association. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Products
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StandardP17.Fire-retardantformulations.

17—16
 I Chapter 18 I
Round Timbers and Ties
Ronald W. Wolfe

Contents
Standards and Specifications 18—1
I/j oundtimbers and ties representsome oi'the most
efficient uses ofour forestresources. Theyrequirea
'LIL' minimum ofprocessingbetweenharvestingthetree
andmarketingthe structural commodity.Poles and piles are
Material Requirements 18—1 debarked orpeeled,seasoned, andoflen treatedwith preserva-
Availability 18—2 tive prior to use as structural members.Construction logs are
usually shapedto facilitate construction. Ties, used forrail-
Poles 18—2 roads, landscaping, and mining, are slab-cutto pxovide flat
surfaces. Because theseproductsarerelativelyeconomical to
Piles 18—3
produce, compared with glulam,steel, and concrete products,
ConstructionLogs 18—3 they are commonly used throughoutthe United States.
Ties 18—3

Form 18—3 Standards and Specifications

Poles and Piles 18—3 Material standardsand specifications listed in Table 18—1
werecreated through thejointefforts ofproducers and users
ConstructionLogs 18—4 to ensurecompatibility betweenproduct quality and end
Ties 18—5 use. Theseguidelines include recommendations forproduc-
tion, treatment, and engineering design.They are updated
Weightand Volume 18—5 periodically to conform to changes in material and design
technology.
Durability 18—6
Preservative Treatment 18—6
Material Requirements
Service Life 18—6
Roundtimberand tiematerialrequirements vary with in-
StrengthProperties 18—7 tendeduse. The majority ofuses involve exposu:reto harsh
Poles 18—7 environments. Thus, in addition to availability, Corm, and
weight,durabilityis also an importantconsideration for the
Piles 18—7 use ofround timbers andties. Availability reflecisthe eco-
nomic feasibility ofprocuring members oftherequiredsize
ConstructionLogs 18—7
and grade. Formorphysicalappearance refersto visualchar-
Ties 18—8 acteristics, such as straightness and occurrence ot'knotsand
References spiral grain.Weightaffectsshippingandhandling costsand
18—8
a
is functionofvolume,moisturecontent, and wooddensity.
Durability is directlyrelatedto expectedservice life arid is a
functionoftreatability and naturaldecayresistance.Finally,
regardless ofthe application, any structural member must be
strong enoughto resist imposedloadswith a reasonable
factor ofsafety. Material specifications available tbrmost
applications ofroundtimbers andties containguidelines
for evaluating these factors.

18—1
 Table 18—1. Standardsand specifications for roundtimbers and tiesa
Engineering design stresses
Product Material requirements Preservativetreatment Procedures Design values
ANSI 05.1 TT-W-571 — ANSI 05.1
Utility poles
AWPA C1,C4,C35
Construction poles ANSI 05.1 TT-W-571 ASTM D3200 ASAE EP 388
AWPA C23
Piles ASTMD25 TT-W-571 ASTM 02899 NDS
AWPA Cl,C3
Construction logs (See material supplier) — ASTM D3957 (See material supplier)
Ties AREA U-W-571 — AREA
AWPA C2,C6 AREA
aANSI, American National StandardsInstitute;ASTM, American Societyfor Testing and Materials;
ASAE, American Society of Agricultural Engineers; AREA, American RailwayEngineersAssociation;NDS,
National Design Specification (for Wood Construction); AWPA, AmericanWood-Preservers'Association.

distributionand buildingpoles.Becausethe heartwoodof

Availability Douglas-firis resistantto preservative penetrationand has
Material evaluationbegins with an assessment ofavailabil- limited decay and termiteresistance, serviceablepolesneed a
well-treated shellofsapwoodthat is free ofchecking. To
ity. For some applications,local species oftimbermay be
minimize checkingaftertreatment,poles shouldbe ade-
readily available in an acceptable form and quality. However,
this is not normallythe case. Pole producers and tie mills quatelyseasoned orconditioned beforetreatment.With these
are scatteredthroughoutheavilyforestedregions. Their precautions, the polesshouldcomparefavorablywith treated
Southern Pine poles in serviceability.
productsare shippedto users throughoutNorth America.
A smallpercentage ofthepolestreated in theUnitedStates
Poles are ofwestern redcedar, producedmostlyin BritishColum-
bia. The number ofpoles ofthis speciesused withouttreat-
Most structuralapplications ofpoles require timbersthat are
ment is not knownbut is consideredto be small. Used
relatively straightand free oflargeknots. Polesusedto
supportelectric utility distributionand transmission lines primarilyfor utilitylines in northernand westernUnited
States, well-treated redcedar poleshave a service life that
(Fig. 18—i) range in length from 6 to 38 m (20 to 125 ft) and
from 0.13 to 0.76 m (5 to 30 in.) in diameter, 1.8 m (6 ft) compares favorably with polesmade from other speciesand
from the butt. Poles used to support local areadistribution couldbe used effectively in pole-typebuildings.
lines are normally<15 m (<50 ft) long and are predomi-
Lodgepole pine is alsoused in smallquantitiesfor treated
nately SouthernPine. poles.This species is used both for utility lines and for
Hardwoodspeciescan be used for poleswhenthetreesare of pole-type buildings. It has a good servicerecordwhen well
suitable size and form; theiruse is limited, however,by their treated.Special attention is necessary, however, to obtain
weight,by their excessivechecking, and becauseofthe lack poleswith sufficient sapwood thicknessto ensureadequate
ofexperience in preservativetreatmentofhardwoods. Thus, penetration ofpreservative, becausethe heartwoodis not
most poles are softwoods. usuallypenetrated and is not decay resistant. The poles must
also bewell seasonedprior to treatmentto avoid checking
The SouthernPine lumber group (principally loblolly, and exposure ofunpenetrated heartwoodto attackby decay
longleaf, shortleaf, and slash) accounts forroughly80% of fungi.
polestreated in the United States.Three traits ofthese pines
account fortheirextensiveuse:thick and easily treated sap- Western larchpoles producedin MontanaandIdaho came
into use afterWorldWar IIbecauseoftheir favorable size,
wood,favorable strengthpropertiesand form,and availability
in popular pole sizes. In longerlengths, Southern Pine poles shape, and strengthproperties. Westernlarchrequires
are in limited supply, so Douglas-fir,and to some extent preservative treatmentfull length for use in most areas and,
westernredcedar, Ponderosa pine,and western larch,are as in the caseoflodgepole pine poles,must be selectedfor
used to meet requirements for 15-rn (50-ft)and longer adequatesapwoodthickness andmust be well seasoned
transmissionpoles. prior to treatment. Otherspecies occasionallyusedforpoles
arelistedin theAmerican NationalStandards Institute
Douglas-firis used throughoutthe UnitedStatesfortrans- (ANSI) 05.1 standard. Theseminor speciesmakeup a very
missionpoles and is used in the Pacific Coastregion for smallportionofpole production and are used locally.

18—2
 0.15-to 0.25-rn- (6- to 10-in.-) diameter range. These poles
rarely exceed9 m (30 ft) in length. Although poles sold for
this application are predominately SouthernPine, there is
potential for competition from local species in this category.
Finally, log cabin logs normallyrange from 0.2 tc 0.25 m
(8 to 10 in.) in diameter,andthe availabilityof logs in this
sizerange is notoften a problem. However,becauselogs are
not normallypreservative treatedforthis application, those
species that offermoderatetohigh naturaldecay resistance,
such as westernredcedar, are preferred. Pole buildings, which
incorporate round timbersas vertical columns and cantilever
supports, require preservative-treated wood.Preservative-
treatedpoles forthis use may notbe readily available.

Ties
The most importantavailability consideration forrailroad
cross ties is quantity.Tiesare producedfrommost native
species oftimberthatyield log lengths >2.4 m (8 ft) with
diameters>0.18 m (7 in.). The AmericanRailway Engineer-
ing Association (AREA)lists 26 U.S. species thai;may be
used forties. Thus,the tie marketprovidesa use formany
low-grade hardwood and softwoodlogs.

Form
Natural growthpropertiesoftrees play an important role in
theiruse as structural roundtimbers.Threeimpoii;ant form
considerations are cross-sectional dimensions,straightness,
andthe presence ofsurface characteristics such as knots.

Poles and Piles

Figure 18—1. Round timber poles form the major
structuralelementin these transmission structures. Standardsforpoles and pileshave beenwrittenwith the
(Photo courtesy of Koppers Co.) assumption thattrees have around cross sectionwith a
circumference that decreaseslinearlywith height.Thus,the
shapeofapole or pile is often assumedto be that ofthe
Glued-laminated, or glulam, poles are also available foruse frustum ofa cone. Actualmeasurements oftree shapeindicate
where specialsizes or shapesare required. The ANSI Stan- that taper is rarely linearand oftenvaries with location along
dard 05.2 providesguidelinesforspecifying these poles. theheightofthe tree. Average taper valuesfrom theANSI
05.1 standardareshownin Table 18—2 forthemore popular
Piles polespecies. Guidelines to accountforthe effectoftaperon
the location ofthe critical section abovethe groundline are
Material availablefortimberpiles is more restrictedthan that given in ANSI 05.1. The standardalso tabulatespole di-
for poles.Most timberpiles used in the easternhalfofthe mensions forup to 15 size classesof II major pole species.
UnitedStates are SouthernPine, while those usedin western
UnitedStatesare coast Douglas-fir. Oak, red pine,and cedar Taper alsoaffectsconstruction detailing ofpole buildings.
piles are alsoreferencedin timberpile literature but arenot as Wheresidingor other exteriorcoveringis applied, poles are
widelyused as SouthernPine andDouglas-fir. generallysetwith the taper to the interiorside of the struc-
tures to providea vertical exteriorsurface (Fig. 18—3).
Construction Logs Anothercommonpracticeis to modifytheround poles by
slabbing to providea continuous flat face.The slabbedface
Roundtimbershave beenusedin a varietyofstructures, permits more secureattachmentofsheathingand framing
includingbridges, log cabins, and pole buildings. Log members and facilitates the alignment and settingofinterme-
stringerbridges(Fig. 18—2) are generally designedfor a diate wall and cornerpoles. The slabbing consistsofa
limitedlife on logging roadsintendedto provideaccessto minimum cut to providea single continuous flat lace from
remote areas. In Alaskawherelogs may exceed 1 rn (3 ft) in thegroundline to thetop ofintermediate wallpoles and two
diameter,bridge spans may exceed 9 m (30 ft). Building continuous flat faces at right angles to one another from the
poles, on the other hand, are preservative-treated logs in the groundline to the top of cornerpoles.However,preservative

18—3
Figure 18—2. Logsare used to construct logging bridges in remote forest areas.

Table 18—2. Circumference taper TheAmerican Standards for TestingandMaterials(ASTM)

D25standard providestables ofpile sizes for eitherfriction
Centimeter Inch
changein changein piles or end-bearingpiles. Frictionpiles rely on skin friction
circum- circum- ratherthan tip areaforsupport,whereas end-bearingpiles
ference ference resist compressiveforce atthe tip.Forthis reason, a friction
Species per meter per foota pile is specified by butt circumference andmay have a
smallertip than an end-bearing pile. Conversely,end-bearing
Western redcedar 3.7 0.38 pilesare specifiedbytip areaand butt circumference is
0.29 minimized.
Ponderosapine 2.4
Jack, lodgepole, and red pine 2.5 0.30 Straightness ofpoles or piles is determinedby two form
Southern Pine 2.1 0.25 a
properties: sweepand crook.Sweepis measure ofbow or
gradualdeviationfrom a straight line joining the ends ofthe
Douglas-fir, larch 1.7 0.21
pole or pile. Crook is an abrupt changein directionofthe
Western hemlock 1.7 0.20 centroidalaxis. Limits onthese two propertiesare specified
in both ANSI 05.1 and ASTM D25.
aTaken from ANSI 05.1.

Construction Logs
penetration is generallylimitedtothe sapwoodofmost Logs used in construction are generally specifiedto meet the
species;therefore slabbing, particularly in the groundline area same criteriafor straightness and knotsas poles and piles
ofpoles with thin sapwood,may result in somewhat less (ASTM D25). For log stringerbridges, the log selection
protectionthan that ofan unslabbedpole.All cuttingand criteriamay vary with the experience oftheperson doingthe
sawingshouldbe confinedto that portion ofthe pole above selectionbut straightness, spiral grain, wind shake, and
the groundline and shouldbe performedbeforetreatment. knotsare limiting criteria. Althoughno consensusstandard

18—4
 Weight and Volume
The weightofany wood product is a function ofits volume,
density, moisture content, and any retainedtreatmentsub-
stance. An accurate estimateofvolumeofa roundpole would
require numerous measurements ofthe circumference and
shapealong the length,becausepoles commonlyexhibit
neithera uniform lineartapernor a perfectly round shape.
The American WoodPreservers'Association (AWPA)
Standard F3 therefore recommends volume estimates be
based on the assumption that the pole is shapedas the frus-
a
tum ofa cone (that is, cone with the top cut perpendicular
to theaxis), with adjustmentsdependent on species. The
volumein this case is determinedas the averagecross-
sectionalareaA timesthe length.Estimates ofaveragecross-
sectionalarea maybe obtained eitherby measuring the cir-
cumference at mid-length (A = Cm2/4it) ortaking the average
ofthebutt and tip diameters (A it(D+ d)2/16) to estimate
thearea ofa circle. TheAWPArecommends that these
Figure 18—3. Poles provide economical foundation and estimates then be adjustedby the followingcorrectionfactors
wall systems foragriculturaland storage buildings. for the given species and application:

Oak piles 0.82

SouthernPine piles 0.93
Southern Pine and redpine poles 0.95

Figure 18—4. Construction logs can be formed in a Tables for round timbervolumeare given in AWPA Stan-
variety of shapes for log homes. Vertical surfaces dard F3. The volumeofaround timberdifferslittle whether
maybe variedfor aesthetic purposes, while the it is green or thy. Dryingofroundtimberscauseschecksto
horizontal surfaces generally reflect structural
and thermal considerations. open,but there is littlereductionofthe gross diameterofthe
pole.
Wooddensityalsodiffers with species,age, and growing
is availableforspecifyingand designinglog stringers, the conditions. It will even vary along the height ofa singletree.
DesignGuidefor NativeLog StringerBridgeswas prepared Average values, tabulated by species, are normallyexpressed
by the USDAForest Service. as specific gravity(SG),which is density expressed as a ratio
ofthe densityofwater (see Ch. 4). Forcommercial species
Logsusedfor log cabinscome in a widevariety ofcross- t
grownin the UnitedStates, SG varies from 0.32 0.65. If
sectionalshapes(Fig. 18—4). Commercial cabin logs are you know the green volume ofa round timberand its SG, its
usuallymilled so that theirshape is uniform alongtheir dry weight is a product ofits SG, its volume,and the unit
length.The ASTM D3957 standard, a guide for establishing weightofwater (1000 kg/rn3 (62.4Ib/ft3)). Woodmoisture
stress grades for buildinglogs, recommends stress grading contentcan alsobe highly variable. A pole cut in the spring
on the basis ofthe largestrectangularsectionthat can be whensap is flowing may havea moisturecontentexceeding
inscribedtotally within the log section. The standardalso 100% (the weightofthe water it containsmay exceedthe
provides commentaryon the effectsofknotsand slopeof weightofthe dry wood substance). Ifyou know the moisture
grain. content(MC) ofthe timber,multiplythe dry weightby
(1 + MC/100)to get the wet weight.
Ties
Finally, in estimatingthe weightofa treatedwood product
Railroadties arecommonlyshapedto afairlyuniformsec- such as a pole,pile, or tie, you must takeinto accountthe
tionalong their length. The AREA publishes specifications
forthe sizes,which includesevensize classes ranging from weightofthe preservative. Recommended preserwtivereten-
tions are listed in Table 14—3 in Chapter 14. By knowing
0.13 by 0.13 m (5 by 5 in.) to 0.18 by 0.25 m (7 by 10 in.). thevolume, the preservativeweightcanbe approximated
These tie classesmay be orderedin any ofthree standard
by multiplying volume by therecommendedpreservative
lengths: 2.4 m (8 ft), 2.6 m (8.5 ft), or 2.7 m (9 ft). retention.

18—5
 kept in mind that, within a given group, 60% ofthe poles
Durability will havefailedbefore reachingan age equalto the average
For mostapplications ofround timbersand ties,durability is life.
primarilyaquestionofdecay resistance. Somespecies are
noted for theirnatural decay resistance; however, eventhese Early orpremature failure oftreatedpolescan generallybe
attributed to one or more ofthree factors: (a) poor penetration
may requirepreservativetreatment,depending uponthe and distribution ofpreservative, (b) an inadequate retentionof
environmental conditions underwhichthe materialis used
andthe required servicelife. For someapplications,natural preservative, or (c)use ofa substandard preservative. Prop-
decay resistance is sufficient. This isthe case fortemporary erly treatedpoles can last 35 years or longer.
piles, marine piles in fresh water entirelybelowthe perma- Westernredcedaris one species with a naturallydecay-
nent water level, and construction logs used in building
resistantheartwood. Ifusedwithouttreatment,however, the
construction. Any wood membersused in ground contact
shouldbe pressuretreated,and the first two or three logs average life is somewhat less than 20 years.
above a concrete foundation shouldbebrush treatedwith a
Piles
preservative—sealer.
The expectedlife ofa pile is also determinedbytreatment
and use. Woodthat remainscompletely submergedin water
Preservative Treatment does not decay although bacteriamay cause some degrada-
FederalSpecificationTT—W—57 1 (U.S. Federal Supply tion; therefore, decay resistance is notnecessaryin all piles,
Service (USFSS)) covers the inspection and treatment re- but it is necessaryin any partofthe pile that may extend
quirementsfor variouswood productsincludingpoles, piles, above thepermanentwater level.When piles that support the
andties. This specificationrefersto the AWPA Standards foundations ofbridgesor buildings are to be cut offabovethe
Cl and C3 for pressuretreatment,C2 and C6 fortreatmentof permanentwater level, they shouldbe treatedto conformto
ties, C8 for full-lengththermal (hotand cold) treatment of recognized specifications such as Federal Specification
westernredcedarpoles,Cl0 for full-length thermal (hotand TT-W-571 and AWPA Standards Cl and C3. The untreated
cold) treatmentoflodgepole pine poles,and C23 for pressure surfaces exposed at the cutoffs shouldalsobe given protec-
treatmentofconstruction poles.The AREA specifications for tion by thoroughly brushingthe cut surface with coal-tar
cross ties and switchties also coverpreservativetreatment. creosote. A coat ofpitch, asphalt, or similarmaterialmay
Retention andtypes ofvariouspreservatives recommended then be appliedoverthe creosoteand a protectivesheet
for variousapplications aregiven in Table 14—3. material, such as metal,roofmgfelt, or saturatedfabric,
shouldbe fittedover the pile cut-offin accordancewith
Inspection andtreatmentofpoles in service has beeneffective AWPAStandardM4. Correctapplication andmaintenance
in prolongingtheuseful life ofuntreatedpoles and thosewith ofthese materials arecriticalin maintainingtheintegrity of
inadequate preservativepenetrationor retention. The Forest piles.
Research Laboratory at Oregon StateUniversity has pub-
lishedguidelinesfordevelopingan in-service pole mainte- Piles driveninto earth that is not constantlywet are subject
nance program. to about the same service conditionsas apply to poles but
aregenerally requiredto last longer. Preservative retention
Service Life requirements forpilesare therefore greaterthan for poles
(Table 14—3). Piles used in salt water are subjectto destruc-
Service conditionsfor round timbers andties vary from mild tion by marineborers even thoughthey do not decay below
for construction logs to severe for cross ties. Construction thewaterline. Themost effective practicalprotectionagainst
logs used in loghomes may last indefinitelyifkept dry and marineborershas beena treatment firstwith a waterbome
properlyprotectedfrom insects.Mostrailroadties, on the preservative, followedby seasoning with a creosotetreat-
other hand, are continually in groundcontact and are subject ment.Otherpreservative treatments ofmarinepiles are cov-
to mechanical damage. ered in Federal Specification TT—W—57 1 and AWPA
StandardC3 (Table 14—3).
Poles
The life ofpoles can vary withinwide limits, depending
Ties
uponpropertiesofthepole, preservative treatments, service Thelife ofties in servicedepends on theirabilityto resist
conditions,and maintenancepractices.In distributionor decay and mechanical destruction. Under sufficiently light
transmissionline supports,however,servicelife is often traffic, heartwood ties ofnaturallydurable wood,even ifof
limitedby obsolescence ofthe line rather than the physical low strength, may give 10 or 15 years ofaverageservice
life ofthepole. withoutpreservative treatment; under heavytrafficwithout
adequate mechanical protection, the same ties might fail in
It is commonto report theaverage life ofuntreatedor treated 2 or 3 years.Advances in preservativesand treatment proc-
polesbased on observations over a periodofyears. These esses, coupled with increasingloads, are shiftingthe primary
average life valuesare usefulas a roughguide to the service cause oftie failure from decay to mechanical damage. Well-
life to be expectedfrom agroup ofpoles,but it shouldbe treated ties, properlydesignedto carry intendedloads,

18—6
shouldlast from25 to40 years on average. Records on life aboveground. In such instances, however, bracingis often
oftreatedand untreatedties areoccasionally publishedinthe usedto reducetheunsupportedcolunm length or to resist the
annual proceedings ofthe American RailwayEngineering side loads.
Association (AREA)and AWPA.
The most criticalloads on piles often occur duringdriving.
Under hard driving conditions,piles that aretoo dry (<18%
Strength Properties moisturecontentat a 51-mm (2-in.)depth)have literally
exploded underthe force ofthe drivinghammers.Steelband-
Allowable strengthpropertiesofround timbers have been
ing is recommended to increase resistance to splitting,and
developedand publishedin severalstandards. In most cases, driving the pilesinto predrilledholes reduces drhing
publishedvaluesare based on strengthofsmallclear test stresses.
samples. Allowablestressesare derivedby adjusting small
clear values foreffectsofgrowth characteristics, conditioning, The reductionin strengthofa wood columnresultingfrom
shape, and load conditions as discussedin applicable stan- crooks, eccentricloading,or any other condition i:hat will
dards. In addition,publishedvaluesfor somespecies ofpoles result in combined bendingand compressionis not as great
and pilesreflectresultsoffull-sizedtests. as would be predictedwith the NDS interactionequations.
This does not imply that crooks and eccentricity should be
Poles withoutrestriction,but it should relieveanxiety as to the
influence ofcrooks, such as those found in piles. Design
Mostpolesareusedas structuralmembersin support struc- procedures for eccentrically loadedcolumns are given in
tures for distributionandtransmissionlines. For this appli- Chapter8.
cation, poles may be designedas single-member or guyed
cantilevers or as structural members ofamore complex There are several ways to determine bearingcapacity ofpiles.
structure. Specifications for woodpoles used in singlepole Engineering formulas can estimate bearingvaluesfrom the
structures have been publishedby ANSI in Standard05.1. penetration underblows ofknownenergyfrom the driving
hammer. Someengineers preferto estimate bearing capacity
Guidelines for the designofpole structures are given inthe
from experience orobservation ofthe behavior ofpile founda-
ANSINationalElectric SafetyCode (NESC) (ANSIC2).
tions under similarconditionsor fromthe resultsofstatic-
The ANSI 05.1 standard gives values for fiberstress in load tests.
bending for speciescommonly usedas transmissionor dis- Workingstresses forpiles are governedby buildingcode
tributionpoles.Thesevaluesrepresentthe near-ultimate fiber
requirements and by recommendations ofASTMD2899.
stress forpoles usedas cantilever beams. Formost species, This standardgives recommendations for adjusting small
these valuesare basedpartly on full-sized pole tests and clear strengthvalueslisted in ASTMD2555 for use in the
includeadjustments for moisturecontentandpretreatment
design offull-sizedpiles. In additionto adjustmentsfor
conditioning. The values in ANSI 05.1 are compatible with
the ultimate strength designphilosophyoftheNESC, but properties inherentto the full-sizedpile, the ASTM D2899
standard alsoprovidesrecommendations for adjusting allow-
they are not compatiblewith the working stress design able stressesforthe effects ofpretreatment conditioning.
philosophy ofthe National DesignSpecification(NDS).
Design stressesfortimberpilesare tabulatedinthe NDS for
Reliability-based designtechniqueshavebeendevelopedfor woodconstruction. The NDS values includeadjustments for
the design ofdistribution—transmissionline systems. This the effectsofmoisture content, load duration, andpreserva-
approach requires astrong database on the performance of tive treatment. Recommendations are also givento adjust for
pole structures. Supporting information for these design lateralsupport conditions and factors ofsafety.
procedures is available in a seriesofreportspublishedbythe
Electric PowerResearchInstitute (EPRI). ConstructionLogs
Piles Designvaluesforround timbers usedas structuralmembers
in pole or logbuildingsmay be determinedfollowingstan-
Bearingloads on piles are sustainedby earth frictionalong dardspublishedby ASTM and ASAE. The ASTM standard
their surface (skin friction), by bearingofthe tip on a solid referspole designers to the same standardused to derive
stratum,orby a combination ofthese two methods.Wood designstressesfor timberpiles (D2899).The ASAEstandard
piles, becauseoftheirtaperedform,are particularly efficient (EP388), whichgovernedthe derivation ofconstruction poles
in supporting loadsby skin friction. Bearingvaluesthat foragriculturalbuildingapplications, is being revised.
dependupon friction are relatedto the stability ofthe soil The futurerevisionwillbe designatedEP560 and will deal
and generallydonot approach the ultimate strength ofthe only with roundwood poles. Derivationofdesignstresses
pile. Where wood piles sustain foundation loadsby bearing forconstructionlogs used in log homes is coveredin ASTM
ofthetip on a solid stratum,loads may be limitedby the D3957,whichprovidesamethodofestablishingstress
compressivestrengthofthe wood parallel tothe grain. Ifa grades for structural members ofany ofthe more common log
largeproportionofthe length ofa pile extendsalbove ground, configurations. Manufacturers can use this standard to
its bearingvalue may be limitedby its strengthas a long developgrading specifications andderive engineering design
column.Side loads may also be appliedto piles extending stressesfor their construction logs.

I8—7
Ties ASTM. [Currentedition].West Conshohocken, PA:
American Society for Testing and Materials.
Railroad cross and switchties havehistoricallybeen over- ASTMD3200.Standardspecification and methods fores-
designedfrom the standpointofrail loads. Tie service life tablishing recommendeddesign stresses for round timber
was limitedlargelyby deterioration ratherthan mechanical
construction poles.
damage. However,becauseofadvances in decay-inhibiting
treatmentand increasedaxle loads,adequatestructural design ANSI!ASTM D1036—58. Standardmethods ofstatic tests
is becoming more importantin increasingrailroadtie service ofwood poles.
life.
Carson, J.M.; Dougherty, M., eds. 1997. Post-frame
Rail loadsinduce stressesin bendingand shear as well as in buildinghandbook: Materials,design considerations,con-
compressionperpendicular to the grain in railroadties. The struction procedures. Ithaca, NY: NortheastRegional
AREAmanual gives recommendedlimitson ballastbearing Agricultural Engineering Service.
pressureand allowablestressesfor cross ties. This informa-
tion may be usedby the designerto determineadequatetie EPRI. 1981. Probability-based design ofwood transmission
size and spacingto avoidpremature failure due to mechanical structures. (a) Vol. 1: Strengthand stiffnessofwood utility
damage. poles. (b) Vol. 2: Analysis and probability-baseddesign of
wood utility structures. (c) Vol. 3: Users manual. POLEDA—
Specific gravity and compressivestrengthparallelto the 80. Pole designand analysis. Preparedby Research Institute
grain are also important propertiesto consider inevaluating ofColoradofor Electric PowerResearchInstitute,Palo Alto,
cross tie material.Thesepropertiesindicatethe resistance of CA: Electric PowerResearchInstitute.ELI—2040.Vols. 1—
thewood to both pullout and lateral thrust ofspikes. 3, Proj. 1352-1. September.
EPRI. 1985. Woodpole properties. Vol. l:Background and
References Southern Pine data. Preparedby Research Institute ofColo-
rado forElectricPowerResearch Institute.Palo Alto, CA:
General Electric PowerResearch Institute. EL—4109, Proj. 1352—2,
ASTM. [Currentedition).Standard testmethods for estab- July.
lishingclear wood strength values. ASTM D2555.West
Conshohocken, PA: American Society for Testing and EPIRI. 1986. Woodpole properties.(a) Vol. 2: Douglas Fir
Materials. data.(b) Vol. 3: Western redcedar. Preparedby Research
Institute ofColorado forElectric PowerResearch Institute.
AWPA. [Currentedition].Book ofstandards (includes Palo Alto, CA: ElectricPower Research Institute.EL—4109,
standards on pressure andthermal treatmentofpoles, piles, Proj. 1352—2, January.
and ties). (American Wood-Preserver's Bureau official qual-
ity control standards.) Bethesda,MD:AmericanWood- Morrell,J.J. 1996. Woodpole maintenancemanual. Cor-
Preservers' Association. vallis, OR: CollegeofForestry, Forest Research Laboratory,
Oregon StateUniversity.
Engineering Data Management and Colorado State
University. 1989—1998. International conference—Wood NRAES. 1997. Post-frame buildingconstruction. Ithaca,
poles andpiles. Conferenceproceedings. Fort Collins, CO: NY: Northeast RegionalAgricultural Engineering Service.
EngineeringData Management and ColoradoState
University. Thompson, W.S. 1969. Effectof steamingand kilndrying
on propertiesofSouthern Pine poles. Part I—mechanical
USFSS. [Current edition].Poles and piles, wood. Federal properties. Forest ProductsJournal. 19(1): 21—28.
specification MM—P—37 ic—ties,railroad(crossand switch);
Federal Specification MM—T--37id—woodpreservation: Wood, L.W.; Erickson, E.C.O.; Dohr, A.W. 1960.
treatingpractice;FederalSpecificationTT—W—57 1. Strength and relatedpropertiesofwood poles. Philadelphia,
PA: American Society for Testingand Materials.
Washington,DC: U.S. Federal Supply Service.
Poles Wood, L.W.; Markwardt,L.J. 1965. Derivationoffiber
stressesfrom strengthvalues of wood poles. Res. Pap. FPL
ANSI. [Current edition].New York,NY: American National 39. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest
Standards Institute. Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
ANSI 05.1. Specificationsand dimensions forwood Piles
poles.
AREA. 1982. Timberstructures. In: Manual for railway
ANSI C2. Nationalelectrical safetycode. engineering. Washington, DC: American Railway
ANSI 05.2. Structural glued laminated timberfor utility Engineering Association.Chapter7.
structures.

18—8
ASTM. [Currentedition].West Conshohocken, PA: Construction Logs
American Societyfor Testingand Materials. ASTM. [Current edition].Standardmethods for establishing
ASTM D25.Standardspecification for round timberpiles. stress grades for structuralmembers usedin log buildings.
ASTM D3957. West Conshohocken, PA: American Society
ASTM D2899.Establishing design stressesfor round for Testing and Materials.
timberpiles.
Muchmore, F.W. 1977. Designguide for native log stringer
bridges.Juneau,AK: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,Forest
Armstrong, R.M. 1979. Structural propertiesoftimber Service, Region 10.
piles. In: Behaviorof deep foundations. ASTM STP670.
Philadelphia,PA: AmericanSocietyfor Testing and Rowell, R.M.; Black, J.M.; Gjovik, L.R.; Feist, W.C.
Materials: 118—152. 1977. Protecting log cabins from decay. Gen. Tech.Rep.
AWPI.1969. Pile foundations know-how.Washington, FPL—11. Madison, WI: U.S. Department ofAgriculture,
DC: American WoodPreserversInstitute. Forest Service, ForestProductsLaboratory.

NFPA. [Current edition].Nationaldesignspecificaticinfor Ties

wood construction. Washington,DC: NationalForest AREA. 1982. Ties and woodpreservation. In: Manual for
ProductsAssociation. railway engineering. Washington, DC: American Railway
Engineering Association. Chapter3.
Thompson, W.S. 1969. Factorsaffectingthe variationin
compressivestrength of Southern Pine piling. Washington,
DC: American Wood-Preservers' Association.

18—9
 I Chapter 1
Specialty Treatments
Roger M. Roweti

Contents any specialtytreatmentscanbe appliedto wood to

eitherimproveitsperformance or change its
PlasticizingWood 19—1 properties. Treatments addressed in this chapterare
those that makepermanentchanges inthe shapeof awood
PrinciplesofPlasticizingand Bending 19—1 product, improvements in dimensionalstability,or im-
Bent Wood Members 19—2 provements in performance throughcombinations with
nonwoodresources.
LaminatedMembers 19—2

VeneeredCurvedMembers 19—3
Plasticizing Wood
Bendingof SolidMembers 19—3
Principles of Plasticizing and Bending
SelectionofStock 19—3 In simpleterms,the wood cell wall is a composite made ofa
MoistureContentofBending Stock 19—3 rigid cellulose polymer in a matrixoflignin andthe hemicel-
luloses.The ligninpolymer in the middle lamellaand S2
BendingOperationand Apparatus 19—4
layer is thermoplastic; that is, it softens upon heating. The
Fixingthe Bend 19—4 glass transition temperatureTg ofthe ligninintin matrix is
approximately 170°C (338°F). Abovethe matrix Tg, it is
Characteristics ofBentWood 19—4
possible to cause the lignin to undergo thermop1a;tic flow
ModifiedWoods 19—4 and, upon cooling, reset in the same or modifiedconfigura-
tion. This is the principalbehindbending ofwood.
Resin-TreatedWood(Impreg)19—5
The matrix can be thermoplasticized by heatalone, but the
Resin-TreatedCompressed Wood (Compreg 19—5 T ofthe unmodifiedmatrixis so highthat some fiberde-
Untreated CompressedWood(Staypak) 19—9 composition can occurifhigh temperatures are maintained for
a lengthy period. The Tg ofthematrix can be decreasedwith
Untreated HeatedWood(Staybwood) 19—10 the additionofmoistureorthroughthe use ofplasticizers
WoodTreated With PolyethyleneGlycol(PEG) 19—10 orsofteners.
19—10
Heatandmoisture makecertain species ofwood sufficiently
Wood—PolymerComposites
plastic forbendingoperations. Steaming at atmospheric or a
ChemicalModification 19—11 low gage pressure, soaking in boilingornearly boiling
water, ormicrowave heatingmoistwood are satisfactory
Paper-Based Plastic Laminates 19—12
methods ofplasticizingwood. Woodat 20% to 25% mois-
IndustrialLaminates 19—12 ture contentneedsto be heatedwithout losingmoisture; at a
lowermoisturecontent, heatand moisturemust be added.
Decorative Laminates 19—12 As a consequence, therecommended plasticizing processes
Lignin-Filled Laminates 19—13 aresteamingor boilingfor about 15 mm/cm(38 mm/in) of
thicknessforwood at 20% to 25% moisturecontent and
19—13
Paper-Face Overlays steaming or boilingfor about 30 mm/cm (75 mm/in) of
References 19—14 thicknessfor wood at lowermoisturecontentlevels.
Steaming athigh pressurescauseswood to becomeplastic,
butwood treatedwith high pressuresteam generally does
notbend as successfully as does woodtreatedat atmospheric
or low pressure. Microwave heatingrequires much shorter
times.
Woodcan be plasticizedby a variety ofchemicals. Common • Curvedmembers ofany desired length can be produced.
chemicalsthatplasticizewood includewater,urea, dimethy-
lol urea, low molecularweightphenol-formaldehyde resin, Designcriteria for glued-laminated timberare discussedin
Chapter11. Straight-laminated memberscan be steamed and
dimethylsulfoxide,and liquidammonia. Urea and dimethy- bent afterthey are bondedtogether. However, thistype of
lol ureahave receivedlimitedcommercial attention, and a
procedure requires an adhesive that willnot be affected by the
bendingprocess using liquidammoniahas beenpatented.
Woodmemberscanbereadily moldedor shapedafter im- steamingor boilingtreatmentand complicatesconditioning
mersion in liquid ammoniaor treatmentunderpressurewith ofthe fmished product.
ammoniain the gas phase. As the ammoniaevaporates, the
Curved Plywood
lignin resets, the wood stiffensandretains itsnewshape.
Plasticization ofthe matrixalone can be done usingchemical Curved plywoodis producedeitherby bendingand adhesive
modificationtechnologies, whichare coveredlater in this bondingthe plies in one operation or by bending previously
chapter. bonded flat plywood. Plywoodcurvedby bendingand
bonding simultaneously is more stable in curvaturethan
It is also possible to bend wood without softeningor plasti- plywoodcurvedbybendingpreviouslybondedmaterial.
cizingtreatments.However,the stabilityofthe fmal product
may not be as permanentas from treatments in whichsoften- Plywood Bent and Adhesively
ing and plasticizingmethods are used. Bonded Simultaneously
In bendingandbondingplywoodin a single operation,
Bent Wood Members adhesive-coated piecesofveneerare assembled andpressed
over orbetweencurvedforms. Pressure and sometimes heat
Bending can providea varietyoffunctional and esthetically areapplied throughsteam orelectrically heatedformsunti
pleasingwood members, rangingfrom largecurvedarches to theadhesive sets andholds theassemblyto thedesired
small furniture components. The curvature ofthe bend, size curvature. Some laminations are at an angle, usually90°, to
ofthemember,and intendeduse oftheproduct determine the other laminations, as in themanufactureofflat plywood. The
productionmethod. grain directionofthe thickerlaminationsis normallyparallel
to theaxis ofthe bend to facilitatebending.
Laminated Members A high degreeofcompound curvature canbe obtainedin an
At one time in theUnited States,curvedpieces ofwood were assembly comprising a considerable number ofthin veneers.
laminated chieflyto producesmallitemssuch as parts for First, forboth the face and backofthe assembly, the two
furniture and pianos. However, the principlewas extendedto outerplies are bondedat 90° to each other in a flat press.
the manufacture ofarchesfor roofsupports in farm, industrial, The remaining veneers are thenadhesive-coated and
and public buildingsand other types ofstructural members assembled at any desired angleto each other.The entire
(see Ch. 11). The laminations are bent without end pressure assembly is hot-pressedto the desiredcurvature.
againsta form and adhesivelybondedtogether. Both soft-
woodsandhardwoodsare suitablefor laminated bent struc- Bondingthe two outer plies before moldingallowsa higher
turalmembers,and thinmaterialofany species can be bent degree ofcompound curvature withoutcrackingthe face plies
satisfactorily for such purposes. Thechoiceofspecies and thancould otherwise be obtained. Wherea high degree of
adhesivedependsprimarilyon the cost, requiredstrength, compoundcurvature is required, the veneer shouldbe rela-
and demandsofthe application. tivelythin(under3 mm(1/8 in.)) with a moisturecontent of
about 12%.
Laminatedcurvedmembersare producedfrom dry stock in a
singlebending and adhesivebond formation operation.This The moldingofplywoodwith fluid pressure appliedby
processhas the following advantages compared with bending flexiblebags ofsome impermeable materialproduces ply-
single-piece members: woodparts ofvarious degrees ofcompoundcurvature. In
"bag molding," fluidpressure is applied througha rubber
Bendingthin laminations to the required radiusinvolves bag by air, steam,or water.The veneeris wrappedaround a
only moderatestress and deformationofthe wood fibers, form,and the wholeassemblyis enclosed in a bag and sub-
eliminating the need fortreatmentwith steam or hot water jected to pressurein an autoclave,the pressureinthe bag
and associateddryingand conditioning ofthe fmished being "bled." Or, the veneermay be insertedinside a metal
product. In addition,the moderatestressesinvolvedin form and, after the endshave beenattachedand sealed, pres-
curving laminated members result in stronger members sure is appliedby inflatingarubberbag. The form may be
whencompared with curvedsingle-piece members. heatedelectrically orby steam.
• The tendencyoflaminatedmembersto changeshapewith The advantages ofbendingand bondingplywoodsimultane-
changes in moisturecontent is less than that ofsingle- ouslyto form a curved shapeare similar to those forcurved-
piece bent members. laminated members.In addition,the cross plies give the
• Ratiosofthicknessofmembertoradius ofcurvature that curvedmembers properties that are characteristic ofcross-
areimpossibleto obtain by bending singlepieces canbe bandedplywood. Curvedplywoodshellsforfurniture
attainedreadily by laminating.

19—2
manufacture are examples ofthese bentveneerandadhesive- maximum amountofcompression, andthe outer or convex
bondedproducts. side must experience zero strain or a slight tension.To
accomplishthis, ametal strap equippedwith end fittingsis
Plywood Bent After Bonding customarily used. The strap makes contact with the outer or
Afterthe plies are bondedtogether,flat plywoodis oftenbent convexside and, actingthroughthe end fittings, placesthe
by methodsthat are somewhat similarto those used in wholepiece ofwood in compression. The tensilestress that
bending solid wood. To bend plywood properlyto shape, it would normally developinthe outer side ofthe piece of
must be plasticizedby some means,usuallymoisture or wood during bending is borne by the metal strap. A bending
heat, or a combination ofboth. The amountofcurvature that form is shownin Figure 19—1.
can be introducedinto aflat piece ofplywooddepends on
numerous variables, such as moisturecontent, direction of Selection of Stock
grain,thicknessandnumber ofplies, species andquality of
veneer, andthe techniqueappliedin producing the bend. In general, hardwoodspossessbetterbendingqualilythan
Plywoodis normallybent over aform or abendingmandrel. softwoods, and certain hardwoodssurpassothersin this
quality. This is interesting from a theoreticalpoint ofview
Flat plywoodbondedwith awaterproofadhesivecan be bent becausehardwoodscontainless lignin than softwoods.
to compoundcurvatures afterbonding.However,no simple Hardwoodsalso containmuch more hemicelluloseu in the
criterion is available forpredetermining whetheraspecific matrixthan do softwoods. The speciescommonlyused to
compoundcurvature can be impartedto flat plywood. Soak- producebent members are white oak, red oak, elm. hickory,
ing the plywood prior to bendingand usingheatduring ash, beech, birch,maple, walnut,sweetgum,andmahogany.
formingare aids in manipulation. Usually,the plywoodto As stated,most softwoodshave a poor bendingquality and
be postformed is firstthoroughlysoaked in hotwater,then are notoften used in bendingoperations. However,Pacific
dried between heatedformingdiesattachedto ahydraulic yewandyellow-cedarare exceptionsto this rule. In addition,
press.Ifthe use ofpostformingfor bendingflat plywood to Douglas-fir, southernyellowpine, northernand Atlantic
compoundcurvatures is contemplated, exploratorytrials to white-cedar, and redwoodare used for ship and boatplanking
detenninethepracticability andthe bestprocedure arerec- for which purposethey are often benttomoderatecurvature
ommended. Rememberthat in postforming plywoodto afterbeing steamed or soaked.
compoundcurvatures,allthe deformation must be by com-
pressionor shearbecauseplywoodcannotbe stretched. Bending stockshouldbe free from seriouscross grain and
Hardwoodspecies, such as birch, poplar,and gum, are distortedgrain, such as may occur near knots. The slope of
usuallyused in plywoodthat is tobe postformed. cross grain shouldnotbe steeperthan about 1 to 15. Decay,
knots, shake, pith, surface checks,and exceptionally light or
Veneered Curved Members brashywood shouldbe avoided.

Veneered curvedmembers are usually producedby bonding Moisture Content of Bending Stock
veneerto one orboth faces ofacurvedsolid-wood base. The
basesare ordinarily sawn tothe desired shapeorbentfrom a Although green wood can be bentto producemany curved
piece grooved with sawkerfs onthe concave sideat right members, difficulties are encountered in dryingand fixingthe
bend. Another disadvantage with green stockis that hydro-
angles to the directionofbend.Pieces bent by makingsaw staticpressuremay be developedduringbending. Hydro-
kerfs on the concave sideare commonly reinforced andkept
to therequiredcurvature by bondingsplines, veneer, or other staticpressurecan cause compression failures on the concave
sideifthe wood is compressed by an amountgreaterthan the
pieces to the curvedbase. Veneering over curvedsolidwood
is usedmainly in furniture.The grain ofthe veneeris com- air space inthe cells ofthe green wood.Bendingstockthat
monly laid in the same general directionasthe grain ofthe has been driedto a low moisturecontentlevel requiresa
curvedwood base. Theuse ofcrossband veneers, that is, lengthy steamingor soakingprocessto increase its moisture
veneers laid with the grain at right anglestothe grain ofthe content to the point whereit canbe made sufficie;'ritly plastic
backandface veneer, reducesthe tendency ofthemember for successful bending. Formost chairand furniture parts,the
to split. moisturecontentofthe bendingstock should be 12% to 20%
beforeit is steamed or microwave heated.The preferred
moisturecontentlevelvaries with the severityofthe curva-
Bending of Solid Members tureto whichthewood is bent andthe methodused in
Wood ofcertainspecies that is steamed,microwaved, or drying and fixingthebent member. For example, chair-back
soakedinboiling water can be compressed as much as 25% slats, whichhave a slightcurvatureand are subjectedto
to 30% paralleltothe grain. The same wood canhe stretched severe dryingconditions betweensteam-heatedplatens, can
only 1% to 2%. Becauseofthe relationbetweenattainable be producedsuccessfully from stockat 12% moisturecon-
tensile and compressive deformations, ifbendinginvolves tent. Forfurnitureparts that needa more severebend where
severedeformation, thenmost ofthe deformation mustbe thepartmust be bent over aform, 15% to 20% moisture
compression. The inner or concavesidemust assume the contentis recommended.

19—3
Figure 19—1. Chairback being bent through an arc of 1800 in a bending machine.

Bending Operation and Apparatus Characteristics of Bent Wood

After beingplasticized,thestockshouldbe quicklyplacedin After abent pieceofwood is cooledand dried,the curvature
thebendingapparatusandbentto shape.The bendingappa- will be maintained.An increase in moisture contentmay
ratus consistsessentiallyofa form(or forms)andameansof cause the piece to lose someofits curvature.A decreasein
forcingthe piece ofsteamed wood againstthe form.Ifthe moisturecontentmay cause the curve to becomesharper,
curvature to be obtaineddemands adifference ofmuch more althoughrepeated changesin moisturecontent bring about a
than 3% betweenlengths ofthe outerand inner surfaces ofthe gradualstraightening. Thesechangesare causedprimarilyby
pieces,then the apparatusshouldincludea device for apply- lengthwise swelling or shrinking ofthe inner (concave)face,
ing end pressure. This generallytakes the form ofa metal thefibersofwhichwere wrinkledor foldedduringthe
strap or pan provided with endblocks, endbars, or clamps. bendingoperation.
A bent piece ofwoodhas less strengththana similar unbent
Fixing the Bend piece. However, the reductionin strengthbroughtabout by
Afterbeingbent,the piece shouldbe cooled and dried while bending is seldom seriousenoughto affectthe utilityvalue
held in its curved shape. One method is to dry the piece in ofthemember.
thebendingmachinebetweentheplatesofa hot-platepress.
Anothermethod is to securethe bentpiece to the form and Modified Woods
place both the piece and the form in a drying room. Still
anotheris to keep the bent piece in a minor strap with tie Wood can be chemically modifiedto improvewater repel-
rods or stays so that it can be removedfrom the form and lency, dimensionalstability, resistance to acids or bases,
placedin a drying room. Whenthe bentmemberhas cooled ultravioletradiation,biodeterioration, and thermal degrada-
and dried to a moisturecontent suitablefor its intendeduse, tion. Woodcan also be chemicallytreated,then compressed
therestrainingdevicescanbe removedandthepiecewill to improve dimensional stabilityand increase hardness.
hold its curvedshape.

19—4
Sheets ofpaper treatedwith resins or polymerscan be lami- reasons,treatments shouldbe confinedto veneerand the
natedand hotpressed into thickpanelsthat havethe appear- treated-cured veneerused to build the desiredproducts.Any
ance ofplasticrather than paper.Thesesheetsareused in species can be usedforthe veneerexceptthe resinouspines.
specialapplications becauseoftheir structural properties and The strongerthe originalwood, the strongerthe end product.
in itemsrequiringhard, impervious, and decorative surfaces.
Impreg has anumberofproperties differing fromthose of
Modifiedwoods,modifiedwood-based materials,and paper- normal wood and ordinary plywood. Thesepropertiesare
basedlaminatesareusuallymore expensive thanwood be- given in Table 19—1, with similargeneralizedfindings for
cause ofthe costofthe chemicals and the specialprocessing othermodifiedwoods. Data for the strength propertiesof
requiredto produce them.Thus, modifiedwood use is gen- yellowbirch impreg are given in Table 19—2. Information on
erallylimitedto specialapplications wherethe increased cost thermalexpansion propertiesofovendry impregis given in
isjustifiedby thespecialpropertiesneeded. Table 19—3.
Woodis treatedwith chemicalsto increase hardness and The good dimensionalstabilityofimpregis the basis ofone
other mechanical properties, as wellas its resistance to de- use whereits cost is not a deterrent. Wood dies ofautomo-
cay, fire, weathering,and moisture. The rate and extentof bile bodyparts serveas themaster from whichthe metal-
swelling and shrinkingofthe wood whenin contact with forming diesare madefor actualmanufacture ofparts. Small
water is reducedby application ofwater-resistant chemicals changes in moisturecontent,even with the most dimension-
to thesurface ofwood, impregnation ofthewood with such ally stable wood,producechangesin dimension and curva-
chemicalsdissolvedinwater or volatilesolvents,or bonding ture ofan unmodified wood die. Suchchangescreatemajor
chemicalsto the cell wall polymer. Suchtreatmentsmay problems inmakingthe metal-forming dieswhereclose final
alsoreduce therate at whichwood changesdimension as a tolerances are required. The substitutionofimpreg, with its
result ofhumidity,eventhoughthese treatments do not affect high antishrinkefficiency(ASE)(Table 19—4), almosten-
thefmal dimensional changescausedby lengthy duration tirely eliminated the problemofdimensional changeduring
exposures. Paints, varnishes,lacquers, wood-penetrating theentireperiodthat thewood masterdieswere needed.
water repellents, and plastic andmetallicfilms retard the rate Despitethe tendencyofthe resins to dull cuttingtools,
ofmoistureabsorptionbut havelittle effecton total dimen- patternmakers accepted the impreg readilybecauseit ma-
sional changeifexposureto moistureis extensive and chineswith less splittingthan unmodifiedwood.
prolonged. Patterns madefrom impregare alsosuperior to uirnodified
wood in resistingheatwhen used with shell-molding tech-
Resin-Treated Wood (Impreg) niques wheretemperatures as high as 205°C (400°F) are
Permanent stabilizationofthe dimensions ofwood is needed requiredto curethe resin in the moldingsand.
forcertainspecialtyuses.This can be accomplished by
depositinga bulking agentwithin the swollen structure of Resin-Treated Compressed Wood
thewood fibers.Themost successfulbulking agentsthat
havebeen commercially appliedare highlywater-soluble, (Compreg)
thermosetting, phenol-formaldehyde resin-forming systems, Compregis similarto impregexceptthat it is compressed
with initially low molecularweights.No thermoplastic beforethe resin is curedwithinthe wood. The resin-forming
resins havebeenfoundthat effectively stabilize the chemicals (usually phenol-formaldehyde) act as piLasticizers
dimensionsofwood. forthewood so that it can be compressed under modest
pressure (6.9 MPa; 1,000 lb/in2) to a specificgravity of 1.35.
Woodtreatedwith athermosetting, fiber-penetrating resin Somepropertiesofcompreg are similartothose ofimpreg,
and cured without compressionis knownas impreg. The and others vary considerably (Tables 19—I and 19—2). Com-
wood (preferably greenveneerto facilitate resin pickup) is pared with impreg, the advantages ofcompregare its natural
soakedin the aqueousresin-forming solutionor, ifair dry, is lustrous finishthat can be developedon any cut surface by
impregnated with the solutionunder pressureuntil the resin sanding with fine-grit paper and buffing, its greaterstrength
contentequals25% to 35% ofthe weightofdry wood.The
treatedwood is allowedto standunder nondryingconditions properties,and its ability to mold (Tables 19—1 and 19—2).
However, thermal expansion coefficients ofovendry compreg
for I to 2 days to permituniform distribution ofthe solution are also increased (Table 19—3).
throughoutthe wood. The resin-containingwood is dried at
moderate temperaturesto remove the water,thenheatedto Compreg can be moldedby (a) gluingblocks ofresin-treated
highertemperaturesto cure the resin. a
(but still uncured)wood with phenolicglue sc that the
gluelines andresin withinthe plies are only partially set;
Uniform distribution ofthe resin has been effectively accom-
(b) cuttingto the desiredlength and width buttwo to three
plishedwith thick wood specimens only in sapwoodof timesthe desired thickness;and (c) compressing in a split
readilypenetrated species.Although thickermaterial can be mold at about 150°C (300°F). Only a smallflash squeeze
treated,the processis usually applied to veneersup to about out at the partingline betweenthe two halves ofthe mold
8 mm(0.3 in.) thick,becausetreatingtime increases rapidly needsto be machined off. This technique was usedfor motor-
with increases in thickness. Dryingthick,resin-treatedwood test propellers and airplaneantennamasts duringWorld
may result in checkingand honeycombing. For these WarII.

19—5
Table 19—1 - Properties of modified woods
Property lmpreg Compreg Staypak
Specific gravity 15% to20% greater than normal Usually 1.0to 1.4 125to 1.40
wood
Equilibrium swelling 1/4to 1/3thatofnormalwood 1/4to 1/3thatofnormal wood atright angle to Same asnormal woodatright angle to
and shrinking direction ofcompression, greater in direction compression, greater indirection of
ofcompression butvery slowtoattain compression but very slowtoattain
Springback None Very small when properly made Moderatewhen properly made
Face checking Practically eliminated Practically eliminated for specific gravities About thesameas innormal wood
lessthan 1.3
Grain raising Greatly reduced Greatlyreduced foruniform-texturewoods, About the sameasinnormal wood
considerable forcontrastinggrainwoods
Surface finish Similarto normal wood Varnished-like appearancefor specific gravities Varnished-like appearance. Cutsurfaces
greater than about 1.0. Cutsurfacescan be can begiven this surface by sandingand
given this surfacebysandingand buffing buffing
Permeabilitytowater About 1(10that ofnormalwood No data but presumablymuch less than impreg Nodatabut presumably lower than impreg
vapor
Decay andtermite Considerably better than normal Considerably betterthan normalwood Normalbut decayoccurs somewhat more
resistance wood slowly
Acid resistance Considerablybetterthan normal Better than impreg because ofimpermeability Betterthan normal wood becauseofim-
wood permeabilitybut notasgoodas compreg
Alkali resistance Same asnormal wood Somewhatbetter than normalwood because Somewhatbetterthan normal wood
ofimpermeability because ofimpermeability
Fire resistance Same asnormal wood Same asnormal wood for long exposures Same as normal wood for long exposures
somewhat better forshortexposures somewhat betterforshortexposures
Heatresistance Greatly increased Greatly increased No data
Electrical conductivity 1/10 that ofnormalwood at30% Slightly more than impreg at lowrelative No data
RH; 1/1,000 that ofnormalwood humidityvaluesduetoentrappedwater
at90%RH
Heatconductivity Slightly increased Increasedabout in proportionto specific No data but should increaseabout in
gravity increase proportiontospecific gravity increase
Compressive strength Increased more than proportional Increasedconsiderablymore than proportional Increasedabout inproportion to specific
tospecific gravity increase tospecific gravity increase gravity increase parallel tograin, increased
more perpendicularto grain
Tensile strength Decreased significantly Increasedless than proportionalto Increasedabout inproportion to specific
specific gravity increase gravity increase
Flexural strength Increased lessthan proportional Increasedless thanproportionaltospecific Increased proportionalto specific gravity
tospecific gravity increase gravity increase parallel tograin, increased increase parallel tograin, increased more
more perpendicularto grain perpendiculartograin
Hardness Increased considerablymore 10to20times thatofnormal wood 10to 18 times thatofnormal wood
than proportionaltospecific
gravity increase
Impactstrength
Toughness About1/2ofvalue fornormal 1/2to3/4 ofvaluefornormal wood butvery Same tosomewhat greaterthan normal
wood but very susceptibleto the susceptibletothe variablesofmanufacture wood
vanablesofmanufacture
Izod About1/5ofvalue fornormal 1/3to3/4ofvalue fornormal wood Same tosomewhat greaterthan normal
wood wood
Abrasion resistance About1/2ofvalue fornormal Increased about inproportiontospecific Increasedabout inproportiontospecific
(tangentia wood gravity increase gravity increase
Machinability Cuts deanerthan normalwood Requires metalworkingtoolsand metal- Requires metalworkingtoolsand
butdullstoolsmore working toolspeeds metalworkingtool speeds
Moldability Cannotbemoldedbut can be Can be molded by compressionand Cannotbemolded
formed tosingle curvatures at expansion moldingmethods
timeofassembly
Gluabilily Same asnormal wood Same as normal wood after light sanding or Same asnormal woodafter light sanding,
inthe caseofthick stock, machining surfaces orinthe caseofthick stock, machining
plane surfacesplane

19—6
Table 19—2. Strength properties of normal and modified laminatesaofyellow birchand a laminated paper plastic
Compreg Staypak Paperlaminate
Normal Impreg (impregnated, (unimpreg- (impregnated,
laminated (impregnated, highly nated, highly highly
Property woodb uncompressed)c compressed)c compressed)b compressed)d

Thickness of laminate (mm(in.)) 23.9(0.94) 262(1.03) 16.0(0.63) 12.2(0.48) 3.2(0.126)

13.0(0.512)
Moisture content attimeoftest (%) 92 5.0 5.0 4.0 —

Specific gravity (based onweightand volume attest) 0.7 0.8 1.3 1.4 1.4

Parallel laminates
Flexure—grain parallel to span (flatwise)e
Proportional limit stress (MPa (lb/in2)) 79.3(11500) 109.6(15,900) 184.1(26,700) 138.6(20,100) 109.6(15,900)
Modulus ofrupture (MPa (lb/in2)) 140.6(20,400) 129.6(18,800) 250.3(36,300) 271.6(39,400) 252.3(36,600)
Modulus ofelasticity (GPa (1000 lb/in2)) 16.0(2,320) 16.4(2,380) 25.4(3,690) 30.7 (4,450) 20.8(3,010)
Flexure—grainperpendicular tospan (flatwise)e
Proportional limit stress(MPa (lb/in2)) 6.9(1,000) 9.0(1,300) 29.0(4,200) 22.1 (3,200) 72.4(10,500)
Modulus ofrupture (MPa (lb/in2)) 13.1(1,900) 11.7(1,700) 31.7 (4,600) 34.5(5,000) 167.5(24,300)
Modulus ofelasticity (GPa(1,000 lb/in2)) 1.0(153) 1.5(220) 4.3(626) 4.2(602) 10.2(1480)
Compression parallel tograin(edgewise)e
Proportional limitstress(MPa (lb/in2)) 44.1 (6,400) 70.3(10,200) 113.1(16,400) 66.9(9,700) 49.6(7,200)
Ultimate strength (MPa (lb/in2)) 65.5(9,500) 106.2(15,400) 180.0(26,100) 131.7(19,100) 144.1 (20,900)

Modulus ofelasticity (GPa (1,000 lb/in2)) 15.8(2,300) 17.0(2,470) 26.1 (3,790) 32.2(4,670) 21.5(3,120)
Compression perpendicularto grain (edgewise)1
Proportional limitstress(MPa (lb/in2)) 4.6(670) 6.9(1,000) 33.1 (4,800) 17.9 (2,600) 29.0(4,200)
Ultimate strength (MPa (lb/in2)) 14.5(2,100) 24.8(3,600) 96.5(14,000) 64.8(9,400) 125.5(18,200)
Modulus ofelasticity (GPa(1,000 lb/in2)) 1.1 (162) 1.7 (243) 3.9(571) 4.0(583) 11.0(1,600)
Compression perpendicular tograin(flatwise)e
Maximum crushing strength (MPa (lbIin2)) — 29.5(4,280) 115.1(16,700) 91.0(13,200) 291.0(42,200)
Tension parallelto grain (lengthwise)
Ultimate strength (MPa (lb/in2)) 153.1 (22,200) 108.9(15,800) 255.1(37,000) 310.3(45,000) 245.4(35,600)
Modulus ofelasticity (GPa(1,000 lb/in2)) 15.8(2,300) 17.3(2,510) 27.2 (3,950) 31.8(4,610) 25.1 (3,640)
Tension perpendicularto grain(edgewise)
Ultimate strength (MPa (lb/in2)) 9.6(1,400) 9.6(1,400) 22.1(3,200) 22.8(3,300) 137.9(20,000)
Modulus of elasticity (GPa(1,000 lb/in2)) 1.1 (166) 1.6 (227) 4.3 (622) 4.0(575) 11.8(1,710)
Shearstrength paralleltograin(edgewise)1
Johnson double shear across laminations (MPa (lb/in2)) 20.5(2,980) 23.8(3,460) 50.8(7,370) 43.9 (6,370) 122.7(17,800)

Cylindricaldouble shear parallel to laminations 20.8(3,020) 24.5(3,560) 39.2(5,690) 212(3,080) 20.7(3,000)

(MPa (lb/in2))
Shear modulus
Tension method (GPa (1,000 lb/in2)) 1.2(182) 1.8(255) 3.1 (454)
Plate shearmethod (FPL test) (GPa (1,000 lb/in2)) — — — 2.6(385) 6.3(90
Toughness (FPL test edgewise)1(J (in-Ib)) 26.6(235) 14.1 (125) 16.4(145) 28.2 (250) —
Toughness (FPLtestedgewise)1(J/mm ofwidth 1.1 (25c 0.53(120) 1.0(230) 2.3(515)
(in-lb/in ofwidth))
Impact strength (lzod).—grainlengthwise
Flatwise (notch in face) (J/mm ofnotch (ft—lb/inofnotch)) 0.75(14.0) 0.12 (2.3) 0.23 (4.3) 0.68(12.7) 0.25(4.7)
Edgewise (notch inface)(J/mm ofnotch (ft-lb/in ofnotch)) 0.60(11.3) 0.10(1.9) 0.17 (3.2)Q — 0.036(0.67)

19—7
Table 19—2. Strength properties of normal and modified laminates3ofyellow birchand a laminated paperplastic—con.
Compreg Staypak Paper laminate
Normal Impreg (impregnated, (unimpreg- (impregnated,
laminated (impregnated, highly nated, highly highly
Property woodb uncompressed)c compressed)° compressed)t' compressed)d
Hardness:
Rockwell fiatwisee(M—numbers) — 22 84 — 110
Loadtoernbedll.3-mm(0.444-in.)steelballto1/2 its 7.1 (1,600) 10.7(2,400) — — —-
diameter (kN (Ib))
Hardness modulus (HM)t' (MPa (lb/in2)) 37.2(5,400) 63.4(9,200) 284.8(41,300) 302.0(43,800) 245.4(35,600)
Abrasion—Navy wear-testmachine (flatwise)ewear per 0.76(0.030) 1.45(0.057) 0.46(0.018) 0.38(0.015) 0.46(0.018)
1,000 revolutions (mm(in.))
Waterabsorption (24-himmersion) increase in weight (%) 43.6 13.7 2.7 4.3 22
Dimensional stability inthickness direction
Equilibrium swelling (%) 9.9 2.8 8.0 —
Recovery from compression (%) — 0 0 4 —

Crossbandlaminates
Flexure—face grain parallel tospan (fiatwise)e
Proportional limitstress(MPa (lb/in2)) 47.6(6,900) 55.8(8,100) 99.3(14,400) 78.6(11,400) 86.9(12,600)
Modulus of rupture (MPa (lb/in2)) 90.3(13,100) 78.6(11,400) 157.2(22,80( 173.0(25,100) 215.8 (3 300)
Modulus ofelasticity (GPa(1,000 lb/in2)) 9.0 (1,310) 11.5 (1,670) 17.1 (2,480) 20.0(2,900) 15.4 (2,240)
Compression paralleltoface grain(edgewise)t
Proportional limitstress(MPa (lblin2)) 22.8(3,300) 35.8(5,200) 60.0(8,700) 35.8(5,200) 3.4.5(5,000)
Ultimate strength (MPa (lb/in2)) 40.0(5,800) 78.6(11 400) 164.8(23,900) 96.5(14,000) 130.3(18900)
Modulus ofelasticity (GPa (1,000 lb/in2)) 9.4(1,360) 10.3(1,500) 15.8 (2,300) 18.6 (2,700) 16.3(2,370)
Tension parallel tofacegrain(lengthwise)
Ultimate strength(MPa (lb/in2)) 84.8(12,300) 54.5(7,900) 113.8(16,500) 168.9(24,500) 187.5(27,200)
Modulus ofelasticity (GPa (1,000 lblin2)) 8.9 (1,290) 10.1 (1,460) 15.1 (2,190) 17.7 (2,570) 18.6(2,700)
Toughness (FPL test edgewise)(J/mm ofwidth 0.47(105) 0.18(40) 0.51 (115) 1.4(320) —
(in-lb/in ofwidth))
aLaminatesmade from17pliesof1.6-mm (1/16-in.)rotary-cut yellow birch veneer.
°Veneer conditionedat27°C(80°F) and 65%relative humiditybefore assemblywith phenol resin filmadhesive.
Clmpregnation 25% to 30% ofwater-soluble phenol-formaldehyderesin basedon thedryweight ofuntreatedveneer.
1High-strengthpaper (0.076-mm (0.003-in,thickness)) made fromcommercial unbleached blackspruce pulp (Mitscherlich subtile), phenol resin
content 36.3% based on weight oftreated paper, Izod impact abrasion,fiatwise compression, and shear specimens,all on 12.7-mm - (1/2-in.-)thick
laminate.
eLOSdapplied tothe surface ofthe original material (parallelto laminating pressuredirection).
ForestProducts Laboratory(FPL) testprocedure: load appliedto edge oflaminations (perpendicularto laminatingpressure direction).
9values as high as0.53J/mm(10.0 ft-lb/in.) of notch have been reportedforcompreg made with alcohol-solubleresins and 0.37 J/mm(7.0ff-lb/in)
with water-soluble resins.
t'Valuesbased on the averageslope ofload—penetration plotswhere HMisanexpression forload perunitofsphericalarea ofpenetrationofthe
11.3-mm (0.444-in.) steel ballexpressed in MPa (lb/in2).

A more satisfactorymoldingtechnique, knownas expansion an internalpressurein all directions against themold equal
molding, has been developed. The method consistsof to abouthalfthe original compressingpressure. Oncontin-
rapidlyprecompressing dry butuncuredsingle sheets of ued heating, theresin is set. After cooling, theobjectmaybe
resin-treated veneerin a cold press after preheating the sheets removedfromthe mold in finishedform. Metal inserts or
at 90°C to 120°C (195°Fto 250°F). The heat-plasticized metal surfaces can be moldedto compregor its handlesare
wood respondsto compressionbeforecooling.Theheatis moldedonto tools by this means. Compregbands have been
insufficient to cure the resin,but the subsequent coolingsets moldedto the outside ofturned wood cylinderswithout
theresin temporarily. These compressed sheetsarecutto the compressing the core. Compregtubes and smallairplane
desired size,and the assemblyofplies isplaced in a split propellershavebeen moldedin this way.
mold ofthe final desireddimensions.Becausethe wood was
Pastuses ofcompregwere relatedlargelyto aircraft; how-
precompressed, the filled mold canbe closed and locked.
Whenthe mold is heated,the wood is againplasticizedand ever, it is a suitablematerial where bolt-bearingstrength is
tends to recover its uncompresseddimensions. This exerts

19—8
 Table 19—3. Coefficients of linear thermal expansion per degree Celsius of wood, hydrolyzed wood, and paper
productsa
Linearexpansion per °C
(values multipliedby 106)

Perpendicular Cubical
to fiber or expansion
Specific machine per C
gravity Resin Fiber or direction in (values
of contentc machine plane of Pressing multiplied
Matenalb product (%) direction laminations direction by 10)
Yellow birch laminate 0.72 3.1 3.254 40.29 36.64 80.18
Yellow birch staypaklaminate 1.30 4.7 3.406 37.88 65.34 106.63
Yellow birch impreg laminate 0.86 33.2 4.648 35.11 37.05 76.81
Yellow birch compreglaminate 1.30 24.8 4.251 39.47 59.14 102.86
1.31 34.3 4.931 39.32 54.83 99.08
Sitka spruce laminate 0.53 60d 3.887 37.14 27.67 68.65
Parallel-laminated paper laminate 1.40 36.5 5.73 15.14 65.10 85.97
Crossbandedpaper laminate 1.40 36.5 10.89 11.Oe 62.2 84.09
Moldedhydrolyzed-wood plastic 1.33 25 42.69 42.69 42.69 128.07
Hydrolyzed-wood sheet laminate 1.39 18 13.49 224.68 77.41 115.58
aThese coefficients refer to bone-dry material. Generally, air-dry material has a negativethermal coefficient,
because the shrinkageresultingfrom the loss in moisture is greater than the normal thermal expansion.
bAll wood laminatesmade from rotary-cutveneer, annual rings in plane of sheet.
cOn basis of dry weight of product.
dApproximate
eCalculated value.

Table 19—4. Comparison ofwoodtreatments Compreghas alsobeen used in silentgears,pulleys, water-

and the degree of dimensional stabilityachieved lubricatedbearings,fan blades, shuttles, bobbins, andpicker
sticks for looms, nuts andbolts, instrumentbases and cases,
Aritishrink efficiency musicalinstruments, electricalinsulators, tool handles, and
Treatment (%) variousnovelties. At present,compregfmdsconsiderable use
Simplewax dip 2 to 5 in handlesfor knivesand other cutlery.The expansion-
Wood—plastic combination 10 to 15 moldingtechniques offormingandcuringofthe ompreg
30 to 40 aroundthe metalparts ofthe handleas well as attaching
Staypak/staybwood
65 to 70 previously made compregwith rivets are two methodsused.
lmpreg
Chemical modification 65 to 75 Veneer ofany nonresinous species can be used for making
Polyethyleneglycol 80 to 85 compreg.Most properties dependupon the specificgravityto
whichthe woodis compressed rather than the species used.
Formaldehyde 82 to 87
Upto thepresent, however, compreghas beenmade ahnost
Compreg 90 to 95 exclusively fromyellowbirch or sugarmaple.

Untreated Compressed Wood

required,as inconnectorplates, becauseofits good specific
strength (strengthper unit ofweight). Layers ofveneer (Staypak)
makingup the compregfor such uses are often cross Resin-treated wood in both theuncompressed(inpreg) and
laminated (alternate plies atright anglesto each other,as
in plywood)to give nearly equalpropertiesin all directions. compressed (compreg) forms is more brittlethan the original
wood. Tomeet the demandfor atougher compressed product
As a result ofits excellentstrength properties, dimensional than compreg, a compressed wood containingno resin
stability, low thermal conductivity, and ease offabrication, (staypak)was developed. Itwillnot loseits compression
compreg is extremely usefulfor aluminum drawing and under swelling conditions as will untreatedcompressed
formingdies, drillingjigs, andjigs for holdingParts in place wood. In makingstaypak,the compressingconditions are
while welding. modifiedso that the lignin-cementing materialbetweenthe

19—9
cellulosefibers flows sufficiently to eliminate internal Treatmentwith PEG is facilitatedby usinggreen wood.
stresses. Here,pressureis not appliedbecausethe treatment is based
on diffusion. Treatingtimesare such that uniformuptakesof
Staypakis not as water resistant as compreg,but it is about 25% to30% ofchemical are achieved(basedon dry weightof
twiceas tough and has highertensileand flexuralstrength
wood).The time necessaryfor this uptake depends on the
properties (Tables 19—i and 19—2). Thenatural finish of thicknessofthe wood and may requireweeks. The PEG
staypakis almost equalto that ofcompreg.Under weathering treatment is beingeffectively usedfor cross-sectional wood
conditions, however,it is defmitelyinferiorto compreg. For
outdooruse, a good syntheticresin varnishor paint finish plaques and other decorative items. Table tops ofhigh qual-
shouldbe appliedto staypak. ity furniturestayremarkably flat and dimensionally stable
whenmadefrom PEG-treated wood.
Staypakcan be used in the same wayas compreg where Anotherapplication ofthis chemical is to reducethe chedk-
extremely high water resistance is not needed. It shows
ing ofgreen wood duringdrying. For this application,a high
promise in tool handles,forming dies, connector plates, degree ofPEGpenetrationis not required. This methodof
propellers, andpicker sticksand shuttlesfor weaving,where treatment has beenused to reducecheckingduringdrying of
high impactstrength is needed. Staypakis not impregnated; small wood blanksorturnings.
therefore, itcan be madefrom solid wood as well as from
veneer.The cost ofstaypak is less than compreg. Cracking and distortion that old, waterloggedwood under-
A materialsimilarto staypakwas producedin Germany prior goes whenit is dried can be substantiallyreducedby treating
thewood with PEG. The process was used to dry 200-year-
to WorldWarII. It was a compressed solid wood with much old waterlogged woodenboatsraised from LakeGeorge, New
less dimensionalstabilitythan staypak and was known as a
York. The "Vasa," Swedishship that sank on its initial
lignostone.Anothersimilar Germanproductwas a laminated trialvoyagein 1628, was also treatedafter it was raised.
compressed wood knownas lignofol. There have beenmanyapplications ofPEGtreatmentfor the
restoration ofwaterlogged wood from archeological sites.
Untreated Heated Wood (Staybwood)
Heatingwood under diying conditions at highertemperatures Wood—Polymer Composites
(95°C to 320°C (200°Fto 600°F)) than those normallyused In the modifiedwood productspreviouslydiscussed,most of
in kilndryingproducesaproduct knownas staybwood that thechemicalresides in cell walls;the lumens areessentially
reducesthe hygroscopicity and subsequent swelling and
empty. Ifwood is vacuumimpregnated with certainliquid
shrinking ofthe wood appreciably. However, the stabiliza- vinyl monomers that do not swell wood and are later polym-
tion is always accompaniedby loss ofmechanical properties. erized insitu by gammaradiationor chemicalcatalyst-heat
Toughness and resistanceto abrasionare most seriously systems, the resultingpolymer resides almost exclusively in
affected thelumens.Methylmethacrylateis a common monomer
Under conditionsthat cause a reduction of40% in shrinking used for a wood--polymer composites. It is convertedto
and swelling,the toughnessis reducedto less than halfthat polymethyl methaciylate. The hygroscopic characteristics of
oftheoriginalwood. Extensiveresearchto minimizethis thewood substance are not alteredbecauselittle, ifany,
loss wasnot successful. Becauseofthereductionin strength polymerpenetrates the cellwalls. However, becauseofthe
propertiesfrom heating at such high temperatures, wood that high polymer content(70%to 100% based on the dry weight
is dimensionallystabilizedin this manner is not used ofwood), thenormally high void volumeofwood is greatly
commercially. reduced. With the elimination ofthis very importantpath-
way for vaporor liquid water diffusion, the responseofthe
wood substance to changesin relativehumidityor water is
Wood Treated With Polyethylene very slow, and moisture resistance orwater repellent
Glycol (PEG) effectiveness (WRE) is greatly improved. Waterrepellent
effectiveness is measured as follows:
The dimensionalstabilizationofwood with polyethylene
glycol-1000(PEG), also knownas Carbowax, is accom- WRE = [(Swelling ormoistureuptake ofcontrol specimen
plishedby bulking the fiberto keep the wood in apartially during exposure towater for t minutes)
swollencondition.PEG acts in the same manneras doesthe ÷ (Swelling ormoisture uptakeoftreatedspecimen
previouslydescribedphenolicresin. It cannotbe further duringexposure to water alsofor t minutes)]
cured.Theonly reasonfor heatingthe wood aftertreatmentis )( 100
to drive offwater. PEGremainswater soluble inthewood. Hardnessis increased appreciably. Wood—polymercomposite
Above 60% relative humidity, it is a strong humectantand,
materials offerdesirable aesthetic appearance, high compres-
unlessusedwith care andproperlyprotected, PEG-treated
wood can becomesticky at high levels ofrelative humidity. sion strength, and abrasionresistanceand aremuch stronger
Because ofthis, PEG-treatedwood is usuallyfinished with a thanuntreatedwood (Table 19—5), and commercial applica-
tion ofthese products is largelybased on increased strength
polyurethane varnish. and hardness properties. Improvements in physicalproperties

19—10
 Table 19—5. Strength properties ofwood—polymer compositesa
Strengthproperty Unit Untreatedb Treatedb
Static bending
Modulusof elasticity MPa (1O lb/in2) 9.3 (1.356) 11.6 (1.691)
Fiber stress at proportional limit MPa (lb/in2) 44.0 (6,387) 79.8 (11,582)
Modulusof rupture MPa (lb/in2) 73.4 (10,649) 130.6 (18,944)
Work to proportional limit .tJ/mm3 (in-lb/in3) 11.4 (1.66) 29.1 (4.22)
Work to maximumload j.tJ/mm3 (in-lb/in3) 69.4 (10.06) 122.8 (17.81)

Compression parallel to grain

Modulus of elasticity GPa (106 lb/in2) 7.7 (1.113) 11.4 (1.650)
Fiber stress at proportional limit MPa (lbTin2) 29.6 (4,295) 52.0 (7,543)
Maximum crushing strength MPa (lb/in2) 44.8 (6,505) 68.0 (9,864)
Work to proportional limit jtJ/mm3 (in-lb/in3) 77.8 (11.28) 147.6 (21.41)
Toughness l.LJ/mm3(in-lbTin3) 288.2 (41.8) 431.6 (62.6)

aMenthyl methacrylateimpregnated basswood.

bMoisture content 7.2%.

ofwood—polymercomposites arerelatedto polymerloading. chemicalbonds while the treatedwoodretainsthe desirable

This, in turn, dependsnot only on the permeabilityofthe properties ofuntreatedwood. Reaction ofwoodwith chemi-
wood speciesbut also on the particularpiece ofwood being cals such as anhydrides, epoxides, isocyanates, acid chlo-
treated.Sapwoodis filledto amuch greaterextentthan
heartwoodfor most species. The most commonly used rides, carboxylic acids, lactones, alkylchlorides,and nitriles
monomersinclude styrene,methylmethacrylate, vinyl resultin antishrink efficiency (ASE) values(Table 19—4) of
65% to 75% at chemicalweightgains of20% to 30%.
acetate,and acrylonitrile. Industrialapplications include
certainsportingequipment, musicalinstruments, decorative Antishrink efficiency is determined as follows:
objects, and high performance flooring.
S= xlOO
At present, themain commercial use ofwood polymercom- V1
posites is hardwoodflooring. Comparativetests with con-
ventionalwood flooringindicatethat wood—polymermateri- whereS is volumetric swelling coefficient, V2 is wood vol-
alsresisted indentationfrom rolling, concentrated, and ume after humidity conditioning or wettingwith water, and
impact loadsbetterthan didwhite oak. This is largely at- V1 is woodvolumeofovendried samplebeforeconditioning
tributedto improvedhardness.Abrasionresistance is also or wetting.
increased.A finish is usuallyusedon these productsto
increase hardness andwear resistance evenmore. Then,

Wood—polymercompositesare alsobeing used fcr sporting

goods, musical instruments, and novelty items.
ASE= 2—
SI
I 100

whereASEis reduction in swelling or antishrinkefficiency

Chemical Modification resulting from atreatment,52 is treatedvolumeiric swelling
Throughchemicalreactions, it is possibleto add an organic coefficient, andS1 is untreated volumetric swelling coefficient.
chemicalto the hydroxylgroupson wood cellwall compo- Reactionofthese chemicals with wood yields amodified
nents. This type oftreatmentbulksthe cell wall with a wood with increaseddimensional stability and improved
permanently bondedchemical. Many reactive chemicals have resistance to termites, decay, and marine organisms.
beenusedexperimentally to chemically modifiwood.For
best results,chemicals usedshouldbe capableofreacting Mechanical properties ofchemically modifiedwood are
with wood hydroxylsunderneutral or mildlyalkalinecondi- essentially unchanged compared with untreatedwood.
tions attemperaturesless than 120°C. The chemicalsystem The reaction offormaldehyde with wood hydroxylgroupsis
should be simpleand must be capableof swelling thewood an interesting variationofchemical modificaticn. Atweight
structure to facilitate penetration. The complete molecule gains as low as 2%, formaldehyde-treated wood is not at-
shouldreact quicklywith wood components to yield stable tackedby wood-destroying fungi.An antishrink efficiency
(Table 19—4) of47% is achievedat a weightgain of3.1%, Strengthand other properties ofa paper plastic laminateare
55% at 4.1, 60% at 5.5, and 90% at 7. The mechanical shownin Table 19—2. The NationalElectricManufacturers
properties offormaldehyde-treated wood are all reduced from Association LI—I specification has additional information on
those ofuntreatedwood. A definiteembnittlement is ob- industrial laminates. Paper is considerably less expensive
served,toughness and abrasion resistance aregreatlyreduced, thanglass fabric or other woven fabric mats and can be
crushingstrengthand bendingstrengthare reducedabout molded at considerably lowerpressures; therefore, the paper-
20%, and impact bendingstrength is reducedup to 50%. basedlaminates generally havean appreciable priceadvantage
over fabric laminates. However, somefabric laminates give
Paper-Based Plastic Laminates superior electrical propertiesand higherimpactproperties.
Glass fabric laminates can be molded to greaterdouble
Commercially,paper-basedplasticlaminatesare oftwo curvatures than can paper laminates.
types: industrialand decorative.Totalannual production is
equally dividedbetweenthe two types. They are made by DuringWorld WarII, a high strengthpaper plastic known as
papreg was used for moldingnonstructural and semistructural
superimposing layersofpaper that have beenimpregnated
a
with resinous binderand curingthe assemblyunderheat airplane parts such as gunner'sseats and turrets, ammunition
andpressure. boxes, wingtabs, andthe surfaces ofcargo aircraft flooring
and catwalks. Papregwas tried to a limitedextent forthe
skin surface ofairplane structural parts,such as wing tips.
Industrial Laminates One major objectionto its use for such parts is that it is
Industrial laminates are produced to perform specific func- more brittlethan aluminum andrequires special fittings.
tions requiringmaterials with predetermined balances of Papreghas beenusedto someextent forheavy-dutytruck
mechanical,electrical,and chemicalproperties. The most floors and industrial processing trays fornonediblematerials.
common use ofsuch laminatesis electrical insulation. The Because itcanbe molded at low pressures and is madefrom
paperreinforcements used in the laminates arekraflpulp, thin paper,papreg is advantageous foruse whereaccurate
alphapulp, cotton linters,orblendsofthese. Kraftpaper control ofpanelthicknessis required.
emphasizes mechanical strength and dielectric strength per-
pendicularto laminations. Alphapaper is used for its electric Decorative Laminates
and electronic properties, machineability, and dimensional
Although madeby the same processas industrial laminates.
stability. Cottonlinter paper combinesgreaterstrengththan decorative laminates are used fordifferentpurposesand bear
alphapaper with excellentmoisture resistance. little outwardresemblanceto industrial laminate. They are
Phenolicresins arethe most suitableresins for impregnating used as facings for doors and walls and tops ofcounters,
thepaper from thestandpointofhigh waterresistance, low flooring, tables, desks, and other furniture.
swelling and shrinking,and high strengthproperties(except
for impact).Phenolicsalso costless than do other resinsthat Thesedecorative laminates are usuallycomposed ofa com-
bination ofphenolic- and melamine-impregnated sheets of
givecomparableproperties. Water-soluble resins ofthe type
usedfor impreg impartthe highestwater resistance and paper.Phenolic-impregnated sheetsare brownbecauseofthe
compressive strengthpropertiesto the product, but they impregnating resins and comprisemost ofthe built-upthick-
make the product brittle (low impactstrength). Alcohol- ness ofthe laminate. Phenolic sheetsare overlaidwith paper
soluble phenolicresins producea considerably tougher prod- impregnated with melamine resin.Onesheet ofthe overlayis
uct, but theresins fail to penetrate the fibers as well aswater- usuallyarelativelythick one ofhigh opacityand has the
soluble resins, thus impartingless waterresistanceand color or designprintedon it. Then, one or more tissue-thin
dimensionalstabilityto the product.In practice,alcohol- sheets, whichbecome transparent afterthe resin is cured, are
soluble phenolicresins are generallyused. overlaidon the printed sheet to protect it in service. The thin
sheetsgenerallycontainmore melamine resin than do the
Paper-basedplastic laminates inherit their fmal properties printedsheets, providingstain and abrasionresistance as
from the paper from whichthey are made. Highstrength well as resistance to cigarettebums, boilingwater, and
papersyield higherstrength plastic laminates than do low commonhouseholdsolvents.
strengthpapers. Paperswith definitedirectionalproperties
result inplastic laminateswith definitedirectional properties The resin-impregnated sheets ofpaper arehot pressed,cured,
unless they are cross laminated (alternate sheets orientedwith then bondedto awood-basedcore, usuallyplywood, hard-
themachinedirectionat 90° to each other). board,orparticleboard. The thin transparent (when cured)
papers impregnated with melamine resin can be used alone as
Improving the paperusedhas helpeddeveloppaper-based a covering for decorative veneersin furniture to providea
laminates suitablefor structuraluse. Pulpingundermilder permanentfinish.In this use, the impregnatedsheet is
conditions and operatingthe paper machinesto giveopti- bondedto the wood surfacein hot presses atthe same time
mum orientation ofthe fibersin one direction,togetherwith theresin is cured. The heat and stainresistanceand the
thedesiredabsorbency,contribute markedly to improve- strengthofthis kind offilm make it a superiorfinish.
ments in strength.
The overall thickness ofa laminatemay obviously be varied
bythenumberofsheets ofkraft-phenolic usedin the core

19—12
assembly. Someyears ago, a 2-mm (0.08-in.) thickness was The lignin-fihledlaminatesare alwaysdark brown orblack.
used with little exceptionbecauseofits high impactstrength They have bettertoughnessthan phenoliclaminates;in most
andresistanceto substrateshow through.Recently, a 1-mm other strength properties, they are comparable orlower.
(0.04-in.) thicknesshas becomepopular on vertical surfaces
such as walls,cabinetdoors,andverticalfurniture faces. This Reductionin cost ofphenolicresins has virtuallyeliminated
resultsin bettereconomy,becausethe greaterstrength ofthe the lignin-filled laminates from American commerce. These
heavierlaminateis not necessary. As applications have laminates have several potential applications, however,where
proliferated, awholeseries ofthicknesses havebeenoffered a cheaperlaminatewith less criticalproperties than phenolic
from about 20 to 60 mm (0.8 to 2.4 in.), evenup to laminatescan be used.
150mm(6 in.) whenself-supportive types are needed. These
laminatesmay have decorative faces on both sidesifdesired, Paper-Face Overlays
especially in the heavierthicknesses. Replacement bowling
lanesmade from high-density fiberboard coreand phenolic- Paper has found considerable use as an overlay material for
melamine, high-pressure laminated paper onthe face and veneerorplywood. Overlays can be classified into three
backare commercially used. different types according to their use—masking, structural,
and decorative. Maskingoverlays are usedto coverminor
The phenolicsheetsmay also containspecialpostforming- defects inplywood, such as face checks and patches,mini-
type phenolicresins or extensible papersthat make it possi- mizegrain raising,andprovide a more uniform paintable
bleto postformthe laminate. By heatingto 160°C (320°F) surface, thus making possible the use oflowergrade veneer.
for a short time, the structure can readilyundergo simple Paperfor this purposeneednotbe ofhigh strength, because
bendingto aradius of 10 mm(0.4 in.) and 5 to 6 mm (0.20 theoverlays do not needto add strengthto theproduct.For
to 0.24 in.) with careful control. Rolledfurnitureedges, adequatemasking,a singlesurface sheet with athicknessof
decorative moldings,curvedcountertops, showerenclosures, 0.5 to 1 mm (0.02 to 0.04 in.) is desirable. Paper impreg-
and many other applications are served bythistechnique. natedwith phenolicresins at 17% to 25% ofthe weightof
Finally, the core compositionmay be modifiedto yield a the paper givesthe best all-aroundproduct. Higher resin
fire-retardant, low smokinglaminateto comply with fire contentmakes the producttoo costly and tends to makethe
codes. Thesehigh-pressure decorative laminates are covered overlay more transparent. Appreciably lowerresin content
by theNationalElectricalManufacturers Association givesa productwith low scratchand abrasion resistance,
Specification LD3. especially whenthe panels are wet or exposedto high rela-
tive humidities.
Paperwill absorb orgive offmoisture,depending upon
conditions ofexposure. This moisturechangecauses paper to The paper faces canbe appliedat the same time that the
shrinkand swell,usuallymore across the machine direction veneeris assembled into plywood in a hot press. Thermal
thanalong it. Inthe same manner,the laminated paper plas- stressesthat mightresult in checkingare not set up ifthe
tics shrink and swell, althoughat a much slowerrate. Cross machine directionofthe paper overlaysis at rightanglesto
laminating minimizesthe amountofthis shrinking and thegrain directionofthefaceplies ofthe plywood..
swelling. In many furnitureuseswhere laminates are bonded
to cores,the changesin dimension, as a result ofmoisture The masking-paper-based overlays orvulcanized fibersheets
fluctuating with the seasons, are differentthan thoseofthe havebeenused for such applications aswood house siding
corematerial.To balance the construction, a paper plastic that is to be painted. Theseoverlaysmask defects in the
with similarpropertiesmay be glued to the opposite face of wood, preventbleedthroughofresins andextractives in the
the coreto preventbowingor cuppingcausedby themois- wood, andprovide abetter substratefor paint.The paper-
turevariation. based overlays improve the across-the-board stability from
changes in dimension as a result of changes in moisture
content.
Lignin-Filled Laminates
The cost ofphenolicresins at one time resultedin consider- The structural overlay,also knownas the high-density over-
able efforttofmd impregnating andbondingagents that were lay, containsno less than 45% thermosettingresin, generally
less expensiveand yet readilyavailable. Lignin-filled lami- phenolic. It consistsofone or more plies ofpaper similarto
nates madewith ligninrecoveredfrom the spent liquorofthe that used in the industrial laminatesdescribedpreviously.
The resin-impregnated paperscan be bonded directlyto the
soda pulpingprocess have beenproducedas a result ofthis
surface ofa wood substrate during cure ofthe sheet,thus
search. Lignin is precipitated from solutionwithin the pulp
or addedin apre-precipitated form before thepaper is made. requiringonly a singlepressingoperation.
The lignin-fihled sheets ofpaper canbe laminated without The decorative-type overlay is describedin the Decorative
the addition ofother resins, but theirwater resistance is Laminates section.
considerably enhancedwhensomephenolicresin is applied
to thepaper in a second operation. The water resistance can
alsobe improvedby impregnating only the surface sheet
with phenolicresin. It is also possible to introduce lignin,
•together with phenolicresin, into untreatedpaper sheets.

19—13
References Perry, T.D. 1951. Curvesfrom flat plywood. Wood
Products. 56(4).
Clark, W.M. 1965. Veneeringandwood bendingin the
furnitureindustry. New York,NY: Pergamon Press. Rowell,R.M. 1975. Chemicalmodification ofwood:
advantages and disadvantages. American Wood-Preservers
ForestProductsLaboratory.1962. Physical and mechani- Association Proceedings. 71: 41—51.
cal properties oflignin-fihled laminated paper plastic.FPL
Rep. 1579. Madison,WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Rowell, R.M., ed. 1984. The chemistry ofsolid wood.
Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory. Advances in Chemistry Series No. 207. AmericanChemical
Society.
Heebink, B.G. 1959. Fluid-pressure moldingofplywood.
FPL Rep. 1624.Madison, WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgricul- Schuerch, C. 1964. Principlesand potential ofwood plasti-
ture, Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory. cization.Forest ProductsJournal. 14(9): 377—381.
Heebink, B.G. 1963. Importance ofbalancedconstruction in Seborg, R.M.; Inverarity,R.B. 1962. Preservationofold,
plastic-faced wood panels.Res. Note FPL—02I. Madison, waterlogged wood by treatmentwith polyethyleneglycol
WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture, Forest Service,Forest Science.136(3516): 649—650.
ProductsLaboratory.
Seborg, R.M.; Vallier, A.E. 1954. Applicationofimpreg
Heebink, BiG.; Haskell, H.H. 1962. Effectofheat and for patternsand die models. ForestProducts Journal. 4(5):
humidityonthe propertiesofhigh-pressure laminates. 305—312.
Forest Products Journal. 12(11): 542—548.
Hoadley, R.B. 1980. Understanding wood: a craftsman's Seborg, R.M.; Millett, M.A.; Stamm, A.J. 1945. Heat-
stabilized compressed wood (staypak). Mechanical
guide to wood technology.Newtown, CT: The Taunton Engineering. 67(1): 25—31.
Press.
Hurst, K. 1962. Plywoodbending. Australian Timber Seidi, R.J. 1947. Paper andplastic overlays for veneer and
Journal. June. plywood.Madison, WI: Forest Products Research Society
Proceedings.1: 23—32.
Inone,M.; Norimoto, M.; Tanahashi, M.; Rowell, R.M.
1993. Steam and heatfixationofcompressed wood.Wood Spielman, F. 1980. Workinggreen wood with PEG. New
and Fiber Science.25(3):224—235. York, NY: SterlingPublishingCompany.
Jorgensen,R.N. 1965. Furniturewood bending,Part I. Stamm, A.J. 1959. Effect ofpolyethyleneglycol on dimen-
Furniture DesignandManufacturing. Dec. sional stabilityofwood. Forest Products Journal. 9(10):
375—381.
Jorgensen, R.N. 1966. Furniturewood bending,Part II.
Furniture Designand Manufacturing. Jan. Stamm, A.J. 1964. Woodand cellulosescience.New York.
NY: Ronald Press.
Langwig, J.E.; Meyer, J.A.; Davidson, R.W. 1968.
influence ofpolymerimpregnation on mechanical properties Stamm, A.J.; Seborg, R.M. 1951. Forest Products Labora-
ofbasswood.Forest ProductsJournal. 18(7): 33—36. toryresin-treatedlaminated, compressed wood (compreg).
McKean, H.B.; Blumenstein, R.R.; Finnorn, W.F. 1952. FPL Rep. 1381. Madison, WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgricul-
Laminatingand steam bendingoftreatedand untreated oak tare,Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory.
for ship timbers. SouthernLumberman. 185: 2321. Stamm, A.J.; Seborg, R.M. 1962. Forest Products Labora-
Meyer, J.A. 1965. Treatmentofwood—polymersystems tory resin-treatedwood (impreg). FPL Rep. 1380. (rev.)
using catalyst-heattechniques. Forest ProductsJournal. Madison, WI: U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture,Forest
15(9): 362—364. Service,Forest Products Laboratory.
Meyer, J.A.; Loos, W.E. 1969. Treating SouthernPine Stevens, W.C.; Turner, N. 1970. Woodbending hand-
wood formodification ofproperties. Forest Products Journal. book.London,England: Her Majesty's StationeryOffice.
19(12): 32—38. Weatherwax, R.C.; Stamm, AJ. 1945. Electricalresistiv-
National Electrical ManufacturersAssociation.(Current ity ofresin-treated wood (impregandcompreg),hydrolyzed-
edition). Standardspecification for industrial laminated wood sheet (hydroxylin), and laminated resin-treatedpaper
thermosettingproducts. Designation LI-I and Standard (papreg).FPL Rep. 1385. Madison, WI: U.S. Department
specification forhigh-pressure decorative laminates. Designa- Agriculture, Forest Service,Forest ProductsLaboratory.
tionLD—3. Washington,DC: NEMA.
Weatherwax, R.C.; Stamm, A.J. 1946. The coefficientsof
Peck, E.C. 1957. Bending solid wood to form. Agric. thermalexpansion ofwood and wood products.Transactions
Handb. 125. Washington,DC: U.S. Departmentof ofAmerican Society ofMechanical Engineering. 69(44):
Agriculture. 421—432.

19—14
 Anisotropic. Exhibiting different propertieswhen measured
Glossary along different axes. In general, fibrousmaterials such as wood
Adherend. A body that is held to anotherbody by an adhesive. are anisotropic.
Adhesion. The state in which two surfaces are heldtogetherby Assembly Joint. (See Joint.)
interfacial forceswhich may consist ofvalence forces or inter-
Assembly Time. (See Time, Assembly.)
locking action or both.
Balanced Construction. A constructionsuch that the forces
Adhesive. A substancecapable of holding materials togetherby induced by uniformlydistributed changes in moisture content
surfaceattachment.It is a general term and includescements, will not cause warping. Symmetrical constructionof plywoodin
mucilage,and paste, as well as glue. which the grain direction of each ply is perpendicularto that of
Assembly Adhesive—Anadhesivethat can be used for bond- adjacent plies is balanced construction.
ing parts together, such as in the manufactureof aboat, air- Bark Pocket. An openingbetween annual growth ringsthat
plane, furniture, and the like. containsbark. Bark pockets appear as dark streaks oii radial
surfacesand as roundedareas on tangential surfaces.
Cold-Setting Adhesive—Anadhesivethat sets at tempera-
tures below 20°C (68°F). Bastard Sawn. Lumber (primarilyhardwoods)in which the
Construction Adhesive—Anyadhesiveused to assemble annual rings make angles of30° to 60° with the surfaceofthe
primary building materials into components during building piece.
construction—mostcommonlyapplied to elastomer-based Beam. A structuralmembersupportinga load applied trans-
mastic-type adhesives. verselyto it.
Contact Adhesive-An adhesivethat is apparently dry to the Bending, Steam. The processofformingcurvedwood members
touch and, which will adhere to itself instantaneouslyupon by steamingor boiling the wood and bending it to a form.
contact; also called contact bond adhesive or dry bond
adhesive. Bent Wood. (SeeBending, Steam.)

Gap-Filling Adhesive-An adhesivecapable of formingand Bird Peck. A small hole or patch ofdistortedgrain resulting
maintaininga bond between surfacesthat are not cLose fitting. from birdspecking throughthe growing cells in the tree. The
shape ofbirdpeck usually resemblesa carpet tack with the point
Hot-Melt Adhesive-An adhesivethat is applied in a molten towards the bark; birdpeck is usually accompaniedby discol-
state and forms a bond on coolingto a solid state. oration extending for considerabledistance along the grain and
to a much lesserextent acrossthe grain.
Hot-Setting Adhesive—Anadhesivethatrequires a tempera-
ture at or above 100°C (212°F)to set it. Birdseye. Small localizedareas in wood with the fibers indented
and otherwise contortedto form few to many small circular or
Room-Temperature-Curing Adhesive—Anadhesivethat
sets in the temperaturerange of 20°C to 30°C (68°F to 86°F), ellipticalfigures remotely resembling birds' eyes on the tangen-
in accordancewith the limits for StandardRoom Temperature tial surface. Sometimes found in sugar maple and used fordecora-
specified in the Standard Methods ofConditioningPlastics tive purposes; rare in other hardwoodspecies.
and Electrical InsulatingMaterialsfor Testing (ASTM D618). Blister. An elevationofthe surface ofan adherend,somewhat
Solvent Adhesive-An adhesivehaving a volatile organic resemblingin shape a blister on human skin; its boundariesmay
liquid as a vehicle. (This term excludeswater-basedadhe- be indefinitely outlined, and it may have burst and become
flattened. (A blister may be caused by insufficientadhesive;
sives.)
inadequatecuring time, temperature,or pressure; or trapped air,
Structural Adhesive-A bonding agent used for transferring water, or solvent vapor.)
required loads between adherends exposedto service envi-
ronments typical for the structure involved. Bloom. Crystalsformed on the surface oftreated wood by exuda-
tion and evaporationof the solvent in preservative solutions.
Air-Dried. (See Seasoning.)
Blow. In plywoodand particleboardespecially,the develop-
Allowable Property;The value ofa propertynormallypublished ment ofsteam pockets during hot pressing ofthe panel, resulting
for design use. Allowable propertiesare identified with grade in an internal separationor rupture when pressure .s released,
descriptionsand standards,reflect the orthotropicstructure of sometimes with an audible report.
wood, and anticipate certain end uses.
Blue Stain. (SeeStain.)
AllowableStress. (See Allowable Property.)
Board. (See Lumber.)
American LumberStandard.The AmericanSoftwoodLumber
Standard, Voluntary Product Standard PS—20 (National Insti- BoardFoot.A unit ofmeasurement oflumberrepresentedby a
tute of Standards and Technology),establishes standard sizes board 12 in. long, 12 in. wide, and I in. thick or its cubic
and requirementsfor the developmentand coordinationoflum- equivalent.In practice,the board footcalculationfor lumber 1 in.
ber grades ofvarious species, the assignmentof designvalues or more in thickness is based on its nominal thickness and
when called for, and the preparationof grading rules applicable width and the actual length. Lumber with a nominal thickness of
to each species.It provides for implementation ofthe standard less than 1 in. is calculated as 1 in.
through an accreditationand certificationprogramto assure Bole. The main stem ofatree of substantial diameter—roughly,
uniform industry-widemarking and inspection. A purchaser capableof yieldingsawtimber,veneer logs, or large poles. Seed-
must, however,make use ofgrading associationrules because lings, saplings, and small-diametertrees have stems, not boles.
the basic standardsare not in themselvescommercialrules.

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Bolt.(1) A short section ofa tree trunk. (2) In veneer produc- Cant. A log that has been slabbed on one or more sides. Ordi-
tion, a short log ofa length suitablefor peeling in a lathe. narily, cants are intended for resawing at right angles to their
widest sawn face. The term is looselyused. (See Flitch.)
Bond. (I) The union ofmaterials by adhesives.(2) To unite
materials by means ofanadhesive. Casehardening. A conditionofstress and set in dry lumber
characterizedby compressivestress in the outer layers and
Bondability. Term indicating ease or difficulty in bondinga tensile stress in the center or core.
material with adhesive.
Bond Failure. Rupture of adhesivebond. Catalyst.A substance that initiates or changesthe rate ofchemi-
cal reaction but is not consumed or changed by the reaction.
Bondline. The layer of adhesivethat attaches two adherends. Cell.A general term for the anatomicalunits ofplant tissue,
Bondline Slip. Movement within and parallel to the bondline includingwood fibers,vessel members,and other elements of
during shear. diverse structureand function.
Bond Strength.The unit load applied in tension, compression, Cellulose. The carbohydrate that is the principal constituentof
flexure,peel impact,cleavage, or shear requiredtobreak an wood and forms the frameworkofthe wood cells.
adhesiveassembly,with failure occurringin or near the plane of Check. A lengthwiseseparationofthe wood that usually ex-
the bond. tends across the rings of annual growth and commonlyresults
Bow. The distortionoflumber in which there is a deviation, in a from stresses set up in wood during seasoning.
directionperpendicularto the flat face, from a straightline from Chemical Brown Stain. (See Stain.)
end-to-endofthe piece.
Box Beam. A built-up beam with solid wood flanges and ply- Chipboard.A paperboardused for many purposes that may or
wood or wood-based panel product webs. may not have specifications for strength,color, or other charac-
teristics. It is normallymade from paper stock with a relatively
Boxed Heart. The term used when the pith fallsentirely within low density in the thickness of0.1524 mm (0.006 in.) and up.
the four faces ofa piece ofwood anywherein its length. Also Cleavage. In an adhesivelybondedjoint, a separation in the
called boxed pith. joint caused by a wedge or other crack-opening-typeaction.
Brashness.A conditionthat causes some pieces ofwood to be Close Grained. (See Grain.)
relatively low in shock resistance for the species and, when
broken in bending, to fail abruptly without splinteringat com- Coarse Grained. (See Grain.)
paratively small deflections. Cohesion. The state in which the constituentsofa mass of mate-
Breaking Radius. The limiting radius of curvatureto which rial are held togetherby chemicaland physical forces.
wood or plywood can be bent without breaking.
Cold Pressing. A bondingoperation in which an assembly is
Bright. Free from discoloration. subjectedto pressure without the application of heat.
Broad-Leaved Trees.(See Hardwoods.) Cold-Press Plywood. (SeeWood-Based Composite Panel.)
Brown Rot. (See Decay.) Collapse. The flatteningof single cells or rows of cells in heart-
wood duringthe drying or pressuretreatment of wood. Often
Brown Stain.(See Stain.) characterized by a caved-inor corrugatedappearanceofthe
Built-Up Timbers. An assemblymade by joining layers of wood surface.
lumbertogether with mechanicalfastenings so that the grain of Compartment Kiln. (SeeKiln.)
all laminations is essentially parallel.
Composite Assembly. A combination oftwo or more materials
Burl. (1) A hard, woody outgrowthon a tree, more or less bonded togetherthat perform as a single unit.
rounded in form, usually resultingfrom the entwined growth ofa
cluster ofadventitiousbuds. Such buns are the sourceofthe Composite Panel. (SeeWood-Based Composite Panel.)
highly figuredburl veneers used for purely ornamental purposes. Compound Curvature.Wood bent to a compoundcurvature,no
(2) In lumber or veneer, a localized severe distortion of the grain elementof which is a straight line.
generally rounded in outline, usually resulting from overgrowth
ofdead branch stubs, varying from one to several centimeters Compreg.Wood in which the cell walls have beenimpregnated
(one-half to several inches) in diameter;frequently includesone with synthetic resin and compressedto give it reduced swelling
or more clusters of several small contiguousconical protuber- and shrinkingcharacteristics and increased density and strength
ances, each usually having a core or pith but no appreciable properties.
amount of end grain (in tangential view) surroundingit.
Compression Failure. Deformationofthe wood fibers resulting
Butt Joint. (See Joint.) from excessivecompressionalong the grain either in direct end
Buttress.A ridge ofwood developedin the angle between a compression or in bending. It may develop in standingtreesdue
lateralrootand the butt ofatree, which may extend up the stem to bending by wind or snow or to internal longitudinal stresses
to a considerable height. developedin growth,or it mayresult from stresses imposedafter
the tree is cut. In surfacedlumber,compressionfailures may
Cambium. A thin layer oftissue betweenthe bark and wood appear as fine wrinkles across the face ofthe piece.
that repeatedly subdividesto form new wood and bark cells.

G-2
Compression Wood. Abnormalwood formedon the lower side Crossband.To place the grain of layersofwood at right angles
ofbranches and inclined trunks of softwoodtrees. Compression in order to minimizeshrinking and swelling; also, in plywood
wood is identified by its relatively wide annual rings (usually ofthree ormore plies, a layer of veneer whose grain directionis
eccentricwhen viewed on cross section of branch or trunk), at right angles to that ofthe face plies.
relativelylarge amountoflatewood (sometimes more than50%
ofthe width of the annual rings in which it occurs),and its lack Cross Break. A separationof the wood cells across the grain.
Such breaks may be due to internal stress resulting from unequal
ofdemarcationbetween earlywoodand latewoodin the same
annual rings. Compressionwood shrinks excessively Longitu- longitudinalshrinkageor to external forces.
dinally, compared with normal wood. Cross Grained. (See Grain.)
Conditioning (pre and post). The exposureofa materialto the Cross-Link. An atom or group connectingadjacent molecules in
a
influenceof prescribed atmosphere for a stipulatedperiod of a complex molecularstructure.
time or until a stipulatedrelation is reached betweenmaterial
and atmosphere. Cup. A distortionof a board in which there is a deviationflat-
wise from a straightline acrossthe width ofthe board
Conifer. (See Softwoods.)
Cure. To changethe propertiesofan adhesiveby chemical
Connector, Timber.Metal rings, plates,or grids that are embed- reaction (whichmay be condensation,polymerization, or vul-
ded in the wood of adjacentmembers,as at the bolted points ofa canization)and thereby develop maximum strength.Generally
truss, to increasethe strengthofthe joint. accomplishedby the action of heat or a catalyst, with or without
Consistency. That propertyof a liquid adhesiveby virtue of pressure.
which it tends to resist deformation.(Consistency is not a fun- CuringAgent. (SeeHardener.)
damental property but is composed of rheologicalproperties
such as viscosity, plasticity, and other phenomena,) CuringTemperature. (See Temperature, Curing.)
Construction Adhesive.(See Adhesive.) Curing Time. (SeeTime, Curing.)
Contact Angle. The angle betweena substrate plane and the Curly Grained. (See Grain.)
free surface of a liquid droplet at the line ofcontactwith the Curtain Coating. Applying liquid adhesive to an adherend by
substrate.
passingthe adherend under a thin curtain of liquid falling by
Cooperage.Containers consistingoftwo round heads and a gravity or pressure.
body composed of staves held togetherwith hoops, such as Cut Stock. (SeeLumberfor Dimension.)
barrels and kegs.
Slack Cooperage—Cooperageused as containersfor dry, Cuttings.In hardwoods,portions of a board or planLc having
the quality requiredby a specificgrade or for aparticular use.
semidry,or solid products.The staves are usually not closely Obtained from a board by crosscuttingor ripping.
fitted and are heldtogether with beaded steel,wire, or wood
hoops. Decay. The decomposition ofwood substance by fungi.
Tight Cooperage—Cooperageused as containersfor liquids, Advanced (Typical) Decay—The older stage ofdecay in
semisolids,or heavy solids. Staves are well fittedand held which the destructionis readily recognizedbecause the wood
tightly with cooperage-grade steel hoops. has become punky, soft and spongy, stringy, ring;haked, pit-
ted, or crumbly.Decided discoloration or bleachirg of the rot-
Copolymer. Substance obtainedwhen two or more types of ted wood is often apparent.
monomerspolymerize.
Brown Rot—In wood, any decay in which the attackconcen-
Corbel.A projection from the face ofa wall or columnsupport- trates on the cellulose and associatedcarbohydratesrather
ing a weight. than on the lignin, producing a light to dark brown friable
Core Stock. A solid or discontinuouscenter ply used in residue—hence loosely termed "dry rot." An advancedstage
panel-type glued structures (such as furniture panels and solid where the wood splits along rectangularplanes, in shrinking,
or hollowcore doors). is termed "cubical rot."
Coupling Agent. A molecule with different or like functional Dry Rot—A term looselyapplied to any dry, crumblyrot but
groups that is capable ofreacting with surface molecules oftwo especiallyto that which, when in an advancedstage, permits
different substances,thereby chemicallybridging the the wood to be crushedeasily to a dry powder. The term is
substances. actuallya misnomerfor any decay, since all fungi require con-
siderablemoisturefor growth.
Covalent Bond. A chemicalbond that results when electronsare
sharedby two atomic nuclei. Incipient Decay—Theearly stage ofdecay that has not pro-
ceededfar enoughto soften or otherwiseperceptbly impair
Creep. (1) Time dependentdeformationofa woodmemberunder the hardnessofthe wood. It is usuallyaccompaned by a
sustainedwood. (2) In an adhesive, the time-dependent increase
slight discolorationor bleaching of the wood.
in strain resultingfrom a sustained stress.
Heart Rot—Any rot characteristicallyconfined to the heart-
Crook. The distortion of lumber in which there is a deviation, in wood. It generally originates in the living tree.
a directionperpendicularto the edge, from a straightline from
end-to-endofthe piece. Pocket Rot—Advanced decay that appearsin the form of a
hole or pocket, usually surroundedby apparent.y sound
wood.

G-3
 Soft Rot—A special type of decay developingunder very wet Earlywood. The portionof the growth ring that is formed during
conditions (as in cooling towers and boattimbers) in the the early part of the growing season, It is usually less dense and
outer wood layers, caused by cellulose-destroyingmicrofungi weaker mechanicallythan latewood.
that attack the secondary cell wallsand not the intercellular
Edge Grained. (SeeGrain.)
layer.
White-Rot—In wood, any decay or rot attackingboth the cel- Edge Joint.(See Joint.)
lulose and the lignin, producing a generally whitish residue Elastomer. A macromolecular materialthat, at room temperature,
that may be spongy or stringyrot, or occur as pocket rot. is deformed by applicationof a relativelylow force and is capa-
Delamination. The separationoflayers in laminated wood or ble ofrecovering substantiallyin size and shape after removalof
theforce.
plywoodbecause offailure ofthe adhesive, either within the
adhesiveitselfor at the interlace between the adhesiveand the Embrittlement.A loss in strength or energy absorptionwith-
adherend. out a correspondingloss in stiffness. Clear, straight-grained
wood is generallyconsidered a ductile material; chemicaltreat-
Delignification. Removalof part or all ofthe lignin from wood ments and elevated temperatures can alter the original chemical
by chemicaltreatment. composition of wood, thereby embrittlingthe wood.
Density. As usually applied to wood of normalcellular form, Encased Knot. (See Knot.)
density is the mass per unit volume of wood substanceenclosed
within the boundary surfaces of a wood—plus—voids complex. It EndGrained.(SeeGrain.)
is variously expressed as pounds per cubic foot, kilogramsper
cubic meter, orgrams per cubic centimeterat a specifiedmoisture End Joint. (SeeJoint.)
content. Equilibrium Moisture Content. The moisturecontent at which
Density Rules. A procedurefor segregating wood accordingto wood neither gains nor loses moisture when surroundedby air
density, based on percentage of latewood and number of growth at a given relative humidityand temperature.
rings per inch of radius. Excelsior. (SeeWood Wool.)
Dew Point.The temperatureat which a vaporbegins to deposit Extender. A substance,generallyhaving some adhesive action,
as a liquid. Applies especiallyto water in the atmosphere. addedto an adhesiveto reduce the amountofthe primary binder
Diagonal Grained. (See Grain.) requiredper unit area.
Diffuse-Porous Wood. Certain hardwoodsin which the pores Exterior Plywood.(See Wood-Based Composite Panel.)
tend to be uniform in size and distributionthroughouteach Extractive. Substances in wood, not an integral part ofthe
annual ringor to decrease in size slightly and graduallytoward cellularstructure, that can be removedby solution in hot or cold
the outer border of the ring. water, ether, benzene, or other solventsthat do not react chemi.
Dimension. (See Lumber for Dimension.) cally with wood components.
Dipole—Dipole Forces. Intermolecularattractionforces between Extrusion Spreading. A method of adhesiveapplicationin
which adhesive is forced through small openings in the spreader
polar molecules that result when positive and negativepoles of
molecules are attracted to one another. head.

Dote. "Dote," "doze," and "rot" are synonymouswith "decay" Factory and Shop Lumber. (SeeLumber.)
and are any form ofdecay that may be evidentas eithera discol- Failure, Adherend. Ruptureofan adhesivejoint, such that the
oration or a softening of the wood. separationappears to be within the adherend.
Double Spread.(See Spread.) Failure, Adhesive. Rupture ofan adhesivejoint,such that the
Dry-Bulb Temperature. The temperatureofair as indicated by a plane of separationappears to be at the adhesive—adherend
standardthermometer. (SeePsychrometer.) interface.

Dry Kiln. (See Kiln.) Failure, Cohesive.Rupture of an adhesivejoint, such that the
separation appears to be within the adhesive.
Dry Rot. (SeeDecay.) Feed Rate.The distancethat the stock being processed moves
Dry Strength.The strength of an adhesivejoint determined during a given interval oftime or operationalcycle.
immediately after drying under specifiedconditionsor after a
period of conditioning in a standardlaboratory atmosphere. Fiber, Wood. A wood cell comparativelylong (40 to 300 mm,
l .5 to 12 in.), narrow,tapering, and closed at both ends.
Dry Wall. Interiorcovering material, such as gypsumboard, Fiberboard. (SeeWood-Based Composite Panel.)
hardboard,or plywood, which is applied in large sheets or
panels. Fiber Saturation Point. The stage inthe drying or wetting of
wood at which the cell walls are saturated and the cell cavities
Durability. A generalterm forpermanenceorresistanceto dete- free from water.It appliesto an individual cell or group ofcells,
rioration. Frequentlyused to refer to the degree ofresistanceofa
not to whole boards. It is usually taken as approximately30%
species of wood to attack by wood-destroyingfungi under
conditions that favorsuch attack. In this connection, the term moisture content, based on ovendry weight.
"decay resistance" is more specific. As applied to bondlines, the Fibri). A threadlikecomponentof cell walls, invisible under a
life expectancyofthe structuralqualitiesof the adhesiveunder light microscope.
the anticipated service conditions of the structure.

G-4
Figure.The pattern producedin a wood surfaceby annual move air from the wood before admitting the preservative. This
growth rings, rays, knots, deviationsfrom regular grain such as favors heavy adsorptionand retention of preservativein the
interlockedand wavy grain, and irregular coloration; treated portions.
Filler. In woodworking,any substanceused to fill the holes and Furnish.Wood materialthat has been reduced for incorporation
irregularities in planed or sandedsurfapes to decrease the poros- into wood-basedfiber or particle panel products.
ity of the surface before applyingfinish coatings.As applied to Gelatinous Fibers. Modified fibers that are associatel with
adhesives, a relatively nonadhesivesubstance added to an
adhesive to improve its working properties, strength,or other tension wood in hardwoods,
qualities. Girder. A large or principal beam used to support concentrated
Fine Grained. (See Grain.) loads at isolated points along its length.

Fingerjoint. (SeeJoint.) Gluability. (See Bondability.)

Finish (Finishing). (1) Wood products such as doors, stairs, and Glue. Originally,a hard gelatin obtained from hides, tendons,
other fine work required to complete a building,especiallythe cartilage,bones, etc., ofanimals. Also, an adhesivepreparedfrom
interior. (2) Coatings of paint, varnish, lacquer, wax, or other this substanceby heating with water. Through general use the
similar materials applied to wood surfacesto protect and en- term is now synonymous with the term "adhesive."
hance their durabilityor appearance. Glue Laminating. Production of structural or nonstructural
Fire Endurance. A measureofthe time duringwhicha material wood members by bondingtwo or more layers ofwood together
or assembly continuesto exhibit fire resistanceunder specified with adhesive.
conditions oftest and performance. Glueline. (See Bondline.)
Fire Resistance. The propertyofa materialor assemblyto with- Grade. The designation ofthe qualityofa manufacturedpiece of
stand fire or give protectionfrom it. As applied to elementsof wood or of logs.
buildings,it is characterized by the ability to confine a fire or to
continue to perform a given structuralfunction,or both. r
Grain. The direction, size, arrangement, appearance, qualityof
the fibersin woodor lumber.To have a specificmeaningthe term
FireRetardant.(See Flame Retardant.) must be qualified.
Fire-Retardant-TreatedWood. As specifiedin buildingcodes, Close-Grained (Fine-Grained) Wood—Woodwith narrow,
a wood product that hasbeen treated with chemicalsby a pres- inconspicuousannual rings. The term is sometimesused to
sure processor treated during the manufacturingprocess for the designatewood having small and closely spaced pores, but in
purpose ofreducingits flamespread performance in an ASTM this sense the term "fine textured"is more often used.
E84 test conductedfor 30 mm to performancelevels specifiedin
the codes. Coarse-GrainedWood—Wood with wide consçicuousan-
nual rings in which there is considerable difference between
Flake. A small flat wood particle ofpredetermineddimensions, earlywoodand latewood.The term is sometimes used to des-
uniform thickness,with fiber direction essentiallyin the plane of ignate wood with large pores, such as oak, keruing, meranti,
the flake; in overallcharacterresemblinga small piece ofveneer. and walnut,but in this sense, the term "open-grained"is more
Producedby specialequipmentfor use in the manufacture of often used.
flakeboard.
Cross-Grained Wood—Woodin which the fibers deviate
Flakeboard. (See Wood-Based Composite Panel.) from a line parallelto the sides ofthe piece. Cross grain may be
Flame Retardant.A treatment,coating,or chemicalsthat when either diagonal or spiral grain or a combination of the two.
applied to wood products delays ignition and reduces the flame Curly-Grained Wood—Woodin which the fibers are dis-
spreadofthe product. torted so that they have a curled appearance,as in "birdseye"
Flame Spread. The propagationof a flameawayfrom the source wood. The areas showingcurly grain may vary up to several
of ignition across the surface ofa liquid or a solid, or through inches in diameter.
the volumeofa gaseousmixture. Diagonal-Grained Wood—Woodin which the annual rings
Flat Grained. (See Grain.) are at an angle withthe axis ofapiece as a result cf sawingat
an angle withthe bark ofthe tree or log. A form ofcross-grain.
FlatSawn. (SeeGrain.)
Edge-Grained Lumber—Lumberthat has been sawed so that
Flecks. (See Rays, Wood.) the wide surfacesextend approximately at rightangles to the
annual growth rings. Lumber is considerededge grained
Flitch. A portionofa log sawn on two or more faces——commonly when the rings form an angle of45° to 90° with the wide sur-
on oppositefaces leaving two waney edges, When intended for face ofthe piece.
resawinginto lumber, it is resawn parallel to its original wide
faces. Or, it may be sliced or sawn into veneer, in which case the End-Grained Wood—Thegrain as seenon a cutmade at a
resultingsheets of veneer laid together in the sequence of cut- right angle to the direction ofthe fibers (such as on a cross
ting are called a fitch. The term is loosely used. (See Cant.) section ofa tree).
Framing.Lumber used forthe structural memberof a building, Fiddleback-Grained Wood—Figureproducedby a typeof
such as studs and joists. fine wavy grain found,for example, in speciesofmaple; such
wood being traditionallyused for the backs of volins.
Full-Cell Process. Any process for impregnating wood with
preservatives or chemicalsin which a vacuum is drawnto re-

G—5
 Flat-Grained (Flat-Sawn) Lumber—Lumberthat has been Heartwood. The wood extendingfrom the pith to the sapwood,
sawn parallel to the pith and approximately tangent to the the cells of which no longer participatein the life processes of
growth rings. Lumber is consideredflat grainedwhen the an- the tree. Heartwoodmay contain phenolic compounds,gums,
nual growth rings make an angle ofless than 45° with the resins, and other materials that usually make it darker and more
surface ofthe piece. decay resistant than sapwood.
Interlocked-Grained Wood—Grainin which the fibers put Hemicellulose. A celluloselikematerial (in wood) that is easily
on for several years may slope in a right-handed direction, and decomposableas by dilute acid, yielding several different simple
then for anumber ofyears the slope reversesto a left-handed sugars.
direction, and later changes back to a right-handed pitch, and Hertz. A unit offrequencyequal to one cycle per second.
so on. Such wood is exceedinglydifficult to split radially,
though tangentially it may split fairly easily. HighFrequency Curing. (SeeRadiofrequency Curing.)
Open-Grained Wood—Commonclassificationfor woods Hollow-Core Construction. A panel constructionwith faces of
with large pores such as oak, keruing,meranti, and walnut. plywood, hardboard,or similarmaterial bonded to a framed-core
Also known as "coarse textured." assemblyof wood lattice,paperboardrings, or the like, which
Plainsawn Lumber—Anotherterm for flat-grainedlumber. support the facing at spaced intervals.
Honeycomb Core. A sandwich core materialconstructedof
Quartersawn Lumber—Another term for edge-grained thin sheet materials orribbons formed to honeycomb-like
lumber.
configurations.
Side-Grained Wood—Anotherterm for flat-grainedlumber.
Honeycombing. Checks, often not visible at the surface, that
Slash-Grained Wood—Anotherterm for flat-grainedlumber. occur in the interior of a piece of wood, usuallyalong the wood
rays.
Spiral-GrainedWood—Woodin which the fiberstake a spi-
ral courseabout the trunk of a tree instead ofthe normal verti- Horizontally Laminated Timber. (See Laminated Timbers.)
cal course. The spiral mayextend in a right-handedor
left-handeddirection around the tree trunk. Spiral grain is a Hot-Setting Adhesive.(SeeAdhesive.)
form ofcrossgrain. Hydrogen Bond. An intermolecularattractionforce that results
when the hydrogenofone molecule and a pair of unshared
Straight-GrainedWood—Wood in which the fibersrun par- electronson an electronegative atom of another molecule are
allel to the axis of a piece.
attractedto one another.
Vertical-Grain ed Lumber—Anotherterm for edge-grained
lumber. Hydrophilic.Having a strong tendency to bind or absorb water.
Hydrophobic. Having a strong tendencyto repel water.
Wavy-Grained Wood—Woodin which the fibers collec-
tively take the form of waves or undulations. Impreg. Wood in which the cell walls have been impregnated
with synthetic resin so as to reduce materially its swelling and
Green. Freshly sawed or undried wood. Wood that has become
shrinking.Impreg is not compressed.
completelywet after immersion in water would not be consid-
eredgreen but may be said to be in the "green condition." Incising. A pretreatmentprocess in which incisions, slits, or
Growth Ring. The layer ofwood growth put on a tree during a perforations are made in the wood surfaceto increase penetration
of preservativetreatments.Incising is often required to enhanc
single growing season. In the temperate zone, the annual growth durabilityof some difficult-to-treatspecies, but incising reduces
rings ofmany species(for example, oaks and pines) are readily
distinguishedbecause ofdifferencesin the cells formedduring strength.
the early and late parts of the season. In sometemperate zone Increment Borer. An augerlike instrumentwith a hollow bit
species(black gum and sweetgum)and many tropical species, and an extractor,used to extractthin radial cylinders ofwood
annual growth rings are not easily recognized. from trees to determineage and growth rate. Also used in
Gum. A comprehensiveterm for nonvolatileviscous plant wood preservationto determinethe depth of penetrationof a
preservative.
exudates, which either dissolve or swell up in contact with
water. Many substancesreferred to as gums such as pine and InsulatingBoard. (SeeWood-Based Composite Panel.)
spruce gum are actually oleoresins.
lntergrownKnot. (SeeKnot.)
Hardboard.(See Wood-Based Composite Panel.)
Interlocked Grained. (See Grain.)
Hardener.A substanceor mixture ofsubstances that is part ofan
adhesiveand is used to promote curing by taking part in the Interlocking Action. (See Mechanical Adhesion.)
reaction. Internal Stresses. Stresses that exist within an adhesivejoint
Hardness.A propertyofwood that enables it to resist even in the absence ofapplied externalforces.
indentation. Interphase.In wood bonding, a region offinitethicknessas a
Hardwoods. Generally one ofthe botanicalgroups of trees that gradientbetween the bulk adherend and bulk adhesive in which
have vessels or pores and broad leaves, in contrast to the the adhesive penetrates and alters the adherend's properties and
conifersor softwoods,The term has noreferenceto the actual in which the presenceofthe adherendinfluencesthe chemical
hardness ofthe wood. and/or physical propertiesof the adhesive.
Heart Rot. (See Decay.)

G—6
Intumesce. To expandwith heat to provide a low-densityfilm; Loose Knot—A knot that is not held firmly in place by
used in referenceto certain fire-retardantcoatings. growth or positionand that cannot be relied upon :0 remain
in place.
Isotropic.Exhibiting the same properties in all directions.
Pin Knot—A knotthat is not more than 12 mm (1/2 in.) in
Joint. The junction oftwo pieces of wood or veneer. diameter.
Adhesive Joint—The locationat which two adherends are Sound Knot—A knot that is solid across its face, at least as
heldtogether with a layer ofadhesive. hard as the surroundingwood, and shows no indicationof
Assembly Joint—Joints between variously shapedparts or decay.
subassembliessuch as in wood furniture (as opposedto joints
in plywoodand laminates that are all quite similar). Spike Knot—A knot cut approximately parallelto its long
axis so that the exposed section is definitely elongated.
Butt Joint—An end joint formed by abuttingthe squared Lammate. A product made by bondingtogethertwo or more
ends oftwo pieces. ofmaterialormaterials.
layers (laminations)
Edge Joint—A joint made by bondingtwo pieces ofwood Laminate, Paper-Based. A multilayeredpanel made by com-
together edge to edge, commonly by gluing. The joints may be pressing sheets of resin-impregnated paper together into a co-
made by gluing two squared edges as in a plain edgejoint or herent solid mass.
by using machinedjoints of various kinds, such as
tongued-and-grooved joints. Laminated Timbers. An assemblymade by bonding layersof
veneer or lumberwith an adhesiveso that the grain of all lamina-
End Joint—A joint made by bondingtwo pieces ofwood to- tions is essentiallyparallel. (See Built-Up Timbers..)
gether end to end, commonlyby finger or scarfjoint.
Horizontally Laminated Timbers—Laminatedtimbers de-
Fingerjoint—An end joint made up ofseveral meshing signed to resist bending loads applied perpendicularto the
wedges or fingers ofwood bonded together with an adhesive. wide faces ofthe laminations.
Fingers are sloped and may be cut parallel to either the wide
ornarrowface ofthepiece. Vertically Laminated Timbers—Laminatedtimbers designed
to resist bending loads applied parallel to the wid faces of
Lap Joint—A joint made by placing one memberpartly over the laminations.
another and bonding the overlapped portions.
Laminated Veneer Lumber(LVL). (See Wood-Bmed
Scarf Joint—An end joint formed by joining with adhesive
the ends of two pieces that have been tapered or beveledto Composite Panel.)
form sloping plane surfaces,usually to a featheredge, and with Lap Joint. (See Joint.)
the same slope of the plane with respect to the length in both
Latewood. The portion ofthe growthring that is fornedafter the
pieces. In somecases, a step or hook may be machinedinto the
scarf to facilitatealignmentofthe two ends, in which case the earlywoodformation has ceased. It is usually denser and
plane is discontinuousand the joint is known as a stepped or stronger mechanicallythan earlywood.
hooked scarfjoint. Latex Paint.A paint containingpigments and a staile water
Starved Joint—A glue joint that is poorly bonded because an suspensionof syntheticresins (produced by emulsion polymeri-
insufficient quantity ofadhesive remained in thejoint. zation)that forms an opaquefilm throughcoalescenceofthe
resin during water evaporationand subsequent curing.
Sunken Joint—Depressionin wood surface at ajoint (usually
an edgejoint)caused by surfacingmaterialtoo soon after Lathe Checks. In rotary-cutand sliced veneer, the fracturesor
checksthat develop along the grain ofthe veneer as the knife
bonding. (Inadequatetime was allowed for moisture added
with the adhesiveto diffuseaway from thejoint.) peels veneer from the log. The knife side ofthe veneer where
checks occur is called the loose side. The oppositeand log side
Joint Efficiency or Factor.The strengthofajoint expressed as a of the veneerwhere checkingusually does not occur is called
percentageofthe strength of clear straight-grainedmaterial. the tight side.
Joist One ofa series ofparallel beams used to supportfloor and Layup. The process of looselyassemblingthe adhesive-coated
ceiling loads and supported in turn by larger beams, girders, or componentsof a unit, particularlya panel, to be pressed or
bearing walls. clamped.
Kiln. A chamberhaving controlledair-flow,temperature, and Lbs/MSGL. Abbreviationfor rate of adhesiveapplication in
relative humidityfor drying lumber.The temperatureis increased pounds ofadhesive per 1,000 ft2 of single glueline (bondline).
as drying progresses,and the relative humidityis decreased. (See Spread.) Whenboth faces ofan adherendare .pread as in
Kiln Dried. (See Seasoning.) some plywoodmanufacturingprocesses,the total weight of
adhesiveapplied may be expressed as Lbs/MDGL(pounds per
Knot. That portionofa branch or limb that has been surrounded 1,000 ft2double glueline).
by subsequentgrowth ofthe stem. The shape ofthe knot as it
appears on a cut surface dependson the angle of the cut relative Lignin. The second most abundant constituentof wood, located
to the long axis of' the knot. principallyin the secondary wall and the middle Iamella, which
is the thin cementing layer betweenwood cells. Chemically,it is
Encased Knot—A knot whose rings of annual growth are not an irregular polymer of substitutedpropyiphenol groups, and
intergrownwith those of the surroundingwood. thus, no simple chemicalformulacan be writtenfor it.
Intergrown Knot—A knot whose rings of annual growth are
completely intergrownwith those of the surroundingwood.

G-7
London Dispersion Forces. Intermolecularattractionforces Timbers—Lumberthat is standard 114 mm (nominal5 in.) or
between nonpolar molecules that result when instantaneous more in least dimension. Timbersmay be used as beams,
(nonpermanent) dipoles induce matching dipoles in neighbor- stringers, posts, caps, sills, girders, or purlins.
ing molecules. London forces also exist betweenpolar
molecules. Yard Lumber—A little-usedterm for lumberofall sizes and
patterns that is intended for general building purposes ha ing
Longitudinal. Generally,parallel to the direction of the wood no design property requirements.
fibers.
Lumberfor Dimension. The National DimensionManufactu--
Loose Knot. (See Knot.) ers Association defines both hardwoodand softwood dimension
Lumber. The product ofthe saw and planingmill for which components as being cut to a specific size from kiln-driedrough
lumber, bolts, cants, or logs. Dimensioncomponentsinclude
manufacturingis limited to sawing, resawing, passing length- Flat Stock (solid and laminated)for furniture, cabinet, and spe
wise through a standard planing machine, crosscuttingto
cialty manufactures.This term has largely supercededthe terms
length, and matching.Lumber may be made from either softwood "hardwood dimension"and "dimension parts." (See also
or hardwood(See also Lumber for Dimension.) Lumber).
Board—Lumber that is less than38 mm standard(2 in. nomi- Lumen. In wood anatomy,the cell cavity.
nal) thicknessand greater than38 mm standard(2 in nominal)
width. Boards less than 140 mm standard(6 in. nominal) ManufacturingJ)efects. Includes all defects or blemishesthat
width are sometimescalled strips. are produced in manufacturing, such as chipped grain, loosened
Dimension—Lumberwjth a thicknessfrom 38 mm standard grain, raised grain, torn grain, skips in dressing, hit and miss
(series ofsurfaced areas with skips between them), variation in
(2 in. nominal)up to but not including 114 mm standard(5 in. sawing,miscut lumber,machineburn, machinegouge, mismatch-
nominal)and a width of greaterthan 38 mm standard(2 in. ing, and insufficienttongue or groove.
nominal).
Mastic. A materialwith adhesive properties,usually used in
Dressed Size—Thedimensionsoflumberafter being surfaced
a
with planing machine. The dressed size is usually 1/2 to 3/4 relativelythick sections,that can be readily applied by extru-
in. less thanthe nominal or rough size. A 2- by 4-in, stud, for sion, trowel, or spatula.(See Adhesive.)
example, actually measures about 1-1/2 by 3-1/2 in. (standard Matched Lumber. (SeeLumber.)
38 by 89 mm).
Mechanical Adhesion. Adhesion between surfaces in which the
Factoryand Shop Lumber—Lumberintendedto be cut up for adhesive holds the parts together by interlocking action.
use in further manufacture. It is graded on the percentageofthe
a
area that will produce limitednumber of cuttings ofa speci- Medium-Density Fiberboard. (See Wood-Based Composite
fied minimumsize and quality. Panel.)
Matched Lumber—Lumber that is edge dressedand shaped Millwork. Planed and patterned lumber for finish work in build-
to make a close tongued-and-groovedjoint at the edges or ings, includingitems such as sash, doors, cornices, paneiwork,
ends when laid edge to edgeor end to end. and other items of interioror exteriortrim. Does not include
flooring,ceiling, or siding.
Nominal Size—As applied to timber or lumber,the size by
which it is known and sold in the market (oftendiffers from the Mineral Streak. An olive to greenish-blackor brown discolora-
actual size). tion of undeterminedcause in hardwoods.

Patterned Lumber—Lumber that is shapedto a pattern or to a Modified Wood. Woodprocessed by chemicaltreatment,com-

moldedform in additionto being dressed, matched, or pression, or other means (with or without heat) to impart proper-
ties quite different from those of the original wood.
shiplapped, or any combinationof these workings.
Moisture Content. The amount ofwater containedin the wood,
Rough Lumber—Lumberthat has not been dressed(surfaced)
but has been sawed, edged, and trimmed. usually expressed as a percentageofthe weight of the ovendry
wood.
Shiplapped Lumber—Lumberthat is edge dressed to make a Molecular Weight. The sum ofthe atomicweightsofthe atoms
lapped joint. in a molecule.
Shipping-Dry Lumber—Lumber that is partially dried to Moulded Plywood. (See Wood-Based Composite Panel.)
prevent stain and mold in transit.
Shop Lumber—(See Factoryand Shop Lumber.) Moulding. A wood strip having a curved or projecting surface,
used for decorative purposes.
Side Lumber—A board from the outer portionofthe log—
Monomer. A relativelysimple molecularcompoundthat can
ordinarilyone produced when squaringoffa log for a tie or
timber. react at morethanone site to form apolymer.
Structural Lumber—Lumberthat is intendedfor use where Mortise. A slot cut into a board, plank, or timber, usually edge-
allowableproperties are required. The grading of structural wise, to receive the tenon of anotherboard, plank, or timber to
lumber is basedon the strengthor stiffness ofthe piece as re- form ajoint.
lated to anticipated uses. Naval Stores. A term applied to the oils, resins, tars, and pitches
Surfaced Lumber—Lumber that is dressed by running it derived from oleoresincontainedin, exudedby, or extracted from
through a planer. trees, chiefly species of pines (genus Pinus). Historically,these
were importantitems in the stores of wood sailing vessels.
Nominal-Size Lumber. (See Lumber for Dimension.) Particles. The aggregate componentof particleboardtianufac-
tured by mechanicalmeans from wood. Theseinclude all small
Nonpolar. (See Polar.) subdivisionsofwood such as chips, curls, flakes, sawdust,
Nonpressure Process. Any process oftreating wood with a shavings, slivers, strands, wafers, wood flour, and wood wool.
preservativeor fire retardant where pressure is not applied. Some Peck. Pocketsor areas ofdisintegratedwood caused by ad-
examplesare surface applicationsby brushingor briefdipping, vanced stages of localizeddecay in the living tree. It is usually
soaking in preservativeoils, or steeping in solutions of water- associatedwith cypress and incense-cedar. There is ijo further
borne preservatives; diffusion processes with waterbornepre-
servatives;and vacuum treatments. developmentofpeck once the lumber is seasoned.
Peel. To converta log into veneer by rotary cutting. lit an adhe-
Oil Paint. A paintcontaininga suspension of pigmentsin an
sively bondedjoint, the progressiveseparationof a flexible
organic solvent and a drying oil, modifieddrying oil, or syn- memberfrom eithera rigidmemberor anotherflexiblemember.
thetic polymer that forms an opaquefilm through a combination
of solvent evaporationand curing of the oil or polymer. Phloem. The tissues ofthe inner bark, characterizedby the
Old Growth. Timber in orfrom a mature, naturallyestablished presenceofsieve tubes and servingfor the transport of elaborate
foodstuffs.
forest. When the trees have grown duringmost ifnot all oftheir
individual lives in active competitionwith their companions for Pile. A long, heavytimber, round or square,that is driven deep
sunlight and moisture, this timber is usually straight and rela- into the ground to provide a secure foundationfor structures
tively free ofknots. built on soft, wet, or submergedsites (for example, landing
Oleoresin. A solution ofresin in an essential oil that occurs in stages, bridge abutments).
or exudesfrom many plants, especiallysofiwoods. The oleoresin Pin Knot. (SeeKnot.)
from pine is a solution of pine resin (rosin) in turpentine.
Pitch Pocket. An opening extending parallel to the annual
Open Assembly Time. (SeeTime, Assembly.) growth rings and containing, or that has contained, pitch, either
solid or liquid.
Open Grain. (See Grain.)
Pitch Streaks. A well-definedaccumulation ofpitch in a more or
Orthotropic. Having unique and independentproperties in less regular streak in the wood of certain conifers.
three mutually orthogonal (perpendicular)planes ofsymmetry.A
special case of anisotropy. Pith. The small,softcoreoccurring near the center ofa tree trunk,
branch, twig, or log.
Ovendry Wood. Wood dried to a relativelyconstant weight in a
ventilated oven at 102°C to 105°C (215°F to 220°F). Pith Fleck. A narrowstreak,resemblingpith on the surfaceofa
piece; usually brownish,up to several centimeterslong; results
Overlay. A thin layer ofpaper, plastic,film, metal foil, or other from burrowingoflarvae in the growing tissues ofthe tree.
materialbondedto one or both faces ofpanel products or to
lumberto provide a protectiveor decorative face or a base for Plainsawn. (See Grain.)
painting.
Planing Mill Products. Productsworkedto pattern, such as
Paint. Any pigmented liquid, liquifiable, or mastic composition flooring,ceiling, and siding.
designed for applicationto a substrate in a thin layer that con- Plank. A broad, thick board laid with its wide dimension hori-
verts to an opaquesolid film after application.
zontal and used as a bearing surface.
Pallet. A low wood or metal platform on which materialcan be
stackedto facilitate mechanicalhandling, moving, and storage. Plasticizing Wood. Softeningwood by hot water, steam, or
chemicaltreatmentto increaseits moldability.
Paperboard. The distinction betweenpaper and paperboardis Pocket Rot. (SeeDecay.)
not sharp, but broadly speaking,the thicker (greaterthan0.3 mm
(0.012 in.)), heavier, and more rigid grades ofpaper are called Polar. Characteristic of a molecule in which the positive and
paperboard. negative electrical charges are permanentlyseparated,as op-
posed to nonpolar molecules in which the charges coincide.
Papreg. Anyof various paper products made by impregnating Water, alcohol,and wood are polar in nature; most hydrocarbon
sheets of specially manufacturedhigh-strengthpaper with syn-
thetic resin and laminatingthe sheets to form a dense, mois- liquids are not.
ture-resistant product. Polymer. A compound formedby the reaction of simple mole-
cules having functional groups that permit their combinationto
Parallel Strand Lumber. A structuralcompositelumber made
from wood strand elementswith the wood fiber oriented proceed to high molecularweights under suitable conditions.
Polymersmaybe formedby polymerization(additionpolymer)
primarilyalong the length ofthe member. or polycondensation (condensationpolymer). When two or
Parenchyma. Short cells having simple pits and functioning more differentmonomers are involved, the productis called a
primarilyin the metabolismand storage ofplant food materials. copolymer.
They remain alive longer thanthe tracheids, fibers, and vessel
elements, sometimes for many years. Two kinds ofparenchyma Polymerization. A chemicalreactionin which the molecules ofa
monomerare linkedtogetherto form large moleculeswhose
cells are recognized—thosein vertical strands,known more molecularweight is a multiple ofthat ofthe original substance.
specifically as axial parenchyma,and those in horizontalseries Whentwo or more different monomersare involved,the process
in the rays, known as ray parenchyma. is called copolymerization,
Pore.(SeeVessel Elements.)

0-9
Postformed Plywood. (See Wood-Based Composite Panel.) Resilience. The propertywhereby a strained body gives up its
stored energyonthe removalofthe deforming force.
Post Cure. (I) A treatment(normallyinvolving heat) applied to
an adhesive assembly followingthe initial cure, to complete Resin. (1) Solid, semisolid,or pseudosolidresin—An organc
cure, or to modify specificproperties.(2) To expose an adhesive materialthat has an indefinite and often high molecularweight,
assembly to an additionalcure, followingthe initial cure; to exhibits a tendency to flow when subjected to stress, usually
complete cure; or to modifyspecific properties. has a softeningor melting range, and usually fractures conchoi-
Pot Life. (SeeWorkingLife.) dally. (2) Liquid resin—anorganic polymeric liquid that, when
converted to its final state for use, becomesa resin.
Precure. Conditionoftoo much cure, set, or solvent loss of the Resin Ducts. Intercellularpassages that contain and transmit
adhesive before pressure is applied, resulting in inadequate resinousmaterials.On a cut surface,theyare usually incon-
flow, transfer, and bonding. spicuous. They may extend verticallyparallel to the axis of the
Preservative. Any substancethat, for a reasonable lengthoftime, tree or at right angles to the axis and parallelto the rays.
is effective in preventingthe developmentand action of Retention by Assay. The determinationof preservativeretention
wood-rottingfungi, borers of various kinds, and harmful insects in a specific zone oftreated wood by extractionor analysisof
that deteriorate wood.
specifiedsamples.
Pressure Process. Any process oftreating wood in a closed
container whereby the preservativeor fire retardant is forced into Rheology.The study ofthe deformationand flow ofmatter.
the wood under pressures greater than one atmosphere. Pressure Ring Failure. A separationof the wood during seasoning,
is generallypreceded or followed by vacuum, as in the vac- occurring along the grain and parallelto the growth rings. (See
uum-pressureand empty-cellprocesses respectively; or they may Shake.)
alternate, as in the full-cell and alternating-pressureprocesses.
Ring-Porous Woods. A group ofhardwoodsin which the pores
Progressive Kiln. (See Kiln.) are comparativelylarge at the beginningofeach annual ring and
decreasein size more or less abruptlytoward the outer portior of
Psychrometer. An instrument formeasuringthe amount ofwater the ring, thus forming a distinct inner zone of pores, known as
vapor in the atmosphere. It has both a dry-bulb and wet-bulb the earlywood, and an outer zone with smaller pores, known as
thermometer. The bulb ofthe wet-bulb thermometer is kept mois- the latewood.
tened and is, therefore, cooled by evaporation to a temperature
lower than that shown by the dry-bulb thermometer. Because Ring Shake. (See Shake.)
evaporationis greater in dry air, the difference betweenthe two
thermometerreadings will be greaterwhen the air is dry than Rip. To cut lengthwise, parallel to the grain.
when it is moist. Roll Spreading. Applicationofa film ofa liquidmaterialto a
surface by means ofrollers.
Quartersawn.(See Grain.)
Radial. Coincidentwith a radius from the axis ofthe tree or log Room-Temperature-Setting Adhesive.(See Adhesive.)
to the circumference. A radial section is a lengthwisesection in a Rot. (See Decay.)
plane that passes throughthe centerline of the tree trunk.
Rotary-Cut Veneer. (SeeVeneer.)
Radiofrequency (RF) Curing. Curing ofbondlinesbthe
applicationof radiofrequencyenergy.(Sometimescalled Rough Lumber. (See Lumber.)
high-frequency curing.) Sandwich Construction. (SeeStructural Sandwich Construc
Rafter. One ofa seriesofstructuralmembers ofa roofdesigned tion.)
to support roofloads. The rafters ofa flat roofare sometimes
called roofjoists. Sap Stain.(See Stain.)
Sapwood. The wood ofpale color near the outside ofthe log.
Raised Grain. A roughenedconditionofthe surface of dressed Under most conditions, the sapwood is more susceptible to
lumber in which the hard latewood is raised above the softer decay than heartwood.
earlywoodbut not torn loose from it.
Sash. A frame structure, normallyglazed (such as a window),
Rays, Wood. Strips of cells extending radially within a tree and that is hung or fixed in a frame set in an opening.
varying in heightfrom a few cells in somespeciesto 4 or more
inches in oak. The rays serve primarilyto store food and trans- Sawn Veneer.(SeeVeneer.)
port it horizontallyin the tree. On quartersawnoak, the rays SawKerf. (1) Grooves or notches made in cuttingwith a saw.
form aconspicuousfigure, sometimesreferred to as flecks.
(2) That portion ofa log, timber, or other piece ofwood removed
ReactionWood. Wood with more or less distinctive anatomical by the saw in parting the material into two pieces.
characters, formed typicallyin parts of leaning or crooked stems Scarf Joint. (See Joint.)
and in branches. In hardwoods, this consists oftension wood,
and in softwoods, compressionwood. Schedule, Kiln Drying. A prescribed series of dry- and wet-bulb
Relative Humidity. Ratio ofthe amountofwatervapor present temperaturesand air velocities used in drying a kiln charge of
in the air to that which the air would hold at saturation at the lumber or other wood products.
same temperature.It is usually consideredon the basis ofthe
weight ofthe vapor but,for accuracy,should be consideredon
the basis of vapor pressures.

G-l0
Seasoning. Removingmoisturefrom green wood to improveits Solid Color Stains (OpaqueStains). A suspensionoCpigments
serviceability. in either a drying oil-organic solvent mixture or a water—
Air Dried—Dried by exposureto air in a yard or shed,with- polymeremulsion designedto color and protect a wood surface
out artificialheat. by forminga film. Solid color stains are similarto paints in
applicationtechniques and in performance.
Kiln Dried—Dried in a kiln with the use of artificia:lheat. Solids Content. The percentageofweight ofthe nonvolatile
Second Growth. Timberthat has grown after the removal, matter in an adhesive.
whether by cutting,fire, wind, or other agency,of all or a large SolventAdhesive.(SeeAdhesive.)
part of the previous stand.
Sound Knot. (See Knot.)
Semitransparent Stain. A suspension ofpigments in either a
drying oil—organic solventmixture or a water—polymeremul- SpecificAdhesion. Adhesionbetween surfacesthat are held
sion, designedto color and protect wood surfacesby penetra- togetherby valence forces ofthe same type as those that give rise
tion without forming a surface film and without hiding wood to cohesion.
grain.
SpecificGravity.As applied to wood, the ratio ofthe ovendry
Set. Apermanentor semipermanent deformation. In referenceto weightofa sampleto the weightof a volumeofwater equal to
adhesives,to convert an adhesiveinto a fixed or hardened state the volumeofthe sampleat a specifiedmoisturecontent (green,
by chemical or physical action, such as condensation, polymeri- air dry, or ovendry).
zation, oxidation, vulcanization,gelation, hydration, or evapo-
ration of volatile constituents. SpikeKnot.(See Knot.)
Shake. A separationalong the grain, the greater part ofwhich Spiral Grained. (See Grain.)
occurs between the rings of annual growth. Usually considered Spread. The quantityofadhesiveper unit joint area applied to
to have occurred in the standingtree or duringfelling. an adherend. (See Lbs/MSGL.)
Shakes. In construction,shakes are a type of shingleusually
hand cleft from a bolt and used for roofing or weatherboarding.
t
Single spread—Refers to applicationofadhesive only one
adherend ofajoint.
Shaving. A small wood particleof indefinitedimensionsdevel- Double spread—Refers to applicationofadhesiveto both
oped incidental to certain woodworking operations involving adherends ofajoint.
rotary cutterheads usually turning in the direction of the grain.
This cutting action produces a thin chip ofvarying thickness, Springwood. (SeeEarlywood.)
usually feathered along at least one edge and thick at another Squeezeout. Bead of adhesivesqueezedout ofajoint when
and generally curled.
pressure is applied.
Shear. In an adhesivelybondedjoint, stress, strain, or failure Stain. A discoloration in wood that maybe caused by such
resulting from applied forces that tends to cause adjacentplanes diverseagenciesas micro-organisms, metal, or chemicals.The
ofa body to slide parallel in opposite directions. term also appliesto materialsused to impart color to wood.
Sheathing. The structural covering, usually of boards., building Blue Stain—A bluish or grayish discoloration of the sap-
fiberboards,or plywood, placed over exterior studding or rafters wood caused by the growth of certain dark-colored fungi on
ofa structure, the surface and in the interior of the wood; made possible by
ShelfLife.(See Storage Life.) the same conditions that favor the growth ofother fungi.
Shiplapped Lumber.(SeeLumber.) Brown Stain—A rich brown to deep chocolate-brown dis-
coloration ofthe sapwood ofsome pines caused by a fungus
Shipping-Dry Lumber. (See Lumber.) that acts much like the blue-stain fungi.
Shop Lumber.(SeeLumber.) Chemical Brown Stain—A chemicaldiscolorationof wood,
Side Grained. (See Grain.) which sometimesoccurs during the air drying or kiln drying
of several species, apparentlycaused by the concentrationand
SideLumber.(SeeLumber.) modification of extractives.
Siding. The finish coveringofthe outside wall ofa frame build- Sap Stain—A discoloration of the sapwood caused by the
ing, whether made ofhorizontal weatherboards, vertical boards growthof certainfungi on the surface and in the interior ofthe
with battens, shingles, or other material. wood;made possible by the same conditions that favor the
Slash Grained. (See Grain.) growth ofother fungi.
Sticker Stain—A brown or bluestain that develops in sea-
SlicedVeneer. (SeeVeneer.) soning lumber where it has been in contact with the stickers.
Soft Rot. (See Decay.) Starved Joint.(SeeJoint.)
Softwoods. Generally, one ofthe botanical groups of trees that Static Bending. Bendingunder a constant or slowly applied
have no vessels and in most cases, have needlelikeor scalelike load; flexure.
leaves, the conifers,alsothe wood producedby such trees. The
term has no referenceto the actualhardnessofthe wood.

G-l1
Staypak. Wood that is compressedin its natural state (that is, Surfaced Lumber. (See Lumber.)
without resin or other chemicaltreatment) under controlled
conditions of moisture, temperature,and pressure that practically Symmetrical Construction. Plywood panels in which the plies
on one side ofa center ply or core are essentiallyequal in thick-
eliminatespringbackor recovery from compression. The product
ness, grain direction,properties, and arrangementto those on the
has increased density and strength characteristics. other side ofthe core.
Stickers. Strips or boards used to separatethe layers oflumber in Tack. The propertyofan adhesivethat enables it to form a bond
a pile and thus improveair circulation. ofmeasurablestrengthimmediately after adhesiveand adherend
Sticker Stain. (SeeStain.) are brought into contact under low pressure.
Storage Life. The period of time during which a packagedadhe- Tangential. Strictly, coincident with a tangent at the circumfer-
sive can be stored under specific temperatureconditions and ence ofa tree or log, or parallel to such a tangent. In practice,
remainsuitablefor use. Sometimescalledshelf life. however,it often means roughly coincident with a growth ring.
A tangential section is a longitudinalsection through a tree or
Straight Grained. (See Grain.) limb perpendicularto a radius. Flat-grainedlumber is sawed
Strength.(1) The ability ofa memberto sustain stress without tangentially.
failure. (2) In a specificmode oftest, the maximum stresssus-
tained by a memberloaded to failure. Temperature, Curing. The temperatureto which an adhesiveor
an assemblyis subjectedto cure the adhesive. The temperature
Strength Ratio. The hypotheticalratio of the strengthofa struc- attained by the adhesive in the process of curing (adhesive
tural memberto that which it would have if it containedno curingtemperature) may differ fromthe temperatureofthe atmos-
strength-reducingcharacteristics (such as knots, slope-of-grain, phere surrounding the assembly (assembly curing temperature).
shake). Temperature, Setting. (SeeTemperature,Curing.)
Stress-Wave Timing. A method ofmeasuringthe apparent Tenon. A projecting memberleft by cuttingaway the wood
stiffnessofamaterial by measuringthe speed ofan induced aroundit for insertioninto a mortiseto make ajoint.
compressionstress as it propagates through the material.
Tension. In an adhesively bondedjoint, a uniaxial force tending
Stressed-Skin Construction.A constructionin which panels to cause extensionof the assembly,or the counteractingforce
are separatedfrom one anotherby a centralpartitionofspaced within the assembly that resists extension.
strips with the whole assembly bonded so that it acts as a unit
when loaded. Tension Wood. Abnormalwood found in leaning trees ofsome
hardwoodspeciesand characterized by the presence of gelati-
Stringer. A timber or other supportfor cross membersin floorsor nous fibers and excessive longitudinal shrinkage. Tension wood
ceilings. In stairs, the support on which the stairtreads rest. fibers hold together tenaciously, so that sawed surfaces usually
Structural InsulatingBoard. (See Wood-Based Composite have projectingfibers and planed surfaces often are torn or have
Panel.) raised grain. Tension wood may cause warping.
Structural Lumber.(See Lumber.) Texture. A term often used interchangeably with grain. Some-
times used to combine the conceptsofdensity and degree of
Structural Sandwich Construction. A layered construction contrast between earlywoodand latewood. In this handbook.,
consisting of a combinationof relativelyhigh-strengthfacing texturerefersto the finer structureofthe wood (See Grain.)
materials intimately bonded to and acting integrallywith a rather than the annual rings.
low-density core material.
Structural Timbers. Pieces ofwood ofrelativelylarge size, the Thermoplastic. (1) Capableofbeing repeatedly softenedby heat
and hardened by cooling. (2) A materialthat will repeatedly
strengthor stiffness of which is the controllingelement in their soften when heated and harden when cooled.
selection and use. Examples of structuraltimbers are trestle
timbers (stringers, caps, posts, sills, bracing, bridge ties, guard- Thermoset. A cross-linkedpolymericmaterial.
rails); car timbers (car framing,includingupper framing, car Thermosetting. Having the property of undergoinga chemical
sills); framing for building (posts, sills, girders); ship timber reaction by the action of heat, catalyst, ultraviolet light, and
(ship timbers, ship decking); and crossarmsfor poles. hardener, leading to a relatively infusible state.
Stud. One ofa seriesofslenderwood structuralmembersused as
Timbers, Round. Timbers used in the original round form, such
supportingelements in walls and partitions. as poles, piling, posts, and mine timbers.
Substrate. A materialupon the surfaceofwhich an adhe-
sive-containingsubstanceis spread for any purpose, such as Timber, Standing. Timberstill on the stump.
bondingor coating. A broader term thanadherend.(See Timbers. (SeeLumber.)
Adherend.)
Time, Assembly. The time interval betweenthe spreadingofthe
Summerwood. (SeeLatewood.) adhesiveon the adherend and the applicationof pressure or heat,
Surface Inactivation.In adhesive bondingto wood, physical or both, to the assembly. (For assemblies involvingmultiple
and chemicalmodificationsofthe wood surface that result in layers or parts, the assemblytime begins with the spreadingof
reduced ability of an adhesiveto properlywet, flow, penetrate, the adhesive on the first adherend.)
and cure.
Open Assembly Time—The time interval betweenthe spread-
SurfaceTension. The force per unit length acting in the surface ing ofthe adhesiveon the adherend and the completionof as-
of a liquid that opposesthe increasein area ofthe liquid semblyofthe parts for bonding.
(spreading).

G-12
 Closed Assembly Time—The time interval betweencomple- other to form continuoustubes called vessels. The opcnings of
tion ofassemblyofthe parts for bonding and the application the vessels on the surface of a piece ofwood are usuallyreferred
ofpressure or heat, or both, to the assembly. to as pores.
Time, Curing. The period during which an assemblyis sub- Virgin Growth. The growth ofmaturetrees in the original
jected to heat or pressure,or both, to cure the adhesive. forests.
Time, Setting. (See Time, Curing.) Viscoelasticity. The ability of a materialto simultaneously
exhibit viscous and elastic responses to deformation.
Toughness A qualityof wood that permitsthe materialto
absorb a relativelylarge amountof energy,to withstandrepeated Viscosity. The ratio of the shear stress existing between laminae
shocks,and to undergo considerabledeformationbefore ofmovingfluid and the rate of shearbetweenthese laminae.
breaking. Waferboard.(SeeWood-Based Composite Panel.)
Tracheid. The elongatedcells that constitutethe greaterpart of
the structureofthe softwoods(frequentlyreferredto as fibers). Wane.Bark or lack ofwoodfrom any cause on edge or corner ofa
Also present in some hardwoods. pieceexcept for eased edges.
Transfer. In wood bonding, the sharing of adhesivebetween a Warp. Any variationfrom atrue or plane surface. Wap includes
spread and an unspread surfacewhen the two adherends are bow, crook, cup, and twist, or any combination thereof.
brought into contact. Water Repellent. A liquid that penetrateswood that materially
Transverse.Directions in wood at right angles to the wood retards changes in moisturecontent and dimensionsol the dried
fibers. Includes radial and tangential directions.A transverse wood without adversely altering its desirable properties.
section is a section through a tree or timber at right angles to Water-Repellent Preservative. A water repellentthat: containsa
the pith. preservativethat, after applicationto wood and drying, accom-
Treenail. A wooden pin, peg, or spike used chiefly for fastening plishes the dual purpose of impartingresistance to att:ack by
planking and ceiling to a framework. fungi or insects and alsoretards changes in moisture content.
Trim. The finish materials in a building,such as moldings, Weathering. The mechanicalor chemicaldisintegrationand
discolorationofthe surface of wood caused by exposureto light,
applied aroundopenings (window trim, door trim) or at the floor the action of dust and sand carried by winds, and the alternate
and ceiling of rooms (baseboard,cornice,and other moldings).
shrinkingand swellingofthe surface fibers with the continual
Truss.An assemblyofmembers,such as beams, bars, rods, and variation in moisture content brought by changes in the
the like, so combinedasto form a rigid framework. All members weather. Weathering does not include decay.
are interconnectedto form triangles.
Wet Strength. The strengthof an adhesivejoint determined
Twist. A distortion caused by the turning or windingofthe immediately after removalfrom water in which it has been im-
edges ofaboard so that the fourcomersofany face are no longer mersed underspecifiedconditions oftime, temperature, and
in the same plane. pressure.
Tyloses. Masses ofparenchymacells appearingsomewhatlike Wet-Bulb Temperature. The temperatureindicated by the
froth in the pores of some hardwoods,notably the white oaks wet-bulbthermometer of a psychrometer.
and black locust. Tyloses are formedby the extensionofthe cell
wall of the living cells surroundingvessels ofhardwood. Wettability. A conditionofa surfacethat determines how fast a
liquidwill wet and spread on the surface or ifit will be repelled
Ultrasonics. (SeeStress-Wave Timing.) and not spread on the surface.
van der Waal Forces. Physicalforces of attractionbetween Wetting. The process in which a liquid spontaneouslyadheres
molecules, which include permanent dipole, induced dipole, to and spreads on a solid surface.
hydrogen bond, and London dispersion forces. White-Rot. (SeeDecay.)
Vapor Retarder. A materialwith a high resistance to vapor Wood-Based Composite Panel.A genericterm for a material
movement, such as foil, plastic film, or specially coatedpaper,
that is used in combinationwith insulation to control manufacturedfrom wood veneer, strands,flakes, particles,or
condensation. fibers or other lignocellulosic material and a syntheticresin or
other binder.
Veneer. A thin layer or sheet ofwood. Cold-Pressed Plywood—Refersto interior-typeplywood
Rotary-CutVeneer—Veneercut in a lathe that rotates a log or manufacturedin a press without external applicationsofheat.
bolt, chucked in the center, against a knife. Composite Panel—A veneer-facedpanel with a reconstituted
Sawn Veneer—Veneerproducedby sawing. wood core. The flakeboardcore may be random or have align-
ment in the direction 900 from thegraindirectionof the veneer
Sliced Veneer—Veneerthat is sliced offa log, bolt, or hitch faces.
with a knife.
Exterior Plywood—Ageneralterm for plywoodbonded with
Vertical Grained.(See Grain.) a type of adhesivethat by systematictests and service records
has proved highly resistant to weather; micro-organisms;
Vertically Laminated Timbers. (See Laminated Timbers.)
cold, hot, and boiling water; steam; and dry heat.
Vessel Elements. Wood cells in hardwoodsof comparatively
large diameterthat have open ends and are set one abovethe

G-13
ExtrudedParticleboard—A particleboardmade by ramming structural application may have flakes aligned in orthogonal
bindercoated particles into a heated die, which subsequently directions in various layers that mimic the structure of ply-
cures the binder and forms a rigid mass as the materialis wood. Three- and five-layerconstructions are most common.
moved through the die. Oriented Strandboard—A type ofparticle panel product
Fiberboard—Abroad generic term inclusiveof sheet materi- composed of strand-type flakes that are purposefully aligned
als of widely varying densitiesmanufacturedofrefined or par- in directions that makea panel stronger, stiffer, and with im-
tially refined wood (or other vegetable) fibers. Bonding proved dimensionalproperties in the alignment directions
agents and other materials may be addedto increasestrength, thana panel with random flake orientation.
resistanceto moisture, fire, or decay, or to improvesome other
Plywood. A glued wood panel made up of relativelythin lay-
property. (See Medium-Density Fiberboard.) ers ofveneer with the grain of adjacentlayers at right angles
Flakeboard—A particlepanel product composedof flakes. or ofveneerin combination with a core of lumberorofrecon-
stituted wood. The usual constructionshave an odd number of
Hardboard—A genericterm for a panel manufacturedprimar- layers.
ily from interfeltedlignocellulosicfibers (usually wood), con-
solidated under heat and pressure in a hot press to a density of Postformed Plywood—Theproductformed when flat ply-
496 kg/rn3 (31 lb/fl3) or greater and to which other materials wood is reshaped into a curved configurationby steaming or
may have been added during manufactureto improve certain plasticizing agents.
properties. Structural Insulating Board—A generic term for a homoge-
Interior Plywood—Ageneralterm for plywoodmanufactured neous panel made from lignocellulosic fibers (usually wood cr
for indoor use or in construction subjectedto only temporary cane) characterized by an integral bond produced by interfelt-
moisture. The adhesiveused may be interior, intermediate, or ing ofthe fibers,to which other materials may have been added
exterior. during manufactureto improve certain properties, but which
has not been consolidatedunder heat and pressure as a sepa-
Laminated Veneer Lumber(LVL)—A structural lumber rate stage in manufacture; has a density ofless than 496 kg/ni
manufacturedfrom veneers laminated into a panel with the (31 lb/ft3) (specificgravity 0.50) but more than 160 kg/rn3
grain of all veneer running parallel to each other.The result- (10 lb/fl3) (specific gravity 0.16).
ing panel is normallymanufacturedin 19- to 38-mm(3/4- to
1-1/2-in.)thicknesses and ripped to commonlumber widths of Waferboard—A particlepanel product made ofwafer-type
38 to 290mm(1-1/2 to 11-1/2 in.) or wider. flakes. Usuallymanufacturedto possess equal properties in a I
directions parallelto the plane of the panel.
Marine Plywood—Plywoodpanels manufacturedwith the
same glueline durability requirements as other exterior-type Wood Failure. The rupturingofwood fibers in strength tests of
panels but with more restrictive veneer quality requirements. bonded joints usually expressed as the percentage of the total
area involvedthat showssuch failure. (See Failure, Adherend.)
Mat-Formed Particleboard—A particleboardin which the
particles (being previously coated with the binding agent) are Wood Flour. Wood reduced to finely divided particles,
formedinto a mat having,substantiallythe same lengthand approximately the same as those of cerealflours in size, appear-
width as the finished panel. This mat is then duly pressed in a ance,and texture, and passinga 40 to 100 mesh screen.
heated flat-platen press to cure the binding agent. Wood Substance. The solid materialofwhich wood is com-
Medium-Density Fiberboard—A panel productmanufactured posed. It usuallyrefers to the extractive-freesolid substanceof
from lignocellulosicfibers combined with a syntheticresin or which the cell walls are composed,but this is not alwaystrue.
other suitable binder. The panels are manufacturedto a density There is not a wide variation in chemical compositionor spe-
of496 k/m3 (31 lb/&)(0.50 specific gravity)to 880 kg/rn3 cific gravity betweenthe wood substance ofvarious species.
(55 lb/ft) (0.88 specific gravity) by the applicationof heat (The characteristic differences ofspeciesare largely due to differ-
and pressure by a process in which the interfiberbond is sub- ences in extractivesand variations in relative amountsofcell
stantially created by the added binder. Other materialsmay walls and cell cavities.)
have been added during manufacturingto improve certain Wood Wool. Long, curly, slender strands of wood used as an
properties. aggregatecomponentfor some particleboards.
Mende-Process Board—A particleboardmade in a continu-
ous ribbon from wood particles with thermosettingresins Workability. The degree ofease and smoothnessof cut obtain-
able with hand or machinetools.
used to bond the particles. Thickness ranges from 0.8 to
6.3 mm (1/32 to 1/4 in.). WorkingLife. The period oftime during which an adhesive,
after mixing with catalyst, solvent, or other compoundingingre-
Moulded Plywood—Plywoodthat is glued to the desired
dients, remains suitable for use. Also called pot life.
shapeeither betweencurved forms or more commonly by fluid
pressure applied with flexible bags or blankets (bag mould- Working Properties. The propertiesof an adhesivethat affect or
ing) or other means. dictate the mannerofapplicationto the adherends to be bonded
and the assembly ofthe joint before pressure application (such
Muttilayer Particleboard—A typeof constructionin which as viscosity,pot life, assemblytime, setting time).
the wood particles are made or classifiedinto differentsizes
and placed into the preprocessedpanel configurationto Xylem. The portion of the tree trunk, branches,and roots that
produce a panel with specific properties.Panels that are lies betweenthe pith and the cambium (that is the wood).
destined for primarily nonstructuraluses requiring smooth
faces are configured with small particles on the outside and YardLumber. (See Lumber.)
coarser particles on the interior (core). Panels designed for

G-14
 used with fire-retardant-treated stress grading, 6-2 to 6-3
Index woods, 9-6 American Society ofTesting and
Accelerated air-drying, 12-6 uses, 9-i, 9-13t to 9-14t Materials(ASTM):
Acid copper chromate(ACC): use on veneers, 9-4 to 9-5 and AWPA standards, [7-12
use on wood and nonwood calculating design propcrties, 6-3
components, 14-10
effectivenessand leaching, 14-10 composites,9-5 to 9-6 calculating strength ratios, 6-3
retention levels for various wood use with chemically modifiedwood, calculatingwood properties for
9-6 visual stress grades, 6-3
products, 14-6t
Southern pine sapwood stakes used with preservative-treated criticalradiantflux offloor-
retention and life span test results, wood, 9-6 covering systems using a radiant
14-13t working life, 9-12, 9-15 heat energy source(ASTM E648),
Adjustmentof propertiesfor design 17-4
temperaturefor pressuretreating,
14-21 use, 6-i to 6-14 related test methods, 17-9
Adherends: Advantagesofusing wood for cone calorimeter(ATSM 1354), 17-
bond strength properties, 9-21 structures, 1-2 6, 17-8
Afara.See Limba fire tests ofroofcovering(ASTM
density and porosity, 9-6 to 9-7 Afrormosia:
ease of bondingby species, 9-8t E108), 17-4
extractiveson surface, effecton, 9-3 characteristics, 1-17 fire-resistancetest (ASTM El 19),
knife- and abrasive-planedsurfaces, decay resistance, 1-17 17-4, 17-10, 17-lit
ease of bonding, 9-8t flamespread (ASTM E84), 17-2, 17-
9-3 to 9-4, 9-4fig
mechanicaltesting ofbonded locality of growth, 1-17 4, 17-8, 17-12
mechanicalproperties, 4-16t, 4-20t flamespread index for solid sawn
assemblies,9-20 to 9-21
moisture content: shrinkage values, 3-lOt lumber, l7-3t
and dimensionalchange, 9-7 uses, 1-17 NBS smoke chamber (ASTME662),
Air-drying advantages and 17-9 to 17-10
control, 9-15 to 9-16
U.S. averages, 9-16, 9-l6fig limitations, 12-6 AmericanSoftwoodLumber Standard,
surface preparation,9-16 Albarco: 5-1,5-7, 6-2
surfaceproperties, 9-2 to 9-3 characteristics, 1-17 Americanstandardlumber sizes, 5-10,
veneer surfaces,9-4 to 9-5 locality of growth, 1-17 5-lit
mechanicalproperties, 4-i6t; 4-20t American Wood Preserver;'
wettability, 9-3
wood and nonwood composites, 9- shrinkage values, 3-lOt Association:
5 to 9-6 uses, 1-17 fire-retardant-treatedwcod, 17-12,
Adhesives: workability, 1-17 17-13
affectedby: Alder, red: Ammoniafor plasticizingwood, 19-2
characteristics, 1-3 Ainmoniacai copper citrate (CC):
physical properties, 9-6 to 9-9 characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t retention levels for various wood
surfaceproperties, 9-2 to 9-5
wood density, 9-6 to 9-7 color and figure, 3-3t products, I4-6t
wood moisture content, 9-9 decay resistance, 3-18t solution percentages, 14-12
wood porosity, 9-7 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- temperaturefor pressure treating,
16t 14-21
analytic chemical and mechanical ease of bonding, 9-8t Ammoniacaicopper quat(ACQ):
testing ofpolymers, 9-20 erosion of planed surfaces, 15-8t commontypes, 14-li
assembly and pressing, 9-16 to 9-
18, 9-l7fig locality of growth, 1-3 composition of commontypes, 14-
composition,9-9 to 9-10 machiningand related properties,3- lit
16t retention levels for various wood
consistency, effect of, 9-16 to 9-17,
moisture content, 3-6t products, 14-6t
9-i7fig nomenclature,5-St uses, 14-li
definition, 9-1
ease of bondingby species, 9-8t plywood stiffness and strength, 10- Ammoniacai copper zinc aisenate
form and color oftypes, 9-13t to 9- lit (ACZA):
14t shock resistance, 1-3 composition, 14-li
health and safety, 9-10 shrinkage values, 3-9t replacementfor ACA, 14-il
mechanicaltesting ofbonded size ofpores, i5-3it retention levels for various wood
assemblies,9-20 to 9-21 strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t products, 14-6t
post-cure conditioning, 9-18 uses, 1-3 temperaturefor pressuretreating,
preparation and application, 9-13t AlkyI ammoniumcompound: 14-2 1
to 9-14t effectiveness, 14-9 use, 14-10
in ammoniacalcopper quat, 14-il use with Douglas-fir, 14-10 to 14-
quality assuranceprograms, 9-22 to ii
9-23 solubility, 14-9
short- and long-term performance,9- Almon. See Lauans Anani. See Manni
21 to 9-22, 9-22fig Alpha paper, 19-12 Anaura. See Marishballi
Amaranth.See Purpleheart Andiroba:
selection, 9-12 to 9-15 American Lumber StandardCommittee characteristics, 1-18
spreading 9-16, 9-17fig
(ALSC): characteristicsaffecting machining,
strength and durability, 9-10 to 9-
12, 9-lit, 9-i3t to 9-i4t accepting design values for foreign 3-17t
strength properties, 9-21 species, 6-3, 6-4t decay resistance, 3-i8t
design properties, 6-3

I—1
 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t
I7t thermal conductivity, 3-19t thermal conductivity, 3-19t
durability, 1-18 uses, 1-4 Aspen, quaking:
ease of bonding, 9-8t Ash, blue: dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
1 6t
locality of growth, 1-17 shrinkage values, 3-9t
mechanical properties, 4-i6t, 4-20t strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-15t
nomenclature,1-17 to 1-18 Ash, green: plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
resistance to decay and insects, 1- dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- lit
18 16t Poisson ratio, 4-3t
shrinkage values, 3-lOt moisture content, 3-6t shrinkage values, 3-9t
uses, 1-18 penetration, 14-16t strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t
workability, 1-18 shrinkage values, 3-9t thermal conductivity, 3-l9t
Angelin (See also Sucupira): strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t Avodire:
ease ofbonding, 9-8t Ash, Oregon: characteristics, 1-18
mechanicalproperties, 4-16t, 4-20t color and figure, 3-6t characteristicsaffecting machining,
shrinkage values, 3-lot dimensionalchange coefficient,12- 3-17t
Angelique: i6t decay resistance, 3-l8t
characteristics, 1-18 nomenclature, 5-5t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
characteristicsaffecting machining, shrinkagevalues, 3-9t 17t
3-17t strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t ease of bonding, 9-8t
decay resistance, 3-l8t Ash, pumpkin: locality of growth, 1-18
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t
l7t 16t shrinkage values, 3-lot
ease of bonding, 9-8t shrinkage values, 3-9t shock resistance, 1-18
machining properties, 1-18 Ash, white: uses, 1-18
mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t characteristics, 1-3 workability, 1-8
resistance to decay and insects, 1- characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t Axial load, deformation, 8-1, 8-1eq
18 color and figure, 3-3t Axial members,glulamcombinations,
shrinkage values, 3-lot connector joint strength, 7-2it 11-5
uses, 1-18 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Azobe:
Animal adhesives: 16t characteristics, 1-18
structuralperformance,9-lit ease ofbonding, 9-8t decay resistance, 3-i8t
elastic ratio, 4-2t ease of bonding, 9-8t
working and strength properties,
and uses, 9-13t locality of growth, 1-3 locality ofgrowth, 1-18
moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t mechanical properties, 4-i6t, 4-20t
Ants, carpenter, 13-13
Annual growth rings. See Growth nomenclature,5-St resistance to decay and insects, 1-
penetration, 14-i6t 18
rings
Poisson ratio, 4-3t marine borers, 13-14
Apa. See Wallaba
Apamate.See Roble shrinkage values, 3-9t shrinkage values, 3-lot
Apitong. (See also Keruing): shock resistance, 1-3 workability, 1-18
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- species, 1-3 uses, 1-18
17t thermal conductivity, 3-19t
Bacteria causing decay, 13-8
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- uses, 1-3
lit Aspen: Back priming, 15-23
shrinkage values, 3-lOt characteristics, 1-4 Bagtikan. See Seraya, white
color and figure, 3-3t Balata:
Apple:
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- connectorjoint strength, 7-21t characteristics, 1-18
16t decay resistance,3-l8t decay resistance, 3-i8t
moisture content, 3-6t ease of bonding, 9-8t ease of bonding, 9-8t
Ash: locality of growth, 1-4 locality of growth, 1-18
machiningand related properties, 3- resistance to decay and insects, 1-
decay resistance, 3-18t
for flooring,5-6, 5-7 1 6t 18
machiningand related properties, 3- moisture content, 3-6t shrinkage values, 3-lot
16t nomenclature,5-St uses, 1-19
size of pores, 15-3 It shock resistance, 1-4 workability, 1-18
size ofpores, 15-3lt Balau:
Ash, black:
characteristics, 1-4 species, 1-4 characteristics, 1-19
color and figure, 3-3t uses, 1-4 decay resistance, 3-18t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- workability, 1-4 ease of bonding, 9-8t
1 6t Aspen, bigtooth: locality of growth, 1-19
locality of growth, 1-4 characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t species, 1-19
moisture content, 3-6t mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-15t uses, 1-19
nomenclature, 5-5t penetration, 14-i6t Baldeypress:
shrinkage values, 3-9t plywood stiffness and strength, 10- characteristics, 1-10
species, 1-4 lit characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t
shrinkage values, 3-9t color and figure, 3-4t
specific gravity, 1-4

1—2
 connector joint strength, 7-2it in wood—polymer composites, strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t
decay resistance, 3-18t 19-i it tensile strength, 4-24t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- thermal conductivity, American, 3- thermal conductivity, 3-19t
1 6t 1 9t uses, 1-4
elastic ratio, 4-2t uses, 1-4 Bees, carpenter, 13-13
flame spread index, i7-3t workability, 1-4 Beetles:
ambrosia beetles, 13-8, 13-10
locality of growth, 1-10 Basswood,American:
moisture content, 3-6t dimensional change coefficient, 12- damage cause by, i3-9t
nomenclature, 5-13t i6t bark beetles, 13-8
pecky cypress, 1-10 penetration, 14-1 6t old house borers, 13-il
penetration, 14-16t shrinkage values, 3-9t damagecaused by, 13-9t
Poisson ratio, 4-3t Bastard sawn lumber,definition, 3-2 powder-post beetles, 13-10
tensile strength, 4-24t Beams: damagecaused by, 13.9fig, 13-
thermal conductivity, 3-20t bending deflection,8-3 to 8-4, 8- lOt
uses, 1-10 3eq, 8-3t, 8-4eq Bending:
Balsa: bending stress, 8-5, 8-5eq, 8-9 creep, 4-37 to 4-39
characteristics, 1-19 combinedbending and axial load, strength and temperature, 4-37
decay resistance, 3-18t effect of,8-7 Bendingof glulam, 11-4 to 11-5
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- compressivestress, 8-4 Bendingproperties, affected by
i7t deformation, 8-i to 8-4 temperature, 4-37, 4-37t
ease of bonding, 9-8t end loading, effectof, 8-7 Bending stiffness:
elastic ratio, 4-2t lateral buckling, 8-9 to 8-10, 8-9eq, ofbox and I beams, 11-12
locality of growth, 1-19 8-lOt of sandwichpanels, 11-18
mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t modulus ofrupture, 8-6, 8-6eq of stressed-skinpanels, 11-14
Poisson ratio, 4-3t notchesand holes, effectof, 8-3, 8-6 Bending strength, stress grading, 6-6
shrinkage values, 3-lOt to 8-7 Bending stress:
uses, 1-19 shear deflection,8-3, 8-3eq, 8-3t derivationsfor machine-graded
Banak: shear stress, 8-5, 8-5eq lumber,6-8 to 6-10, 6-9fig
characteristics, 1-19 size, effecton strength, 8-6, 8-6eq stressed-skin panels, 11.15
characteristicsaffecting machining, size, effects on modulusofrupture, Bending of wood:
3-i7t 8-6, 8-6eq apparatus, 19-4
decay resistance, 3-18t stability, 8-8 to 8-Il chemicalsused, 19-2
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- tapered beams: fixing the bend, 19-4
17t bending stress, 8-5 to 8-6, 8-5eq moisture content of stock, 19-3
ease ofbonding, 9-8t deflections,8-3, 8-3eq, 8-4fig principles of plasticizing and
locality of growth, 1-19 giuiam combinations, 11-6, 11- bending, 19-i
machining properties, 1-19 4fig selection of stock, 19-3
mechanical properties, 4-l6t, 4-20t shear stresses, 8-5 to 8-6, 8-5fig solid members,19-3, 19-4fig
nomenclature, 1-19 tensile, stress, 8-4, 8-4eq steaming, 19-1
resistance to decay and insects, 1- time,effectof, 8-3, 8-7 Benge:
19 twiist, 8-4, 8-4eq characteristics, 1-19
shrinkage values, 3-lOt waterponding, effect of, 8-3, 8-3eq, decay resistance, 3-i8t
uses, 1-19 8-7, 8-9, 8-9eq ease of bonding, 9-8t
Bark: Beech: mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t
growth, 2-2 characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t nomenclature, 1-19
inner and outer, 2-i decay resistance,3-18t sapwood, 2-2
Basswood: for flooring,5-6, 5-7 shrinkage values, 3-lot
characteristics, 1-4 machiningand related properties,3- uses, 1-19
characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t 16t workability, 1-19
charring rate data, 17-lit nomenclature,5-5t Bent wood members:
color and figure, 3-3t penetration, 14-i6t characteristics, 19-4
connector joint strength, 7-2it size of pores, 15-3 it solid wood members, species used,
decay resistance, 3-i8t Beech, American: 19-3
ease ofbonding, 9-8t characteristics, 1-4 uses, 19-2
elastic ratio, 4-2t color and figure, 3-3t Birch:
flammabilitydata, 17-7t connector joint strength, 7-2it connector joint strength, 7-21t
locality of growth, 1-4 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- decay resistance, 3-i8t
machineability, 1-4 i6t for casing and base, 5-l
machining and related properties, 3- ease ofbonding, 9-8t for flooring,5-6, 5-7
16t locality of growth, 1-4 heat release data, 17-9t
moisture content, 3-6t machineability, 1-4 machiningand related properties, 3-
nomenclature,5-5t moisture content, 3-6t i6t
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- plywoodstiffness and strength, 10- nomenclature,5-St
lit lit Birch, gray, shrinkagevalues, 3-9t
size of pores, 15-3lt shock resistance, 1-4 Birch, paper:
strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t sh:rinkage values, 3-9t characteristics, 1-4

1—3
 color and figure, 3-3t toxicity, 14-8 short- and long-term performanceof
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Black locust. See Locust,black adhesives, 9-21 to 9-22, 9-22fig
I6t Blood adhesive, working and strength strength and durability of
locality of growth, 1-4 properties, and uses, 9-13t adhesives, 9-11 to 9-12, 9-lIt, 9-18
machining and related properties, 3- Blue stain, description,13-2 strength properties of adhesives, 9-
16t Boats, wood: 21
moisture content, 3-6t control of decay in, 13-8 surface preparation, 9-16
shrinkage values, 3-9t control of marineborers, 13-15 with veneers, 9-4 to 9-5
strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t use ofvarnish on, 15-22 wettabilityof wood, 9-2, 9-3fig, 9-5
uses, 1-5 Bolts: wood and nonwood composites, 9-
Birch, river: bearing stress ofwood under: 5 to 9-6
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- bolt diameter, effect Box beam, 11-12 to 11-13
I6t perpendicularto grain, 7-I 5fig Box elder, nomenclature, 5-St
penetration, 14-16t intermediateangle to grain Box nails, 7-2, 7-2t
shrinkage values, 3-9t loading, 7-14, 7-l3fig Bridges, 16-9 to 16-10, l6-lOfig
Birch, sweet: L/D ratios, 7-14 Brown rot, 13-5
characteristics, 1-4 parallel to grain loading, 7-14, Bubinga (See also Benge):
color and figure, 3-3t 7-14fig decay resistance, 3-18t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- perpendicularto grain loading, ease of bonding, 9-8t
16t 7-14, 7-l4fig mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-2Ot
ease ofbonding, 9-8t bearing stress with steel side shrinkage values, 3-lot
locality of growth, 1-4 plates, 7-15 Buckeye:
moisture content, 3-6t bolt holes, effecton, 7-16 to 7-17, characteristics, 1-5
penetration, 14-16t 7-l6fig decay resistance, 3-18t
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- bolt quality, effect onjoint dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
1 lt strength, 7-15, 7-l4fig, 7-l5fig l6t
shock resistance, 1-4 drift, 7-9 locality of growth, 1-5
shrinkage values, 3-9t memberthickness, effectof, 7-15, machineability, 1-5
strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t 7-lsfig nomenclature,5-5t
thermal conductivity, 3-19t multiple bolt joints, 7-15 to 7-16 shock resistance, 1-5
uses, 1-5 pre-1991 allowable loads: species, 1-5
Birch, yellow: parallel to grain, 7-17 to 7-18, uses, 1-5
characteristics, 1-4 7-l7t yellow, shrinkage values, 3-9t
characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t perpendicularto grain, 7-18, Buckling:
color and figure, 3-3t 7-17t, 7-19t interactionof buckling modes, 8-10
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- post-1991 yield model, 7-18, 7- to 8-11, 8-lOeq, 8-lleq
16t l8eq, 7-l9t ofbeams, 8-9 to 8-10, 8-9eq, 8-lot
ease of bonding, 9-8t spacing, edge and end distance, ofcolumns, 8-8 to 8-9, 8-8eq,8-8fig
elastic ratio, 4-2t 7-16 ofdeck beams, 8-10,8-1Ofig
flame spread index, 17-3t Bondability: of glued-laminatedbeams, 11-13
laminated: of metals and plasticsto wood, 9-5 ofroofbeams,8-9
strength properties, 19-7t to of wood species, 9-7, 9-8t of sandwichpanels, 11-18 to 11-19
l9-8t Bonded joints: of stressed-skinpanels, 11-15
thermal expansioncoefficients, basic stress modes, 9-20 to 9-21 Building codes:
19-9t constructionjoints, 9-19 to 9-20, classifications of construction, I-2
locality of growth, 1-4 fire safety:
moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t
9-20fig
edge-grainjoints, 9-18, 9-l8fig containmentto compartment o
Poisson ratio, 4-3t end-grain joints, 9-18 to 9-19, 9- origin, 17-4 to 17-6
19fig fire growth within compartments,
penetration, 14-1 6t
end-to-edgegrain joints, 9-19, 9- 17-2 to 17-4
plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
1 lt 19fig types of construction, 17-2
shrinkage values, 3-9t mechanicaltesting of, 9-20 to 9-21 organizations producing, 17-2
shock resistance, 1-4 Bonding: Buildings, control of decay in, 13-7
strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t adhesive selection, 9-12 to 9-15 Built-up columns, 8-9
thermal conductivity, 3-l9t assembly and pressing,9-16 to 9- Bulletwood (See also Balata):
mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t
toughness values, 4-24t 18, 9-l7fig
uses, 1-5 effect of: shrinkage values, 3-lOt
Bird peck: moisture content and Butternut:
description, 4-33 dimensionalchange,9-7 to 9-9 characteristics, 1-5
effect on strength,4-33 wood density, 9-6 to 9-7 characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t
species involved, 4-33 wood porosity, 9-7 color and figure, table, 3-3t
Bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide: elementsof, 9-1 to 9-2 decay resistance, 3-l8t
concentration values, 14-8 moisture content control, 9-15 to 9- dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
inappropriate uses, 14-8 16 16t
paintability, 14-8 quality assuranceprograms, 9-22 to easeof bonding, 9-8t
recommendeduses, 14-8 9-23 locality of growth, 1-5

'-4
 machineability, 1-5 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- thermal conductivity, 3-20t
nomenclature,5-5t 16t uses, 1—15
shock resistance, 1-5 ease ofbonding, 9-8t Cedar, westernred:
size ofpores, 15-3 it heat release data, 17-9t characteristics, 1-20
shrinkage values, 3-9t locality of growth, 1-15 characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t
strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t moisture content, 3-6t charringrate data, 17-11
uses, 1-5 nomenclature,5-l3t color and figure, 3-4t
Buttonwood.See Sycamore shock resistance, 1-15 connectorjoint strength, 7-21t
shrinkage values, 3-9t decay resistance,3-18t
Cambium, 2-1, 2-2 strength properties, 4-6t, 4-1 lt dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
Carapa.See Andiroba thermal conductivity, 3-20t 16t
Carbon monoxide, 17-10 uses, 1-15 ease of bonding, 9-8t
Carpenter ants: Cedar, incense: elastic ratio, 4-2t
damage caused by, 13-lOfig, 13-lot characteristics, 1-12 erosion of planed surfaces, I5-8t
discussed, 13-13 characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t flame spreadindex, I7-3i;
Carpenter bees: color and figure, 3-4t for shinglesand shakes, 5-17
damage caused by, 13-9t decay resistance, 3-l8t for siding, 5-17
discussed, 13-13 dimensionalchange coefficient,12- locality of growth, 1-15
Casing and base, availability, 5-17 16t mechanicalproperties, 4-14t, 4-1St
Casein adhesive: locality ofgrowth, 1-12 moisture content, 3-6t
structuralperformance,9-lit moisture content, 3-6t nomenclature,5-l3t
working and strength properties, pecky, 1-12 penetration, 14-1 6t
and uses, 9-13t plywood stiffness and strength, 10- plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
Catalpa: lit lit
decay resistance, 3-18t nomenclature,5-13t Poisson ratio, 4-3t
dimensionalchange coefficient,12- shock resistance, 1-12 shock resistance, 1-15
16t sh:rinkage values, 3-9t shrinkage values, 3-9t
Catalysts and adhesion, 9-10 strength properties, 4-6t, 4-lit strength properties, 4-61, 4-12t
Cativo: uses, 1—12 tensile strength, 4-24t
characteristics, 1-19 Cedar, northern white: thermal conductivity, 3•20t
characteristicsaffecting machining, characteristics, 1-16 toughness values, 4-251;
3-17t characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t used for poles, 18-2, 18•4t, 18-6
decay resistance, 3-18t color and figure, 3-4t uses, 1-15
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- decay resistance, 3-18t Cedar, yellow:
17t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- characteristics, 1-17
ease of bonding, 9-8t I6t characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t
locality of growth, 1-19 elastic ratio, 4-2t color and figure, 3-4t
mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t for shingles, 5-17 connector joint strength, 7-21t
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- locality ofgrowth, 1-16 decay resistance, 12-16:
1 lt mechanical properties,4-14t, 4-1St dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
resistance to decay and insects, 1- nomenclature,5-l3t 16t
20 penetration, 14-I6t ease of bonding, 9-8t
sapwood, 2-2 Poisson ratio, 4-3t flame spreadindex, 17-2t
shrinkage values, 3-lot shock resistance, 1-17 locality ofgrowth, 1-1';
uses, 1-20 shrinkagevalues, 3-9t mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-15t
Cedar: strength properties, 4-6t, 4-1 lt moisture content, 3-6t
availability at retail yards, 5-16 thermal conductivity, 3-20t nomenclature,5-13t
for finish boards, 5-17 uses, 1-17 plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
Cedar, Atlantic-white: Cedar, Port-Orford: lit
characteristics, 1-17 characteristics, 1-15 shrinkage values, 3-9t
color and figure, 3-4t characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t shock resistance, 1-17
decay resistance, 3-18t color and figure, 3-4t strength properties, 4-'?t, 4-12t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- connectorjoint strength, 7-21t thermal conductivity, 2-20t
I6t decay resistance, 3-18t toughness values, 4-25t
locality of growth, 1-17 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- uses, 1-17
nomenclature,5-13t 16t Cedro. See Spanish-cedar
shock resistance, 1-17 ease ofbonding, 9-8t Cedro macho. See Andiroba
shrinkage values, 3-9t locality of growth, 1-15 Cedro-Rana.See Tornillo
strength properties, 4-6t, 4-1lt moisture content, 3-6t Ceiba:
thermal conductivity, 3-20t nomenclature, 5-i3t characteristics, 1-20
uses, 1-17 plywoodstiffness and strength, 10- characteristicsaffecting machining,
Cedar, eastern red: lit 3-17t
characteristics, 1-15 shock resistance, 1-15 decay resistance, 3-18t
color and figure, 3-4t shrinkagevalues, 3-9t locality of growth, 1-2)
decay resistance, 3-l8t strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t
tensile strength, 4-24t
 resistanceto decay and insects, 1- nomenclature, 5-5t adhesive considerations, 10-3 to
20 Chestnut, American: 10-4
shrinkage values, 3-lot availability, 1-5 classification, 10-2, l0-2t, l0-3fig
uses, 1-20 characteristics, 1-5 manufacturingissues, 10-4
workability, 1-20 color and figure, 3-3t particle and fiber composites 10-13
Cells of wood: connectorjoint strength, 7-2it to 10-24
description, 2-3 decay resistance,3-18t specialty composites:
fibers, 2-3 dimensional change coefficient, 12- flameretardant, 10-24
functions of various types, 2-3 16t preservativetreated, 10-24
length, 2-3 ease of bonding, 9-8t moisture-resistant, 10-23 to 10-
parenchyma, 2-3 locality of growth, 1-5 24
rays, 2-3 moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t types, 10-3, l0-3fig
tracheids, 2-3 penetration, 14-16t wood fiber—thermoplastic
vessels, 2-3 shock resistance, 1-5 composites:
Cellulose, discussion, 2-3 shrinkage values, 3-9t nonwoven textile-type:
Cellulose insulation, product safety size ofpores, 15-3it applications, 10-29 to 10-30
standard, 17-4 strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t density, 10-29 to 10-30
Cement-bondedcomposites, 10-24 to thermal conductivity, 3-19t manufacture, 10-28 to 10-30
10-26, 10-24fig, i0-26fig uses, 1-7 properties, 10-28 to 10-30,
Cement-coatednails, 17-3 to 17-4 workability, 1-5 1O-29t
Chalking, 15-26 to 15-27 Chewstick. See Manni production, 10-26 to 10-27
Checks: Chlorothalonil: with high thermoplastic content:
development due to weathering, 15- effectiveness, 14-8 advantages, 10-27
7 solubility, 14-8 compounding, 10-27 to 10-28
during drying, 12-7, 12-9 to 12-10, stability, 14-8 density, 10-27
l2-l2fig Chlorothalonil/chlorpyrifos: disadvantages, 10-28
in decking boards, 15-10 component rations, 14-8 manufacture, 10-27
in lumber stress grading, 6-4 effectiveness,14-8 properties, 10-28, 10-28t
in glued-laminatedtimbers, 11-10 Chlorpyrifos: with low thermoplastic content,
in veneer adhesion, 9-4 to 9-5 effectiveness, 14-9 manufacture, 10-28
Chemical compositionofwood, 2-3 to in combination, 14-9 wood-based panels, 10-4 to 10-6
2-4 Chromatedcopper arsenate(CCA): wood—nonwood composites:
Chemical discolorations during commoptypes, 14-11 advantages, 10-24
drying, 12-10, 12-l3fig component substitutions, 14-11 inorganic-bonded composites:
Chemical stain, discussed, 3-13 composition of commontypes, 14- description, 10-24 to 10-25,
Chemicals, effect onwood: lit 10-24fig
discussion, 4-41 effectiveness ofcommontypes, 14- gypsum-bonded, 10-25
strength properties, 4-41 11 magnesia-cement-bonded,1)-
swelling liquids, 4-41 effect on adhesion, 9-6 25
Cherry: finishing wood treated with, 15-22 portland-cement-bonded,10-
characteristics for painting, 15-3t resistanceto marineborers, 14-11 25 to 10-26, 10-26t
ease of bonding, 9-8t retention levels for various wood problems, 10-26
nomenclature,5-St products, 14-6t treatments, 10-26
size ofpores, 15-3 It Southern pine sapwood stakes Compreg:
Cherry, black: retention and life span test results, advantages, 19-5
characteristics, 1-5 14-13t dimensional stability, i9-9t
color and figure, 3-3t temperaturefor pressure treating, molding, 19-5, 19-8
decay resistance, 3-18t 14-21 plasticizers, 19-5
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- use with Douglas-fir, 14-11 properties, 19-5, 19-6t
I 6t Coal-tarcreosote.See Creosote species used, 19-9
elastic ratio, 4-2t Cocobolo, shrinkagevalues, 3-lOt thermal expansion coefficients,19-
locality of growth, 1-5 Coefficientoffriction, 3-21, 3-22 9t
machineability, 1-5 Coefficientofthermal expansion, 3-21 uses, 19-8 to 19-9
machining and related properties, 3- Coefficientof variation,4-23t Compressed wood, untreated (staypak)
16t Collapse during drying, 12-10, 12- appearance, 19-10
moisture content, 3-6t I2fig dimensional stability, i9-9t
Poisson ratio, 4-3t Columns: purpose, 19-7t to 19-8t
shock resistance, 1-5 built-up and spaced columns, 8-9 strength properties, 19-7 to 19-8t
strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t flanged columns, 8-9 uses, 19-10
thermal conductivity, 3-19t long columns, compressivestress, Compressionfailures:
uses, 1—1, 1—5 8-8, 8-8eq causes, 4-33
Cherry, pin, penetration, 14-16t short columns, compressivestress, description, 4-33, 4-33fig
Chestnut: 8-8 to 8-9, 8-8eq effecton strength,4-33
characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t Composite products: Compression wood:
machining and related properties, 3- additives, 10-4 definition, 4-31
16t density increase, 4-31

1-6
 in juvenile wood, 4-32 solution percentages, 14-11 to 14- ease ofbonding, 9-8t
shrinkage, 3-8, 4-32 12 locality of growth, 1-20
Compressionstrength parallel to temperaturefor pressure treating, machineability, 1-20
14-21 mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t
grain:
affectedby temperature, 4-36t uses, 14-12 resistanceto decay and insects, I-
coefficientof variation,4-23t Copper naphthenate: 20
defined, 4-3 color transfer and changes,14-8 sapwood, 2-2
Compressivestress of stressed-skin effectiveness, 14-8 shrinkage values, 3-lOt
panels, 11-14 to 11-15 retention levels for various wood uses, 1-20
Compressive stress of columns, 8-8 to products, 14-St Covalentchemical bonds, 9-2
8-9, 8-8eq solution values, 14-8 Crabwood.See Andiroba
Southern pine sapwood stakes Crack propagationsystems, 4-24 to 4-
Compressionstress perpendicularto
retention and life span test results, 25
grain:
coefficientofvariation,4-23t 14-l4t Creep:
defined, 4-3 treatmentfor cuttingpretreated defined, 4-37
Condensationin crawl spaces, 13-7 wood, 14-24 discussed, 4-37 to 4-39
Conductancemeters and moisture Cotton linter paper, 19-12 influenceof stress on, 4-39fig
content, 12-2 to 12-3 Cottonwood: Creosote, coal-tar:
Conductivity, thermal: characteristics, 1-5 advantages, 14-2
definition, 3-31 color and figure, 3-3t appearance, 14-2
discussion, 3-31 to 3-32 connectorjoint strength, 7-21t composition variability, 14-2
Cone calorimeter, 17-8 decay resistance,3-18t EPA-approved customer
Connector joints: ease ofbonding, 9-8t informationsheet, 14-3t
cross bolts, 7-24 elastic ratio, 4-2t effecton mechanicalproperties, 14-
design loads, 7-20, 7-2Ofig, 7-2lfig flamespread index, 17-3t 24
end distance and spacing, 7-23 locality of growth, 1-5 for non-pressuretreatments,14-7
multiple connectors, 7-23 to 7-24, machiningand related properties,3- handling precautions, 14-3t
7-24fig 16t in pressure treatmentprccess, 14-19
net section stress, 7-23 moisture content, 3-6t odor and vapors, 14-2
retention levels for varicius wood
parallel to grain loading, 7-18, 7- nomenclature,5-St
2Ofig penetration, 14-16t products, 14-5t
perpendicularto grain loading, 7- shock resistance, 1-6 standards, 14-2
18 to 7-20, 7-2Ofig size ofpores, 15-3it temperaturefor pressure treating,
shear plate connector,7-19fig species, 1-5 14-21
uses, 1-6 treatment for cuttingpretreated
split-ring connector, 7-l9fig
strength components, 7-18 workability, 1-6 wood, 14-25
strength ratios, 7-25t Cottonwood,balsam poplar: use site precautions, I4-3t
working loads: mechanicalproperties, 4-14t, 4-1St volatility, 14-7
exposure and moisture shrinkage values, 3-9t Creosote-coal-tar solutions:
condition,effect of, 7-21 strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t properties, 14-7
retention levels for various wood
grade and qualityoflumber,7-22 Cottonwood, black:
loads at angle with grain, 7-22, dimensional change coefficient, 12- products, 14-5t
16t standards by volume, 14-7
7-7fig, 7-l3eq,
species grouping, 7-2It, 7-22t mechanicalproperties, 4-14t, 4-1st temperaturefor pressuretreating, 4-
steel side plates, effectof, 7-21 plywood stiffness and strength, 10- 21
thicknessofmember, effectof, 7-22, lit Creosote-petroleumoil solutions:
7-22t, 7-23fig shrinkage values, 3-9t retention levels for various wood
widthofmember, effectof, 7-23 strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t products, 14-St
Construction,design factors affecting thermal conductivity, 3-19t Cristobal.See Macawood
dimensionalchange, 12-18 Cottonwood, eastern: Critical radiantfluxtest, 17-4
Construction logs: dimensional change coefficient, 12- Cross grain:
availability, 18-3 1 6t effect on mechanicalproperties,
form, 18-4 to 18-5, 18-5fig elastic ratio, 4-2t 4-29 to 4-30
standards and specifications, 18-2t characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t types, 4-28 to 4-30
strength properties, 18-7 mechanicalproperties, 4-14t, 4-1St Cuangare (See also Banak):
uses, 18-3, l8-4fig plywood stiffness and strength, 10- dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
Copperazole - TypeA (CBA-TypeA): lit 17t
retention levels for various wood Poisson ratio, 4-3t mechanicalproperties, 4-16t, 4-20t
products, 14-6t shrinkage values, 3-9t shrinkage values, 3-lOt
solution percentages, 14-12 strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t Cucumber, nomenclature,-5t
temperaturefor pressure treating, thermal conductivity,3-19t Curved members,glulam cmbinations,
14-21 Courbarii: 11-5 to 11-6
Copper bis(dimethyldithiocarbamate) characteristics, 1-20 Cypress:
(CDDC): characteristicsaffecting machining, for siding, 5-17
retention levels for various wood 3-I7t plywood stiffness and strength,
products, 14-6t decay resistance, 3-18t 10-lit
Cypress,Arizona, decay resistance, 3- torsion, 8-4, 8-4eq, 8-4fig Dimpling of sandwichpanel facings,
18t Deformed shank nails, strength of, 7-7 11-19
Cypress, Mexican Degame: Discoloration:
characteristics, 1-33 characteristics, 1-20 by mildew, 15-8, 15-27
locality of growth, 1-33 locality of growth, 1-20 by mold and fungal stains, 13-2
machineability, 1-33 machineability, 1-20 by nonmicrobialor chemical stains,
mechanical properties, 4-16t, 4-20t mechanicalproperties, 4-l6t, 4-20t 13-3
uses, 1-33 resistance to decay and insects, 1- from water-solubleextractives, 15-
20 28 to 15-29
Dead trees, strength,4-33 to 4-34 shrinkage values, 3-lOt of paint due to extractives,15-2
Decay: strength, 1-20 use of wood cleaners, 15-33
and exposure to weather, 15-13 uses, 1-20 Discontinuous rings, definition, 2-2
appearance offungi, 13-4 Delaminationand adhesivefailure, 9- Dogwood, nomenclature, 5-5t
brown rot, 13-5 21 Doors, fire resistancein frame
conditions favoring, 13-4, 13-15 Density: construction, 17-5
control in: as function of specific gravityand Douglas-fir:
boats, wood, 13-8 moisturecontent, 3-12, 3-13t, 3-141 availability at retail yards, 5-16
buildings, 13-7 effect on adhesivebonding, 9-6 to characteristics, 1-10
logs, poles, piling, or ties, 13-6 9-7 characteristicsfor painting, l5-3t
lumber, 13-6 effecton withdrawal resistanceof charring rate equation, 17-10
plywood, 13-8 nails, 7-3 color and figure, 3-4t
cycle, 13-3fig in sorting machine-gradedlumber, connector joint strength, 7-2It
dead trees, 4-33 to 4-34 6-8 decay resistance, 3-I8t
dry rot, 13-5 in visual stress grading, 6-5 ease of bonding, 9-8t
dry rot fungi, 13-5 variation, 3-11 elastic ratio, 4-2t
effecton mechanicalproperties,4- Design factors affecting dimensional erosion of planed surfaces, 15-8:
43 change in structures: flamespread index, 17-3t
effect on strength,4-43, 13-5, 13-6 flooring, 12-18 for flooring, 5-17
fungal stain and molds, 13-3 framing lumberin house for siding, 5-17
heartwood, susceptibility to, 13-4 construction, 12-18 fracture toughness, 4-26t
incipient, 13-5 heavy timber construction, 12-18 kiln drying schedule, 12-I lt
sapwood, susceptibility to, 13-4 interior finish, 12-18 locality of growth, 1-10
soft rot, 13-5 Design properties: mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-1St
white rot, 13-5 and stress grading, 6-3 moisture content, 4-34t
Decay hazard climate index, 13-2fig procedures for deriving,6-5 to 6-7 nomenclature, 5-13t
Decay resistance: Design values: penetration, 14-16t
extractives,2-2 for foreign species, approval plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
heartwood, 2-2, 3-18t, 13-5 process, 6-4t I It
in visual stress grading, 6-5 for glulam, 11-9——il-b Poisson ratio, 4-3t
Decks: Deterina: preservative pressure and
discussed, 16-4 characteristics, 1-21 temperature, 14-21
finishes, suitability and expected decay resistance, 3-1St preservativetreatment to prevent
service life, l5-15t ease of bonding, 9-8t marine borer attack on piles, 14-1Ot
finishing, 15-21 locality of growth, 1-21 preservativesused, 14-7, 14-11, 14-
supports, 8-10, 8-lOfig machineability, 1-21 12
use of cleaners, 15-33 mechanicalproperties, 4-16t, 4-20t shrinkage, 3-8, 3-llfig
Deflectionsofbeams: resistanceto decay and insects, 1- used for poles, 18-2, 18-4t
effectoftime, creep,8-3 21 uses, 1-10
straight beams, 8-1 to 8-2, 8-2t, 8- uses, 1-21 Douglas-fir, coast:
2eq Diagonal grain, 4-29 to 4-30 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
tapered beams, 8-2, 8-2eq, 8-3fig Dielectric constant, definition, 3-21, 16t
Deformation equations: 3-22 moisture content, 3-6t
axial load, 8-1, 8-leq Dielectric meters and moisturecontent, penetration, 14-16t
bending: 12-2 to 12-3 shrinkage values, 3-9t
effect ofnotches and holes, 8-2 Dielectricpower factor, 3-21, 3-22 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t
effectoftime, creep deflection, 8- Dimensionalchange and wood thermal conductivity, 3-20t
3 paintability, 15-4 toughness values, 4-25t
straight beam deflection, 8-Ito Dimensionalchanges in wood: Douglas-fir, interior north
8-2, 8-2eq, 8-2t affectedby design factors, 12-18 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
tapered beam deflection,8-2, 8- calculation based on green l6t
2eq, 8-3fig dimensions, 12-17, 12-l7eq shrinkage values, 3-9t
water ponding, 8-3, 8-3eq care during construction 12-18 to strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t
combinedbending and axial load: 12-20 tensile strength, 4-24t
concentric load, 8-3 to 8-4, 8- estimation using coefficients, 12-15 thermal conductivity, 3-20t
4eq to 12-17, l2-l5eq, l2-16t, 12-17t toughness values, 4-25t
eccentric load, 8-4, 8-4eq Douglas-fir, interior west

1—8
 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- mechanical properties,4-16t, 4-20t strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t
16t shrinkage values, 3-lot thermal conductivity, 3-19t
shrinkage values, 3-9t uses, 1-21 Elm, soft:
strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t Elastic propertiesof clear wood: machiningand related properties, 3-
thermal conductivity, 3-20t discussion, 4-2 I6t
toughness values, 4-25t values of: nomenclature,5-51
Douglas-fir, interior south modulus of elasticity ratios, 4-2t Elm, winged:
strength properties, 4-7t, 4-i2t modulus of rigidity ratios, 4-3t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
toughness values, 4-25t Poisson's ratio, 4-2 16t
Draftstops, 17-5 Elastomeric adhesives: shrinkage values, 3-9t
Dried wood, moisture control during in light-frame construction,9-19 to Encased knots, definition, 4-27
transit and storage, 12-14 to 12-15, 9-20, 9-2Ofig Encino.See Oak
12-14t performance over time, 9-21 to 9-22, Endjoints in glued laminated timber,
Drift bolts, 7-9 9-22fig 11-7 to 11-8
Dry kilns, 12-7 to 12-8, 12-8fig structuralperformance,9-lit Engineered trusses and light-frame
Drying of wood: working and strength properties, construction, 16-4
accelerated air drying and and uses, 9-13t Epoxy:
predrying, 12-6 Electrical propertiesof wood: performanceovertime, 9-22
advantages, 12-5 conductivity, 3-21, 3-22 structuralperformance,9-1 lt
affect ofproperties,12-5 dielectric constant, 3-21, 3-22 use with wood and nonwood
air drying, 12-6 powerfactor, 3-21, 3-22 composites,9-5
drying mechanism, 12-6 to 12-7, resistance and moisture content, 3- working and strength properties,
12-6fig 22fig and uses, 9-14t
drying defects: Elm: Erosion:
discoloration, 12-10, 12-l3fig, characteristics, 1-6 of earlywoodand latewoodplaned
12-i4fig connectorjoint strength, 7-21t surfaces, l5-8t
fracture or distortion, 12-9 to 12- decay resistance, 3-18t of finishes, 15-9
10, 12-l2fig disease, 1-6 of wood, discussed, 15-7
warp, 12-10 to 12-12, 12-l3fig locality of growth, 1-6 rates for hardwoodand softwoods,
drying schedules, 12-8 to 12-9, 12- moisture content, 3-6t l5-8t
lit size ofpores, 15-3lt Equilibrium moisture contnt:
drying stresses, 12-7, 12-7fig species, 1-6 definition, 3-5, 15-9
kiln drying, 12-6 uses, 1-6 relative humidity as related to, 3-7
hardwood lumber targets, 12-5 Elm, American: values for U.S. cities, 12-2, 12-3t
softwood lumber targets, 12-5 characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t Extractives:
Duration of load: color and figure, 3-3t and mill glaze, 15-25
adjustmentof design properties, 6- dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- discoloration, water-soluble, 15-28
12 to 6-13, 6-13t, 6-l3fig 16t to 15-29
defined, 4-24, 4-39 ease of bonding, 9-8t discussion, 2-2, 2-4, 4-33
effecton mechanicalproperties,4- moisture content, 3-6t effect on painting, 15-2, 15-6 to 15-
39 to 4-40 shrinkage values, 3-9t 7, 15-21
relationshipto failure, 4-39fig strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t effect on strength,4-33
Dutch elm disease, 1-6 thermal conductivity, 3-19t heartwood, 2-2
Elm, cedar: species involved, 4-33
Earlywood: dimensionalchange coefficient,12-
effect on paintability, 15-4 16t Facing stresses, sandwich panels, 11-
description, 2-2 moisture content, 3-6t 19
erosion ofplaned surfaces, 15-8t shrinkage values, 3-9t Facing wrinkling, sandwich panels,
properties, 2-3 tensile strength, 4-24t 11-19 to 11-20
Ebony, shrinkage values, 3-lOt Elm, rock: Factory-finishedwood products, 15-
Edge-grained lumber: color and figure, 3-3t 24
advantages, 3-2t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Factory lumber (See also {ardwood
methodof producing,3-2 I6t lumber):
preferredfor painting, 15-1 ease ofbonding, 9-8t grades, 5-2
weatheringand check development, moisture content, 3-6t standard dimensions, 5-2
15-7 nomenclature, 5-5t False rings, definition, 2-2
Ehie (See also Benge): penetration 14-l6t Fastenerhead embedment, 7-26,7-
decay resistance, 3-18t shrinkage values, 3-9t 27fig
Ekki. See Azobe strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t Fasteners:
Ekop: thermal conductivity, 3-19t and iron stain, 15-29
characteristics, 1-21 Elm, slippery: corrosion and fire-retaidanttreated
characteristicsaffecting machining, color and figure, 3-3t wood, 17-12 to 17-13
3-17t dimensional changecoefficient, 12- fire resistancein frame construction,
decay resistance, 3-l8t 16t 17-5
locality of growth, 1-21 penetration, 14-16t multiple-fastenerjoints, 7-24 to
machineability, 1-21 shrinkagevalues, 3-9t 7-25

'—9
Fatigue: discoloration from water-soluble wood exposedto marine
defined, 4-24, 4-40 extractives, 15-28 to 15-29 environments, 15-22
discussed, 4-40 to 4-41 intercoat peeling, 15-26 paintability values, 152, 15-4
summaryoffatigue studies, 4-40t mill glaze, 15-25 to 15-26 paraffin wax, 15-32, 15-33
Fences, finishing, 15-13, 15-21 to 15- moisture blisters, 15-25 refinishing, 15-22 to 15-23
22 stain: suitability and expected service life
Fiberboard: blue, 15-29 for exterior wood surfaces, 15-5t
attrition milling or refining, 10-17 brown stain over knots, 15-29 to types:
to 10-18 15-30 film-forming:
classification, 10-18, i0-3fig iron, 15-23, 15-29 effect on water and vapor
distinguished from particleboard, rust, 15-29 absorption, 15-li
10-17 Finishes: fire-retardantcoatings, 15-19
dry-processfiberboard, 10-19, 10- application and maintenance,15- paint, 15-18 to 15-19
l9fig 14t solid-color stain, 15-18
fibers used, 10-17, 10-l9fig application of: varnish:
finishing techniques, 10-23 paint, 15-20 to 15-21 clear, 15-18
hardboard: semitransparent penetrating pigmented, 15-18
heat treatment, 10-20 stain, 15-20 opaque, 15-30
humidification, 10-20 caution in use, 15-20 penetrating, 15-14, 15-16
physical and mechanical solid-color stain, 15-20 lightly colored, 15-17
properties of hardboard siding, water-repellantpreservative, 15- semitransparent stains, 15-17
10-22t 19 transparent clear, 15-16
property requirements 10-20 to cost, 15-20 oils, 15-18
10-22, 10-21t drying oils, 15-32, 15-33 stains, 15-30 to 15-31
siding grade stamps, i0-22fig function, 15-1 surface coats, 15-31
standards, 10-5t factorsaffecting performance: transparent, 15-30
tempering, 10-20 extractives, 15-2, 15-28 to 15-29 use offillers, 15-30, 15-31, 15-32
insulation board: knots, 15-2 use ofsealers, 15-30, 15-3 1, 15-32
cold-pressing, 10-20 textureof wood, 15-5 VOC regulation compliance, 15-9
felting, 10-20 weathering: See also Paint and Water-repellarit
grade stamp example, I0-22fig as a natural finish, 15-16 preservatives
typesof products, 10-23 effect on paint adhesion, 15-8 Fire performancecharacteristicsof
sizing agents, 10-20 to 15-9 wood:
effect on wood, 15-6 to 15-7
standards, 10-St
medium-delisityfiberboard (MDF): effect on woodfinish, 15-9
charring:
differences in wood species, I-
property requirement, 10-20, 10- wood moisture content, 15-9 to 10
21t
resins used, 10-4
15-10
backpriming, 15-23 to 15-24
discussed, 17-10 to 17-li
equations for charring rates, 1-
standards, 10-St wood product characteristics: 10, 17-11
uses, 10-20 finger-jointedlumber, 15-5, moisture content, 17-11
with veneer overlay, 10-23, 10- 15-30 flamespread:
23fig lumber, 15-4 to 15-5 and heat releaserate, 17-9
wet-processfiberboard, 10-19 to plywood, 15-5 configurations, 17-9
10-20 reconstituted wood products: factors influencing, 17-8
Fiber orientation,related to slope of fiberboard, 15-6 flammabilitydata for wood specie,
grain, 4-28 to 4-30, 4-3Ofig particieboard, 15-6 17-7t
Fibers: treated wood: heat release rate:
description, 2-3 fire-retardanttreated, 15-6 discussed, 17-7 to 17-8
length, 2-3 preservativetreated, 15-6 measuring, 17-8
shape, 2-3 wood properties, 15-1 to 15-2, ignition:
Fiber saturation point: 15-30 piloted, 17-6
average, 3-5 moisture-excluding effectiveness of, unpiloted, 17-6, 17-7
definition, 3-5 15-10 to 15-11 smoke:
Fibrils, 2-3 on ponderosa pine, 15-12t approachesfor dealing with, 17-
Figure ofwood, discussion, 3-4 nondrying oils, 15-32, 15-33 9
Fingerjoints, in laminatedmembers, on: carbon monoxide, 17-10
11-7 to 11-8, 11-9 to 11-10 butcher blocks and cutting defined, 17-9
Finger-jointed lumber: boards, 15-33 release rate, 17-10
defined, 15-5 floors, 15-32 tests for determiningyield, 17-9
finishing, 15-5, 15-30 giulam, 11-8 to 11-9 to 17-10
Finish board, availability, 5-17 interior wood, 15-30 toxicity, 17-10
Finish failure: items used for food, 15-32 to 15- smouldering, 17-6 to 17-7
chalking, 15-26 33 stages'of degradation, 17-6
cross-grain cracking, 15-26, 15- porches, decks, fences, 15-21 to Fire resistance:
27fig 15-22 calculating, 17-5
treated wood, 15-22 defined, 17-4

1—10
 failure criteria, 17-4 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t uses, 1-10
in heavy timber construction, 17-4 thermal conductivity,3-20t Firs, true (Western species):
in light-frameconstruction, 17-5 Fir, Californiared: decay resistance, 3-18t
in glued laminatedmembers,17-5 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- locality ofgrowth, 1-10
ratings, 17-4 l6t species, 1-10
Fire-retardantcoatings, 15-19, 17-13 nomenclature,5-l3t uses, 1-11
Fire-retardant-treated wood: penetration, 14-16t Fir, white:
and hygroscopicity, 17-12, 17-13 plywood stiffness and strength, 10- characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t
and mechanical properties, 17-12 lit color and figure, 3-4t
discussed, 17-12 tensile strength, 4-24t connector joint strength, 7-2It
effect on adhesion,9-6 toughness values, 4-25t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
fastener corrosion, 17-12 to 17-13 shrinkagevalues, 3-9t 17t
heat releaserates, 17-8, 17-12 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-l2t ease of bonding, 9-8t
in high temperature applications, Fir, Grand: moisture content, 3-6t
17-12 dimensionalchangecoefficient, 12- nomenclature,5-5t
paintability, 15-16 16t penetration, 14-16t
performance requirements, 17-12 ease ofbonding, 9-8t plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
uses, 17-12 moisture content, 3-6t lit
Fire-retardant treatments: nomenclature,5-13t shrinkage values, 3-9t
application methods, 17-12 penetration, 14-1 6t strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t
chemical penetration, 17-13 plywood stiffness and strength, 10- thermal conductivity, 3-20t
inorganic salts, 17-13 liLt toughness values, 4-25L
Fire safety design: shrinkage values, 3-9t Flame-retardantcomposite, 10-24
cellulosic insulation, 17-4 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t Flamespread index(FSI):
code organizations, 17-2 Fir, Noble: classesfor, 17-2
code requirements,17-1 dimensionalchange coefficient,12- discussed, 17-2
components, 17-1 16t values for solid lumber, 17-3t
containmentto compartmentof ease of bonding, 9-8t wood usage, 17-3
origin: moisture content, 3-6t Flat-sawn lumber:
firestops and draftstops, 17-5 nomenclature,5-13t advantages, 3-2t
fire resistance, 17-4 penetration, 14-i6t and mill glaze, 15-25
of heavy timber construction,17- plywood stiffness and strength, 10- disadvantagesfor finishing, 15-1,
4 to 17-5 lit 15-7
in light-frameconstruction, 17-5 shrinkage values, 3-9t methodofproducing,3-2
ofglued-laminatedmembers,17- toughness values, 4-25t Flashover, discussed, 17-4
5 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t Flooring:
sandwich panels, 17-5 Fir, Pacificsilver: care during constructien, 12-19
fire safety engineering,17-6 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- design factors affecting dimensional
flame spread index, 17-2 to 17-3 17t change, 12-18
flashover, 17-4 easeof bonding, 9-8t recommended moisturecontent, 12-
flooring, 17-4 flamespreadindex, 17-3t 5t
roof coveringmaterials, 17-4 mechanical properties,4-14t, 4-1St retail yard availability, 5-16, 5-17
types of construction: moisture content, 3-6t Formaldehyde adhesives:
heavy timber, 17-2 nomenclature,5-13t performanceover time, 9-21 to 9-22,
light frame, 17-2 plywoodstiffness and strength, 10- 9-22fig
ordinary, 17-2 lit safety concerns,9-10
Fire tests: shrinkage values, 3-9t structuralperformance,9-lit
criticalradiant flux, 17-4 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t use with composite products, 10-4
flamespread index: tensile strength, 4-24t used with particleboard, 10-16
discussed, 17-2 toughness values, 4-25t Formosantermite, 13-11
values for solid lumber, 17-3t Fir, subalpine: Foundations for light-framebuildings,
roof coverings, 17-4 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- 16-2
room/cornertest, 17-4 I7t Fracture toughness, defind, 4-24
tunnel test, 17-8 elastic ratio 4-2t Friction, coefficientof, 3-22
wood ignition, 17-6 mechanicalproperties, 4-l4t, 4-15t Fungi:
Firestops, 17-5 nomenclature,5-i3t appearanceof, 13-4
Fir, balsam: plywood stiffness and strength, 10- conditions favorable to growth, 13-
color and figure, 3-4t IL it 1

connectorjoint strength, 7-21t Poison ratio, 4-3t definition, 13-1

dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- shrinkage values, 3-9t discoloration caused by, 13-2
1 6t Firs, true (Eastern species): effect on wood, 13-3
mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-1St characteristics, 1-10 preventionof damage from, 13-6
nomenclature,5-13t decay resistance, 3-18t Fungus damage:
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- locality of growth, 1-10 causes, 13-1 to 13-2
lIt shock resistance, 1-10 decay, 17-4
shrinkage values, 3-9t strength properties, 1-10 stains, 13-2

I—il
Glue, shear stress, stressed-skin manufacture: relationship of mechanical
panels, 11-15 end jointing, 11-7 to 11-8, 11- properties to specific gravity, 4-28t
Glued structural members: 7fig treatment with polyethylene gly col
advantages, 11-2 to 11-3 face bonding, 11-8, 1l-8fig (PEG), 19-10
box beams and I beams: finishing and fabrication, 11-8 to Growth of tree:
beam deflections, 11-12, 1 1-l2eq 11-9 branching, 2-1
design, 11-12, 1 1-l2fig lumberdrying and grading, 11-6 diameter, 2-2
flange stresses, 11-12 to 11-13, to 11-7 fibrils, 2-3
I l-l3eq preservative treatment,11-9 Growth rings:
lateral buckling, 11-13, 1l-l3eq preservativeretention levels, 14-St cross section showing, 2-3fig
stiffeners and load blocks, 11-13 to 14-6t determinationsoftree age by, 2-2
web shear stress, 11-13, 11-l3eq seasoning advantages, 11-3 discontinuous, definition, 2-2
glued-laminatedtimber, see Glued- standards 11-3, 11-6 discussion, 2-2, 2-3
laminatedtimber (Glulam) usedfor poles, 18-3 effect.on strength properties, 4-3D
laminated strand and oriented species used, 11-3 to 4-31
strand lumber, 11-2 size capabilities, 11-3 false, definition,2-2
laminatedveneer lumber, 11-2, 11- Glulani. See Glued-laminated timber grain, 3-1
2fig (Glulani) in sawn boards, 3-2, 3-4
parallel strand lumber, 11-2, 1 1-2fig Glulam beam construction,16-8 principal axes with respect to, 4-2
prefabricatedwood I-joists, 11-13 Glulani timber bridge, 16-10, 16-lOfig shrinkage,3-7 to 3-8, 3-8fig
to 11-14, 11-l4fig Gluing propertiesof different wood, Guatambu. See Pau marfim
standards, 11-3 classificationof species, 9-8t Guayacan.See Ipe
stressed-skin panels: Gmelina,shrinkage values, 3-lot Gum:
buckling, 11-15 to 11-16, 11- Gola. See Ekop nomenclature,5-5t
1Seq Goncato alves: size of pores, 15-31t
design, 11-14, ll-l4eq, 11-l5fig characteristics, 1-21 Gurjun. See Apitong
glue shear stress, 11-15, 11-lSeq characteristicsaffectingmachining, Gypsumboard, use in wood-frame
skin stresses, 11-14 to 11-15, 3-I 7t constructionto provide fire resistane,
1 1-l4eq decay resistance,3-18t 17-5
stringer bending stress, 11-15, locality of growth, 1-21 Gypsum-bondedcomposites, 10-25
I 1-l5eq mechanicalproperties, 4-l6t, 4-20t
structural sandwich construction, resistance to fungus attack, 1-21 Hackberry:
see Sandwich panels shrinkage values, 3-1Ot characteristics, 1-6
uses, 11-3 species, 1-21 color and figure, 3-3t
Glued-laminatedtimber (Glulam): strength, 1-21 decay resistance, 3-l8t
advantages, 11-3 to 11-4 uses, 1-21 dimensional change coefficient, 12-
architecturaleffects, 11-3 Grades and lumber,purchasing I6t
combinations: consideration,5-17 to 5-18 ease of bonding, 9-8t
axial members,11-5 Gradinghardwoodlumber, 5-2 to 5-4 locality of growth, 1-6
bending members, 11-4 to 11-5 Grading, machine,6-7 to 6-It machining and related properties, 3-
curved members, 11-5 to 11-6 Grading softwood lumber,5-7 to 5-10 16t
tapered straight members, 11-6, Grading, visual, 6-3 to 6-7 moisture content, 3-6t
1 1-4fig Grainand textureof wood: nomenclature,5-St
cross section variation, 11-3, 11- and finishperformance,l5-2t penetration, 14-1 6t
4fig and paintability, 15-4 to 15-5 shock resistance, 1-6
design values, 11-6, 11-9, 11-10 discussion, 3-1 to 3-2 shrinkage values, 3-9t
effect of: Greenheart: size of pores, 15-3lt
end joints on strength, 11-9 to characteristics, 1-21 strength properties, 4-4t, 4-9t
11-10 decay resistance,3-18t thermal conductivity, 3-l9t
edge joints on strength, 11-10 dimensionalchange coefficient,12- uses, 1-6
shake, checks, and splits on 1.7t Hardness:
strength, 11-10
shear ease of bonding, 9-8t coefficientof variation 4-23t
end-use adjustment factors: locality of growth, 1-21 definition, 4-3
curvature, 11—11 machineability, 1-21 Hardwood flooring, grading rules:
flat use, li-li mechanical properties, 4-1 6t, 4-20t Maple Flooring Manufacturers
lateral stability, 11-12 shrinkage values, 3-lOt Association, 5-6, 5-4t
loading, 11-11 resistance to fungi and insects, 1-21 National Oak Flooring
moisture content, 11-11 marine borers, 13-14 ManufacturersAssociation,5-6, 5-
tension lamination, 11-Il uses, 1-21 4t
volume, 11-il Green wood: Hardwood lumber:
environmental effects, 11-4 and clinched nails, 7-5 drying targets, 12-5
finishes, suitability and expected bending properties, 19-3 finished market products:
service life, 15-15t creep and relaxationunder load, 4- flooring:
fire resistance, 17-5 38 grading rules, 5-6 to 5-7
grade variation, 11-3 definition, 3-5 standard dimensions, 5-6 to
history, 11-4 5-7

1—12
 types, 5-6 plywood stiffness and strength, 10- for flooring,5-6, 5-7
kiln drying schedules, 12-8 to 12- 1 lt locality of growth, 1-6
9, 12-lit shock resistance, 1-il shrinkage values, 3-9t
grades, 5-2, 5-3t, 5-4fig shrinkage values, 3-9t species, 1-6
grading associationsand rules, 5-2, strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt
5-4t thermal conductivity,3-20t thermal conductivity, 3.19t
minimumwidths, 5-2 uses, 1—li uses, 1-6
standard dimensions, 5-2 Hemlock, mountain: Hickory, pignut:
standard thicknesses, 5-6t characteristics, 1-12 moisture content, 3-6t
uses, 5-1 locality ofgrowth, 1-12 shrinkage values, 3-9t
Hardwoods: nomenclature,5-13t strength properties, 4-Si, 4-lOt
availability, 1-2, 1-3 shrinkage values, 3-9t toughness values, 4-241.
bending properties, 19-3 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t Hickory, red, moisture content, 3-6t
charring rates, 17-iit toughness values, 4-25t Hickory, sand:
classificationby size of pores, 15- uses, 1-12 moisture content, 3-6t
31t Hemlock, western: toughness values, 4-24i:
color and figure, domestic, 3-3t characteristics, 1-12 Hickory, shagbark:
definition, 1-2 characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t
figure, 3-4 color and figure, 3-4t shrinkage values, 3-9t
flame spread index, i7-3t connectorjoint strength, 7-21t strength properties, 4-St. 4-lOt
flammability data, I7-7t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- thermal conductivity, 3-l9t
heat release data, 17-9t 17t Hickory, shellbark:
imported, 1-17 to 1-33 elastic ratio, 4-2t shrinkage values, 3-9t
locality of growth, 1-2 erosion ofplancd surfaces, l5-8t strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt
moisture content, heartwood and flamespreadindex, l7-3t Hickory, water:
sapwood, 3-6t fracture toughness, 4-26t moisture content, 3-6t
preservative penetration, 14-16t locality of growth, 1-12 strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt
relationshipof mechanical mechanicalproperties, 4-l4t, 4-1st Hickory, true:
propertiesto specific gravity, 4-28t moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t characteristics, 1-6
species by region, 1-3t nomenclature,5-13t connector joint strength, 7-2lt
uses, 1-2 penetration, 4-16t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
vessels, 2-3 plywood stiffness and strength, 10- 16t
Heartwood: lit ease ofbonding, 9-8t
color, 2-2, 3-2 Poisson ration, 4-3t locality of growth, 1-6
decay resistance in different species, shock resistance, 1-12 shrinkage values, 3-9t
2-2, 3-18t shrinkage values, 3-9t species, 1-6
extractives content, 2-2 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt
for shakes, 5-17 tensile strength, 4-24t uses, 1-6
formation,2-1 thermal conductivity,3-20t Holly, nomenclature,5-St
in visual stress grading, 6-5 toughness values, 4-25t Holly, American:
moisture content and drying, 12-7 used for poles, 18-4t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
Heat capacity: uses, 1-12 16t
defined, 3-17 Hickory: shrinkage values, 3-9t
discussed, 3-17 color and figure, 3-3t Honeylocust:
of solid wood, 3-2it decay resistance, 3-18t availability, 1-6
Heat release rate: machiningand related properties, 3- characteristics, 1-7
and smokerelease rate, 17-10 16t color and figure, 3-3t
discussed, 17-7 to 17-8 nomenclature, 5-5t decay resistance, 3-181
Heavy-timber construction: size ofpores, 15-3lt dimensionalchange co:rfficient, 12-
fire resistanceof, 17-2, 17-4 to 17-5 Hickory, bitternut: I6t
wood used in, 17-2 moisture content, 3-6t locality ofgrowth, 1-6
Hemicellulose,2-4 strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt shock resistance, 1-7
Hemlock: Hickory, mockernut: shrinkage values, 3-9t
availability at retail yards, 5-16 moisture content, 3-6t strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt
for siding, 5-17 penetration, 14-1 6t uses, 1-7
Hemlock,eastern: shrinkage values, 3-9t Hot melt adhesives:
characteristics, 1-11 strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lot bonding, 9-9
color and figure, 3-4t thermal conductivity, 3-l9t structuralperformance.9-lit
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- toughness values, 4-24t working and strength properties,
1 7t Hickory, nutmeg, strength properties, and uses, 9-13tto 9-14t
connector joint strength, 7-21t 4-5t, 4-lOt Hot-pressbonding, affect on moisture
locality of growth, 1-li Hickory, pecan: content, 9-15
mechanical properties, 4-l4t, 4-15t characteristics, 1-6 Hot pressing:
moisture content, 3-6t
nomenclature,5-13t
penetration, 14-l6t
dimensionalchange coefficient,12-
I6t
ease of bonding, 9-8t
t
oriented strandboard, 10-14
particleboard, 10-16 10-17

1—13
Hura: properties, 10-22 to 10-23 Jatoba. See Courbaril
characteristics, 1-21 Insulationfor sound control for wood Jeiutong:
characteristicsaffecting machining, buildings, 16-13, 16-i3t characteristics, 1-23
3-1 7t Insulation in wood building, 16-li to decay resistance, 3-i8t
locality ofgrowth, 1-21 16-12 locality ofgrowth, 1-23
decay resistance, 3-18t Intergrownknots, 2-3, 4-27 mechanical properties, 4-i7t, 4-21t
ease ofbonding, 9-8t Interlocked grain: shrinkage values, 3-lOt
machineability, 1-21 to 1-22 definition, 3-4 uses, 1-23
mechanicalproperties, 4-16t, 4-20t effect on strength,4-30 workability, 1-23
resistanceto fungi and insects, 1-22 in Sweetgum, 1-8 Jequitiba. See Albarco
shrinkage values, 3-lOt machining, 3-15 Joints, glued, strength, 9-4
uses, 1-22 Interior finishes, care during Joists and light-frameconstruction,
Hydroxymethylatedresorcinol (HMR), construction, 12-19 16-2 to 16-3
9-6 Internal friction, 4-26 Joists and rafter systems in light-frame
Ipe: construction, 16-4
I-beams, 11-12 to 11-13 characteristicsaffecting machining, Juniper, decay resistance, 3-18t
I—joists, 11-13 to 11—14 3-17t Juvenile wood:
Identificationof wood, 2-4 decay resistance, 3-l8t effect on mechanicalproperties,4-
Ignition of wood: locality ofgrowth, 1-22 32
piloted, 17-6 machineability, 1-22 effect on strength properties, 4-32
unpiloted, 17-6, 17-7 mechanicalproperties, 4-17t, 4-2it properties, 4-32, 4-32fig
Ilomba: resistance to decay and insects, 1- shrinkageof, 3-8, 4-32
characteristics, 1-22 22
locality of growth, 1-22 shrinkage values, 3-lOt Kakaralii. See Manbarklak
machineability, 1-22 uses, 1-22 Kaneelhart:
mechanical properties, 4-17t, 4-21 Ipil. See Merbau characteristics, 1-23
resistance to fungi and insects, 1-22 Iroko: ease of bonding, 9-St
shrinkage values, 3-lOt characteristics, 1-22 locality ofgrowth, 1-23
uses, 1-22 characteristicsaffecting machining, mechanical properties, 4-17t, 4-21t
Imbuia, shrinkage values, 3-lOt 3-i 7t resistance to fungi and insects, 1-23
Imported woods, commercially decay resistance,3-i8t shrinkage values, 3-lot
important, 1-17 to 1-34 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- uses, 1-23
Impact bending: 17t Kapur:
coefficientofvariation, 4-23t ease ofbonding, 9-8t characteristics, 1-23
defined, 4-3 locality of growth, 1-22 characteristicsaffecting machining,
Impreg: mechanicalproperties, 4-17t, 4-2lt 3-i7t
bulking agents, 19-5 resistance to fungi and insects, 1-22 decay resistance, 3-18t
dimensional stability, 19-9t shrinkage values, 3-lOt ease of bonding, 9-8t
process, 19-5 species, 1-22 locality ofgrowth, 1-23
properties, 19-6t workability, 1-22 machineability, 1-23
species, 19-5 uses, 1-22 mechanical properties, 4-17t, 4-2It
strength properties, 19-7t to l9-8t Iron stain, 13-3, 15-23, 15-29, 15-32 plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
Incising: Ironwood,nomenclature,5-St I lt
and fire-retardanttreatments, 17-13 Isocyanate adhesives: resistance to fungi and insects, 1-23
effect on strength properties, 4-42 performanceovertime, 9-22 shrinkage values, 3-lot
Incense-cedar. See Cedar, Incense structuralperformance,9-lit strength properties, 1-23
Inorganic boron (borax/boric acid): use with composite products, 10-4 uses, 1-23
acceptable compounds, 14-12 use with particleboard, 10-16 Karri:
effectiveness, 14-12 working and strength properties, characteristics, 1-23
solubility, 14-12 and uses, 9-14t characteristicsaffecting machining,
temperaturefor pressure treating, 3-17t
14-21 Jacaranda.See Rosewood, Brazilian decay resistance, 3-18t
uses, 14-12 Jarrah: ease of bonding, 9-8t
Insect damage and control: characteristics, 1-22 locality ofgrowth, 1-23
beetles, 13-8 to 13-10 characteristicsaffecting machining, machineability, 1-23
carpenter ants,13-13 3-i7t mechanical properties, 4-17t, 4-21t
bees, 13-13 decay resistance,3-i8t shrinkage values, 3-lOt
effecton strength,4-45 easeofbonding, 9-8t uses, 1-23
naturally termite-resistant wood, locality of growth, 1-22 Kauta. See Marishballi
13-12 to 13-13 machineability, 1-22 Kempas:
termites, 13-11 to 13-13 mechanical properties, 4-17t, 4-21t characteristics, 1-23
types ofdamage, 13-9t, 13-lOfig resistance to decay and insects, 1- characteristicsaffecting machining,
Insulation board, cellulosic fiber: 22 3-17t
exterior products, 10-23 marine borers, 13-14 decay resistance, 3-18t
industrial products, 10-23 shrinkage values, 3-lOt locality of growth, 1-23
interior products, 10-23 uses, 1-22 to 1-23 machineability, 1-23

1—14
 mechanicalproperties, 4-17t, 4-2It Laminates.See Paper-basedplastic Lignin:
resistance to fungi and insects, 1-23 laminates discussion, 2-3 to 2-4
shrinkage values, 3-lOt Laminatinggrades, 5-8 to 5-9 weathering, 15-7
uses, 1-24 Lapacho (See also Ipe): Lignumvitae:
Keruing: ease of bonding, 9-8t characteristics, 1-24
characteristics, 1-24 Lap marks, 15-20 characteristicsaffecting machining,
characteristicsaffecting machining, Lapuna. See Ceiba 3-17t
3-17t Larch, western: decay resistance, 3-18t
decay resistance, 3-1St characteristics, 1-12 ease of bonding, 9-8t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t locality of growth, 1-24
I7t color and figure, 3-4t mechanicalproperties, 4.-17t, 4-21t
ease of bonding, 9-8t connector joint strength, 7-2lt species, 1-24
durability, 1-24 decay resistance, 3-i8t uses, 1-24
locality of growth, 1-24 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Lignocellulosic adhesives:
machineability, 1-24 17t in compositeproducts, 10-4
mechanical properties, 4-17t, 4-21t easeofbonding, 9-8t working and strength properties,
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- elastic ratio, 4-2t and uses, 9-13t
lit for flooring,5-17 Limba:
shrinkage values, 3-lOt locality of growth, 1-12 characteristics, 1-24
uses, 1-24 mechanical properties,4-l4t, 4-1St characteristicsaffecting machining,
Khaya (See Mahogany,African): moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t 3-17t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- nomenclature,5-l3t decay resistance, 3-i8t
l7t penetration, 14-16t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
Kiln drying: plywood stiffness and strength, 10- 17t
advantages,12-6 1 lt ease of bonding, 9-8t
importanceof air circulation, 12-6 Poisson ratio, 4-3t locality of growth, 1-24
kiln schedules, 12-8 to 12-9, 12- shock resistance, 1-12 machineability, 1-24
lit strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t mechanical properties, 4-17t, 4-2lt
types of kilns, 12-7 to 12-8, 12-8fig tensile strength, 4-24t resistance to decay and insects, 1-
Knots: thermal conductivity, 3-20t 24
changes during drying, 12-10, 12- toughness values, 4-25t shrinkage values, 3-10
l2fig used for poles, 18-2 uses, 1-24
definition, 4-27 uses, 1-12 Limnoria, 13-14
discoloration through paint, 15-2, Lateral buckling, ofbeams, 8-9 to 8-10 Locust, black:
15-29 to 15-30 Lateral resistance: characteristics, 1-7
effecton: and the National Design color and figure, 3-3t
in determining strength ratios, 6- Specificationfor Wood decay resistance, 3-18t
5 to 6-6, 6-6fig Construction, 7-1 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
mechanical propertiesof wood, oflag screws,7-12 to 7-14 I6t
4-27 to 4-28, 4-34 ofnails, 7-5 locality ofgrowth, 1-7
stiffness,6-4 ofwood screws,7-10 to 7-il nomenclature,5-St
strength properties, 6-4 Latewood: penetration, 14-16t
encased, 4-27, 6-4 description, 2-2 sapwood, 2-2
in lumber stress grades, 6-4 erosion ofplaned surfaces, 15-8t shock resistance, 1-7
intergrown, 4-27, 6-4 paintability, 15-4 shrinkage values, 3-9t
knotholes, 6-4 properties, 2-3 strength properties, 4-St
Kokrodua (See also Afrormosia): Lauans: uses, 1-1, 1-7
characteristicsaffecting machining, dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Lodgepolepine, used for poles, 18-2,
3-17t 17t 18-4t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- plywood stiffness and strength, 10- Loghomes, 16-6, 16-7fig, 18-5
17t lit Logs, control of mold, stain, decay, 13-
Korina. See Limba shrinkage values, 3-lOt 6
Krabak. See Mersawa size of pores, l5-31t Longitudinal shrinkage of wood, 3-8
Kraft paper, 19-12 Lemonwood. See Degame Lumber:
Kwila.See Merbau Light-frame construction: commonlyused abbreviations,5-18
balloon framing, 16-1 to 5-20
Lag screws.See Screws,lag ceiling and roof, 16-4 developmentofgrading rules, 5-7
Laminated members,curved: decks, 16-4 grading organization, 5-9t, 5-12
advantages, 19-2 exterior walls, 16-3 to 16-4 hardwood:
species, choice of, 19-2 fire resistanceof, 17-2, 17-5 drying targets, I2-5
uses, 19-2 floors, 16-2 to 16-3, 16-2fig finished market products:
Laminated members,glued. See Glued foundations, 16-2 flooring:
structuralmembers platformframing, 16-1 to 16-2 grading rules, 5-6 to 5-7
Laminatedwood, strength properties, use of elastomeric adhesives,9-19 standard dimensions, 5-6
19-7t to 19-8t to 9-20, 9-2Ofig to 5-7
wood use in, 17-2 types, 5-6
 kiln drying schedules, 12-8 to workability, 1-24 characteristicsaffecting machining,
12-9, 12-lit Machine-gradedstructural lumber: 3-17t
grades, 5-2, 5-3t, 5-4fig commongrades, 6-7, 6-8t decay resistance, 3-l8t
grading associations and rules, components ofsystem, 6-7 ease of bonding, 9-8t
5-2, 5-4t design stresses for other properties, locality of growth, 1-25
minimumwidths, 5-2 6-10 machineability, 1-25
standard dimensions, 5-2 machinesorting criteria,6-7 to 6-8 mechanical properties, 4-l7t, 4-2It
standard thicknesses, 5-6t procedures for deriving allowable uses, 1-25
uses, 5-i stress for bending,6-8 to 6-10 Mahogany, Honduras:
purchase: quality control, 6-10 to 6-li elastic ratio, 4-2t
distribution yards, 5-13 Machiningofwood,factors affecting, Poisson ratio, 4-3t
primary manufacturers 3-15 Mahogany, Phillippine, availability at
customers,5-12 to 5-13 Machinmango.See Manbarklak retail yards, 5-16
retail yard inventory: Madrone, Pacific: Manbarklak:
availability of hardwood and dimensionalchange coefficient,12- characteristics, 1-25
softwoods, 5-16 i6t characteristicsaffecting machining,
boards and yard lumber, 5-16 ease ofbonding, 9-8t 3-17t
casing and base, 5-17 nomenclature,5-5t locality of growth, 1-25
dimension and structural shrinkage values, 3-9t mechanicalproperties, 4-i7t, 4-21 t
lumber stocked, 5-16 Magnesia-cement-bondedcomposites, nomenclature,1-25
finish boards, 5-17 10-25 shrinkage values, 3-lOt
flooring, 5-17 Magnolia: resistanceto fungi and insects, 1-25
shingles and shakes, 5-17 characteristics, 1-7 marineborers, 13-14
siding, 5-17 characteristicsfor painting, uses, 1-25
purchase consideration, 5-17 southern, 15-3t workability, 1-25
to 5-18 decay resistance, 3-18t Manni:
softwood: dimensionalchangecoefficient, 12- characteristics, 1-25
AmericanLumber Standards,5-7 16t decay resistance 3-18t
classification by grades: ease ofbonding, 9-8t locality of growth, 1-25
factory and shop lumber: locality of growth, 1-7 machineability, 1-25
factory (shop) grades, 5-10 machining and related properties, 3- mechanicalproperties, 4-l7t, 4-2lt
industrial clears, 5-10 16t resistance to insects, 1-25
ladder and pole stock, 5-10 moisture content, 3-6t shrinkage values, 3-lOt
moulding stock, 5-10 nomenclature, 5-St uses, 1-25
pencil stock, 5-10 shock resistance, 1-7 Maple, size ofpores, 15-3 It
tank stock, 5-10 shrinkage values, 3-9t Maple, black:
structural lumber: size of pores, 15-3It color and figure, 3-3t
dimension lumber,5-8 species, 1-7 dimensionalchange coefficients,
structural laminations, 5-8 strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt 12-16t
to 5-9 thermal conductivity, 3-19t shrinkage values, 3-9t
yard lumber: uses, 1-7 strength properties, 4-5t, 4-1Ot
select lumber,5-7 to 5-8 Mahogany: thermal conductivity, 3-19t
commonlumber,5-8,5-8fig color and figure, 3-3t Maple, bigleaf:
developmentof grading rules, 5- size of pores, 15-31t color and figure, 3-3t
7 species, 1-25 dimensionalchange coefficients,
drying targets, 12-5 Mahogany,African: 12-16t
grading organizations, 5-9t, 5- characteristics, 1-25 machiningand related properties, 3-
12 characteristicsaffecting machining, l6t
kiln drying schedules, 12-8 to 3-17t plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
12-9, 12-lit dimensionalchange coefficients, lit
manufacture: 12-1 7t shrinkage values, 3-9t
size, 5-10 to 5-li, 5-lit decay resistance, 1-25, 3-18t strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt
surfacing,5-11 to 5-12 ease of bonding, 9-8t Maple, hard:
patterns, 5-12, 5-l2fig elastic ratio, 4-2t characteristics, 1-7
species, 5-12 locality ofgrowth, 1-25 charring rate data, 17-lit
transportation, 5-16 machineability, 1-25 connector joint strength, 7-21
mechanical properties,4-i7t, 4-2it decay resistance, 3-18t
Macacauba.See Macawood Poisson ratio, 4-3t easeofbonding, 9-8t
Macawood: shrinkage values, 3-lOt heat release data, 17-9t
characteristics, 1-24 size ofpores, 15-3 it locality of growth, 1-7
commonnames, 1-24 species, 1-25 machining and related properties, 3-
locality of growth, 1-24 uses, 1-25 1 6t
mechanicalproperties, 4-i7t, 4-2it Mahogany,American (Swietenia, nomenclature,5-5t
resistanceto fungi and insects, 1-24 mahagoni): shock resistance, 1-7
shrinkage values, 3-lot characteristics, 1-25 species, 1-7
uses, 1-24 uses, 1-7

1—16
Maple, Oregon, nomenclature,5-St adjustedfor design use, 6-il to 6- Mersawa:
Maple, red: 14 characteristics, 1-27
color and figure, 3-3t affectedby: characteristicsaffecting machining,
dimensionalchange coefficients, adhesion to metals, 9-5 3-i7t
12-16t age, 4-41 decay resistance, 3-I 8t
elastic ratio, 4-2t changes in moisture content, 4- locality of growth, 1-27
Poisson ratio, 4-3t 34 machineability, 1-27
shrinkage values, 3-9t chemicals: mechanicalproperties, 4-17t, 4-2lt
strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lot exposureto, 4-41 plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
thermal conductivity, 3-i9t treatment,4-41 to 4-43 lit
Maple, silver: cross grain, 4-29 to 4-30 resistanceto fungi and iisects, 1-27
color and figure, 3-3t decay, 4-43 shrinkage values, 3-lOt
dimensionalchange coefficients, duration of load, 4-39 to 4-40 uses, 1-27
12-16t fire-retardanttreatments, 17-12 Metal bonding, 9-6
moisture content, 3-6t insect damage,4-43 Metal plate connectors,7-25, 7-26fig
penetration, l4-l6t knots, 4-27 Mildew:
shrinkage values, 3-9t juvenile wood, 4-32 discolorationof wood, 15-8, 15-27,
strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt mold and stain fungi, 4-43 15-27fig
thermal conductivity, 3-l9t rate of loading, 4-37 removal, 15-27 to 15-28
Maple, soft: slope ofgrain, 4-29t Mill glaze, 15-25 to 15-26
connector joint strength, 7-21t temperature,4-35 to 4-37 Mill work, finishes, suitablity and
ease of bonding, 9-8t waterbornepreservatives,4-42 expected service life, 15-1st
locality ofgrowth, 1-7 relation to specific gravity,4-27, 4- Modified woods:
machiningand related properties, 3- 28t formaldehyde-treatedwood:
16t relation to stress grades, 6-1 dimensionalstability, 19-9t, 12-
nomenclature,5-5t Medium-density fiberboard: 12
species, 1-7 property requirement, 10-20, l0-2it mechanical propertie, 19-il to
uses, 1-7 resins used, 10-4 19-12
Maple, sugar: standards, 10-St resistance to fungi, 19-li
characteristics for painting, 15-3t uses, 10-20 chemical modification:
color and figure, 3-3t with veneer overlay, 10-23, 10- antishrink efficiency
dimensionalchange coefficients, 23fig calculations, 19-11
l2-16t Medium-densityhardboard, finishes, conditions for, 19-11
elastic ratio, 4-2t suitabilityand expected service life, chemicalsused, 19-11
fracture toughness, 4-26t 15-1St dimensionalstability, I9-9t, 19-
moisture content, 3-6t Medium density overlays: 11
penetration, 14-16t finishes, suitability and expected mechanicalpropertie$, 19-11 to
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- service life, 15-1st 19-12
lit to improve paintabilityof plywood. cost, 19-5
Poisson ratio, 4-3t 15-5 dimensional stability, I9-9t
shrinkage values, 3-9t Melamine adhesives: purposes, 19-4 to 19-5
strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt performance over time, 9-21 to 9-22 resin-treated compresse1 wood
thermal conductivity, 3-19t use with compositeproducts, 10-4 (Compreg):
toughness values, 4-24t working and strength properties, advantages, 19-5
Maple flooring: and uses, 9-14t dimensional stability, 19-9t
availability, 5-17 Meranti: molding, 19-5, 19-8
grading, 5-6 characteristics, 1-26 plasticizers, 19-5
Maple Flooring Manufacturers, characteristicsaffecting machining, properties, 19-5, 19-6t
Association, grading rules, 5-6 3-i7t species used, 19-9
Marishballi: color, l-26t strength properties, 19-7t to 19-
characteristics, 1-26 decay resistance, 3-18t 8t
characteristicsaffecting machining, dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- thermal expansion coefficients,
3-I 7t 17t 19-9t
locality of growth, 1-26 easeof bonding, 9-8t uses, 19-9
mechanical properties, 4-17t, 4-2it locality of growth, 1-26 resin-treatedwood (Impreg):
resistance to fungi and insects, 1-26 machineability, 1-26 bulking agents, 19-5
shrinkage values, 3-lOt mechanical properties,4-l9t, 4-23t dimensional stability, l9-9t
uses, 1-26 uses, 1-26 process, 19-5
Marineborerdamageand control, 13- Merbau: properties, 19-6t
13 characteristics, 1-26 species used, 19-5
Malayapis. See Lauans locality of growth, 1-26 strength properties, 19-7t to 19-
Mata-mata. See Manbarklak machineability, 1-26 8t
Mayflower. See Roble mechanical properties,4-17t, 4-2it untreated compressedwood
Mecanical interlocking and adhesives, resistance to insects, 1-26 (Staypak):
9-2 shrinkage values, 3-lOt appearance, 19-10
Mechanical propertiesof wood uses, 1-27 dimensional stability, 19-9t

1—17
 properties, 19-9 to 19-10, 19-6t relative humidityas related to, 3- moisturecontent,effect of, 7-7
purpose, 19-9 7t seasoning, effectof, 7-7
strength properties, I9-7t, 19-8t green wood, 3-6t shankform,effectof, 7-7
uses, 19-10 heartwood, 3-6t spacing, 7-6
untreated heated wood in wood exposed outdoors, 15-10 yield model theory, 7-6, 7
(Staybwood): range in trees, 3-5 6eq, 7-7fig, 7-8t
loss ofmechanical and strength recommended for: sizes:
properties, 19-10 exterior siding, 12-5t box nails, 7-2t
purpose, 19-10 flooring, 12-5t common,7-2fig
wood-polymer composites: furniture, 12-St helically and annularly threaded,
advantages, 19-10 to 19-1 1 interior woodwork, l2-5t 7-2, 7-2t
changing characteristics, 19-10 laminated members,12-5, 12-St penny size, 7-2
to 19-li lumber, 12-3, 12-4t, 12-St wire nails, 7-2, 7-2t
monomers, 19-10 to 19-11 plywood, 12-3, 12-5, 12-5t toenailed joints, strength of, 7-5
species used, 19-11 sheathing, 12-5t withdrawal resistance:
strength properties, 19-lit timbers, 12-3 affectedby, 7-2, 7-3
uses, 19-Il trim, 12-St allowable loads,7-5
wood treated with polyethylene veneer, 12-3 clinched nails, 7-5
glycol (PEG): sapwood, 3-6t corrosion, 7-4
dimensional stability, 19-9t shrinkageas relatedto, 3-8 to 3-9, densityofwood,effect of, 7-3
finishing, 19-10 3-21 direction ofdriving, 7-4 to 7-5
process, 19-10 shrinkage curves, 3-1ifig etched nails, 7-4
uses, 19-10 specific gravity,3-5, 3-l2fig load displacementcurve, 7-3, 7-
Modulus of elasticity: wood sinkage, 3-5 3fig
and columnswith flanges, 8-9 Moisturecontent of dried lumber: moisturecontent, effect of, 7-3, 7-
coefficientof variation,4-23t air-dry, 12-Il 3eq, 7-4
discussed, 4-3 kiln dry, 12-12 nail heads, 7-4
effectoftemperature, 4-36, 4-36fig, shipping dry, 12-10 nail points, effectof, 7-4
4-38fig Moisture content during transit and plywood, 7-5
ofmachinegraded lumber,6-7 to 6- storage: preboredlead holes, effect of, 7-5
8 finish and factory lumber,12-15 seasoning, effectof, 7-3
ofsandwich panels, 11-18 general, 12-14, 12-l4t shankform,effectof, 7-4
of visuallygraded lumber,6-6 plywood and structural items, 12- surfacecoatings,effectof, 7-3 to
values, 4-2t 14 7-4
Modulus of rigidity: Moisture-gradient, typical in lumber, surfacecoating, used for 7-4
discussion, 4-3 12-6, i2-6fig Naphthenate, copper:
ratios, 4-3t Molding resin-treatedcompressed color transfer and changes, 14-8
Modulus of rupture: wood (Compreg), 19-5, 19-8 effectiveness, 14-8
and moisture content, 6-12, 6-12t, Molds: retention levels for various wood
6-i2fig appearance of, 13-2 products, l4-5t
coefficientof variation,4-23t distinction from stain, 13-2 solution values, 14-8
defined, 4-3 effecton wood, 13-3 Southern pine sapwood stakes
effectoftemperature, 4-36fig, 4- Momentcapacity,8-6, 8-6eq retention and life span test results,
38fig, 4-39fig Mora: 14-14t
ofbeams,8-5, 8-6 characteristics, 1-27 treatmentfor cutting pretreated
temperatureeffect, 4-36 locality of growth, 1-27 wood, 14-24
Moisture blisters, 15-25 mechanicalproperties, 4-17t, 4-21t Naphthenate, zinc:
Moisture content: resistance to fungi and insects, 1-27 effectiveness, 14-8
adsorption/desorption curve, 3-8fig shrinkage values, 3-1Ot inappropriate uses, 14-8
adjustmentfor, 6-12 uses, 1-27 properties, 14-8
and decay, 13-4 workability, 1-27 National Grading Rule, 6-2, 6-3, 6-3t
and electrical resistance 3-22t Multiple-fastenerjoints, 7-24 to 7-25, National Fire Protection Association,
and heat capacity, 3-21t 7-24eq 17-2, 17-6, 17-7
changes in finished ponderosa pine National Hardwood Lumber
sapwood, 15-l3fig Nails: Association, 5-2, 5-4t
definition, 3-5, 15-9 lateral resistance of commonwire National Oak, Flooring Manufacturers
determined by: nails: Association,grading rules, 5-5 to 5-7
electrical method, 12-2 to 12-3 pre-1991: Nomenclature,5-5t, 5-13t
ovendrying method, 12-2, 12- equations, 7-5 Nuclear radiation:
2eq lateral load coefficients,7-6t discussion, 3-23
dimensionalchanges,9-7 to 9-9 load-slipcurve, 7-6, 7-6fig effect on wood strength, 4-43
effect on bonded joints, 9-9 post-1991:
effect ofstrength properties,4-34, directionofdriving,effect of, Oak:
4-35fig 7-6 for casing and base, 5-17
equilibrium: load-slipcurves, 7-7, 7-7eq, size of pores, 15-3 it
discussion, 3-5 7-8eq, 7-8fig used in piles, 18-5

1—18
Oak, black: characteristics, 1-27 characteristics, 1-28
strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt locality of growth, 1-27 ease ofbonding, 9-8t
thermal conductivity resistanceto fungi, 1-27 locality of growth, 1-28
Oak, bur: specific gravity, 1-27 machineability, 1-28
strength properties, 4-6t, 4-lit uses, 1-27 mechanical properties, 4-i8t, 4-2it
thermal conductivity, 3-19t Oak, water: resistance to decay and insects, 1-
Oak, California black, moisture moisture content, 3-6t 28
content, 3-6t strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt shrinkage values, 3-lOt
Oak, cherrybark,strength properties, Oak, white: uses, 1-28
4-5t, 4-lot characteristics, 1-8 Ordinary construction:
Oak, chestnut, strength properties, 4- characteristicsfor painting, l4-16t coderequirements for flue
6t, 4-lit charring rate equation, 17-10 protection, 17-2
Oak, laurel, strength properties, 4-5t, color and figure, 3-3t description, 17-2
4-lOt connectorjoint strength, 7-2it Oriented strandboard:
Oak, live, strength properties, 4-6t, 4- decay resistance, 1-8, 3-18t adhesive application or blending,
lit dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- 10-13
Oak, northern red: 16t adhesives used, 10-4
characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t ease ofbonding, 9-8t certification,10-14, lO..l6fig
fracture toughness, 4-26t elastic ratio, 4-2t defined, 10-13
strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lot flamespreadindex, 17-3t design capacities, 10-i4
Oak, overcup: locality of growth, 1-7 drying process, 10-13
strength properties, 4-6t, 4-ilt machiningand related properties, 3- finishes, suitability and expected
tensile strength, 4-24t 16t service life, 15-1St
toughness values, 4-24t nomenclature, 5-5t hot pressing, 10-14
Oak, pin: Poisson ratio, 4-3t manufacturingprocess, 10-13, 10-
strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt penetration, 14-1 6t 14fig
tensile strength, 4-24t shrinkage values, 3-9t mat formation, 10-13
toughness values, 4-24t species, 1-8 sheathing grade, property values,
Oak, post, strength properties, 4-6t, 4- strength properties, 4-6t, 4-lit iO-15t
llt uses, 1-8 species used, 10-13
Oak, red: Oak, willow, moisture content, 3-6t standards, 10-5 to l0-, lO-5t, 10-8
availabilityfor purchase, 5-17 Oak flooring, 5-6 stranding process, 10-13
characteristics, 1-7, 1-8 Obeche: Orthotropicnature of wocd, 4-i
charring rate data, 17-1 it characteristics, 1-27 Osage-orange:
color and figure, 3-3t characteristicsaffectingmachining, decay resistance,3-171
connector joint strength, 7-2lt 3-i7t ease ofbonding, 9-8t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- decay resistance,3-l8t nomenclature,5-5t
16t dimensionalchange coefficient,12- Ossol. See Manni
ease ofbonding, 9-8t 17t Otie.See Ilomba
elastic ratio, 4-2t ease ofbonding, 9-8t Ovangkol (See also Benge):
erosion ofplaned surfaces, 15-8t locality ofgrowth, 1-27 mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t
flamespread index, 17-3t machineability, 1-27 shrinkage values, 3-lOt
flammability data, I7-7t mechanicalproperties, 4-17t, 4-21t Ovendryweight, specific gravity, 3-12
heat release data, I7-9t shrinkage values, 3-lOt Oxine copper:
locality of growth, 1-7 uses, 1-27 composition, 14-8
machiningand related properties,3- Ofram.See Limba corrosiveness, 14-8
16t Oilbomnepreservatives.See retention levels for various wood
mechanicalproperties, 4-17t, 4-21t preservatives, oiiborne products, l4-5t
nomenclature,5-5t Oil-type preservatives, strength loss, Southern pine sapwocd stakes
Poisson ratio, 4-3t 4-41 retention and life span test results,
penetration, 14-i6t Okoume: 14-l3t
shrinkage values, 3-9t characteristics, 1-27, 1-28 toxicity, 14-8
species, 1-7 characteristicsaffecting machining,
uses, 1-1, 1-8 3-17t Pacificyew, nomenclature,5-13t
Oak, scarlet: decay resistance, 3-18t Paint:
strength properties, 4-5t, 4-lOt dimensionalchange coefficient,12- adhesion bandage test, 15-23
toughness values, 4-24t 1 7t application and maintrnance, 15-
Oak, southern red: ease of bonding, 9-8t 14t, 15-20 to 15-21
moisture content, 3-6t locality ofgrowth, 1-27 characteristicsof wood, 15-3t
strength properties, 4-St. 4-lOt machineability, 1-28 cost, 15-18 to 15-19
thermal conductivity, 3-19t mechanicalproperties, 4-i8t, 4-22t cracking, 15-11, 15-26
Oak, swamp chestnut, strength shrinkage values, 3-lot discussed, 15-18 to 15-19
properties, 4-6t, 4-lit uses, 1-28 disposal, 15-34
Oak, swamp white, strength Old house borer, 13-li failure caused by:
properties, 4-6t, 4-lit Opaque finishes, 15-30 dimensionalchanges in wood,
Oak, tropical: Opepe: 15-4

1—19
 earlywood/latewoodband, 15-4, decoratives, 19-13 EPA-approved consumer
15-24 masking, 19-13 informationsheet, 14-3t
face checks in plywood, 15-5 structural, 19-13 handling precautions, 14-3t, 14-8
grain orientation, 15-4 uses, 19-13 ineffective against marine borers.
moisture content of wood, 15-10 Papreg, 19-12 14-8
temperatureat time of painting, Para-Angelim(See also Sucupira): paintability, 14-7
15-21 mechanical properties,4-18t, 4-22t retentions for various wood
textureofwood, 15-5 shrinkage values, 3-lOt products, 14-St
water soluble extractives, 15-28 Parana pine: use site precautions, l4-4t
to 15-29 characteristics, 1-33 Peroba, white. See Peroba de Campos
weathering, 15-8, 15-24 decay resistance, 3-1St Peroba de Campos:
failure in finger-jointedlumber, 15- dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- characteristics, 1-28
5 I 7t locality of growth, 1-28
lead-based: ease of bonding, 9-8t machineability, 1-28
dust from, 15-36 locality ofgrowth, 1-33 mechanical properties, 4-I8t, 4-22t
health effects, 15-36 mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t resistance to decay, 1-28
removalof, 15-36 shrinkage values, 3-lOt shrinkage values, 3-lOt
use of, 15-35 uses, 1-33 uses, 1-28
mildew removal, 15-27 to 15-28 Parenchyniacells, function, 2-3 Peroba Rosa:
moisture blisters, 15-25 Particle and fiberboard, 10-13 to 10- characteristics, 1-28
on treated wood, 15-6 24 ease of bonding, 4-18t, 4-22t
on preweatheredpanels, 15-9 Particleboard: locality of growth, 1-28
peeling: adhesives, 10-4 mechanical properties, 4-18t, 4-22t
avoiding with proper painting, certification, 10-17, 10-iSfig resistance to fungi and insects, 1-28
15-2 1 finishing, 10-17 shrinkage values, 3-lOt
caused by water, 15-10 hot pressing, 10-16 to 10-17 uses, 1-29
intercoat, 15-26 mat formation, 10-16 Persimmon:
moisturemovement, 15-25fig particle classificationsand dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
protection against moisture, 15-11, conveying, 10-16 16t
15-13, 15-16, 15-24 particle drying, 10-16 ease of bonding, 9-8t
preweatheringbefore painting, 15-9 production, 10-14 to 10-15, 10- nomenclature,5-5t
repainting, 15-22 to 15-23, 15-33 lSfig, 10-16 shrinkage values, 3-9t
removal, 15-33 to 15-34, 15-35 propertiesand grades, 10-17, 10- Phenolic adhesives:
service life, 15-24 l7t, 10-18t performance overtime, 9-22,9-22fig
strippers: resins and wax, 10-4, 10-16 structuralperformance,9-lit
chemical: screw withdrawal, 7-10 use with composite products, 10-I
alkali-based, 15-35 standards, lO-5t working and strength properties,
solvent-based, 15-34 uses, 10-15 and uses, 9-l4t
mechanical, 15-34 Paumarfim: Phenolic resins:
"safe", 15-35 characteristics, 1-28 for laminates, 19-12 to 19-13
VOC regulation compliance, 15-19 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- in sandwich construction, 11-17
Palosapis. See Mersawa 17t Pholads, 13-14
Panel products: ease of bonding, 9-8t Photodegradation. See Weathering
performancestandards, 10-5 to 10- locality of growth, 1-28 Piles:
6, lO-6fig machineability, 1-28 knots, effect on strength,4-27 to 4-
plywood, 10-6 to 10-13 mechanicalproperties, 4-22t 28
product standards, 10-5, 10-St resistance to decay, 1-28 marine, protection against insects.
wood elements, 10-2fig shrinkage values, 3-lOt 13-14 to 13-15
Paper-based plastic laminates: specific gravity, 1-28 preservative retention levels, 14-St
decorative laminates: strength values, 1-28 to 14-6t
process, 19-12 to 19-13 uses, 1-28 preservativetreatments, 18-6
thicknesses, 19-12 to 19-13 Pecan (See also Hickory, pecan): service life, 18-6
uses, 19-12 to 19-13 machiningand related properties, 3- straightness, 18-4
industrial laminates: I6t standards and specifications, 18-2t,
cost advantage, 19-12 nomenclature,5-5t 18-3, 18-7
papreg, 19-12 Pecky cypress, 1-10 standards for end-bearingpiles, 18-
resins used, 19-12 Peeling logs for veneer, 10-7 to 10-8 4
strength, 19-12, 19-7t to 19-8t Pentachlorophenal solutions: for friction piles, 18-4
uses, 19-12 and nonpressuretreatments, 14-24 strength properties, 18-7
lignin-filled laminates: solution standards, 14-7 timber availability, 18-3
strength properties, 19-13 solution performance,14-7 weight and volume, 18-5
resins used, 10-4 Pentachlorophenol: Pilon:
shrinking and swelling, 19-13 approved uses, 14-7 characteristics, 1-29
Paper-facedoverlays: effecton mechanical properties of locality of growth, 1-29
manufacture, 19-13 wood, 14-24 mechanical properties, 4-18t, 4-22t
types: effectiveness, 14-8 resistance to insects, 1-20

1—20
 uses, 1-29 shrinkagevalues, 3-9t characteristics, 1-13
workability, 1-29 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t decay resistance, 3-18t
Pine, Caribbean: tensile strength, 4-24t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
characteristics, 1-33 thermal conductivity, 3-20t 16t
ease of bonding, 9-8t toughness values, 4-25t locality of growth, 1-13
locality of growth, 1-33 Pine, lodgepole: elastic ratio, 4-2t
machineability, 1-33 characteristics, 1-13 plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
mechanicalproperties, 4-i8t, 4-22t color and figure, 3-4t lit
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- decay resistance,3-18t Poisson ratio, 4-3t
lit dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- shock resistance, 1-13
resistance to insects, 1-33 16t shrinkagevalues, 1-13, 3-9t
shrinkage values, 3-lot elastic ratio, 4-2t strength properties, 4-81:, 4-13t
uses, 1-33 flame spreadindex, 17-3t uses, 1-13
Pine, eastern white: locality of growth, 1-13 Pine, ponderosa:
characteristics, 1-12 mechanicalproperties, 4-l4t, 4-15t characteristics, 1-13
characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t moisture content, 3-6t characteristicsfor paintng, 15-3t
color and figure, 3-4t nomenclature,5-13t color and figure, 3-4t
connector joint strength, 7-21t penetration, 14-16t connector joint strength, 7-21t
decay resistance, 3-18t plywood stiffness and strength, 10- decay resistance, 3-18t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- lit dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
I6t Poisson ratio, 4-3t l6t
easeofbonding, 9-8t shock resistance, 1-13 ease of bonding, 9-8t
flame spread index, 17-3t shrinkagevalues, 1-13, 3-9t elastic ratio, 4-2t
locality of growth, 1-12 strength properties, 4-7t, 4-21t erosion ofplaned surfaces, 15-8t
mechanicalproperties, 4-14t, 4-15t thermal conductivity, 3-20t flame spread index, 17-It
nomenclature,5-13t toughness values, 4-25t for siding, 5-17
penetration, 14-16t used for poles, 18-2, 18-4t fracture toughness, 4-26t
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- workability, 1-13 Jeffrey, 1-13
1 lt uses, 1-13 locality of growth, 1-13
shock resistance, 1-12 Pine, longleaf: mechanicalproperties, 4-14t, 4-l5t
shrinkage values, 3-9t color and figure, 3-4t moisture content, 3-6t
tensile strength, 4-24t decay resistance,3-18t changes in finished :;apwood
thermal conductivity, 3-20t dimensionalchange coefficient,12- samples, 15-l3fig
toughness values, 4-25t lot moisture-excluding effectiveness of
uses, 1—12 elastic ratio, 4-2t finishes on, 15-l2t
workability, 1-12 moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t nomenclature,5-l3t
Pine, jack: nomenclature,5-13t penetration, 14-16t
characteristics, 1-13 plywood stiffness and strength, 10- plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
decay resistance, 13-18t lILt 1 lt
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Poisson ratio, 4-3t Poisson ratio, 4-3t
16t shrinkage values, 3-9t sapwood, 2-2
locality of growth, 1-12 st]rength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t shock resistance, 1-13
mechanical properties, 4-l4t, 4-i5t thermal conductivity, 3-20t shrinkagevalues, 3-9t
nomenclature,5-I3t Pine, ocote: strength properties, 4-8t, 4-l3t
penetration, 14-16t characteristics, 1-33 tensile strength, 3-20t
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- locality of growth, 1-33 thermal conductivity, 3-20t
lit mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t toughness values, 4-25t
shock resistance, 1-13 plywood stiffness and strength, 10- used for poles, 18-2, 18-4t
shrinkage values, 3-9t lit uses, 1-13
strength properties, 4-7t, 4-l2t resistance to fungi, 1-34 Pine, radiata:
thermal conductivity, 3-20t shrinkage values, 3-lOt characteristics, 1-34
toughness values, 4-25t strength properties, 1-33 ease of bonding, 9-8t
used for poles, 18-4t uses, 1-33 locality of growth, 1-34
uses, 1-13 Pine, pitch: machineability, 1-34
Pine, loblolly: characteristics, 1-13 mechanical properties, 4-18t, 4-22t
color and figure, 3-4t decay resistance, 3-18t uses, 1-34
decay resistance, 3-l8t locality of growth, 1-13 Pine, red:
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- nomenclature,5-13t characteristics, 1-14
I6t plywoodstiffness and strength, 10- color and figure, 3-4t
elastic ratio, 4-2t 1 lt connectorjoint strengtI, 7-2It
erosion of planed surfaces, 15-8t shock resistance, 1-13 decay resistance,3-18t
moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t shrinkagevalues, 1-13, 3-9t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
penetration, 14-16t strength properties, 4-7t, 4-12t 1 6t
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- thermal conductivity, 3-20t flame spread index, 17-3t
1 lt uses, 1-13 heat release index, l7-9t
Poisson ratio, 4-3t Pine, pond: locality of growth, 1-14

1—21
 mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-1St preservativetreatments to prevent fracture toughness, 4-26t
moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t marineborer attackson piles, 14- heat releasedata, I7-9t
penetration, 14-16t lot locality of growth, 1-15
preservative treatments to prevent shock resistance, 1-14 mechanical properties, 4-i4t, 4-1st
marine borer attacks on piles, 14- shrinkagevalues, 1-14, 3-9t moisture content, 3-6t
lot species, 1-14 paintability rating, 15-4
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- used for piles, 18-5 Poisson ratio, 4-3t
I it used for poles, 18-2, 18-4t, 18-5 shock resistance, 1-15
Poisson ratio, 4-3t uses, 1—14 shrinkage values, 3-9t
shock resistance, 1-14 Pine, spruce: strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t
shrinkage values, 3-9t characteristics, 1-14 thermal conductivity, 3-20t
strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t decay resistance, 3-18t uses, 1-15
thermal conductivity, 3-20t locality of growth, 1-14 workability, 1-15
toughness values, 4-2St plywood stiffness and strength, 10- Pitch pockets:
used for poles, 18-4t, 18-5 lit description, 4-33
uses, 1-14 strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t effect on strength,4-33
Pine, sand, strength properties, 4-8t, uses, 1-14 in lumber stress grading, 6-5
4-13t Pine, sugar: species involved, 4-33
Pine, scots, fracture toughness, 4-26t characteristics, 1-14 Pith, 2-1, 2-2fig
Pine, shortleaf: characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t Piquia:
color and figure, 3-4t color and figure, 3-4t characteristics, 1-29
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- connectorjoint strength, 7-12t locality of growth, 1-29
16t decay resistance, 3-18t machineability, 1-29
elastic ratio, 4-2t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- mechanical properties, 4-18t, 4-22t
moisture content, 3-6t 16t shrinkage values, 3-lOt
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- easeof bonding, 9-8t resistance to fungi and insects, 1-29
lit elastic ratio, 4-2t uses, 1-29
shrinkage values, 3-9t locality of growth, 1-14 Plainsawn lumber:
strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t moisture content, 3-6t advantages, 3-2t
thermal conductivity, 3-20t nomenclature,5-13t color and figure:
toughness values, 4-25t penetration, 14-16t hardwoods, 3-3t
Pine, slash: plywood stiffness and strength, 10- softwoods, 3-4t
color and figure, 3-4t lIt method of producing,3-2
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Poisson ratio, 4-3t shrinkage, 3-li
16t shock resistance, 1-14 Plasticizing adhesive polymers, 9-10
decay resistance, 3-l8t shrinkage values, 1-14, 3-9t Plasticizing wood:
elastic ratio, 4-2t strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t bent wood members, 19-2
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- thermal conductivity, 3-20t bending operation and apparatus,
1 lt uses, 1—14 19-4
Poisson ratio, 4-3t workability, 1-14, 1-15 characteristicsof bentwood, 19-4
shrinkage values, 3-9t Pine, Virginia: chemicalsused, 19-2
strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t characteristics, 1-15 fixing the bend, 19-4
thermal conductivity, 3-20t decay resistance, 3-18t laminatedmembers, 19-2 to 19-3
toughness values, 4-25t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- moisture content of bending stock,
Pine, southern: 16t 19-3
characteristics, 1-14 locality ofgrowth, 1-15 principles of plasticizing and
characteristics for painting, I5-3t plywood stiffness and strength, 10- bending, 19-1
charring rate data, 17-I lt lit resin-treatedcompressed wood, 19-
charring rate equation, 17-10 shock resistance, 1-15 5
connector joint strength, 7-2it shrinkage values, 3-9t selection of stock, 19-3
decay resistance, 3-l8t strength properties, 4-8t, 4-i3t steaming, 19-1
easeofbonding, 9-7, 9-8t tensile strength, 4-24t veneeredcurved members,19-3
erosion ofplaned surfaces, 1S-8t toughness values, 4-25t Plastering, care during construction,
flame spread index, 17-3t uses, 1—15 12-19 to 12-20
flammabilitydata, l7-7t Pine, western white: Plastic bonding, 9-5
for flooring,5-17 characteristics, 1-15 Plastic-coated nails, 7-4
fracture toughness, 4-26t characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t Port-OrfordCedar, See Cedar, Port-
grading, 5-8 color and figure, 3-4t Orford
kiln drying schedule, 12-8, 12-1 It connector joint strength, 7-2lt Plywood:
moisture content and property decay resistance, 3-i8t adhesives, 10-4, 10-8
values, 4-35t dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- advantages over solid wood, 10-7
nomenclature, 5-13t 1 6t assembly, 10-8
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- easeof bonding, 9-8t classification by:
lit elastic ratio, 4-2t exposure durability, 10-9
preservativeretention and life span flame spreadindex, 17-3t grades, 10-9 to 10-10, 10-lot
tests, 14-13t to 14-1St for siding, 5-17 span rating, 10-10 to 10-li

1—22
 strength and stiffness, 10-10 to preservation and seasoning, 18-2 EPA-approved information
10-12, 10-lit p]reservative treatment: sheet, 14-3t
cores, 10-6 and sapwood, 18-4 handling precautions, 14-3t
description, 10-6 to 10-7 retention levels, 14-St to 14-6t use site precautions, 14-4t
dimensional stability, 10-12 specifications, 18-6 oilborne, various types:
and grain direction, 10-6 service life, 18-6 alkyl ammoniumcompound:
edge swelling, 10-12 species selection, 18-2 effectiveness, 14-9
erosion ofplaned surfaced, 15-8t standardsand specifications, 18-2t, in ammoniacalcopper quat,
finishes, suitability and expected 18-7 14-11
service life, 15-15t strength properties, 18-7 solubility, 14-9
finishing, 15-5 uses, 18-3fig bis(tri-n-butyltin) oxide:
fire-retardanttreated, 17-12 weight and volume, 18-5 concentration values, 14-8
grain, 10-6 Polymeric methylene diphenyl inappropriate uses, 14-8
HPVA grade stamp, 10-8, 10-9fig diisocyanate (PMDI) adhesives, 9-10 paintability, 14-8
in light-frameconstruction, 16-3 Polymerization, effect on mechanical recommended uses, 14-8
plies, 10-6 properties, 4-43 toxicity, 14-8
preservative retention levels, 14-5t Polymers, organic and synthetic, and chlorothalonil:
to 14-6t adhesion,9-9 to 9-10 effectiveness, 14-8
product standard, 10-5 to 10-6, 10- Polymers, analytic chemicaland solubility, 14-8
St. 10-6fig, 10-7 mechanicaltesting, 9-20 stability, 14-8
protectingform decay, 13-8 Polyurethanebonding with wood and chlorothalonil/chlorpyrifos:
shear strength, 10-12 nonwood composites, 9-5 component ratior.s, 14-8
sheathing-grade, property values, Polyurethane adhesives: effectiveness,14-8
10-12t performance overtime, 9-22 chlorpyrifos:
specialty panels, 10-13 structural performance,9-lIt effectiveness,14-9
in combination, 14-9
specifications, 10-8 to 10-9 working and strength properties,
softwood logs, processing, 10-7 and uses, 9-14t copper naphtehnate:
Polyvinyl adhesives: color transfer anc. changes,14-
standards, 10-8
splitting resistance, 10-12 structuralperformance,9-lIt 8
strength and stiffness, 10-lit, 10- working and strength properties, effectiveness, 14-8
12 and uses, 9-13t to 9-14t retention levels for various
Porches: wood products, 14-St
types:
construction and industrial, 10- cleaning before refinishing, 15-23 solution values, 14-8
7 finishing, 15-21 Southern pine sapwood
hardwood and decorative, 10-7 pests, 13-13 stakes retention and life span
veneers, 10-7 to 10-8 Pores. See Vessels test results, 14-14t
Portland-cement-bondedcomposites, treatmentfor cut;ing
weathering of, 15-16fig
Plywood curved members: 10-25 to 10-26, lO-26t pretreated wood, 14-24
bent after gluing: Post-framebuildings, 16-4 to 16-6, creosote, coal-tar:
commonhardwoodsfor, 19-3 16-Sfig, 16-6fig advantages, 14-2
procedurefor, 19-2 Posts, preservativeretention levels, appearance, 14-2
bent and glued simultaneously: 14-St to 14-6t composition variability, 14-2
advantages, 19-2 to 19-3 Pre-drying, 12-6 EPA-approved customer
Prefinished wood products, 15-24 informationsheet, 14-3t
procedurefor, 19-2 effecton mechancal
Poisson's ratio: Preservative penetration:
discussion, 4-2 heartwood, 14-12, 14-16t, 14-21, properties, 14-24
values, 4-3t 14-24 for non-pressuretreatments,
Pole buildings, 16-4 to 16-6, 16-Sfig, incising, effect of, 14-2 1 14-7
16-6fig, 18-3 sapwood, 14-12, 14-21, 14-24 handling precautions, l4-3t
Poles: softwoods, 14-16t in pressure treatmentprocess,
Preservative-pressure-treatedwood, 14-19
availability, 18-2
characteristics relating to: EPA-approvedcustomer information odor and vapors., 14-2
sheets, 14-3t to 14-4t retention levels or various
Douglas-fir, 18-2, 18-4t
Preservative retention tests, pressure- wood products, 14-5t
glued-laminated, 18-3
jack pine, 18-4t treated, 14-13t to 14-1St standards, 14-2
lodgepole pine, 18-2, 18-4t Preservatives: temperaturefor pressure
ponderosa pine, 18-2, i8-4t copper-containing,control of treating, 14-21
red pine, 18-4t, 18-5 marine borers with, 13-15 treatmentfor cutting
southern pine, 18-2, 18-4t, 18-5 finishing, 15-6 pretreated wood, 14-25
western hemlock, I8-4t effecton mechanicalproperties,14- use site precautions, 14-3t
western larch, 18-2 24 volatility, 14-7
western red cedar, 18-2, 18-4t, effect on paintability, 15-22 creosote-coal-tar o1utions:
18-6 effect on strengthofoil-type, 4-41 properties, 14-7
control ofmold, stain, and decay, EPA regulations 14-1 to 14-2 retention levels for various
13-6 inorganic arsenicals: wood products, 14-5t
form and taper, 18-3 to 18-4 standardsby volume, 14-7

1—23
 temperaturefor pressure and non-pressuretreatment, 14- effectiveness ofcommontypes,
treating, 4-21 24 14-li
creosote-petroleumoil applicationand maintenanceof effect on adhesion,9-6
solutions: exteriorwood finish, 15-14t finishing wood treated with,
retention levels for various effectiveness, 14-9 to 14-10 15-22
wood products, 14-5t effecton mechanical properties, resistanceto marineborers,
naphtalene: 4-41 to 4-43 14-li
Southern pine sapwood effecton strength,4-41 to 4-43 retention levels for various
stakes retention and life span finishing, 15-6 wood products, i4-6t
test results, 14-14t for marine piles, 14-10 Southern pine sapwood
oxine copper: initial kiln-drying temperature, stakes retention and life span
composition, 14-8 4-42 test results, 14-13t
corrosiveness, 14-8 paintability, 14-10 temperaturefor pressure
retention levels for various post-treatmentkiln drying treating, 14-21
wood products, 14-5t temperatures,4-42 to 4-43 use with Douglas-fir, 14-I 1
Southern pine sapwood retention levels effect of strength, copperazole - Type A (CBA-
stakes retention and life span 4-24 Type A):
test results, 14-13t retention levels for various retention levels for various
toxicity, 14-8 wood products, l4-6t wood products, 14-6t
pentachlorophenal solutions: retentions necessaryfor marine solution percentages, 14-]2
and nonpressure treatments, borer protection, 14-lOt temperaturefor pressure
14-24 temperatureconsiderations, 14- treating, 14-21
solution standards, 14-7 10 copper
solution performance, 14-7 waterborne, various types: bis(dimethyldithiocarbamate
pentachiorophenol; acid copper chromate(ACC): (CDDC):
approved uses, 14-7 components,14-10 retention levels for various
effect on mechanicalproperties effectivenessand leaching, 14- wood products, 14-6t
of wood, 14-24 10 solution percentages, 14-Il
effectiveness, 14-8 retention levels for various to 14-12
EPA-approved consumer wood products, 14-6t temperaturefor pressure
information sheet, 14-3t Southern pine sapwood treating, 14-21
handling precautions, 14-3t, stakes retention and life span uses, 14-12
14-8 test results, 14-13t inorganic boron (borax/boric
ineffectiveagainst marine temperaturefor pressure acid):
borers, 14-8 treating, 14-21 acceptable compounds, 14-12
paintability, 14-7 ammoniacal copper citrate (CC): effectiveness, 14-12
retention levels for various retention levels for various solubility, 14-12
wood products, 14-5t wood products, 14-6t temperaturefor pressure
Southern pine sapwood solution percentages, 14-12 treating, 14-21
stakes retention and life span temperaturefor pressure uses, 14-12
test results, l4-15t treating, 14-21 Preservatives,recommended
use site precautions, l4-4t animoniacalcopper quat (ACQ): retentions, 14-21, 14-St
propiconazole: commontypes, 14-Il Preservatives,water-repellant, and
effectivenss, 14-9 composition ofcommontypes, non-pressure treatments:
solubility, 14-9 14-lit effectiveness, 14-9
uses, 14-9 retention levels for various federal specifications, 14-9
tebuconazole: wood products, 14-6t uses, 14-9
effectiveness, 14-9 uses, 14-11 Preservative-treated wood:
solubility, 14-9 ainmoniacal copperzinc arsenate bestmanagementpractices, 14-25
zinc naphthenate: (ACZA): cut surfaces, protectionof, 14-24 to
effectiveness, 14-8 composition, 14-il 14-25
inappropriate uses, 14-8 replacementfor ACA, 14-11 effecton adhesion, 9-6
properties, 14-8 retention levels for various finishing, 15-6, 15-25
3-iodo-2-propynyl butyl wood products, 14-6t handling, 14-24
carbamate: temperaturefor pressure inspection, 14-25, 14-26fig
effectiveness, 14-8 treating, 14-2 1 quality assurance, 14-25 to 14-26,
paintability, 14-8 use, 14-10 14-26fig
retail marketing, 14-8 use with Douglas-fir, 14-10to seasoning required, 14-25
use in combination, 14-9 14-li service life, 15-22
uses, 14-8 chromatedcopper arsenate specifications, 14-25
4, 5-dichloro-2-N-octyl-4- (CCA): strengthas affected by
isothiazolin-3-one: commontypes, 14-11 preservatives, 14-24
effectiveness, 14-9 component substitutions, 14- timing ofuse, 14-24
inappropriate uses, 14-9 11 Preservativetreatment for:
solubility, 14-9 composition ofcommontypes, composite products, 1-24
waterborne, general: 14-1 it light-frame construction 16-2

1—24
Preservativetreatment,effect on following other conditioning, machining, 3-15
strength, 6-13 14-19 shrinkage, 3-8, 4-32
Preservativetreatment, preparingfor: modifiedfull-cell, 14-19 tension wood, 4-31
air-drying practices, 14-17 to 14-18 penetration and retention levels, Redcedar,eastern.See Cedar, Eastern
conditioning green lumber, 14-18 14-21 red
Boulton or boiling-under- pressures used, 14-2 1 Redcedar,western. See Cedar, Western
vacuum process, 14-18 Prirnavera: red
steaming-and-vacuumprocess, availability, 1-29 Redwood:
14-18 characteristics, 1-29 characteristics, 1-16
cutting and framing: dimensionalchange coefficient,12- characteristicsfor painting, 15-3t
commonuses, 14-19 17t color and figure, 3-4t
potential size changes, 14-19 locality of growth, 1-29 charring rate date, 17-1 It
timing, 14-18 machineability, 1-29 connector joint strength, 7-2it
drying, 14-17 to 14-18 mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t decay resistance, 1-16, 3-18t
incising: resistance to fungi, 1-29 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
method, 14-18, 14-l8fig shrinkage values, 3-lOt 17t
purpose, 14-18 uses, 1-29 ease of bonding, 9-8t
primary species, 14-18 Propiconazole: elastic ratio, 4-2t
peeling, 14-17, 14-l7fig effectiveness, 14-9 erosion of planed surfaces, 15-8t
preventing decay while drying, 14- solubility, 14-9 flamespread index, l7-3t
18 uses, 14-9 flammabilitydata, 17-7t
Preservative treatments, nonpressure: Purlins and glulam beam construction, for finish board, 5-17
Boucherieprocess for green 16-8 for siding, 5-17
unpeeled poles, 14-24 Purpleheart: heat release data, 17-9t
brushing: characteristics, 1-29 locality of growth, 1-16
application, 14-22 decay resistance,9-8t moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t
choice of preservative, 14-22 ease ofbonding, 9-8t nomenclature,5-l3t
effectiveness, 14-22 locality of growth, 1-29 paintability rating, 15-4
penetration obtained, 14-22 machineability, 1-29 penetration, 14-1 6t
cold-soaking process: mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
effectiveness,14-22 shrinkage values, 3-lOt lit
method, 14-22 uses, 1-29 preservativepressure and
retentions and penetrations, 14- Pycnanthus.See Ilomba temperature, 14-21
22 shrinkage values, 3-9t
compared to pressuretreatment, 14- Quartersawnlumber: strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t
21 advantages, 3-2t tensile strength, 4-24t
diffusion processes: color and figure: thermal conductivity, 3-20t
butt or groundlinetreatment of hardwoods, 3-3t toughness values, 4-25t
poles or posts, 14-23, 14-23fig softwoods, 3-4t uses, 1-16
double diffusion, 14-22, 14- methodofproducing,3-2 workability, 1-16
22fig shrinkage, 3-11 Relative humidity:
wood used, 14-22 Quality control in preservative-treated equilibriummoisture content, 3-5
dipping: wood, 14-25 to 14-26, l4-26fig moisturecontent of wcod, 3-7t, 15-
effectiveness, 14-22 9 to 15-10
method, 14-22 Raftersin light-frame construction16- Remedialtreatment, 13-8
penetration obtained, 14-22 4 Resorcinol adhesives:
steeping process: Ramin: performanceover time, 9-21 to 9-22,
effectiveness, 14-22 characteristics, 1-29 to 1-30 9-22fig
method, 14-22 decay resistance,3-18t structuralperformance, 9-1lt
wood used, 14-22 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- working and strength properties,
tire-tube method for green, unpeeled l7t and uses, 9-l4t
fencepost, 14-24 ease ofbonding, 9-8t Roble:
vacuum processes: locality of growth, 1-29 characterisitcs, 1-30
contrasted to pressure treating, mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t ease of bonding, 9-8t
14-24 resistance to decay, 1-30 locality ofgrowth, 1-30
effectiveness, 14-23 shrinkage values, 3-lOt machineability, 1-30
methods, 14-23 to 14-24 uses, 1-30 mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t
uses, 14-23 workability, 1-30 resistance to decay, 1-30
Preservativetreatments, pressure: Rays: shrinkage values, 1-30
advantages, 14-10 definition, 2-1 uses, 1-30
and preservativetemperature, 14-21 discussion, 2-3 Rolling shear strength, defined, 4-24
empty-cell processes: effecton figure,3-4 Roof beams and water ponding,8-9
Lowry process, 14-20 function,2-1, 2-3 Rosewood,ease of bonding, 9-8t
Rueping process, 14-19 to 14-20 Reaction wood: Rosewood, Brazilian:
full-cell process: compressionwood, 4-31 characteristics, 1-30
description, 14-19 increase in density, 4-31 locality of growth, 1-30

1—25
 machineability, 1-30 dimensional stability: withdrawal loads, 7-10, 7-lOeq
mechanical properties, 4-18t, 4-22t bowing, 11-20 withdrawal resistance, 7-10
resistance to fungi and insects, 1-30 durability, 11-20 Screws, wood
shrinkage values, 3-lot fire resistance, 11-21, 17-5 gauges, 7-lit
uses, 1-30 thermal insulation, 11-20 to 11-21 lateral load coefficients,7-6t
Rosewood, Indian: Santa Maria: lateral resistance, 7-10 to 7-11, 7-
characteristics, 1-30 characteristics, 1-31 IOeq
characteristicsaffecting machining, characteristicsaffectingmachining, lead hole and load, 7-li
3-17t 3-i7t lubrication, 7-10
locality ofgrowth, 1-30 dimensional change coefficient, 12- penetrationdepth and load, 7-li
machineability, 1-30 l7t sizes, 7-lot
mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t locality of growth, 1-31 types, 7-9, 7-9fig
shrinkage values, 3-lot machineability, 1-31 withdrawal loads for particleboari,
uses, 1-30 mechanical properties,4-i8t, 4-22t 7-10, 7-iOeq
Round timber and ties: resistance to insects, 1-31 withdrawal resistance, 7-9 to 7-10,
availability, 18-2 to 18-3 uses, 1-31 7-iOeq
durability, 18-6 to 18-7 Sapele: yield model theory, 7-8t, 7-11
efficient use, 18-1 characteristics, 1-31 Seasoning and lumber purchasing
form, 18-3 to 18-5 characteristicsaffecting machining, considerations, 5-18
materialrequirements, 18-1 3-17t Selangan Batu. See Balau
standards and specifications, 18-1, decay resistance, 3-18t Select lumber availability, 5-16 to 5-
18-2t ease of bonding, 9-8t 17
strength properties, 18-7 to 18-8 locality of growth, 1-31 Sepetir:
weight and volume, 18-5 machineability, 1-31 characteristics, 1-31
mechanicalproperties, 4-18t, 4-22t decay resistance, 3-l8t
Sande: shrinkage values, 3-lOt locality ofgrowth, 1-31
characteristics, 1-30 uses, 1-31 mechanical properties, 4-18t, 4-22t
characteristicsaffecting machining, Sap stain, 12-10, 12-l3fig, 13-2 shrinkage values, 3-lOt
3-1 7t Sapwood: uses, 1-31
decay resistance, 3-18t color, 3-2 workability, 1-31
locality of growth, 1-30 decay resistance,2-2 Seraya, white:
machineability, 1-30 function, 2-2 characteristics, 1-31
mechanicalproperties, 4-I8t, 4-22t in visual stress grading, 6-5 decay resistance, 3-18t
resistance to decay and insects, 1- location, 2-2 locality of growth, 1-31
30 moisture content, 3-6t machineability, 1-31
shrinkage values, 3-lOt moisture content and drying, 12-7 uses, i-3i
uses, 1-30 preservativeretention and stake Shakes:
Sandwich panels: lifespan, 14-13t to 14-1St in glued structuralmembers, ii-10
advantage, 11-16 thickness, 2-2 in lumber stress grading, 6-4 to 6-5
construction: Sassafras: Sheardeflection, of sandwichpanels,
adhesives, 11-17 characteristics, 1-8 11-18
cores, 11-16 to 11-17, 11-l7fig decay resistance, 1-8, 3-l8t Shearstiffness:
core configurations, 11-17fig dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- ofbox andl beams, 11-12
description, 11-16, 11-1 6fig i6t of sandwich panels, 11-18
manufacture, 11-17 locality of growth, 1-8 of stressed-skin panels, 11-14
resin treatment, 11-17 nomenclature,5-5t Shear strength parallel to grain:
showthrough, 11-17 shock resistance, 1-8 coefficientofvariation, 4-23t
design: shrinkage values, 3-9t defined, 4-3,
bending stiffness, 11-18, ii- strength properties, 4-6t, 4-11 Shearstress ofbeams, 8-6
18fig uses, 1-8 Sheathingand light-frame
bond strength, 11-19 Screws, lag: construction, 16-3, i6-4fig
buckling load, 11-18, 11-19, 11- description, 7-11 Shingles and shakes, availability, 5-
l8eq, 1i-l9eq post-1991 lateral load, yield model 17
coremodulus, 11-18 theory, 7-13 to 7-14, 7-6t, 7-13t, Shingles, finishes, suitability and
deflectionand beam loading, 11- pre-1991lateral loads, 7-12 to 7- expected service life, l5-i5t
18, ll-i8eq, ll-18t 13, 7-i2eq, 7-12t, 7-i3fig Shipworms, 13-13
dimplingoffacings, 11-19, 11- lateral resistance, 7-12, 7-13, 7-13t Shrinkage:
l9eq, 1l-l9fig lubrication, 7-12, 7-13 adjustmentfor design use, 6-il
facing stress, 11-19, ll-l9fig prebored lead hole, size required,7- affect on painting, 15-4
failure modes, 11-19, 11-l9fig ii, 7-i2fig coefficientsfor changing moisture
minimumweight, 11-20, ii- spacing, 7-13 content by species, l2-16t, l2-l7t
2Ofig withdrawal resistance,7-il to 7- coefficientof variation,3-8, 3-11
shear instability, 11-19 12, 7-lieq compression wood, 3-8
shear stiffness, 11-18, ll-i8fig Screws, tapping: discussion, 3-7 to 3-li
wrinklingof facings, 11-19, 11- described,7-9 fiber saturation point as related to,
l9eq, 11-l9fig, 11-20 use in particleboard,7-10 3-8

1—26
 longitudinal, 3-8 manufacture: in lumber stress grading, 6-4
moisture content curves, 3-iifig size, 5-10 to 5-li, 5-lit Spruce, black:
ofdomesticwoods, 3-9 surfacing,5-11 to 5-12 color and figure, 3-4t
ofimportedwoods, 3-9, 3-10 patterns, 5-12, 5-i2fig dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
radial, 3-9, 3-10 species, 5-12 I7t
reaction wood, 3-8 Softwoods: mechanical properties, 4-l4t, 4-1St
species, 3-9, 3-10 availability, 1-2 moisture content, 3-6t
tangential, 3-9, 3-10 bending properties, 19-3 plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
tension wood, 3-8 charring rates, 17-1 lt lit
volumetric,3-9, 3-10 color and figure, 3-4t shrinkage values, 3-9t
Siding: definition, 1-2 strength properties, 4-St, 4-i3t
and mill glaze, 15-26 flamespreadindex, i7-3t thermal conductivity, 3-20t
availability, 5-17 flammability data, l7-7t Spruce, Eastern:
backpriming, 15-23 heat releasedata, 17-9t characteristics, 1-16
finishes, suitability and expected imported, 1-33 to 1-34 flame spread index, 17-3t
service life, 15-1St moisture content, heartwoodand locality of growth, 1-16
lumber finishing, 15-4, 15-13, 15- sapwood, 3-6t nomenclature, 5-l3t
20 preservativepenetration, 14-16t species, 1-16
prefinishédat the factory, 15-24 relationshipof mechanical uses, 1-16
removing weatheredsurface, 15-9 propertiesto specific gravity, 4-28t workability, 1-16
use ofplywood, 15-5 species by region, l-2t Spruce, Engelmann:
Silverballi,brown, See Kaneelhart stained, 3-4fig characteristics, 1-16
Size factor: thermal conductivity, 3-20t charactçristicsfor painting, 15-3t
for design use, 6-11 to 6-12 uses, 1-2 charring rate data, 17-1 it
proceduresfor design use: Sorption hysteresis, discussed, 3-7 color and figure, 3-4t
in-grade test, 6-11 to 6-12 Solvents and adhesion, 9-10 connector joint strength, 7-2it
small clear, 6-11 Sound, speedof, 4-25 to 4-26 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
Skin stresses, stressed-skin panels, Southern pine sapwood stakes, 17t
11—14 to 11—15 preservativeretention and life span elastic ratio, 4-2t
Slash-grainedlumber. See Flat-grained tests, 14-13t to 14-1st erosion of planed surfaces, 15-8t
Slope of grain: Soybean adhesives: locality ofgrowth, i-i's
determination,4-29 to 4-30, 4-29eq structuralperformance,9-1 lt mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-iSt
in visual sorting, 6-4 working and strength properties, moisture content, 3-6t
relationship to fiber orientation,4- and uses, 9-l3t nomenclature,5-i3t
3Ofig Spanish-cedar: penetration, 14-i6t
types, 4-29 to 4-30 characteristics, 1-31 plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
Smoke: characteristicsaffecting machining, lit
approachesfor dealing with, 17-9 3-17t Poisson ration, 4-3t
carbon monoxide, 17-10 decay resistance, 3-18t shock resistance, 1-16
defined, 17-9 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- shrinkage values, 3-9t
release rate, 17-10 I7t strength properties, 4-8t, 4-i3t
tests for determiningyield, 17-9 to ease pf bonding, 9-8t tensiie strength, 4-24t
17-10 locality of growth, 1-31 thermal conductivity, 3-20t
toxicity, 17-10 mechanicalproperties, 4-19t, 4-23t toughness values, 4-25t
Soft rot, 13-5 shrinkage values, 3-lOt uses, 1-16
Softwoodlumber: uses, 1-32 Spruce, red:
AmericanLumber Standard,5-7 workability, 1-32 color and figure, 3-4t
classificationby grades: Specific gravity: connectorjoint strenglh, 7-21t
factory and shop lumber: and paintability of wood, 15-1, 15- dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
factory (shop) grades, 5-10 4 i7t
industrial clears, 5-10 and weatheringof wood, 15-7 fracture toughness, 4-26t
ladder and pole stock, 5-10 coefficientof variation, 3-il, 4-23t mechanicalproperties, 4-14t, 4-i5t
moulding stock, 5-10 definition, 3-11 moisture content, 4-34t
tank stock, 5-10 densityas a functionof, 3-i3t, 3- plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
structural lumber: 14t lit
dimension lumber, 5-8 influence on mechanicalproperties, shrinkage values, 3-9t
structural laminations, 5-8 to 4-27, 4-28t strength properties, 4-3t, 4-i3t
5-9 moisturecontent, 3-5, 3-l2fig thermal conductivity, :3-20t
yard lumber: of reaction wood, 4-31 ipruce, Sitka:
select lumber, 5-7 to 5-8 workabilityof wood, 3-15 characteristics, 1-16
commonlumber,5-8, 5-8fig Speed ofsound, 4-25 to 4-26 color and figure, 3-4t
developmentof grading rules, 5-7 Sphaeroma, 13-14 connector joint strengi:h, 7-2it
drying targets, 12-5 Spikes, 7-8 dimensionalchange coefficient, i2-
grading organizations, 5-9t, 5-12 Spiralgrain, 4-29 to 4-30, 4-32fig i7t
kiln drying schedules, 12-8 to 12- Splits: ease of bonding, 9-8t
9, 12-lit in glued structuralmembers,11-10 elastic ratio, 4-2t

1—27
 flame spread index, 17-3t Stains, iron, 15-23,15-29, 15-32 axial load:
locality of growth, 1-16 Stake tests with preservatives, tensile stress, 8-4, 8-4eq
mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-1St pressure-treated,l4-13t to 14-15t short-block compressive stress,
moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t Standardlengths of lumber,5-2 8-4, 8-4eq
nomenclature,5-i3t Standard lumber abbreviations, bending:
penetration, 14-1 6t Standard thicknessesof lumber: notches, slits and holes, effect 8-
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- for flooring,5-5 6 to 8-7
I lt table, 5-4 size effect,8-6, 8-6eq
Poisson ration, 4-3t Standardwidths of lumber, 5-4 straight beam stresses, 8-5
shock resistance, 1-16 Staples, 7-8 to 7-9 tapered beam stresses, 8-5 to 8-6,
shrinkage values, 3-9t Starch adhesive, structural 8-Sfig, 8-5eq, 8-6eq
strength properties, 1-16, 4-8t performance,9-Ilt time effects, 8-7
tensile strength, 4-24t Staybwood, 19-10 water ponding, 8-7
thermal conductivity, 3-20t Staypak: combined bending and axial load:
uses, 1-16 appearance, 19-10 concentric load, 8-7, 8-7eq
Spruce, white: dimensional stability, 19-9t eccentric load, 8-7, 8-7eq
color and figure, 3-4t properties, 19-6t, 19-9 to 19-10 torsion, 8-8, 8-8fig, 8-8eq
connector joint strength, 7-21t purpose, 19-10 Stress-graded lumber,American
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- strength properties, 19-7t to 19-8t Standard lumber sizes, 5-St
17t uses, 19-10 Stress grading:
mechanical properties, 4-l4t, 4-1St Sticker stain during drying, 12-10, 12- AmericanLumber Standard
penetration, 14-1 6t 14fig Committee(ALSC):
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- Stiffenersand glued members, 11-13 accredited rules-writing and
lit Stiffeners and glulam beam independent agencies, 6-2t
strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t construction, 16-8 American SoftwoodStandard,6-
thermal conductivity, 3-20t Stiffeners, wood-plywoodglued 2
Stability: structuralmembers, 11-13 National Grading Rule, 6-2, 6-3,
beams: StifThess,affectedby knots, 6-4 6-3t
water ponding, 8-9, 8-9eq Storageof lumber: American Society ofTesting and
lateral-torsion buckling, 8-9 to care in yards, 12-14 to 12-15, 13-7 Materials(ASTM):
8-10, 8-9eq, 8-lot green or partially seasoned, 12-14 calculating clear wood
deck support,effect of, 8-10, 8- storage shed temperature, l2-l4t properties for visual stress
iOeq, 8-lOfig Storing lumber: grades, 6-3
built-up and spaced columns, 8-9, finish and factory items, 12-15 design properties, 6-1
8-9eq sheathing and structural items, 12- strength ratio, 6-3
column flanges, 8-9, 8-9eq 14 U.S. responsibility structure, 6-2,
long columns, 8-8, 8-8eq Strength and duration ofload 6-2fig
interaction of buckling modes, 8-10 adjustments, 6-13 Stress, relationship between constant
to 8-11, 8-lOeq, 8-lleq Strength ratio: load and failure, 4-39 to 4-40, 4-39fig
short columns, 8-8 to 8-9, 8-8eq, 8- definition, 6-3 Structural compositelumber (SCL) in
8fig equations, 6-5, 6-6fig bridges, 16-10
Stain: estimating, 6-5 Structural flakeboardand light-frame
penetrating: ranges in visual grading, 6-6 construction, 16-3
use on exterior plywood, 15-5 Strength properties: Sucupira:
semi-transparent: bird pecks,effectof, 4-33 characteristics, 1-32
application and maintenance, 15- compression failures, effectof, 4-33 decay resistance, 3-i8t
14t, 15-20 creep, 4-37 to 4-39 ease of bonding, 9-8t
discussed, 15-17 dead trees, 4-33 to 4-34 locality of growth, 1-32
refinishing, 15-23 derivedfor small clear wood, 6-5 to mechanical properties, 4-19t, 4-23t
solid color: 6-6 resistance to fungi and insects, 1-32
and millglaze, 15-26 durationofload, effect, 4-39 to 4-40 shrinkage values, 3-lot
application and maintenance, 15- extractives, effectof, 4-33 uses, 1-32
14t, 15-20 fire-retardanttreatments,4-41 workability, 1-32
discussed, 15-18 for commerciallyimportant woods, Sugarberry (See also Hackberry):
reconstituted wood products, 4-3t to 4-8t size ofpores, l5-3lt
15-6 insectdamage, effectof, 4-43 Suradan. See Pilon
refinishing, 15-23 juvenile wood, 4-32 Sweetgum:
use on floors, 15-32 knots,effect of, 4-27 to 4-28, 4-34 characteristics, 1-8
Stains. See also Discoloration moisturecontent as related to, 4-34 characteristicsfor painting, I 5-3t
Stains, chemical, discussed 13-3 nuclear radiation, 4-43 color and figure, 3-3t
Stains, fungal: pitch pockets, effect of, 4-33 connector joint strength, 7-21t
blue, 15-29 rate ofloading, 4-37 decay resistance, 3-18t
discussed, 13-2 slope of grain, 4-28 to 4-30 dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
distinction from mold, 13-2 treatment, effectof 6-13 16t
during drying, 12-10, 12-i3fig Strength, related to slope, 4-3Ofig ease of bonding, 9-8t
effect on wood, 13-3 Stress equations: elastic ratio, 4-2t

1—28
 flame spreadindex, 17-3t rriachining and related properties, Thermalpropertiesofwood, 3-15
interlocked grain, 1-8 3-16t Thermoplasticsand adhesion, 9-9 to
locality of growth, 1-8 nomenclature,5-5t 9-10
machiningand related properties, 3- plywood stiffness and strength, Ties:
16t 10-1 lt availability, 18-3
moisture content, 3-6t shrinkage values, 3-9t preservativepenetraticn levels, 14-
penetration, 14-16t strength properties, 1-9, 4-6t, 4-lit 5t to 14-6t
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- uses, 1-9 service life, 18-6 to 18-7
lit Teak: sizes, 18-5
shock resistance, 1-8 characteristics, 1-32 standards and specifications, 18-2t
shrinkage values, 3-9t characteristicsaffectingmachining, strength properties, 18-8
strength properties, 4-6t, 4-lit 3-17t weight and volume, 18-5
thermal conductivity, 3-19t decay resistance,3-i8t Timber:
toughness values, 4-24t dimensionalchange coefficient, inventory, 1-2
uses, 1-8 12-1 7t resources, 1-2
Swelling, coefficientfor changing ease of bonding, 9-8t Timber bridges:
moisture content, by species, 12-16tto locality of growth, 1-32 glulam, 16-10, 16-lOfig
12-17t machinability, 1-32 log stringer, 16-9
Sycamore: mechanicalproperties, 4-19t, 4-23t sawn lumber, 16-9
characteristics for painting, 15-3t shrinkage values, 3-lOt structuralcomposite kmber, 16-10
color and figure, 3-3t uses, 1-32 Timber buildings:
decay resistance, 3-18t Tebuconazole: arch structure, 16-8
ease of bonding, 9-8t effectiveness, 14-9 dome, 16-8 to 16-9, 16-8fig
machining and related properties, 3- solubility, 14-9 glulam beam, 16-8
16t Temperature blisters, avoiding while mill-type construction:
nomenclature,5-5t painting, 15-21 fire resistance, 16-7
size ofpores, 15-31t Temperature, effecton: specifications, 16-7
Sycamore,American: fatigue strength,4-40 to 4-41 timber frame houses, 16-6 to 16-7,
characteristics, 1-8 mechanical properties: l6-8fig
connector joint strength, 7-21t irreversibleeffects, 4-36 to 4-37, Timbers, recommended moisture
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- 4-38fig content, 12-3
16t reversible effects, 4-35 to 4-36, Timberfrom deadtrees, propertiesof,
locality of growth, 1-8 4-36fig 4-33 to 4-34
moisture content, 3-6t properties, 6-14, 6-14t Time, effecton strength:
penetration, 14-1 6t relative humidity and moisture creep, 4-37 to 4-39
shock resistance, 1-8 content, 3-7t durationof load, 4-39 to 4-40
shrinkage values, 3-9t Tensile strength, end-grain bonded Tornillo:
strength properties, 4-6t, 4-1 lt joints, 9-18 to 9-19 characteristics, 1-32
thermal conductivity, 3-19t Tensile strength parallel to grain: decay resistance, 3-181;
uses, 1-8 averagevalues, 4-24 locality of growth, 1-32
coefficient ofvariation,4-23t mechanical properties, 4-19t, 4-23t
Tamarack: defined, 4-3 uses, 1-32
characteristics, 1-16 Tensile strength perpendicularto workability, 1-32
characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t grain, 4-3 Torsion, strength, 4-24
color and figure, 3-4t Tension wood: Toughness:
decay resistance, 3-18t definition, 4-31 average values, 4-24t, 4-25
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- density increase, 4-31 coefficientofvariation,, 4-23t
l7t description, 4-31 defined, 4-24
locality of growth, 1-16 effecton strength,4-31 Tracheids, description and function,
mechanical properties, 4-14t, 4-15t machining, 3-15 2-3
moisture content, 3-6t, 4-34t shrinkage, 4-32 Transverse and volumetric shrinkage
nomenclature,5-13t Textureof wood, 3-1 to 3-2 ofwood, 3-7 to 3-8
penetration, 14-16t Texture, effect on paintability, 15-5 Trebol. See Macawood
plywood stiffness and strength, 10- Termites: Trim, exterior:
lIt damage caused by, 13-9t, 13-lOfig care during construction, 12-19
shrinkage values, 3-9t nonsubterranean, 13-12 recommendedmoisture content,
strength properties, 4-8t, 4-13t subterranean, 13-Il to 13-12 12-St
uses, 1-16, 1-17 termite-resistantwood, 13-12 to Trusses:
Tangare. See Andiroba 13-13 care during construction, 12-8 to
Tanoak: Thermal, conductivity ofwood: 12-19
characteristics, 1-32 definition, 3-15 in light-frameconstruction, 16-4
decay resistance, 3-18t determination,3-17 in pole and post-frame construction,
dimensionalchange coefficient, factors affecting, 3-17 16-6
12-16t selected species, 3-19t to 3-20t Truss plates, 7-25, 7-26fig
locality ofgrowth, 1-8 Thermaldiffusivity ofwood,3-17 Tupelo:
machineability, 1-9 Thermalexpansion,3-21 characteristics, 1-9

1—29
 connector joint strength, 7-21t deriving strength properties for application and maintenance, 15-
locality ofgrowth, small clear wood, 6-5 to 6-6, 6-6fig l4t, 15-20
nomenclature,5-5t deriving modulus of elasticityfor discussed, 15-10
shock resistance, 1-9 small clear wood, 6-6, 6-7fig moisture-excluding coatings,
species, 1-9 in-grade procedures,6-6 to 6-7 differentfrom, 15-il
uses, 1-9 sorting criteria, 6-3 to 6-4 used as a finish, 15-18
Tupelo, black: Visual sorting criteria in lumber stress Water-repellant preservatives:
color and figure, 3-3t grading: application and maintenance, 15-
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- checks and splits, 6-4 14t, 15-19 to 15-20
16t decay, 6-5 as a first step in finishing, 15-11,
machiningand related properties, 3- density, 6-5 15-20
16t explanation, 6-3 backpriming, 15-23 to 15-24
moisture content, 3-6t heartwood and sapwood, 6-5 caution in use, 15-18
shrinkage values, 3-9t knots, 6-4 effect of use on windowsash and
strength properties, 4-6t, 4-1 it pitch pockets, 6-5 frame, 15-i7fig
thermal conductivity, 3-19t shakes, 6-4 to 6-5 on wood exposedto marine
Tupelo, swamp,moisture content, 3-6t slope of grain, 6-4 environtnënts, 15-22
Tupelo, water: wane, 6-5 paintability, 15-6, 15-16
color and figure, 3-3t refinishing, 15-23
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Waferboard, obsolescence, 10-5 used as a finish, 15-16
I6t Waika. See Manni use on edges of reconstituted wood
machiningand related properties, 3- Walele. See Ilomba products, 15-6
16t Wallaba: use on end grain, 15-13
moisture content, 3-6t characteristics, 1-33 Wax in compositeproducts, 10-4
shrinkage values, 3-9t decay resistance, 3-18t Weathering of wood:
strength properties, 4-6t, 4-1 it ease of bonding, 9-8t effect on extractives, 15-6
thermal conductivity, 3-19t locality of growth, 1-32 to 1-33 effect on lignin, 15-7
Tupelo, white, color and figure, 3-3t machinability, 1-33 effect on paint adhesion, 15-8 to
mechanicalproperties, 4-19t, 4-23t 15-9
Urea and dimethylolurea for resistance to insects, 1-33 and mill glaze, 15-25
plasticizing wood, 19-2 shrinkage values, 3-lot artist's rendition of, l5-7fig
Urea adhesives: uses, 1-33 as a natural finish, 15-16
performance over time, 9-21 to 9-22, Walnut, black: erosion rates for hardwoodsand
9-22fig availabilityat retail yards, 5-16 softwoods, I5-8t
structuralperformance,9-I lt characteristics, 1-9 in marine environments, 15-22
use with composite products, 10-4 characteristicsfor painting, I5-3t of finishes, 15-9
working and strength properties, color and figure, 3-4t process, 15-6
and uses, 9-14t decay resistance,3-18t warp, 15-8
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12- Web stresses, glued members, 11-13
Van der Waal's forces,9-2 I 6t Western redcedar,used for poles, 18-2,
Varnish: ease of bonding, 9-8t 18-4t, 18-6
application and maintenance, 15- elastic ratio, 4-2t White-cedar:
14t kiln drying schedule, 12-1 lt Atlantic. See Cedar, Atlantic white
clear, 15-18 locality of growth, 1-9 Northern. See Cedar, Northern
use on boats, 15-22 moisture content, 3-6t white
use on floors, 15-22 nomenclature,5-5t White rot, 13-5
Veneer: Poisson ratio, 4-3t Willow, black:
and adhesion, 9-4 to 9-5, 10-8 shock resistance, 1-9 characteristics, 1-9
drying, 10-8 shrinkage values, 3-9t decay resistance, 3-i8t
grading, 10-9, 10-lOt size of pores, 15-3 it dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
HPVA grade stamps, 10-8, l0-9fig strength properties, 4-6t, 4-lit l6t
use with plywood, 10-7 to 10-8 uses, 1-1, 1—9 ease of bonding, 9-8t
Veneered curved members, 19-3 workability, 1-9 locality ofgrowth, 1-9
Ventilation and anobiids, 13-10 Wane in lumber stress grading, 6-5 machiningand related properties, 3-
Vertical-grainedlumber.See Edge- Wapa. See Wallaba 16t
grained lumber Warp: nomenclature,5-St
Vessel: and finishing, 15-13 penetration, 14-1 6t
definition, 1-2 and weathering, 15-7 shock resistance, 1-9
function, 2-3 during drying, 12-7 shrinkage values, 3-9t
texture, 3-i to 3-2 Waterbornepreservatives.See strength properties, 4-6t, 4-lit
Vibration properties, 4-25 Preservatives, waterborne toughness values, 4-24t
Virola. See Banak Waterponding, effect on bending uses, 1-9
Visual grades in the National Grading stress, 8-7 Withdrawal resistance:
Rule, 6-3t Water repellants(See also water oflag screws, 7-Il to 7-14
Visual grad1ing: repellant preservative): ofnails, 7-2 to 7-5
ofwood screws, 7-9 to 7-11

1—30
Wood buildings, consideration:
moisture control:
effecton heat flow, 16-12
mold, mildew,mites and health,
16-12
moisture control strategies, 16-
12 to 16-13
paintfailure and appearance
problems, 16-12
structural failure, 16-12
sound control, 16-13, 16-13t
structuralperformanceand
servicability, 16-10 to 16-11
thermal insulation and air
infiltration control, 16-11 to 16-12
Wood cells. See cells ofwood
Wood cleaners and brighteners, 15-33
Wood Components Manufacturers
Association, 5-2, 5-4t
Wood fillers,l5-30, 15-31
Wood identification, 2-4
Wood screws. See screws,wood
Workto maximumloadin bending,4-3
Working qualities of wood, 3-15

Yang. See Keruing

Yellow-cedar.See Cedar, yellow
Yellow-poplar:
characteristics, 1-9
characteristics for painting, 15-3t
charring rate data, 17-1 lt
color and figure, 3-4t
connector joint strength, 7-21t
decay resistance, 3-18t
dimensionalchange coefficient, 12-
I6t
ease of bonding, 9-8t
elastic ratio, 4-2t
erosion of planed surfaces, 15-8t
flamespread index, 17-3t
fracture toughness, 4-26t
locality of growth, 1-9
machiningand related properties, 3-
I6t
moisture content, 3-6t
penetration, 14-I6t
plywood stiffness and strength, 10-
lIt
Poisson ratio, 4-3t
shock resistance, 1-9
shrinkagevalues, 3-9t
size ofpores, l5-31t
strength properties, 4-6t, 4-lit
thermal conductivity, 3-19t
toughness values, 4-24t
uses, 1-9
Zinc-coatednails, 7-4,
Zinc naphthenate:
effectiveness, 14-8
inappropriate uses, 14-8
properties, 14-8

1-31