ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING-1Published by : LAXMI PUBLICATIONS (P) LTD. 22, Golden House, Daryaganj, New Delhi-110002. Phones , | 011-28262368 * | 011-23 26 23.70 011-23 25 2572 011-23 26 2279 Faxes : Branches : 129/1, Ird Main Road, IX Cross, Chamrajpet, Bangalore (Phone : 080-26 61 15 61) 26, Damodaran Street. T. Nagar, Chennai (Phone : 044-24 34 47 26) St. Benedict’s Road, Cochin (Phone : 0484-239 70 04) Pan Bazar, Rani Bari, Guwahati (Phones : 0361-254 36 69, 251 38 81) 4-2-453, Ist Floor, Ramkote, Hyderabad (Phone : 040-24 75 02 47) Adda Tanda Chowk, N.D. 365, Jalandhar City (Phone : 0181-222 12 72) 106/A, Ist Floor, S.N. Banerjee Road, Kolkata (Phones : 033-22 27 37 73, 22 27 52 47) 18, Madan Mohan Malviya Marg, Lucknow (Phone : 0522-220 95 78) 142-C, Victor House, Ground Floor, N.M. Joshi Marg, Lower Parel (W), Mumbai (Phones : 022-24 91 54 15, 24 92 78 69) Radha Govind Street, Tharpagna, Ranchi (Phone : 0651-230 77 64) EMAIL : [email protected] WEBSITE : www.laxmipublications.com SECOND EDITION : SEPT. 1995 REPRINT : JULY 1998 REPRINT : AUG. 1999 REPRINT : AUG. 2001 REPRINT : AUG. 2002 REPRINT : AUG. 2003 REPRINT : SEPT. 2004 REPRINT : JUNE 2005 ISBN : 81-7008-092-4 EWS-0617-135-WATER SUPPLY ENGG ©1996 = B.C. PUNMIA, ASHOK K. JAIN, ARUN K. JAIN All Rights Reserved by the Authors. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or translated in any other language, without the written permission of the Authors. Price : Rs. 135.00 Only. C—10774/05/06 DTP Composed by : Arihant Consultants, Jodhpur. Printed at : Mehra Offset Press, DelhiCONTENTS CHAPTER 1. WATER SYSTEMS LL Introduction 12. Historical Development 13. Sources _of Water 14. Water Supply Systems CHAPTER 2. HYDROLOGY 21. The Water Cycle 22. — Precipitation 23. Measurement of Rainfall 24. Computation of Average Rainfall over a Basin 25. Evaporation and Transpiration 26. Run-off 22. Computation of Run-off Flood Discharge CHAPTER 3. SURFACE SOURCES 3.1. Storage Reservoirs 3.2. Investigations for Reservoir Planning 3.3. — Selection of Site for a Reservoir 34. Storage Capacity and Yield 35. Dams 3.6. Intakes CHAPTER 4. GROUND WATER : WELLS 41, Introduction 42. Types of Aquifers 43. Storage Coefficient 44. Well Hydraulics 45. Determination of Aquifer Constant T 4.6. Characteristic Well Losses : Specific Capacity of Well 4.7. Interference Among Wells oa Ne BBRBSCUESS©) 48. Fully Penetrating Artesian-gravity Well 49. — Partially Penetrating Artesian Well 4.10. Spherical Flow in a Well 4.11, Tube Wells 4.12. Methods for Drilling Tube Wells 4.13, Well Shrouding and Well Development 414° Open Wells 4.15. Yield of an Open Well 4.16, Selection of Suitable Site for a Tube Well 4.17. Section of a Tube Well 4.18. Unsteady Flow 4.19. Other Sources of Underground Water 4.20. Radial Collector Wells CHAPTER 5. WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 5.1. Introduction 5.2. Design Period a. Population Forecast 54. Factors Affecting Population Growth 5.5. Determination of Population for Inter-censal and_Post-censal Years 5.6. | Water Demand S._. Factors ing Rate of Demand CHAPTER 6, QUALITY OF WATER 61. —_ Introduction 62. Common Impuritiesin Water and their Effect 63. Quality of Source 64, —Water_Analysis 65. Physical Examination . dé Creme Hewdineties 6.7. Micro-organisms in Water 68. Microbiological Examination of Water 69. | The Nuisance Bacteria 6.10. BE Common Water-bome Diseases Standards of Purified Water 139 139 140 49 BERE BERBER eR RS BRRGi) CHAPTER 7. UNIT OPERATIONS zt. Introduction 22. Important Unit Operations 13. Gas Transfer 14. Ion Transfer 16. — Solids Transfer 21. Water Treatment Processes CHAPTER 8 SCREENING AND AERATION 8&1. Screening 8.2. Coarse Screens or Bar Screens 8.3. Fine Screens 8.4. Micro-strainers 85. Aeration 86. Types of Aerators 8.7. Factors Governing Acration or Gas Transfer 88. Design of Gravity Aerators 8.9. Design of Fixed Spray Acrators 8.10. Limitations of Aeration CHAPTER 9. SEDIMENTATION 9.1. Introduction 9.2. Types of Settlings 9.3, Settling of Discrete Particles 9.4. Types of Sedimentation Tanks 9.5. Horizontal Flow Sedimentation Tank 9.6. Size-weight Composition and Removal 9.7. Maximum Velocity to Prevent Bed Uplift or Scour 9.8 Design’ Elements 29. — Settling Tank Efficiency 9.10. Details of Plain Sedimentation Tanks 9.11. Sedimentation with Coagulation. : Clarification 9.12. Common Coagulants 9.13. Methods of Feeding Coagulants BRESBRRBERBB BEEEEEE BEESRR SRRERESGai) 9.14. Mixing Devices 9.15. Flocculation 2.16, Clarification - 9.17. Sludge Blanket Tanks or Solid Contact Clarifiers 9.18. © The Pulsator Clarifier 9.19. Shallow Depth Sedimentation : Tube Settler 9.20. Illustrative Examples 9.21. Design Examples CHAPTER 10. FILTRATION 10.1. Introduction 10.2. Theory of Filtration 10.3.. Classification of Filters. 10.4. Filter Media 10.5. Slow Sand Filters 10.6. Rapid Sand Filter : Gravity Type 10.7. Working and Washing of Rapid Sand Filters 10.8. Loss of Head and Negative Head 10.9. Filter Troubles 10.10. Performance of Rapid Sand Filters 10.11. Comparison of Slow Sand and Rapid Sand Filters 10.12. Filtration Hydraulics : Carmen-Kozney Equation : 10.13. Rose Equation 10.14. Flow through Expanded Beds 10.15. Pressure Filters 10.16. Double Filtration : Roughing Filter 10.17. Dual Media and Mixed Media Filters 10.18. Upflow Filters 10.19. Biflow Filters 10.20. Micro-strainers 10.21. Diatomite Filters 274 277 285 287 289 298 EE 312 314 320 329 330 331 333 335 342 345 353 355 355 357 359 359(uti) CHAPTER 11. DISINFECTION 11.1. Introduction = 363 11.2. Methods of Disinfection ~ 364 11.3. Minor Methods of Disinfection o 365 11.4. Chlorination ~~ 366 11.5. Forms of Application of Chlorine 368 11.6. Application of Chiorine «372 11.7, Forms of Chlorination «= 374 11.8. Tests for Free and Combined Chlorine “~ 379 11.9. Factors Affecting Bactericidal Efficiency of Chlorine ~ 381 11.10. Kinetics of Chemical Disinfection 385 11.11. Iodine Treatment - 390 11.12. Bromine Treatment = 391 11.13. Ozone Treatment (ozonation) ~ 391 CHAPTER 12. WATER SOFTENING 12.1. Introduction = 394 12.2. Type of Hardness and Methods of their Removal 395 12.3. Lime-soda Process 396 12.4. Lime-soda Softening Plant 402 12.5. Water Softening Accelerator 404 12.6. Zeolite Process 405 12.7. Advantages and Disadvantages of Lime Soda and Zeolite Process 407 12.8. Demineralisation or Deionisation Process 408 CHAPTER 13. MISCELLANEOUS TREATMENT METHODS 13.1. Removal of Iron and Manganese 410 13.2. Colour Odour and Taste Removal ww. 413 13.3. Activated Carbon Treatment ww «414 13.4. Use of Copper Sulphate 417 13.5. Fluoridation - 417 13.6. Defluoridatioa. = 418 13.7. Desalination - = «49Gav) CHAPTER 14. PUMPS AND PUMPING 14.1. Necessity of Pumping «427 14.2. Types of Pumps and their Choice «427 143. Displacement Pumps 430 14.4. Centrifugal Pumps 433 145. Comparsion of Reciprocating and Centrifugal Pumps aw 435 146. Jet Pump a 436 14.7. Air Lift Pumps a 437 148. Well Pumps o 438 149. Centrigual Pump Installation «440 14.10. Characteristics of Centrifugal Pump ae 441 14.11. Multiple Pump Systems we 442 14.12. Variable Speed Operation we 44d 14.13. Suction Lift Limitations : Cavitation 445 14.14. System Head Curve wa 446 14.15. Operating Point or Operating Range of a Pump ow 448 14.16. Selection of Pumping Units w 449 14.17. Power Requirements of Pumps ~ 450 14.18. Economical Diameter of Pumping Mains wen 452 CHAPTER 15, CONVEYANCE OF WATER 15.1, Introduction -~ 473 152. Pipes a 414 153. Cast Iron Pipes a 474 15.4. Wrought Iron and Galvanised Iron Pipes = 479 155. Steel Pipes 480 15.6. Cement Concrete Pipes «480 15.7. Asbestos Cement Pipes 482 15.8. Copper and Lead Pipes 483 15.9. Wood-stave Pipes 483 15.10. Plastic Pipes 484 15.11. Stresses in Pipes 485 15.12. Corrosion in Pipes 49115.13. 15.14, @) Pipe Appertenances Head Loss through Pipes CHAPTER 16. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER 16.1. 16.2. 163. 16.4. 165. 16.6. 16.7. 16.8. 16.9. 16.10. 16.11. 16.12. 16.13. Introduction Methods of Distribution Pressure in Distribution Mains Systems of Water Supply Storage and Distribution Reservoirs ‘Types of Storage and Distribution Reservoirs Capacity of Distribution Reservoir Pipe Hydraulics Pipes in Series and Parallel Layout of Distribution System Design of Distribution System Analysis of Pressure in Distribution System Hardy Cross Method CHAPTER 17. WATER SUPPLY FOR BUILDINGS 17.1 Materials for Service Pipes 17.2. Service Connection 17.3. Size of Service Pipes 17.4. Water Meters 17.5. Valves 17.6. Loss of Head through Pipes and Pipe Fittings APPENDIX INDEX 494 499 504 505 552 555 558 562Water Systems 1.1. INTRODUCTION The five essential requirements for human existence are : (i) air (ii) water (ii) food (jv) heat and (v) light. Contamination of these elements may cause serious health hazards not only to man but also to ‘animal and plant life. Environmental Engineering deals with all these essential elements. The use of water by man, plants and animals is universal. Without it, there can be no life. Every living thing requires water. Man and animals not only consume water, but they also consume vegetation for their food. Vegetation, in turn, cannot grow without water. Growth of vegetation also depends upon bacterial action, while bacteria need water in order to thrive. The bacterial action can convert vegetable matter into productive soil. New plants, which grow in this soil, grow by sucking nutrients through their roots in the form of solution in water. Thus an ecological chain is maintained. Water maintains an ecological balance — balance in the relationship between living things and environment in which they live. The use of water is increasing rapidly with our growing popula- tion. Already there are acute shortages of both surface and under ground waters in many parts of the country. Careless pollution and contamination of the streams, lakes, reservoirs, wells and other under ground sources has greatly impaired the quality of available water. This pollution results because of improper disposal of waster water —both domestic as well as industrial. Organised community life require twin services of water supply and sewage disposal. Good sanitation cannot be maintained without adequate water supply system. Without ®2 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Proper disposal, the wastes of a community can create intolerable nuisance, spread diseases and create other health hazards. The planning, designing, financing and operation of water and waste water systems are complex undertakings, and they require a high degree of skill and judgement. The work of construction and maintenance of water supply and waste water disposal systems is generally undertaken by Government agencies - mostly through Public Health Engineering or Environmental Engineering Departments consisting of Civil Engineers. 1.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT Man’s search for pure water began is prehistoric times. The story of water supply begins with the growth of ancient capital cities, or religious and trade centres. In olden days, most of community settlements throughout the World were made near springs, lakes and rivers from where the water supply for drinking and irrigation purposes was obtained. Rig Veda (4000 years B.C) makes a mention of digging of wells. Similarly, Ramayana, Mahabhartha and Puranas make mention of wells as the principal source of water supply. These wells were mostly of shallow depth, dug near river banks. Water was lifted from the -wells through indegenous methods. However, no water treatment or distribution works existed. Apart from India (Bharat), other major civilisations of the World, such as Greece, Egypt, Assyria etc. used wells for their settlements which were located slightly away from springs, lakes and rivers. Joseph’s well at Cairo is one of the oldest deep wells excavated in rock to a depth of about 300 feet. These wells, however, caused water supply problems during periods of drought. It became necessary, therefore, to store water. Cisterns were constructed for collecting rain water while reser- voirs were constructed to store water from streams and rivers during monsoon period. The stored water was conveyed to towns through masonry conduits and aqueducts. The earlier examples are the aqueducts built by Appius Claudius in about 312 B.C. for water supply to Rome. Lyons in Paris, Metz in Germany and Segovia and Serille in Spain built similar aqueducts and syphons for water supply used for drinking, bathing and other purposes. Sextus Julius Frontinus, Water Commissioner of Rome (A.D. 97)-reported the existence of nine aqueducts supplying water to Rome and- varying in Jength from 10 to over 50 miles and in cross-section from 7 to over 50 sq. ft., with an estimated aggregate capacity of 84 mgd. The great sewer, known as the cloaca maxima and constructed to drain the Roman Forum, is still in service. There was practically no improvement in water supply systems in the middle ages. The earlier water supply structures got destroyed with the fall of Rome. In the ninth century, few important waterWATER SYSTEMS 3 supply structures were constructed by the Moors in Spain. In the twelfth century, small aqueduct was constructed in Paris. In London, spring water was brought by means of lead pipes and masonry conduits in the thirteenth century. In Germany, water works were constructed in 1412 and pumps were introduced in 1527 in Hanover. Franciscan monk constructed aqueduct of Zempola in Mexico in ihe middle of 16th century. In 1582, a pump was erected on the old London bridge for the supply of water from the Thames. The water was conveyed through lead pipes. In Paris, pumps operated by water power were erected in 1608. Pumps operating from steam were in- troduced in the 18th century in London and Paris. In the United States, spring water was conveyed by gravity to Boston in 1652. Pumps etc, were introduced at Bethlehem in 1754. However, purposeful quality control of water supply is quite recent in origin. The scientific discoveries and engineering inventions of the eighteenth and nineteeth centuries created centralised industries to which people flocked for employment. This caused serious water supply and waste disposal problems in the industrial towns. No great schemes of water supply were started until the Industrial Revolution had well passed its first half century. The development of the large impounding reservoir was largely due to the necessity of feeding canals constructed during the first phase of the Industrial Revolution. The first water filter was constructed in 1804 by John Gibb at Paisley in Scotland. It was a slow sand filter and worked in conjunction with a settling basin and roughening filter. Next successful filters were constructed in 1827 by Robert Thom at Greenock. In 1829, James Simpson built sizable filters for the Chelsea Water Company to improve its supply from the Thames river. By 1870, the mechanical filter of the pressure type began to be employed, the earliest being the Halliday filters installed at Crewe (1888), Bridlington and elsewhere. In 1894 pre-filters were successfully built. In the first decade of 20th century, mechanical pressure filters were introduced, Hastings being an early pioneer with Canndy filters built in 1900. In India, Calcutta was the first city where a modern water supply system was constructed in 1870. The technique of clarification and filtration soon grew. By 1939, mechanically-sludged sedimentation tanks were in general use. The micro-strainer, for the removal of plankton from the impounded water was developed by Boucher, and was introduced by Glenfield and Kennedy in 1945. Coagulation of water with sulphate of alumina began experimentally in 1827, but was adapted practically only in 1881 to treat Bolton’s water supply. Activated silica was introduced by Bayliss in U.S.A. during 1937. The first permanent use of chlorination originated under the direction of Sir Alexander Houston at Lincoln4 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING in 1905. In 1917, Paterson Engineerihg Company insialled the first gaseous chlorinator at the Rye Common Works. Super-chlorination and dechlorination was first applied in 1922 at the Deptford works of the Metropolitan Water Board. The art of softening water was also first developed in Great Britain. The first municipal softener was constructed by Plumstead in 1854. Development of the softener took a novel turn in 1912 by the construction, at the Hooten works of the West Cheshire Water Board, of a base exchange softener. Since India was under British occupation, water supply schemes in India were undertaken practically about the same time as in England, though with a slower rate. In 1870, a water supply system was const- Tucted at Calcutta. Till Independence, only few cities had protected water supply systems. 1.3. SOURCES OF WATER The following are common sources of water (Rain water (ii) Surface water (#i) Ground water — (iv) Water obtained from reclamation. 1, Rain Water (b) FROM PREPARED CATCHMENTS FIG. 1.1. DIRECT: COLLECTION OF RAIN WATERWATER SYSTEMS 5 (a) From roofs of houses and dwellings ; Water is stored in smail underground tank or cistern, for small individual supplies (Fig. 1.1 a). (b) From prepared catchments : The surface of catchments is made impervious by suitable lining material, and suitable slope is given so that water is stored in moderate size reservoirs. This water is used for communal supplies, mostly for drinking purposes. 2. Surface Water INTAKE TOWER TO PURIFICATION ‘WORKS: (c) WATER FROM RESERVOIR STORAGE FIG. 1.2. SOURCES OF SURFACE WATER6 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Surface water is the one which is available as run-off from a catchment area, during rainfall or precipitation. This runoff flows either into streams or into undrained lakes. The runoff water flowing into streams can either be stored in a reservoir by constructing a dam across it, or be diverted into a water supply channel. Thus, depending upon the scheme of collection, we get surface water from the following sources. (a) From rivers by continuous draft : Water may be collected directly from ‘the river, without any diversion work (Fig 12 a). (6) From river diversion. A diversion work is constructed across a perennial river and water is diverted into a canal which leads water to the site of water purification works (Fig. 12 b). (c) From reservoir storage. Where supply is not ensured throughout the year, dam may be constructed across the river and water stored in the reservoir (Fig. 1.2 c). (d) From direct intake from natural lakes. Water may also be obtained through direct intakes from natural lakes which receive surface run-off from the adjoining catchment (Fig. 1.2 a). 3. Ground Water The largest available source of fresh water lies underground. The term ‘ground water’ refers to this water, which is stored by nature, under-ground in the water-bearing formation of earth’s crust. The total ground water potential is estimated to be one third the capacity of oceans. The main source of ground water is precipitation. A portion of rain falling on the earth’s surface infifrates into. ground, travels down and when checked by impérvious layer to travel further down, forms ground water. The ground water reservoir consists of water held in voids within a geologic stratum. The ground water can be tapped from the following sources. (a) From natural springs (Fig. 1.3 a). f (6) From wells and bore holes (Fig. 1.3 6). (c) From infiltration galleries, basins or cribs (Fig. 1.3 c). (ad) From wells and galleries with flows augmented from some other sources : (i) spread on surface of the gathering ground {i#) carried into charging basins or ditches, or (iii) led into diffussion galleries or wells. (e) From river side radial collector wells (Fig. 1.3 d)WATER SYSTEMS Lee (c¢) INFILTRATION GALLERY (6) RADIAL COLLECTOR WELL FIG. 1.3, SOURCES OF UNDERGROUND WATER. 4, Water obtained by reclamation (a) Desalination. Saline or brakish water may be rendered useful for drinking purposes by installing desalination plants. The common methods used for desalination are: distillation, reverse osmosis, electrodialysis, freezing and solar evaporation. (6) Re-use of treated waster water. Effluent or waste water can be treated suitably so that it may be re-used. An example of the controlled indirect re-use is the intentional artificial recharge of ground water aquifers by adequately treated waste water.8 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING ‘1.4. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS The primary objective of water treatment for public supply is to take water from the best available source and to ‘subject is to processing which will ensure water of good physical quality, free from unpleasant taste or odour and containing nothing which might be detrimental to health. The treatment of water to improve its quality involves additions to, substractions from, or chemical changes in the raw water. Municipal water systems consist of the following units. 1, Collection works 2. Transmission works 3. Purification works and 4. Distribution works. , These systems have been shown diagrammatically in Fig. 1.4. DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM FIG. 1.4. WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS L. Collection Works Collection works are meant for the development of surface water or ground water resources. For major cities, or where water requirements are large, water is collected from a surface source— mostly a river or stream. If the river is perennial, a direct intake structure can be built on the river bank. If, however, river is not perennial, a dam is built across the river so that water is storedWATER SYSTEMS 9 in the reservoir. Water is then drawn from the reservoir as per needs. The collection works, therefore, consist of a storage or diversion work, and an intake structure. The planning and design of collection works have been discussed in Chapter 3. 2. Transmission Works In many cases, the collection works may be far away from the city where water is to be supplied. In that case, water is conveyed to the city through the transmission works. These form the connecting link between the collection works and the purification works. Depend- ing upon the topography of the area between the two sites, the transmission works may be in the form of conduits, canals or aqueducts. For simply gravity flow, canals are generally used. However, if highlands intervene, pumping may have to be resorted to. 3. Purification Works The water collected directly from the source may not be safe for drinking because of physical, chemical and biological impurities. The municipal water works must deliver to the consumer the water that is : (1) hygienically safe, (2) esthetically attractive and palatable, and (3) economically satisfactory for its intended use. Diseases like typhoid, cholera, dysentery etc. are water borne diseases. The principal aim of the purification works is to supply clean and bacteria free water. The common components of water purification works are : (i) Filtration plants to remove objectionable colour, turbidity, bacteria and other harmful organisms, (ii) Deferrization and demanganization plants to remove excessive amounts of iron and manganese, and (iii) Softening plants to remove excessive amounts of scale forming, soap consuming ingredients like calcium and magnesium ions. 4, Distribution Works The treated and purified water is finally sent to the consumers through suitable distribution system. In order that water may flow in the water supply pipes under pressure, the purified water is normally stored in an elevated service reservoir. More than one reservoir may be needed in large systems. There are two patterns of water distri- bution system : (i) branching pattern with dead ends, and (ii) grid iron pattern. The plan, topography and location of the area with respect to the service reservoir establish the type of distribution system and its character of flow. The design of distribution system has been discussed in Chapter 16.2 Hydrology 2.1, THE WATER CYCLE Hydrology is the science which deals with the occurrence, dis- tribution and movement of water on the earth, including that in the atmosphere and below the surface of the earth. Water occurs in the atmosphere in the form of vapour, on the surface as water, snow or ice and below the surface as ground water occupying all the voids within a geologic stratum. GROUND WATER FLOW FIG. 21. THE WATER CYCLE Except for the deep ground water, the total water supply of earth is in constant circulation from earth to atmosphere, and back to the earth. The earth’s water circulatory syscem.is known as the water cycle or the hydrologic cycle. Water circulates naturally through five principal realms—(i) oceans, (ii) atmosphere, (iii) lakes and rivers, (40)HYDROLOGY 5 e (iv) ice caps and glaciers, and (v) underground. Hydrology concerns water and its behaviour in all these realms. Hydrologic cycle or the water cycle is the process of transfer of moisture from atmosphere to the earth in the form of precipitation, conveyance of the precipitated water by streams and rivers to ocean and lakes etc., and evaporation of water back to the atmosphere. Fig. 2.1 illustrates, diagrammatically, the complete hydrologic cycle. The hydrologic cycle consists of the following processes: 1. Evaporation and Transpiration (E) ‘The water from the surfaces of ocean, rivers, lakes and also from the moist soil evaporates. The vapours are carried over the land by air in the form of clouds. Transpiration is the process of water being lost from the leaves of the plants from their pores. Thus, the total evaporation (£), inclusive of the transpiration consists of : (i) Surface evaporation (ii) Water surface evaporation (a) From river surface (6) From oceans (iii) Evaporation from plants and leaves (transpiration) and (iv) Atmospheric evaporation. 2. Precipitation (P) Precipitation may be defined as the fall of moisture from the atmosphere to the earth surface in any form. Precipitation may be in two forms: (a) Liquid Precipitation : ie. rainfall. (6) Frozen Precipitation : This consists of : @ Snow (ii) Hail (ii) Sleet (iv) Freezing rain. 3. Run-off (R) Run-off is that portion of precipitation that is not evaporated. When moisture falls to the earth’s surface as evaporation, a part of it is evaporated from the water surface, soil and vegetation and through transpiration by plant, and the remainder precipitation is available as run off which ultimately runs to the ocean through surface or sub-surface streams. Thus, run off may be classified as follows : (1) Susface run off Water flows over the land and is first to reach the streams and rivers, which ultimately discharge the water to the sea.12 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING (2) Interflow or sub-surface run off A portion of precipitation infiltrates into surface soil and, depending upon the geology of the basin, runs as sub-surface run- off and reaches the streams and rivers. (3) Ground water flow or base flow It is that portion of precipitation, which after infiltration, per- colates down and joins the ground water reservoir which is ultimately connected to the ocean. Thus, the hydrologic cycle may be expressed by the following simplified equation. Precipitation = Evaporation + Run off @= € + provided adjustment is made for the moisture held in storage at the beginning and at the end of the period. 2.2, PRECIPITATION To the hydrologist, precipitation is the general term for all forms of moisture emanating from the clouds and falling to the ground. The foliowing are the essential requirements for precipitation to occur : 1. Some mechanism is required to cool the air sufficiently to cause condensation and droplet growth. 2. Condensation nuclii are also necessary for formation of droplets. They are usually present in the atmosphere in adequate quantities. 3. Large scale cooling is essential for significant amount of precipitation. This is achieved by lifting of air, Thus a meteorological ‘phenomenon of lifting of air masses is essential to result precipitation. Types of Precipitation Precipitation is often classified according to the factors respon- sible for lifting. Broadly speaking, there are four types of precipitation. (1) Cyclonic precipitation. (2) Convective precipitation (3) Orographic precipitation (4) Precipitation due to turbulent ascent. 1. Cyclonic Precipitation Cyclonic precipitation results from lifting of air masses con- verging into low pressure area or cyclone. The cyclonic precipitation may be divided into (a) frontal precipitation, and (b) non-frontal precipitation.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.16 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING ‘CLOCK DRIVEN RECORD DRUM FIG. 2.3. WEIGHING BUCKET RAIN GAUGE 3. Tipping Bucket Type Rain-gauge The tipping bucket type rain-gauge consists of a 30 cm diameter sharp edge receiver. At the end of the receiver is provided a funnel. A pair of buckets are pivoted under the funnel in such a way that when one bucket receives 0.25 mm (0.01 inch) of precipitation it tips, discharging its contents into a reservoir bringing the other bucket under the funnel. Tipping of the bucket completes an electric circuit 1 30cm—4 FIG. 2.4. TIPPING BUCKET TYPE RAIN-GAUGEHYDROLOGY 17 causing the movement of pen to mark on clock driven revolving drum which carries a record sheet. 4, Float Type Automatic Rain-gauge The working of a float type rain-gauge is similar to the weighing bucket type gauge. A funnel receives the rain water which is collected in a rectangular container. A float is provided at the bottom of the container. The float is raised as the water level rises in the container, its movement being recorded by a pen moving on a recording drum actuated by a clock-work. When the water level in the container RECORDING UM. PENARM FIG. 25. FLOAT TYPE AUTOMATIC RAIN-GAUGE rises so that the float touches the top, the siphon come into operation, and releases the water ; thus all the water in the box is drained out. 2.4. COMPUTATION OF AVERAGE RAINFALL OVER A BASIN If a basin or catchment area contains more than one raingauge station, the computation of average precipitation or rainfall may be done by the following methods : 1. Arithmetic average method. 2. Thiessen polygon method. 3. Isohyetal method. 1. Arithmetic Average Method If the rainfall is uniformly distributed in its areal pattern, the simplest method of estimating average rainfall is to compute the arithmetic average of the recorded rainfall values at various stations.18 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Thus, if Pi, P, Ps... ... » Py etc, arf the precipitation or rainfall values measured at m gauge stations, we have eit Pt... + Py EP - - (2-1) Pow 2. Thiessen Polygon Method The arithmetic average method is the most approximate method since rainfall varies.in intensity and duration from place to place. Hence the rainfall recorded by each rain-gauge station should be “weighted according to the area it is assumed to represent. Thiessen polygon method is a more common method of weighting the rain-gauge observations according to the area. Thiessen polygon method is also called weighted mean method and is more accurate than the arithmetic average method. FIG. 2.6. THIESSEN POLYGON METHOD Procedure 1. Join the adjacent rain-gauge stations A, B, C, D etc., by straight lines. 2. Construct the perpendicular bisectors of each of these lines. 3. A Thiessen network is thus constructed. The polygon formed by the perpendicular bisectors around a station encloses an area which is everywhere closer to that station than to any other station. Find the area of each of these polygons shown hatched in Fig. 2.6. 4. Multiply the area of each Thiessen polygon by the rain-gauge * value of the enclosed station. 5. Find the total area (2A) of the basin. 6. Compute the average precipitation or rainfall from the equationaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.HYDROLOGY 21 C = Constant, the value of which may be taken as 1.1 for deep bodies of water and 1.5 for shallow bod- ies of water. K =Constant, the value of which may be upto 16. 2. Rohwer’s Formula E =C' (1.465—0.00732 p.)(0.44+0.0732W)(V—v) ...(2.4.b) where £ =Evaporation loss in cms per day (24 hours) C’ =Constant, the value of which may be found out from the available cvaporation data; it may be approximately taken equal to 0.75. Pa = Atmospheric pressure in cms of mercury, at 0°C. V,v and W have the same meaning as in the Meyer’s formula, Determination of Evaporation from Field Measurements The evaporation from water surface is generally measured by exposing pans of water to the atmosphere. The water pan may be either installed on the ground near the lake (Fig. 2.8 a), or it may be suppported on water surface with the help of floats (Fig. 2.8 5). The former is known as /and pan, while the later is known as a floating pan. In each case, the Standard Class A pan is a galvanised iron pan of 4’ (1.20 m) diameter and 10” (25 cm) depth. The land pan is supported on a grid of S cm x 10 cm timbers to raise it above the ground to promote air circulation. The floating pan, however, is kept floating on water surface with the help of floats. The change in the water level is measured by a hook gauge provided over a stilling well. Temperature, rainfall, wind speed etc. are also measured. The evaporation measured in the pan in multiplied by a suitable coefficient to get the actual evaporation of the lake surface. This coefficient, known as pan evaporation coefficient, varies from 0.6 to 0.8. ANEMOMETER HOOK GAUGE peon GAUGE STILLING WELL. STILUNG WELL ANCHOR ron FLOAT (a) LAND PAN (0) FLOATING PAN FIG. 2.8. MEASUREMENT OF EVAPORATION22 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 2.6. RUN-OFF The run-off of a catchment area in any specified period is the total quantity of water draining into a stream or into a reservoir in that period. This can be expressed as (i) centimetres of water over a catchment, or (ii) the total water in cubic-metres or hec- tare-metres for a given catchment. ‘The rainfall is disposed of in the following manner: 1. Basin Recharge. 2. Direct run-off (or simply, run-off). 3. Percolation down to ground water. 4. Evaporation. 1. Basin Recharge The basin recharge consists of the following : (4 Rain intercepted by leaves and stems of vegetation. (ii) Water held up insurface depressions, commonly known as the depression storage. (iii) Soil moisture held as capillary water in pore spaces ofsoil or as hygroscopic water absorbed on the surface of soil particles. 2. Direct Run-off Direct run-off is that water which reaches the stream shortly after it falls as rain. Direct run-off consist of: (i) Over land flow (a surface run-off). {#) Inter-flow (Influent stream). Overland flow is that portion of water which travels across the ground surface to the nearest stream. However, if the soil is permeable, water percolates into it, and when it becomes saturated, flows laterally in the surface soil to a stream channel. The essential condition for inter-flow is that the surface soil is permeable, but the subsoil is relatively impermeable so that water does not percolate deep to meet the ground water. 3.. Percolation down to Ground Water (base flow) If the subsoil is also permeable, water percolate deep down-wards to meet the ground water. Much of the low water flow in rivers is derived from the ground water. Stream channels which are below the ground water are called effluent streams. 2.1. COMPUTATION OF RUN-OFF The run-off from a catchment can be computed daily, monthly or yearly. Following are some of the methods of computing the run-off :HYDROLOGY 3 (a) By formulae and tables. (6) By Infiltration method. (c) By Unit Hydrograph. (@) By Rational method. (a) RUN-OFF BY FORMULAE AND TABLES 1. Run-off Coefficient The run-off and the rainfall can be inter-related by run-off coefficient, by the expression R=kP w(2.5) where R =run-off in cm, P =rainfall in cm, k = run-off coefficient. - The run-off coefficient naturally depends upon all the factors which affect the run-off. This method is used only for small water control projects, and should be avoided for the analysis of major storms. The customary values of k are given below : Area Urban residentials Single Houses Garden apartments Commerical and Industrial Forested areas, depending on soil Parks, farm land, pasture Asphalt or concrete pavement Barlow's Table T.G. Barlow carried out studies of catchments mostly under 140 sq. km in the United Provinces (U.P.) and gave the following values of k (in percentage) for various classified catchments : TABLE 2.1 BARLOW'S TABLE Flat, cultivated and black cotton soils Flat, partly cultivated, various soils & Average Hills and plains with litte cultivation Very hilly and steep, with hardly any cultivation24 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING The above values of run-off percentages are for average monsoon. These are to be multiplied by the following coefficients (Table 2.9) according to-the nature of the season. TABLE 2.2 BARLOW'S COEFFICIENT Class of Catchment c D Nature of season (2) Light rain, no heavy downpour (2) Average or varying rainfall, no continous downpour (3) Continuous downpour 2. Strange’s Tables and Curves W.L. Strange gave tables and curves for run-off resulting from rainfall in the plains of South India. The following tables and graphs are for the former Bombay Presidency. Strange’s tables and curves give run-off for daily rainfall, and take into account three types of catchment, (ie. good, average and bad), and three surface conditions, (ie. dry, damp and wet) prior to the rain. TABLE 2.3 DAILY RUN-OFF ACCORDING TO STRANGE NOTE: FOR GOOD OR BAD CATCHMENT, ADD OR DEDUCT UPTO 25% OF YIELD. Run-off percent and yield when the original state of ground wasHYDROLOGY 25 3. Inglis’s formula C.C. Inglis gave the following formulae, derived from data collected from 37 catchments in the Bombay Presidency : For Ghat areas R=0.85P — 12” (when Rand Pareininches) _ ...(2.6 a) R =0.85 P — 30.5 (when R and Pare in cm) w=(2.6) For Non-Ghat areas R= (75 I ) xP (when Rand Pare in inches) _ ...(2.7 a) R= P-T®) xp (when R and P are in cm) ...(2.7) 4, Lacey's formula R 2— (when P and Rarein inches) ..(2.8 a) 1+ 120F and R =o (when P and R are in cm) (2.8) 1+ er In both the expressions, S=A catchment factor and F=Monsoon duration factor. Corresponding to the five classes of catchment, defined by Barlow, Lacey gave the following values of the catchment factor (S) : TABLE 2.4 Class of Catchment Lacey also divided the monsoon into three classes, depending upon its duration and gave the following values of monsoon duration factors : TABLE 256 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING (5) Khosla’s formula R=P- rT» (when Rand Pare ininches) —_...(2.9.a) R=p-1=% (when R and P are in cm) —_..(2.9) where T = mean "earpecitoré in °F on the entire catchment. The temperature introduced in the formula takes into account various factors affecting losses by evaporation, transpiration, sunshine and wind velocity. (©) Parker’s formulae () R= 0.94P — 14 for catchments in the British Isles .94 P — 16 for catchments in Germany wee(2.10) (iii) R= 0.80 P - 16.5 for catchments in East U.S.A. where R and P are in inch units. (6) RUN-OFF BY INFILTRATION METHOD Infiltration is defined as the movement of water through the soil surface and into the soil. The capacity of any soil to absorb water from rainfall falling continuously at an excessive rate goes on decreasing with time, until a minimum rate of infiltration is reached. At any instant, the infiltration capacity of a soil is the maximum rate at which water will enter the Soil in a given condition. The infiltration rate is the rate at which water actually enters the soil during a storm, and is equal to the infiltration capacity or the rainfall rate, whichever is less. The infiltration capacity of soil can be determined experimentally by subjecting an experimental plot to rainfall rates FIG. 29. INFILTRATION CAPACITY CURVE AND RUN-OFFHYDROLOGY 27 in excess of infiltration capacity, and by measuring the surface run-off (Fig. 2.9). For small areas having uniform infiltration characteristics, the run-off volume can be estimated by subtracting infiltration from the design rainfall. Infiltration Index Infiltration index is the average. rate of loss such that the volume of rainfall in excess of that rate will be equal to direct run-off. Estimates of run-off volume from large areas, having hetero- geneous infiltration and rainfall characteristics, are made by use of infiltration indices. There are two types of infiltration indices. (&) Average infiltration rate or W-index and (ii) ¢ index. The W-index is calculated from the expression week em/hr (211) fr where .t, = duration of rainfall in hours. The ¢-index is defined as the rate of rainfall above which the rainfall volume equals the run-off volume (Fig. 2.10). 123 45 67 869 0 TIME FIG. 2.10. ¢ INDEX AND RUN-OFF For flood forecasting, appropriate index values must be derived by correlation with those factors which determine the index at any time. In such approach, there seems to be no advantage over the method discussed earlier, in which the run-off and rainfall are correlated. However, the infiltration index can be used to estimate the run-off co-efficient (k) from thé relation kait¥ n(2.12) i where i = rainfall intensity (cm/hr)3B WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 2.8. ESTIMATION OF MAXIMUM RATE OF RUN-OFF OR FLOOD DISCHARGE The estimation of peak flow or flood can be made by the following methods : (a) By physical indication of past floods. () By flood discharge formulae. (c) By flood frequency studies. (@) By unit hydrograph The method of flood frequency and the method of unit hydro- graph can -be found in any standard text book on Hydrology. (a) PHYSICAL INDICATION OF PAST FLOODS Ancient monuments, etc., situated on river banks always bear past flood marks. Old persons in the villages situated on the bank of the river may be contacted to know the maximum water level attained in the past 35 years. The cross-section of the river may be plotted, and the water line corresponding to the highest flood can be drawn on it. From such a cross-section, the water-flow-area, wetted perimeter and hydraulic mean depth can be calculated. By longitudinal sectioning with the help of levelling slightly to the upstream and downstream of the site where gross-section has been plotted, the longitudinal slope of the bed of the river can be determined. Assuming this to be the same as the hydraulic slope during the past flood, the mean velocity of flow can be computed by Chezy’s or any other suitable hydraulic formula. This velocity can be multiplied with the probable area of water section at the time of past flood to calculate the flood discharge. This procedure should be repeated at several villages or water. marks, to get consistent results. (@) FLOOD DISCHARGE FORMULAE Some of the empirical formulae for estimating the flood discharge are given below. Most of these are in the form Q=cA" wu(2.13) where Q = flood discharge A =catchment area n = flood index C = flood coefficient. Both C and n depend upon various factors, such as (i) size, shape and location of catchment, (i) topography of'the catchment, and (ii) intensity and duration of rainfall, and distribution pattern of the storm over the basin.HYDROLOGY 29 1. Dicken’s Formula In metric unit, aQ=ca”"’ (2.14) where . Q = discharge in cumecs A =area of basin in sq. km. In F.P.S. units Q)=C,Ay" «(2.14 a) where Q, = discharge in cusecs A, = area of basin in sq. miles. The constants C and C, depend upon the catchment and may be obtained from Table 2.6. TABLE 2.6 Region c a Northern India 14 825, Central India 13,.9-19.5 1000 to 1400 Western Ghats 22.2-25 1600 to 1800 2. Ryve’s Formula For Madras catchments Q=ca’ w(2.15) (where Q is in cumecs and A in sq. km.) and Q=C,4y? (215 a) (where Q; is in cusecs and A; in sq. miles) values of C and C, may be obtained from Table 2.7 ‘Areas within 24 km (15 miles) from the coast. Area within 24 km -161 km (25 to 100 mites) from the coast)30 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 3. Inglis Formula Inglis formula is applicable for catchments of former Bombay Presidency. Expressed in metric units, 123.A 2 = = 1234 2 VA+ 104 Expressed in F.P.S. units, wa(2.16) a= wee = 7000.41 (2.16 a) 4. Nawab Jang Bahadur Formula For catchments of old Hydrabad State : Expressed in metric units, Q=CA (0:93 ~ qlee) - (2A) where C varics from 48 to 60. ~ Expressed in F.P.S. units, Qs = CAO? Tal (2.17 a) where C, varies from 1600 to 2000. 5. Fanning’s Formula For American catchments, In metric units, Q@=ca’e w1(2.18) where average value of C; may be. taken equal to 2.54. In EPS. units, Q:=C, Ai" (2.18 a) where average value of C, may be taken equal to 200. 6. Creager’s Formula Applicable for American catchments Expressed in F.P.S. units, Q1 = 46 C,A08%A1- 0048) wn (2-19) The constant varies from 30 to 100.HYDROLOGY 31 7. Fuller’s Formula This formula takes into account the flood frequency also. Expressed in metric units, Omar = CA*® (1 + 0.8 log T) (1 + 2.67.4~™) -.(2.20) where T = Number of years after which such a flood is to reoccur. Q = Maximum flood (in cumecs) during any part of the day that could occur in T-years. A = Area of drainage basin, in sq. km. C = Constant varying from 0.185 to 1.3. Expressed in F.P.S. units, * OQ: = C, AN (1 + 0.8 log T)(1 + 2.47%) +(2.20 a) where C; varies from 14 to 98. PROBLEMS 1, Explain with the help of diagram the hydrologic cycle. 2. What do you understand by precipitation ? Explain various types of precipitation. 3. Explain any one type of automatic raingauge. 4, Describe various methods of computing average rainfall over a basin. 5. What are the methods of computing run-off from a catchment area? Give various formulae stating clearly the area for which each is applicable. 6. Explain various methods of determining flood discharge in a stream. 7. Give various flood discharge formulae applicable for Indian catchments.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SURFACE SOURCES 47 Yearly demand = 475 x 365 cumec-days = 475 x 365 x 8.64 = 1497960 ha-m =1.5 million ha-m. In Fig. 3.8, tangents 7), 72, T3, Ts, Ts etc. are drawn to the curve at the apexes, and parallel to the demand curve which has a slope 30, 28 26 24 22 20) MASS INFLOW (MILLION HECTARE METRE) = g 2 = 2 FIG. 3.8. DETERMINATION OF RESERVOIR CAPACITY48 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING of 1.5 m ha-m in 1 year. The ordinates Oy, Oy, ......Os indicate the deficiencies during the dry periods, assuming that the reservoir was full at the beginning of the period. The maximum of these ordinates (ce. Os = 1.6 m ha-m) gives the desired reservoir capacity. 29 J |_RESERVOR DRAWN DOWN i DEPLETION OF STORAGE 4 REPLENISHMENT 28 —rClor storase re ie 27 » o Led saan ca os | RES.EMPT RES.FULL. Lg b x a RESERVOIR FULL x & MASS INFLOW (MILLION HECTARE METRE) n 1967 1968 1970 1971 I TIME FIG. 3.9. DETERMINATION OF RESERVOIR CAPACITY Fig. 3.9 shows the enlarged view of the curve from period 1967 to 1971 during which maximum storage is required. Line AB is drawn parallel to demand curve and tangential to the mass inflow curve at point 4. At point C of the curve, a storage capacity of 1.6 million hectare metres is required. It is essential that the demand line AB should meet the inflow. curve at point B, so that reservoir becomes full at B ; otherwise it will never be full. Similarly, if a line CD is drawn parallel to the demand curve, and tangential to the mass-inflow curve at C, then it should intersect the curve at D so that the reservoir becomes full at the start of the dry period.SURFACE SOURCES 49 Example 3.4 Draw the mass inflow diagram and compute the storage needed for an impounding reservoir, for a constant draft of 300 million litres per month, with the following recorded mean monthly runoff values : ares: Order of the month Observed monihy mean run off 1200 (million lies) Order of the month 8 Observed monthly mean runoff (million lies) Solution. The computations are shown in Table 3.8, where Q denotes the runoff (or discharge) in the stream and D denotes the draft required, per month. TABLE 3.8. COMPUTATION FOR STORAGE Cumulative Cumulative runoff Deficiency By z@-9) (4) =E() (6) =2(5) © (2400) 0 (1500) © (300) ¢__|Res. Full at the beginning mm lof dry period. 420 690. 1280 * Max. deficiencyaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.SURFACE SOURCES ' 53 2. ARCH DAMS Anarch dam (Fig. 3.12) is adam curved in plan and carries a major part of its water load horizontally to the abutments by arch action. This part of water load depends primarily upon the amount of SECTION AT ¢ FIG. 3.12. ARCH DAM curvature. The balance of the water load is transferred to the foundation by cantilever action. The thrust developed by the water load carried by arch action, essentially requires strong side walls of the canyon to resist the arch forces. The weight of arch dam is not counted on to assist materially in the resistance of external loads. For this reason, uplift on the base is not an important design factor. 3. BUTTRESS DAMS A buttress dam (Fig. 3.13) consists of a number of buttresses or piers, dividing the space to be dammed into a number of spans. To hold up water and retain the water between these buttresses, panels are constructed of horizontal arches or flat slabs. When the panels consist of arches, it is known as muliple arches type buttress dam. If the panels consist of flat slab, it is known as deck type buttress darn. \ 4. STEEL DAMS 1 Steel dams are constructed with a framework of steel with a thin skin plate as deck slab on the upstream side. In India, no such dam has been constructed. However, in United States three such dams have been constructed : Ash Fork Dam in Arizona (1898), Redridge Dam in Michigan (1905) and Hauser Lake Dam in Montana (1901). Out of these, the first two dams gave satisfactory results34 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING " SECTION AT AA SECTIONAL ELEVATION — PLAN (a) DECK TYPE (b) MULTIPLE ARCH TYPE FIG. 3.13. BUTTRESS DAMS while the third dam failed only after one year of service. The failure was mainly due to undermining of the foundation by leakage through or under the steel sheet pile. Steel dams (Fig. 314) are generally of two types : (i) direct strutted type and (ii) cantilever type. In the direct strutted type, the load on the deck plate is carried directly to the foundations through ZN AN (a) DIRECT STRUTTED TYPE (b) CANTILEVER TYPE FIG. 3.14. STEEL DAMSSURFACE SOURCES 5S inclined struts. In the cantilever type, the section of the bent supporting the upper part of the deck is formed into a cantilever truss. This arrangement introduces a tensile force in the deck girders which is resisted dither by anchoring the deck girder into the foundation at the upstream toe or by framing the entire bent rigidly together so that the moment of the weight of the water on the lower part of the deck may be utilized to offset the moment of the cantilever. 5. TIMBER DAMS A timber dam is constructed of framework of timber struts and beams, with timber plank facing to resist water pressure. A timber dam is an ideal temporary dam, though a well designed, con- structed and maintained timber dam may last 30-40 years. They are suitable to places where timber can be available in plenty. Timber dams are normally found to be of three types : 1. A-frame type (Fig. 3.15). 2. Rock-filled crib type (Fig. 3.16) 3. Beaver type. 1. A frame type timber dam Fig. 3.15 shows a typical A-frame type timber dam. It consists of five component parts : (a) sills (6) struts (c) wales (d) studs and (e) lagging. The sills should be fastened to the ledge rock by wedge bolts or anchor bolts. The lagging should not be of less than S cm thickness. FIG. 3.15. A-FRAME TYPE TIMBER DAM 2. Rockfilled crib type timber dam Fig. 3.16 shows such a type of dam in which cribs of square or round timber are drift-bolted together. The timbers are spaced about 2-2.5 m centre to centre both ways. The space between them is filled with rock fragments or boulders. In the case of rock foundation, the bottom cribs are pinned to the rock foundation. If, however, the dam is constructed on earth foundation, sheet piling is provided both at the u/s as well as d/s side as shown in Fig. 3.16.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.58 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 1. The site should be so selected that it may admit water even under worst condition of flow in the river, or under lowest possible water level in a lake or reservoir. If possible, intake should be located sufficiently inside the shore line. 2. Its site should be as_near to the treatment work as possible. 3. It should be so located that it admits relatively pure water free from mud, sand or other floating materials. It should be located at a place protected from rapid currents. 4. It should be so located that it is free from the pollution. River intakes should be constructed well upstream of points of discharge of sewage and industrial wastes. If located near a city, it should be located to the upstream of the city so that water is not contaminated. 5. It should not interfere with river traffic, if any. 6. The intake should be so located that good foundation con- ditions are available and the possibility of scouring is the least. 7. It site should be so selected that its further expansion is possible. Types of Intakes Intakes are classified under three heads as under : INTAKES 1 3 I lf | of I I | SUBMERGED EXPOSED WET = DRY_—sRIVER—sRESERVOIR- LAKE CANAL INTAKE, INTAKE INTAKE INTASE INTAKE INTAKE, INTAKE INTAKE Submerged intake is the one which is constructed entirely under water. Such an intake (Fig. 3.23) is commonly used to obtain supply from a lake. An exposed intake is in the form of a well or tower constructed near the bank of a river, or in some cases even away from the river banks. Exposed intakes are more common due to ease in its operation (Fig. 3.19). A wet intake is that type of intake tower in which the water level is practically the same as the water level of the sources of supply. Such an intake is sometimes known as jack well (Fig. 3.20) and is most commonly used. In the case of dry intake, however, there is no water in the water tower (Fig. 3.21 c). Water enter enters through entry port directly into the conveying pipes. The dry tower is simply used for the operation of valves etc. River Intakes A river intake is located to the upstream of the city so that pollution is minimized. They are either located sufficiently inside the river so that demands of water are met with in all the seasons of the year, or they may be located near the river bank where aSURFACE SOURCES 59 FIG. 3.19. RIVER INTAKE. sufficient depth of water is available. Sometimes, an approach channel is constructed and water is led to the intake tower. If the water level in the river is low, a weir may be constructed across it to raise the water level and divert it to the intake tower. Fig. 3.19 shows a wet type intake well founded on river bed. The intake tower permits entry of water through several entry ports located at various levels to cope with the fluctuations in the water level during different seasons. These entry ports are sometimes known as penstocks and are provided with suitably designed screens to exclude debris and floating material from entry. The entry ports contain valves which can be operated from the upper part of the well. RIVER L.W.L JACK WALL FIG. 3.20. RIVER INTAKE.60 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING The lowest entry is placed below the low water level of the river so that water is available in the jack well during summer season also when river carries minimum discharge. The intake well should be founded on sound footing, to a depth deeper than the scour depth. The upper part of the well serves as the pump house. The suction pipe admits water through a screen. Where river bed is soft or unstable, the intake tower may be founded slightly away from the river bed, as shown in Fig. 3.20. The intake is kept submerged under the low water level of the river. It essentially consists of a rectangular or circular entry chamber with a Strong grill at its top. The pipe conveying water from the intake to the jack well has a bell-mouth entry with a screen, and is supported on a concrete support. While the entry of debris and floating material is checked by the top grill, the entry of mud or coarse sand etc. is checked by the screen provided at the bell-mouth entry. Water enters to the jack well through a valve which can be controlled from the pump house. Reservoir Intake When the flow in the river is not guaranteed throughout the year, a dam is constructed across it to store water in the reservoir so formed. The reservoir intakes are practically similar to the river intake, except that these are located near the upstream face of the dam where maximum depth of water is available. Their design depends upon the type of dam. Fig. 3.21 (a) shows a typical intake for an earth dam with several entry ports. The intake is constructed near the toe of the dam. The access to the intake tower is provided through a foot bridge. Water may enter the well through a number of entry ports located at various elevations so that relatively clear top water is admitted at all seasons. The water level in the well is practically the same as the reservoir level. The valves of the entry ports are operated from the gate house located at the top of the well. From the well, water is led to the down-stream through a suitably designed conduit which passes through the body of the earth dam. Fig. 3.21 (6) shows the dry type intake well with a trash-rack structure which is located below the minimum reservoir level. The entry of water is controlled through a valve operated from the upper portion of the well. Fig, 3.21 (c) shows an alternative form of the dry well in which water from different entry ports is led directly to the outlet pipe. The well remains dry. In each case, however, the outlet pipe or conduits passes through the main body of the earth dam. This pipe, commonly known as the sluice way, should have projecting collars at regular intervals. These collars increase the path of water seeping along the boundary of the sluice way. The length of the seepage path should be more so that no damageaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GROUND WATER: WELLS 3 In the above expression, R, commonly known as radius of zero drawdown, is the radius, measured from the centre of the well to a point where the drawdown curve meets the original water table tangentially. In practice, the selection of the radius of influence R is approximate and arbitrary, but the variation in Q is small for a wide range of R. Suggested values of R fall in the range of 100 to 300 metres. Alternatively, R may be computed from the following approx- imate expression given by Sichardt : R = 3000sVk where R and s are in metres, and & is in m/sec. If there are two observation wells at radial distance r,; and 1, (% > 1) , and if the depths of water in them are A, and fh; respectively, Eq. 4.4 can also be expressed in the form : Q- 25-8) (44 a) loge ai or Q = 136k (Hi hi) (44 b) logios= If the drawdown (s) is measured at the well, we have s=H-h and H=st+h, or H+h=(s + 2h) Then, from Eq. 4.4, g= ZAM +h) aks (s+ 2h R R loge i loge or Q= aks (5 1) = aks (L +) loge = loge > where h =L = Length of the strainer or o= 272ks (L + s/2) wn(4.5) togw® Assumptions and Limitations of Dupuit’s Theory Dupuit’s theory of flow for unconfined aquifer is based on the following assumptions : 1, The velocity of flow is proportional to the tangent of the hydraulic gradient instead of sine. 2. The flow is horizontal and uniform everywhere in the vertical section.74 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 3. Aquifer is homogeneous, isotropic and of infinite aerial extent. 4. The well penetrates and receives water from the entire thickness of the aquifer. 5. The co-efficient of transmissibility is constant at all places and at all times. 6. Natural ground water regime affecting an aquifer remains constant with time. 7. Flow is laminar and Darcy’s law is applicable. Out of these, assumptions (1), (2) and (7) are of particular importance. The flow is not horizontal, especially near the well. Also, the piezometric surface attains greater slope as it approaches the well boundary, with the result that assumption 1 is an approximation. Due to these reasons, the parabolic form of piczometric surface computed from the Dupuit’s theory deviates from the observed surface. This deviation is large at the well face, resulting in the formation of seepage face. In addition to these, the velocity near the well increases and the flow no longer remains laminar. Thus, Darcy’s law equation is not valid near the well face. 2. Confined Aquifer Fig. 4.5 shows a well fully penetrating a confined or artesian aquifer. Let (, y) be the coordinates of any point P on the drawdown curve, measured with respect to the origin O. Then, from Darcy’s law, flow crossing a vertical plane through P is given by Q=kirAr where Ax = cross-sectional area of flow, measured at P = 2a0xb 6 = thickness of confined aquifer i, = hydraulic gradient at p=% =k(% Q=k ( a) (2"xb) Q% =22kb.dy. Integrating between the limits (R,r) for x and (H, h) for y, we get Q f &-rsk0f 4 x . ‘ i Lh O[logex]® =22kb[y|GROUND WATER: WELLS 75 IMPERVIOUS STRATA ° GROUND LEVEL OBSERVATION WELLS Asegetatedtt tea de ete FIG. 4.5. CONFINED AQUIFER From which where equation. _2xkb(H-h) Q=4se (4.6 a) loge|- = 2:72 bk ooo (4.6 b) logn > a2nbks _272bks (4.6 ©) R R . loge logis _22Ts logio zg T. = coefficient of transmissibility = bk s = drawdown at the well. (4.6 d) - 4.6 (a) is known as the equilibrium equation or Thiemaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GROUND WATER: WELLS the tube. The slots are wide inside and narrower outside, as shown in Fig. 4.14. The gauge of slots depends on the coarseness of sand, and varies from 0.15 to 0.4 mm. (ii) Tej strainer It is similar to cook strainer, but is manufactured in India. It con- sists of a brass tube constructed of a brass sheet bent round to form the tube, the vertical joint being brazed. The slots are cut in the sheet before it is bent. The strainer is generally manufactured from 7.5 cm diameter FIG. 4.14. COOK STRAINER upwards, and is made in 25 metre lengths. The individual lengths of the strainer are then joined together by means of screwed collars of brass. (iii) Brownlie strainer The Brownlie strainer is made of plate having perforations. A wire mes! as shown in Fig. 4.15. The mesh consis a polygonal convoluted steel h surrounds the steel tube, ists Of heavy parallel copper wires woven with copper ribbons. Since the wire mesh is slightly away from the perforated tube, it is known as the best type of strainer. FIG. 4.15. BROWNLIE STRAINER (i) Ashford strainer This is very delicate strainer and consists of perforated tube with a wire round it over which a wire mesh is soldered. The wire88 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING keeps the mesh away from the tube. The wire mesh is protected and strengthened by a wire net around it, as shown in Fig. 4.16. (v) Leggett strainer It is expensive type of strainer in which a cleaning device is provided. The cleaning device cae THE TUBE is in the shape of cutters which « {ide PERFORATED can be turned in the slits. The cH TUBE cutters are operated from the top (ground surface), These cutters clean the strainer clogged by the solid matter. (vi) Phoenix strainer It is a mild steel tube in which the openings are made by cutting slits from inside. The tube is cadmium plated to keep it free from danger of chocking and corrosion caused by chemical action. (vii) Layne and Bowler strainer It is a robust type strainer manufactured in America. It consists of wedge-shape steel wire wound to suitable pitch round a slotted or perforated steel or wrought iron pipe. The joint of the straincr pipes are made by screwed collars. Chocking of Strainers The strainer of a tube well may get chocked due to two actions: (1) Mechanical action, (2) Chemical action. (1) Mechanical chocking. Mechanical chocking may result from the chocking of slits with sand and other particles. This may however, be prevented by providing such slits which expand inwards. The pulsating action of the centrifugal pump may also remove the chocking. To safeguard against chocking, proper screening or shrouding should be provided. Another method of eliminating chocking is to permit inflow velocity lesser than the critical. ’ (2) Chemical chocking. The strainer may be chocked due to chemical action of salts present in water. The chemical action may also deteriorate a strainer by corrosion. If calcium bicarbonate present in water exceed by an amount of 15 parts per million parts of water, carbon dioxide is released when pressure is reduced due to pumping and calcium carbonate is precipitated on the strainer. The cumulative action of such precipitation reduces the yield. The chemical chocking FIG. 4.16. ASHFORD STRAINERGROUND WATER : WELLS 89 by deposition of carbonates is reduced by providing large slit area and having low inflow velocity. Similarly, sodium salts may attack mild steel and cast iron strainer pipes causing chocking. Sodium bi-carbonate may attack copper to a certain extent, though brass is not readily attacked. (Q) CAVITY TYPE TUBE WELL This is a special type of tube well in which water is not drawn through the strainer, but it is drawn through the bottom of the well where a cavity is formed. The tube well pipe penetrates a strong clay layer which acts as strong roof. Thus, a cavity tube well is similar to deep well. However, a deep well draws water from the first aquifer below the mota while the cavity well need not do so. The essential condition for a cavity tube well to function efficiently is to have confined aquifer of good specific yield, and the aquifer should have a strong impervious material above it. In the initial stage of pumping with the help of centrifugal pump or an air lift pump, fine sand comes with water and consequently a hollow or cavity is formed. As the spherical surface area of cavity increases outwards, the radial critical velocity decreases, the sand particles stop entering the well. At this stage, an equilibrium in the cavity formation is established and clean water continues to enter the well on further pumping at the same constant discharge. After the formation of the cavity, the velocity of entry of water at the bottom of the pipe is lesser than the critical. 0 GROUND LEVEL TOP sol. HPERVIOUS STRATUM: 2 LAY LAYER (ROOFING) ‘SAND FREE FROM FINE MATERIAL ‘CRITICAL VELOCITY SURFACE CONFINED AQUIFER FIG, 4.17. CAVITY TUBE WELLaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING of a ‘sludger’ or ‘sand pump’. The sludger, almost similar to the bailer, is a steel pipe 2 to 4 metres long, having a cutting shoe of hard steel riveted to its bottom. A flap valve at its lower end permits the entry of the cut material. The sludger is inserted in the casing pipe and is worked up and down by means of a rope the other end of which passes over a pulley fixed centrally to a tripod. A platform is attached to the upper end of the casing pipe, and the weight placed on the platform drives the casing pipe slowly into the hole. When the sludger is full with the cutting paste, it is taken out and emptied. The process goes on till the required level is reached. However, if the rock formations are hard, the sludger is unable to cut it and a string of drilling bits, shown in Fig. 4.20, is inserted and operated by an engine. FIG. 4.21. PERCUSSION BORING BY MANUAL LABOUR. In both the methods, the record of the material collected by bailer or sludger is kept. A bore log is then plotted to know the depths of various formations. The well pipe with strainers at determined levels of aquifer is then lowered to the desired depth. The well is then shrouded, and the casing pipe is taken out when the shrouding is done in steps. Wells by cable-tool method have been drilled in diameters upto 30 cm and to depths as great as 1600 metres.GROUND WATER: WELLS 95 3. HYDRAULIC ROTARY METHOD Hydraulic rotary method, sometimes known as rotary boring method, is used for drilling large bores in unconsolidated strata. This is the fastest method and has been used for well upto 45 cm diameter (upto 150 cm with a reamer), and for depth over 1600 m. Oil wells over 7000 metre deep have been drilled by this method. In this method, the boring is done with the help of a drilling bit attached at the end of a string of hollow pipes (Fig. 4.22). A mixture of clay and water, known as drilling mud, is continuously circulated through the drill shaft in the hole. Material loosened by the bit is carried upward in the hole by the rising mud. Ordinarily, no casing is required since the drilling mud forms a clay lining and supports the walls of the hole. The drill bits have hollow shanks and one or more centrally located orifices for jetting the mud into the bottom of the hole. The drill rod, made of heavy pipe, carries the drill bit at one end, and is screwed to a square section known as kelly. A rotating table, which fits closely around the kelly, rotates the drill rod which slides downward as the hole deepens. The rising drilling mud carrying rock fragments is taken to the settling basin where the cuttings settle. The mud is recirculated to the hole. To maintain the required consis- TO HOIST FIG. 4.22, HYDRAULIC ROTARY METHOD96 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING tency, clay and water is added to the circulating mud from time to time. A complete boring record is maintained to know the type of formations at various depths. When desired level is reached, the drill rod etc. are taken out and the well pipe containing strainer pipes at appropriate locations (opposite aquifers) is lowered. Since the well walls are coated with clay, it should be washed to get more discharge. Back washing is done by lowering the drill pipe and bit in the well pipe, and forcing water containing calgon (sodium-hexa-meta phosphate). Calgon has the property of dispersing clay colloids. A collar, of the size of well-pipe is attached to the drill rod just above the bit. This forces the water through the strainer causing washing action on the clay wall. At the same time, the drill rod is plunged up and down causing surging action. When washing in the bottom is done, the bit is raised through some distance and the operation is repeated. 4. REVERSE ROTARY METHOD Reverse rotary method, similar to the hydraulic rotary method, is very much used in Europe. In this method, the cuttings are used for this purpose. A mixture of water and fine grained material is circulated in the hole. The procedure is essentially a suction dredging method. The walls of the hole during drilling are supported by hydrostatic pressure acting against the film of fine-grained material deposited on the walls by the drilling water. The method of recir- culation of drilling water containing fine-grained particles and cleaning the well after inserting the well-pipe is similar to that of hydraulic rotary methods. 4.13, WELL SHROUDING AND WELL DEVELOPMENT (a) Well Shrouding Well shrouding is a process of interposing coarse material such as gravel and coarse sand between the well-pipe (strainer pipe) and the aquifer soil to prevent finer particles of soil coming in contact with the strainer and chocking it. This is essential in sandy and unconsolidated formations of aquifer. This is also essential in slotted type tube well where a strainer is not used. Such tube well is also sometimes known as a gravel-packed well. The shrouding increases the effective well diameter, acts as a strainer to keep fine material out of the well, and protects the well-pipe from caving of surrounding formations. A gravel packed well has a greater specific capacity than one of the same diameter not surrounded by a gravel. A minimum thickness of 40 cm gravel pack is necessary to make it effective. The proper gain size distribution of the shrouding material depends upon the mechanical analysis of the aquifer and upon the perforations or screen slot size.GROUND WATER : WELLS WE The amount of shrouding material per 30 cm length of the casing pipe can be calculated accurately before hand. In the beginning, the shrouding material for 60 cm length is shovelled in from the top between the tube-pipe and casing. The casing is raised by 30 cm with the help of jack. Then the quantity for each 30 cm is added and the casing pipe is withdrawn 30. cm at a time till the strainer is covered. The shrouding material is sometimes placed through small pipes or pilot holes around the tube-pipe which feed the material down into position. A further refinement is the use of bladeiess pumps for pumping the shrouding material into place. (b) Well Development Well development is the process of removing fine material from the aquifer formation surrounding the strainer pipe, and is aimed at (i) increasing the specific capacity of the well, (ii) preventing sand flowing in, and (iii) obtaining maximum economic well life. The actual yield of the well can be known only after well development. Thus, it also helps in determining the required characteristics of the pump and power unit to be installed. Depending upon formation characteristics of the aquifer, a well may be developed by one of the following methods. 1. Development by pumping. 2. Development by surging. 3. Development by compressed air. 4. Development by back washing. 5. Development by dry ice. 1, Development by pumping In this method, a variable speed pump is used. The method is based on the principle that irregular and non-continuous pumping agitates the fine material surrounding the well so that it can be carried into the well and pumped out. Initially, the pump is started with a very low discharge. The fine particles start coming. This low speed is maintained till clear water comes. The discharge is then increased in steps until maximum discharge or well capacity is reached. The pump is then stopped and levels permitted to increase till it comes to normal. The pump is then again started and the procedure repeated, till no fine particles come. 2. Development by Surging In this method, surging effect is created by up and down move- ment of a hollow surge block or a bailer. Calgon (sodium-hexa- metaphosphate) is added to water, so that it acts as dispersing agent for fine grained particles. When the surge block is moved up, it98 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING sucks water in. When it is moved down, it‘forces water-calgon solution back in the formation. Further upward motion bring with it fine material. The surge block is connected to a string of hollow pipe from which the water charged with fine particles is pumped out continuously. The procedure is repeated by increasing the speed of surging till clear water comes out. 3. Development by Compressed Air. In this method, the development is done with the help of an air compressor, a discharge pipe and an air pipe. The air pipe is put into the discharge pipe and is lowered into the well tube, till the assembly reaches near the bottom of the strainer-pipe section. The lower end of the air pipe is kept emerging out of the discharge pipe by a small length. The air entry to the air pipe is first closed and the compressor is then started till a pressure of 6 to 10 kg/cm? is built up. The air is then suddenly made to enter the pipe, at this pressure, with the help of suitable quick-opening valve. This sudden entry of air into well creates a powerful surge within the well causing loosening of fine material surrounding the perforations. When the pressure decreases, water enters the well bringing the loosened particles with it. The continuous air injection creates an air lift pump, and the water carrying fine particles is pumped out. The process is repeated till clear water comes. The pipe assembly is then lifted up, and the surging is again created. The operation is repeated at intervals along the screen section till the well is fully developed, 4, Development by Back Washing In this method, in addition io the compressor, a discharge pipe and an air pipe, and additional small air pipe is used. The well is sealed at its top so that is becomes air-tight. The discharge pipe and air pipe assembly is lowered in the well, as in the previous method, but the end of the air pipe is kept inside the discharge pipe. A small air pipe is fitted at the top of the air-tight cover and is provided with a three-way cock. With the help of the three-way cock, air can be admitted to the well either through the long air pipe (but inside the discharge pipe) or through the long air pipe fitted at the top. Air is first made to enter the long air pipe. This forces air and water out of the well through the discharge pipe. When clear water comes the valve is closed, and water level is allowed to increase in the well. The valve is then turned to the other side so that air enters through the discharge pipe and at the same time agitates the fine particles surrounding the well. Calgon is often added to water. When air starts escaping fromGROUND WATER : WELLS 9 the discharge’ pipe, the valve is turned so that air enters the long air pipe, and the assembly works as an air-lift pump and the water is pumped out. The procedure is repeated till clear water comes and the well is fully developed. 5. Development by dry ice (solid sodium dioxide) In this method, well is developed with the help of two chemi- cals : hydrochloric acid and solid sodium dioxide (known as dry ice). First of all, hydrochloric acid is poured into the well. The well is capped at the top and compressed air is forced into the well. The pressure of the compressed air forces the chemical into the formation. The cap is then removed and blocks of dry ice are dropped into the well. The sublimation releases gaseous carbon dioxide, and a high pressure of this gas is built up in the well. On releasing the pressure the muddy water is forced up in the form of a jet and is automatically thrown out of the well. Explosion of mud and water extending 40 metres into the air from a well in Utah (U.S.A) was observed when the well was developed with dry ice. 4.14, OPEN WELLS As stated earlier, an open well is essentially of a bigger diameter than of a tube well, and derives its water only from one pervious stratum. Since a tube well, in general, may derive water from more than one aquifer formation, it has greater depth than an open well. The economically feasible depth of an open weil is limited to 30 metres below the ground surface. In a lined open well, the entry of water is from the bottom and not from the sides. An open well is classified as : (i) Shallow well. (ii) Deep well. “wernt | PERVIOUS FORMATION LL Wh wel (0) SHALLOW WELL ae (bd VELL” -PERVIOUS FORMATION FIG. 4.23. SHALLOW AND DEEP WELLS100 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING The nomenclature of shallow and deep well has nothing to do with the actual depth of the well. A deep well is a well which is supported on a mota layer and draws its water supply, through a hole bored in it, from the pervious formation below the mota layer. A shallow weil, on the other end, penetrates the pervious Stratum only and draws its water supply through it. The term mota layer also sometimes known as matbarwa or nagasan, refers to a layer of clav, cemented sand, kankar or any other hard material. The mota layer gives structural support to the open well, and is found throughout the Indo-Gangetic plain. These mota layers may either be continuous, or may be localised and may be found in different thicknesses and depths at different places. PERVIOUS STRATUM FIG. 4.24. DEEP WELL ON LOCALISED MOTA LAYER Fig. 4.23 (a) shows a shallow well which derives water from the pervious stratum, and does not rest on a mota layer. Fig. 4.23 (b) shows a deep well resting on a continuous mota layer. Fig. 4.24 shows a deep-well resting on a localised mota layer and deriving its water from the second pervious stratum. Actually, a shallow well can be deeper than a deep well. However, since a shallow well draws water from the first pervious stratum (ie. top formation), the water in it is liable to be contaminated by rain water percolating in the vicinity, and may take with it mineral organic matter such as decom- posing animals and plants. The water in a deep well is not liable to get such impurities and infections. Also, the pervious formation below a mota layer normally has greater water content and specific yield. Hence discharge from a deep well is generally more than a shallow well. The open well may further be classified as : (i) Kachha well or unlined well. (ii) Well with impervious lining. , (di) Well with pervious lining.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.GROUND WATER: WELLS 17 J a R = (6.1352) T3808 = (6.1352)? R=4152m (b) Q = 2000 litres/min. =2m/min. (since 1 litre/min. = 0.001 m’/min.) R=41.52m;H = 40m, h=36m, 10 m = = 136k (40° - 36°) Q=2 Top 452 08m Ta _ 2 52 1.36 (40° — 36°) tog is = 0,003 m/min. = 431 m/day. (c) Depth of water in the well is given by 9 1.36 x 0.003 (40° — Ha) 4152 lB 30° 2 2 41.52 1600 — He = 35 5co003 * 8930 = 1049.58 Ay = 23.46 m. Hence drawdown at the well = 40 — 23.46 = 16.54m (d) Specific capacity is defined as the discharge per unit draw- down. Let it be designated by S,. It is not constant, but decreases as the discharge increases (sce §4.6). Let us assume that the yicld is directly proportional to the drawdown or to the radius of zero- drawdown. QoR or Q=C.R where C is a constant. For a given data, C= DIS 2 “77 0.04817.18 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING: =2-_2_; R C= 004817 in general. Now corresponding to. drawdown of 1 m, discharge QO = S.. Hence radius of zero drawdown —Se__ Se ~C 0.04817 Hence O=5S.= 1,36 .k (40° — 39°) logio * — 1.36 x 0,003 (40° — 39°) loge (que x03} or Se login (69.2 S-) = 0.3223. Solving this by trial and error, we get Se = 0.258 m*/min. Hence, specific capacity of the well is 0.258 m?/min/m depression head. (e) maximunr rate of discharge Q,, will be obtained when draw- down in the well is equal to H, ie., when Ho = zero. On = 1:36. 0.003 (40° = 0°) lo 9, 8" N04B1T x 03 or Qn loge 69.2 Qm = 6.528 Solving this by trial and error, we get Qn = 2.85 m’/min, 4.18. UNSTEADY FLOW The analysis of flow towards wells discussed in the previous articles is based on the assumption that steady state of flow is developed immediately after pumping is started. Actually, the cone of depression fluctuates with time. The gradual approach of cone of depression towards a steady state is produced primarily by the removal of water from storage as cone deepens. Hence a storage co-efficient comes into play. The storage co-efficient is a dimensionless constant of the aquifer and may be interpreted as the amount of water in storage released from storage from a column of aquifer of unit cross-section under a unit decline of head. Equations developed for unsteady or transient well flow nor- mally show how the drawdown s of the piezometric surface or water table is related to the time of pumping the well. In Fig. 4.31,GROUND WATER : WELLS 119 FIG. 4.31. TRANSIENT FLOW consider an annular cylinder of thickness dr and radius r. Due to unsteady flow conditions, water will be released from storage of this elementary cylinder. According to definition of storage co-efficient iv 8 . 5 S, the rate = at which a certain volume V is released from storage over an aquifer of area A is given by aV __ oh ar ~~ at 4 =) where V=volume of water released per horizontal area A of aquifer. =height of piezometric surface or water table above lower boundary of aquifer. S = storage co-efficient. A =area of the aquifer to which x applies. t= time. Since h decreases with time ¢, minus sign with ah/dar has been used. For the elementary cylinder of the aquifer, A = 2xr dr. Hence av ah a a dards. (2) Let Q, = discharge entering the outer face of the cylinder. Q2 = discharge leaving the inner face of the cylinder. . Change in discharge 6q = Q: - Qo.120 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Since the rate of increase in q can be expressed as — a > the increase in discharge over the annular area =— Sar. Substituting this for ar in (2), we get ~ 4dr a ~2nrdy gs .QG) or at For confined radial flow, we get from Darcy law, q =2ar re 4 aa72 * a rey =2nT Bae g (4) Substituting in (3), we hi ah oh _ ah wrt roa] = 2.5, which simplifies to ah , 10h _ Sah tre Tha eh) This is the basic equation for unsteady flow towards the well. Theis (1935) obtained a solution for this equation based on the analogy between ground water flow and heat conduction, by assuming that the well is replaced by mathematical sink of constant strength such that h = H before pumping begins and that h>H as ro after pumping begins (¢ 2'0). The solution is P< _ = 2 * we(4.25 Aol san ee = 2. or sa EV w we(4.25) where Wu) =f du = well function. Eq. 4.25 is known as the non-equilibrium equation ot Theis equation. The integral in the above equation is a function of the lower limit, and is known as exponential integral. It can be expressed as a convergent series so that Eq. 4.25 can also be expressed as 3 = 2 [- oy we 3 asp 0.5772 — logeu +u — Tat +a ar re (4.25. b)121 LLS ER : WEL GROUND WATI $710000°0 £4£0000'0 9110000 09£000°0 SPT 1000 6LL€00°0 SOELO'O 168P0°0 r6Iz0 6tL'8 9888 066'8 reo OES Oss6 L886 1701 ror 5 O1XN GorxN =") (9) NOMONAA TIAM dO SANIVA ‘t+ ATEVL :122 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Wenzel tabulated the values of W(u) for various values of u ranging from 10-" to 9.9. Table 4.3 gives the values of W (u) for u ranging from 107“ to 9. From the table, when u=5, W(u) = 0.001148 and when u=5x1073, Wu) = 4.726. The values of formation constants S and T can be found by measuring drawdowns in observation wells when the well under study is pumped at a constant rate of discharge Q. There are several methods of determining S and T, but we will discuss here following three methods : (a) Theis method, (6) Jacob’s method, (c) Chow's method. (2) THEIS METHOD Theis proposed a curve-fitting method for finding formation constants S and T from a pump out test. From Eq. 4.25, we observe that s=[& |¥@ or log W(u) = [ioe 457 1] + logs w(4.26 a) r_ aT _ 5 P and = [+ lu or logu = [8 + log — (4.26 6) If a constant withdrawal rate (Q) is maintained, the bracketed portions of the above two equations are constant for a given pumping test. It is to be noted that s is related to 7/t in a manner that is similar to the relation of W(u) to u. Hence if a plot or data curve is made between s and r’/t on logarithmic co-ordinates tracing paper (Fig. 4.32 a) to the same scale as the type curve W(u) versus u (Fig. 4.32 b), the data curve will be similar to the type curve. Procedure < (i) In the observation well situated at a radial distance r from the main well, observe s and f¢. (ii) Plot s versus/’/¢ on a log-log tracing paper (Fig. 4.25 a). (iii) Plot Wu) versus u on log-log graph ‘paper (Fig. 4.32 b). (iv) Keep Fig. 4.32 a on Fig. 4.32 6, and adjust it in such a way that when the co-ordinate axes are held parallel, the dataGROUND WATER: WELLS rm) 109 2/1 me/pay 108 (a) DATA CURVE 6' (c) CURVE FITTING FIG. 432, THEIS METHOD.124 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING curve is oriented in a position which represents the best fit of the field data to the type curve. (v) With both graph sheets at the best match position, an arbitrary point P on the top curve is selected and pricked through. (vi) The co-ordinates (a, 6) and (a),6;) of the match point are noted from both the curves. Thus’ the pair of values [s, #(u)] and [?°/1,u] are known. The aquifer constants are then calculated from the relations : -2y z TF as (u) w(4.27 a) and gn eT A427 b) ra (6) JACOB’S METHOD Jacob suggested a method which completely avoids curve fitting. He observed that when r is small and ¢ is large, u may be small and hence all terms after 2nd term of the serics expansion (Eq. 4.25 b) of W(u) may be neglected. Thus W(u) =— 0.5772 — logeu eo 2uje es s=3* Fl 0.5772 — loge u} Q 47t or S= a loge ay — 0.5772 w(4.28) For the same observation well, if 5; and sz are the observed drawdown at times ¢ and % since pumping started, we have As =5:-5) _ 23030, = Far loaw? (4.29) If a plot is made between s and logit (Fig. 4.33) then for, one log cycle of time difference (ie. tf = 10%), we get — 2.3030 Ase nT _ 2.3039 or T= as w=-(4.30) Extrapolating the straight line of the curve to intersect with the zero drawdown axis permits the calculation for S. Let ft beaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 141 . Arithmetical increase method. Geometrical increase method. Incremental increase method. Decreased rate of growth method, . Graphical extension method. . Graphical comparison method. Zoning method or master plan method. . Ratio and correlation method. . Growth composition analysis method. . Arithmetical Increase Method This is the most simple method of population forecast, though it generally gives lower results. In this method, the increase in population from decade to decade is assumed constant. Mathematically, this hypothesis may be expressed as dP ank w(5.1 a) ee a where ap is the rate of change of population and K is a constant. From the census data of past 3 or 4 decades, the increase in population for each decade is found, and from that an average increment is found. For each successive future decade, this average increment is added. The future population P, after » decades is thus given by Pr=P+nl (5.1) where P, = future population at the end of n decades P =present population, J = average increment for a decade. This method should be used for forecasting population of those large cities, which have reached their saturation population. 2. Geometrical Increase Method or Uniform Percentage Growth Method In this method, it is assumed that the percentage increase in population from decade to decade is constant. From the population data of previous three or four decades, the percentage increase in population is found and its average is found. If f, is the average percentage increase per decade, or r, is the increase per decade expressed as ratio, the population P, after n decades is given by142 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Ip yn 1 Py =P(t 63] =P(l +n) wo(5.2) Eq. 5.2 can be derived very easily as under : Let P be the present population and P, be the population after one decade. =p+te pe A" ; Then, Py P+ am? P(.tas | wi) Similarly, population P2 after two decades is Py=P,+ Hep =P, (144): 1+ P= Pi ij\-=P (14:45), w(ié) 100 While the arithmetical average method is analogous to the ‘simple interest method’, this method is analogous to the compulation of income by the ‘compound interest method’. This method gives higher results since the percent increase never remains constant but, instead, decreases when the growth of the city reaches to saturation. " Hence Pap (1+) The value of rz can be found from the expression vn n= (#) -1 (5.2. a) Alternatively, 7, can be determined by computing the average of growth rates of several known decades of the past : 7 = Mctease in population ulation for each decade. original population Knowing ri, r2.....% for each decade, the average value r, can be found either by arithmatic average method or by geometric average method : (i) By arithmatic average method : ntnt. Ty - n 1 w(5.2b) (6) By geometric average method Tes (Melee 1) ue (5.20) The field engineers use the arithmatic average method for computing r, (or J,) since it gives slightly higher (and hence safer)WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 143 values. However, the Manual on water supply and treatment recom- mends to use the geometric mean method. 3. Incremental Increase Method This method combines both the arithmetic average method and the geometrical average method. From the census data for the past several decades, the actual increase in each decade is first found. Then the increment in increase for each decade is found. From these, an average increment of the increases (known as incremental increase) is found. The population in the next decade is found by adding to the present population the average increase plus the average in- cremental increase per decade. The process is repeated for the second future decade, and so on. Thus the future population at the end of n decades is given by : P,=P+nlt ner), (53) where P=present population J = average increase per decade r = average incremental increase n=number of decades. Eq. 5.3 can be easily derived as under : Let P be at the present population. The population P; after one decade will be P\=P+Ii+Ir ai) Similarly, population P, after 2 decades is PraPiti+2r=P+21+3r=P + 214224), Population P, after 3 decades is Pra Prt 1+ 3r=P +314 6r=P 43142040, Hence, population P, after n decades is Pp=P+ni+2 20, 4. Decreased Rate of Growth Method or Logistic Method It is found that the rate of increase of population never remains constant, but varies. Fig. 5.1 shows a plot between the population P and the time T for a developing city. The population of a city will grow until it reaches a saturation population which is established by limit of economic opportunity. All populations thus grow according to the logistic or S-curve. The curve ABC (Fig. 5.1 a) starts withaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 155 Arithmetical Increase Geometrical Increase Py =57500 logio Pr= 4.7597 Pz = 41500 logio Pe= 4.6181 P, — Pe= 16000 logio Pr — logioPe= 0.1416 0.625 (Pi — Pe) 0.625 (logi P: — logie Pe) = 10000 = 0.0885 Py = 57500 + 10000 logio Pu = 4.7597 + 0.0885 = 67500 = 4.8482 Py = 70500 Note. The geometric estimates are higher for post-censal years and lower for inter-censal years. Example. 5.4, A city has following recorded population : 1951 50000 1971 110000 1991 160000 Estimate : (a) the saturation population, and (b) expected popula- tion in 2011. Solution : Here n= 20 years Po = 50,000; Pi=1,10,000 ; P2= 1,60,000 Hence from Egs. 5.9 (a), (6) and (c) p, = 2%50000% 110000 160000— (1110000)'(50000+ 160000) ‘ 50000 x 160000 — (110000) = 190488 190488 — 50000 _ 30000 = 193 wij; 50000 (190488 — 110000) 20 '°8 710000 (190488 — 50000). Hence the equation of the logistic curve is p = 190488 ype B= OTT In 2011, ¢ = 2011 — 1951 = 60 years. a = log. = — 0.0673 7 = Tp game 190488 _ _. 181500156 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 5.6. WATER DEMAND An average person may consume no more than 5 to 8 litres a day in liquid and solid foods, including 3 to 6 litres in the form of water, milk and other beverages. However, the per capita con- sumption of water drawn from public supply is quite large. Total water requirements may be divided into the following five categories: Residential or domestic use. Institutional use. Public or civic use. Industrial use. Water system losses. Pepe pe per 1. Residential or domestic use The residential or domestic use includes water requirements for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing of clothes, utensils and house, and flushing of water closets. Provision is sometimes made for domestic animals. IS : 1172-1957 recommends a per capita water consumption of 135 litres per day. Table 5.5 gives the break up of water requirements for domestic purposes, which forms about 50% of the total water requirements per head per day, for all the five categories mentioned above. Table 5.6 gives the water requirements for domestic animals. It should be noted that water required for lawn sprinkling and for residential gardens is over and above the values given in Table 5.5. TABLE 5.5. WATER REQUIREMENTS FOR DOMESTIC PURPOSES Bathing Washing of clothes Flushing of W.C. Washing the house Woshing of utensils CookingWATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 157 TABLE 5.6. CONSUMPTION OF WATER FOR DOMESTIC ANIMALS AND LIVE-STOCKS Cow and buffalo Horse Dog Sheep or goat The Manual on water supply and treatment, prepared by the Ministry of Urban Development (MUD) New Delhi recommends the following rates in litres per capita per day (Icpd) for domestic and non-domestic needs (Table 5.7) : TABLE 5.7. WATER FOR DOMESTIC AND NON-DOMESTIC NEEDS Description Amount of water (kepd) 1. For communities with population 40. (min.) upto 20,000 (a) Water supply through stand post (b) Water supply through house 10 10 100 service connection 2. For communities with population 100 to 150 20,000 to 100,000 3. For communities with population 150 to 200 above 100,000 2. Institutional Use The manual on water supply and Treatment recommends the values of water requirements for institutional needs as given in Table 5.7. 3. Public or Civic use Water required for public or civic uses may be for the following purposes : (i) Road washing, (ii) Sanitation, (iii) Public parks, and (iv) Fire fighting. For road washing in the municipality area, a provision of 5 litres per head per day is made, Similarly, for sanitary purposes, such as cleaning public sanitary blocks, flushing sewer systems etc., a provision of 3 to 5 litres per head per day may be made. Water required for maintaining public parks etc. may be 2 to 3 litres per square metre per day.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 161 5. Water System Losses Losses from a water distribution system consists of (i) leakage and over-flow from service reservoirs, (i) leakage from main and service pipe connections, (ii’) leakage and losses on consumer's premises when they get un-metered house-hold supplies (iv) under-registration of supply meters, and (v) large leakage or wastage from public taps. Losses in the supply lines are mainly due to defective pipe joints, cracked pipes, and loose valves and fittings. In the case of a well maintained, and fully metered water distribution system, the losses may hardly exceed 20% of the total consumption. In a system where the supply is partly metered {for domestic connections) and partly un-metered (for municipal taps), the losses may be upto 50% of the total supply. Example 5.5. Compute the fire demand’ for a city having popula- tion of 1,40,000 using various formulae. Solution, P = population in thousands = 140. 1. Kuichling’s formula Q =3182 VP = 3182 V 140 = 37650 litres/min. = 0.627 cumecs. 2. Buston’s formula Q = 5663 VP = 5663 V 140 = 67000 litres/min. = L117 cumecs. 3. Freeman’s formula = P = 140 Q = 1136 (5 + 10) = 1136 ( ; +10) = 43168 litres/min = 0.719 cumecs. No. of fire streams, F=28VP =28V140 ~33. 4. National Board of Fire Underwriter’s formula Q = 4637 V140 (1 — 0.01 V140) = 48,374 litres/min.= 0.806 cumecs. 5.7. FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF DEMAND The average per capita water consumption varies widely in Indian cities, the demand figures varying from 80 litres to 160 litres Such variation depends upon a number of factors summarised below: 1 Size and type of community. The fluctuations in demand depends upon the size of the city. In a large city, the fluctuations162 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING in demand may be narrow. Ina smail city, per capita water consumption is to be expected to be small because there are only limited uses for water in a small town. The fluctuation in use in an industrial community is normally much smaller than in a residential community. 2. Standard of living. The higher the standard of living is, the higher the demand and greater the variation in demand. 3. Climatic conditions. If the community is located in hot climate, water use will be increased by bathing, lawn sprinkling and use in parks and recreation fields. Similarly, in extreme cold climates, water ‘may be wasted at the faucets to prevent freezing of pipes, Tesulting in increased consumption. Extremes of heat and cold cause variations in demand. 4. Quality of water. Poor-quality water results in a reduction in use. 5. Pressure in the supply. High pressure results in increased use while low pressure results in decreased use. 6. System of supply. Water supply Inay either be continuous, (ie. for all the 24 hours) or intermittent. Generally, intermittent supply will reduce rate of demand. 7. Sewerage. Use of water increases when sewers are installed in an area previously without them. 8. Metering. Use of water decreases when the supplies are metered. 9. Water rates. An increase in water rates will reduce con- sumption in metered areas. 10. Age of community. Older, more stable communities use less water than rapidly developing communities where new homes are being constructed and owners are planting new lawns. 1. Lawn sprinkling. Enforcement of lawn sprinkling regula- tions can reduce peak demands significantly. 5.8. VARIATIONS IN RATE OF DEMAND The average daily per capita consumption is obtained by dividing the quantity of water supplied during the year by the number of days in the year and the number of persons served. This per capita consumption or demand varies not ouly from year to year and from season to season, but more important from day to day and hour to hour. These variations are expressed as percentage of the annual average daily consumption. Some common values are as under :WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 163 1. Maximum seasonal consumption. 130% of annual average daily rate of demand. 2. Maximum monthly consumption. 140% of annual average daily rate of demand. 3. Maximum daily consumption. 180% of annual average daily consumption. 4, Maximum hourly consumption. 150% of average for the day. A convenient formula for estimating consumption is given by R.O. Goodrich : p=i80r°” +n(5.23) where, =p = percentage of annual average consumption for time ¢ days from 4 to 360. Substituting ‘= 1, we get p = 180, ie., the consumption for maximum is 180% of the average. Substituting += 30 days, we get P = 180 (30)7°" = 128%. 4 PERCENT OF AVERAGE CONSUMPTION (MILLION LIT/DAY) 1 aL L L o 2°54 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 HOURS OF THE DAY FIG. 5.4. VARIATION IN CONSUMPTION THROUGHOUT THE DAY. Fig. 5.4 shows the variation in consumption throughout the day. In most of the Indian cities, the peak demand occurs in the morning and evening. During the night hours, the consumption is below the average. The average consumption is shown by the dotted lines. A term absolute maximum hourly demand is used to indicate the consumption of maximum hour on maximum day of maximum month of maximum season. Let the annual average consumption in a city be 150 litres per capita per day. The rate of cons: on maximum day will be = 150x1.8 =270 litres. Maximum hourly164 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING consumption will be = xrexi. 5=16.9 litres/hour. The absolute maximum hourly demand (adopting the monthly and seasonal factors suggested above) will be = 2 x 1.30 1.40x 1.80% 1.50 = wx 4.914=30.7 litres/hour (against an annual average of = 6.25 litres hour). In order to cope with the hourly variations in the demand, either the pumps may be run at variable speed (which is difficult and cymbersome) or else the pumps may be run at average speed and store the water during the period of less consumption. The second alternative is generally followed. If the pumps are run for all the 24 hours, the rate of delivery by the pumps will be equal to average demand. If they are run only for ¢ hours in a day, the Tate of pumping will be 2 times the average consumption. The excess water during the slack demand period is stored in a service reservoir, to be consumed during the’ periods of peak demand. Effect of Variation in Consumption on Design A water supply system has several units, and design of each unit should match with the hourly, daily and seasonal variations in the demand. The design principles taking into account the effect of variation in the consumption are given below : 1. Filters and pumps. The filter units as well as pumping units are designed for 1.50 times the average daily demand. For example, if the annual average consumption is 150 litres/capita/day, and the population is 50,000, the filter units are designed for 1.50 x 50,000 = 75,000 litres capacity. Similarly, the pumps are desig- ned to deliver 75,000 litres of water in 24 hours. If, however, the pumps are worked only for 12 hours, their hourly discharge will » 75000 12 = 6250 litres per hour. 2. Distribution mains. Distribution mains are designed for the maximum hourly demand of the maximum day. Adopting the factors suggested above, the multiplying factor for the supply will be =18x 15=2.7. 3. Sedimentation tanks and water reservoirs. The sedimentation tanks and the clean water reservoirs are designed for the average daily rate of consumption.WATER DEMAND AND QUANTITY 165 PROBLEMS 1. Explain in brief different methods used for prediction of future population of a city, with reference to the design of a water supply system. 2. What do you understand by ‘per capita demand’ of water ? How is it determined ? 3. Discuss various factors that affect the rate of demand. 4. Explain in brief various expressions used to determine the ‘fire demand’. 5. Explain in brief various factors that affect population growth. 6. Write a note on variations in rate of demand. Explain clearly how you take into account these variations in the design of various units. 7. The following data shows the variation in population of a town from 1922 to 1972. Estimate the population of the city in the year 2002. Use various methods : Year 1922 1932 1942 1952 1962 1972 Population 72,000 85,000 ——1,10,500 1,44,000 1,84,000 2,21,000 [Ans. (i) Arithmetical increase method : 3,10,400 (i) Geometrical increase method : 4,35,000 (iii) Incremental increase method : 3,46,400 8. In two periods, each of 20 years, a city population grew from 30000 to 172000 to 292000. Find (a) saturation population (6) the coefficients Of logistic equation and (c) expected population in the next 20 years. fAns. (@) 3,12,800 (b) a=2243 6 =-0.122 (c) 3108006 Quality of Water 6.1. INTRODUCTION The primary objective of water treatment and purification is to collect water from best available source and subject it to processing which will ensure water of good physical quality, free from unpleasant taste or odour and containing nothing which might be detrimental to health. It is not possible to find absolutely pure water in nature. Chemically pure water is the one which contains two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen. Water drops just emitting out of the clouds may be considered as chemically pure water, but as the drops fall down they absorb some gases and other matter. It is however not essential to have chemically pure water. Sometimes presence of some minerals give good taste to water. Supplies of water may be obtained by drawing directly upon rivers, lakes, or springs. Depending largely upon the sources from which they are derived, the various waters so obtained may differ greatly in purity and suitability for the purposes for which they are required. Underground water may contain much matter dissolved from state through which it passes, Shallow wells are much more prone to bacterial pollution than are deep wells. Streams and rivers collect impurities from the earth and through “the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents and these are carried to ponds, lakes and reservoirs. In the past, there have been many cases of recurring epidemics of enteric fevers traceable to drinking water supplies. The following are important requirements of water for domestic use: (166)QUALITY OF WATER 167 2 ew Me 10. 11. It should be colourless, and sparkling clear. It must be free from solids in suspension and must not deposit a sediment on standing. It should be of good taste, free from odour. It should be reasonably soft. It should be plentiful and cheap. It should be free from disease producing bacteria or organisms. It should be free from objectionable dissolved gases, such as sulphuretted hydrogen. It should, however, have suf- ficient quantity of dissolved oxygen. It should be free from harmful salts. It should be free from objectionable minerals, such as iron, manganese, lead, arsenic and other poisonous metals. It should be free from radio-active substance such as radium, stronsium etc. It should be reasonably free from phenolic compounds, chlorides, fluoride and iodine. It should not lead to scale formation and should be non- corrosive. The above requirements are only qualitative. The quantitative requirements are given in the subsequent articles. 6.2, COMMON IMPURITIES IN WATER AND THEIR EFFECT Impurities in water are classified into three heads : © Suspended impurities. (ii) Dissolved impurities. (iii) Colloidal impurities. Suspended impurities are those which normally remain in suspen- sion. They are microscopic and make water turbid. Dissolved im- purities are not visible, but they are large since water is good solvent. They cause bad taste, hardness and alkalinity. Sometimes, they are harmful. Colloidal impurities are electrically charged. Due to this, the colloidal particles, usually very small in size, remain in constant motion and do not settle. Table 6.1 gives summary of various suspended and dissolved impurities.168 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING TABLE 6.1. SUSPENDED AND DISSOLVED IMPURITIES Type Constituents Effect 1 Suspended Impurities 2. Dissolved Impurities (a) Bacteria (6) Algae, Protozoa (c) Silts (@) Sats () Calcium and Magnesium Bicarbonate \_carbonate ‘Sulphate —Chioride Bicarbonate {Carbonate Sulphate Fluoride (i) Sodium hioride (8) Metals and Compounds () Iron oxide Manganese Lead Anscenie Barium Cadmium Cyanide Boron @) Silver Nitrates @i) (©) Vegetable dyes (@) Gases +—-Carbon dioxide \_Hydrogen sulphide Some cause diseases Odour, colour, turbidity Murkiness or turbidity Alkalinity Alkalinity, hardness Hardness Hardness. corrosion Alkalinity, softening effect Alkalinity, softening effect Foaming in boilers Dental flurosis or mottled enamel Taste Taste red colour, corrosive- ness, hardness Black or brown colour Cumulative poisoning Toxicity, poisoning Toxic effect on heart, nerves Toxic, illness Fatal Affect central nervous system, Highly toxic to animals, fish Discolouration of skin; eyes Blue baby conditions; infant poisoning; colour ; acidity Corrosiveness to metals Acidity, corrosiveness Odour, acidity, corro- sivenessQUALITY OF WATER 169 63. QUALITY OF SOURCE Natural water is available from the following sources : (@) Pure water (ii) Rain water (iii) Surface runoff water (iv) River water. (v) Lakes and pond water, swamp water. (vi) Ground water Fig. 6.1 Shows the characteristic properties of natural water in hydrologic cycle, cLoups ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE —_— WIND PRECIPITATION SPRING WATER Q [—— | SEAWATER : SALTS , E }—---- 2. PRECIPITATION : GASES, VAPOURS, PARTICULATES, e SALT NUCLEI, RADIO-ACTIVE FALL 3 OUT — [}+—— 3. SURFACE RUNOFF : PARTICULATES, ORGANIC MATTER, s NITRATES, PHOSPHATES, BIOCIDES te © }—— 4. GROUND WATER AND ; CARBONATES,-CHLORIDES AND SULP- B SPRING WATER HATES OF CALCIUM AND MAGNESIUM; E IRON AND MANGENESE ; SO2 ; H2S. é }—— 5. LAKE WATER : ALGAE, ODOURS, TASTES 2 +—— 6, SWAMP WATER * COLOUR, ODOURS, TASTES ° L— 17. RIVER WATER : PARTICULATES ; ORGANIC MATTER; ‘WASTE WATERS FIG. 6.1. CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF NATURAL WATERS IN HYDROLOGIC CYCLEaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.QUALITY OF WATER 173, (éi) Mesolimnion (or Thermocline). It is a zone, 3 to 6 m deep, having rapidly changing temperature at the rate of 1°C or more per 1 m change in depth. The primary disadvantage of this zone is that the oxygen content is depleted through microbial activity. Since there is no opportunity of reacration, anearobic conditions are set in with an increase in iron, carbon dioxide, manganesc, Hz taste and odour. All these are potentially detrimental to water quality. (iii) Hypolimnion : This is the bottom most zone which is cold. It has practically no dissolved oxygen. It has very high dissolved iron and manganese. Anaerobic conditions exist in this zone. Also, there is an increase in CO and decrease in pH. 6.4. WATER ANALYSIS Various types of impurities present in water can be determined by water analysis. This analysis is done both for raw water as well as treated or purified water. The examination of raw water will enable us to determine the outline or processes of water purification. Water analysis of purified water is done to know whether the degree of purification has reached the required standards or not. Following are the purposes of water analysis of raw water and purified water: _ L. To classify the water with respect to general level of mineral constituents. 2. To determine the degree of clarity and ascertain the nature of matter in suspension. 3. To determine the chemical and bacteriological pollution of water. 4. To determine the presence/absence of an excess of any particular constituent affecting potable quality and general use. 5. To determine the level of organic impurities. 6. To set the outlines of purification process and specify various stages in it. 7. To ascertain whether purification of water has reached the required standards or not. Thus to summarise, examination of water is used to classify, prescribe treatment, control treatment and purification processes and maintain public supplies of an appropriate standard of organic quality, clarity and palatability. The examination of water may be divided into three classes: 1. Physical Examination. 2. Chemical examination. _ 3. Microbiological examination.174 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Sampling. The proper collection of water sample entails the most careful consideration of all relevant circumstances, as regards choice of sampling point, method of collection and frequency of testing. Frequency of testing directly depends upon the variability of quality of raw water and to the hazards of pollution. For deep underground water, where chances of pollution are less, the testing may be less frequent. In the case of impounded water, where chemical and physicaf data are intimately related to biological investigation, seasonal factors and pollutional aspects determine how often a river water is to be examined. The samples should be collected in clean and sterilized bottles having stoppers. The water and the bottle should not be touched while collecting the sample. 6.5. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION These consist of (i) Colour test (i) taste and odour test (iii) temperature test, and (iv) turbidity test. 1, COLOUR TEST Water gets its colour due to leaves, peat, logs and other organic matter cither in true solution or in colloidal suspension. Colour can be measured against various standards or scales such as Hazen or Platinic chloride scale, Burgess scale or cobalt scale using a tin- tometer. The apparent colour of water due to turbidity is first removed by centrifuging. This is achieved by placing the sample of water in a centrifuge and rotating it at a very high speed so that the vortex caused due to centrifuge action spills out suspended matter. The sample is then ready for determination of its true colour, using a tintometer. The instrument has an eye-piece with two holes. A the slide of standard coloured water is seen through one hole, while the slide of the water to be tested is seen through the other hole. A number of slides of standard colour in water are kept ready for comparison. The intensity of colour in water is measured in terms of arbitrary unit of colour on the cobalt scale. The unit of colour is that produced by one milligram of platinum cobalt in one litre of distilled water. For public water supply, the number on cobalt scale should not exceed 20, and should preferably be less than 10. According to IS 3025-1964, if 1.245 g of potassium chloroplatinate and 1.0 g of cobalt chloride are dissolved in distilled water and diluted to 1 litre, it has a colour of 500 Hazen units. 2. TASTE AND ODOUR TESTS Taste and odour tests are of prime importance in assessing the palatability of water. They may be there due to the presence of mineral salts, tarry substances, industrial wastes, domestic sewage,QUALITY OF WATER 175 decomposing organic matter, certain types of microscopic organisms or chemical compounds such as: phenols etc. However, taste and odour are the most difficult physical characteristics to measure in any numerical sense because of personal factors related to taste and odour, atmospheric conditions of impurity, temperature and humidity. Odour is meaured in terms of thresh hold odour number. This is numerically equal to the volume of sample of water in cubic centimetres required to be added to 100 c.c. of odour free fresh water when the mixure just starts giving the typical smell in the diluted sample. For example, if 6 c.c. of water added to 100 cc. of fresh water does not give any odour, while if more than 6 c.c. of water when added to 100 c.c. of water gives odour in the diluted sample, the thresh hold number will be 6, For public water supply, thresh hold number should not be more than 3. The test is conducted at 20°C. Alternatively, the odour test may be carried out by inhaling through two tubes of an instrument called Osmoscope. \t consists of two 10 mm dia. glass tubes 30 cm long kept about 8 mm apart. The lower end of each tube is plain and is held slightly above water surface while the upper beveled end can be inserted in the nostril. Diluted water samples in the ratio of 1:2, 1:4, 1:8, 1:16 etc. are prepared. One tube is kept in a flask containing one of the above diluted water sample, while the other tube is kept in the flask containing original water sample. The mixure with greatest dilution is tested first, and then others with lesser and lesser dilution. The mixure giving first detectable odour will be taken as thresh hold odour, while the number of additions of fresh water in such mixure is known as odour-intensity or pO value. Following table gives the odour in- terpretation of the pO values : po value Meaning 0 No perceptible odour. 1 Very faint odour, detectable only to trained observer. 2 Faint odour, detectable to average per- son only if he is told. 3 Distinct odour, readily detectable by most people. 4 Very distinct odour. 5 Strong and intense odour. 6 Extremely strong odour. 3. TEMPERATURE TEST The temperature of water to be supplied should be between 10°C to 20°C. Temperature higher than 25°C is considered objec- tionable. It can be measured with ordinary thermometers graduated in176 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING 0.1°C, range 0 to 50°. In case of large bodies of surface water, where it is required to record temperature at a certain depth, ‘broken capillary thermometer’ is used. At depths greater than 15 m, a ther- mo-couple may be used. Temperature measurements are sometimes important to identify the magnitude of density, viscosity, vapour pressure and surface tension of water. Other factors such as saturation values of solids and gases dissolved in it, B.O.D. values and the biological activities are dependent on temperature of water. 4, TURBIDITY TEST Turbidity is imparted by the colloidal matter present in water. The colloidal matter may be clay and loam or microscopic organisms. It is a measure of the resistance of water to the passage of light through it. Hence turbidity is estimated against standard suspensions of a siliceous material such as Fuller’s earth, the silica scale being based on standardization by photometric means. The standard unit of turbidity is the turbidity produced by one part of Fuller's earth in a million parts of distilled water. Turbidity is expressed in terms of parts of suspended matter per million parts of water by weight, abbreviated as p.p.m. One unit or 1 p.p.m. is equivalent to 1 mg per litre. The permissible turbidity of domestic water may be between 5 to 10 p.p.m. The following are common methods of measuring turbidity of water : (i) by turbidity rod (i) by Jackson’s turbidimeter (iii) by Baylis turbidimeter (iv) by Nephelometers. (i) Turbidity Rod. Turbidity rod is used for measuring turbidity of water in the field. It consists of a graduated alumininum rod, about 20.3 cm in length, at the upper end of which is attached a graduated non-stretchable tape of about 12.2 cm long. At the lower end of the aluminium rod, a screw containing a platinum needle (of 1 mm diameter and 2.5 cm length) and a nickel ring is inserted. The graduated tape has a mark at its top end specifying the position of eye during the test. In order to find the turbidity, the lower end of the rod is gradually immersed in water whose turbidity is to determined. Eye is kept constantly at the marked position and the platinum needle is watched. The rod is moved slowly in water till the platinum needle just disappears from the vision due to turbidity of water. The reading of the graduated tape near the water surface directly gives turbidity in p.p.m. The rod gives only rough value of the turbidity of water. (ii) Jackson’s Turbidimeter. This is a laboratory apparatus which is used to measure turbidity when it is more than 25 p.p.m., and preferably when it is more than 100 p.p.m. It consists of aQUALITY OF WATER, 177 POSITION OF EYE i GRADUATED ee TAPE GRADUATED GRADUATED ALUMINIUM GLASS TUBE 20:3 ROD METAL or CONTAINER METAL STAND STANDARD NICKEL CANOLE RING PLATINUM NEEOLE FIG. 64. TURBIDITY ROD FIG. 65. JACKSON'S TURBIDIMETER metal stand holding a metal container and a graduated glass tube in it, as shown in Fig. 6.5. A standard candle is placed below the stand. The water sample is poured in the sample and the image of the flame of the standard candle is seen through the turbid water in the glass tube. The level of water in the glass tube is gradually increased till the image of the flame ceases to be seen. The height of water column, measured in the graduated glass tube provides the measure of the turbidity of the water. The longer the light path, the lower the turbidity; a light path of 21.5 cm corresponds to 100 JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit) while light path of 10.8 cm corresponds to 200 JTU where 1JTU = 1 pp.m. (iii) Baylis Turbidimeter. This is a very accurate instrument and is preferred when turbidity of the sample is less than 5 units. It consists of a galvansied iron box in which two glass tubes ure kept at one end and a 250 watt bulb with reflector is placed at the other end as shown in Fig. 6.6. One tube contains standard solution of known turbidity while in the other tube the water sample is kept. The tube is held firmly in a platform with beveled holes at its bottom end. The tubes are surrounded on all its four sides by blue cobalt plates, and at its bottom by a white opal glass plate. Because of blue cobalt plates, blue light is cast in both the tubes,178 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING and a comparison is made. If the light differs, another tube containing standard solution of different‘ turbidity is introduced in the place of the first one till the colour in both the tubes match. The standard solution at this stage give the turbidity of the given water sample. The turbidity is expressed cither as p.p.m. or BTU (Baylis’ Turbidity Unit), both being equivalent. STANDARD 5 SOLUTION — PLATFORM WITH BEVELED HOLES OPAL GLASS PLATE FIG. 66. BAYLIS’ TURBIDIMETER (vy) Nephelometers : Nephelometers are the modem commerical turbidimeters in which the light intensity is measured at right anlges to the incident ray in contrast to the conventional turbidimeters (described earlier) in which the light intensity is measured after the same passes straight through the turbid water. To achieve this, nephelometers use photometers. A photometer measures the intensity of light passing through the turbid water, after the same is scattered at right angles to the incident ray. The value of turbidity measured by a nephelometer is generally expressed as NTU (Naphelometric turbidity unit). Since formazin polymer is used as reference turbidity standard suspension, naphelometric turbidity units are also sometimes teferred to as FTU (Formazin turbidity unit). 6.6. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION Chemical tests are carried out to determine the following : (é) Total solids. (i) Chlorides. (iii) Hardness. (iv) pH value. (v) Metals and other chemical substances. (vi) Nitrogen and its com- pounds. (vii) Dissolved gases. 4, TOTAL SOLIDS In this test, the suspended, dissolved and colloidal solids are determined separately and then added together to get total solids.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.QUALITY OF WATER 185 = logo {50.5 x 1077] = — logy 50.5 — logy 1077 — 1.703 + 7 = 5.297 = 5.3 Example 6.5. Find out the pH of a mixture formed by mixing the following two solutions : Solution A: volume 300 ml ; pH =7 Solution B :; volume 700 ml ; pH =5 Solution [H*] = 10°? moles/litre and {H*]a = 10°* molesflitre For solution A Concentration of [H*] in 300 ml = 10-7 x 30 [H*], =3 x 10°* moiesjlitre. For solution B Fi F = 700 Concentrat +) in 700 ml = 10-5 x ‘oncentration of [H™] in ml X F000 [H*], =7 x 107° molesfitre. . Concentration of [H™ Jex=(H*]a + [H*]s = [3 x 10-5} + [7 x 10°*} moles/litres = [0.03 x 10°*] + [7 x 10°*] moles/litres. = 7.03 x 107° molesflitre ‘pH = — logio (7.03 x 10°*) = - 0.847 + 6 = 5.153 5. METALS AND OTHER CHEMICAL SUBSTANCES () Iron and Manganese Tron in water causes hardness, bad tastes, discolouration of clothes and plumbing fixures and incrustation in water mains. Iron in water is frequently accompanied by heavy growths of crenothrix which exaggerates the staining, pipe clogging and other troubles. A water which contains iron is termed ferryginous. Estimation of iron is a simple calorimetric procedure and thiocyanate or thioglycollic acid are most usually employed for the purpose. Manganese imparts a brownish or purplish colour to water and laundered goods (when oxidised) and stains plumbing fixures. It also impairs tastes of coffee and tea. Manganese is estimated by matching the pink colour produced on oxidation to permanganate. Sodium paraperiodate or ammonium persulphate is used to colour both the water sample and manganese colour standards.186 WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING (ii) Lead and Arsenic Lead is a well known cumulative poison. Lead taken in body by either bricf or prolonged exposures can seriously injure health or cause death. Under normal conditions, the concentration of lead should be less than 0.05 mg/l. The presence of lead can be detected by six drops of sulphuric acid in a glass of water, which will yield white precipitate. The newer organic reagents have provided in dithizone another method for estimation of lead in addition to the older determination as sulphide. The toxicity of arsenic is well known. Chronic arsenic poisoning is difficult to diagnose, and can be quite disabling prior to detection. Arsenic can be removed from water in ion exchange equipment using activated alumina or bone char. Arsenic can be determined in trace amounts by heteropoly blue calor- imetric method and the Gutzeit method of comparing stains produced on treated paper strips. (iii) Fluorides and lodides If present in small concentrations, both fluoride and iodide may be useful to human beings. Iodine upto 1 p.p.m. keep away goiter while fluoride upto 1.2 p.p.m. will prevent dental caries of the children. Excess concentrations (more than 3 p.p.m.) can cause dental fluorosis or mottled enamel in children. Fluorides may be estimated calorimetrically by developing a colour with zirconium — alizarin reagent. lodide can be determined in water supplies by utilizing its ability to catalyze the reduction of ceric ions by arsenious acid, the effect being proportional to the amount of iodide present. (@v) Barium and Boron Barium can have serious toxic effects on the heart, blood vessels, and nerves. It occurs naturally in some mineral springs as the carbonate salt. Ingestion of large. amounts of boron can affect the central nervous system, and protracted ingestion may cause borism. Its con- centrations can be determined by calorimetric and titrimetric methods. In the presence of boron, a solution of carmine or carminic acid in concentrated sulphuric acid changes from bright red to a bluish red or blue, depening on the concentration of boron present. (v) Cadmium and Hexavalent Chromium Cadminum is highly toxic. It can become a water contaminant through careless discharge of electroplating plant washes or from galvanizing operations in which cadmium is a contaminant. Cadmium ions from an intense red compound with dipheny!-thiocarbzone (dithizone) which can be extracted into carbon tetrachloride and used for the chlorimetric determination of cadmium. Chromium,QUALITY OF WATER 187 when inhaled can be cause of cancer in man, though the results of ingestion are not known. The likely sources of hexavalent chromium in water could be pollution by wastes from chromium plating shops. Soluble hexavalent chromium in the absence of interfering amounts of substances such as molytodenum vanadium and mercury may be determined colorimetrically by reaction With diphenyl-carbazide in acid solution. (vi) Sodium and Potassium * Biological regulatory mechanism in the body of a normal human maintains a constant sodium content in the body despite wide variations in sodium intake. Excess quantities are excreted, primarily in the urine. However, some patients of heart, kidney or lever diseases are unable to rid themselves of sodium resulting in a condition known as edema in which large amounts of sodium-containing fluid accumulate. The concentration of sodium can be determined either by the flame photometric method by the grammetric method. Sodium and potas- sium may however by estimated together and expressed as sodium chloride. In special circumstances, sodium may be separately deter- mined as sodium zinc uranyl acetate. Potassium may be estimated as the perchlorate which is sparingly soluble in organic solvents or as dipotassium cobalt-nitrite. (vi?) Phenols Water receives phenols from trade wastes, washing from tarmac road, gas liquours and creosoted surfaces. Trace phenol concentra- tions of the order of 0.001 ppm can impart an objectionable taste to a water following marginal chlorination. The removal of phenolic tastes from a water supply offers a serious challenge at the treatment plant. Phenols can be determined by amino antipyring method or by Gibbs colorimetric method. 6. NITROGEN AND ITS COMPOUNDS Nitrogen can be present in water in the following four different forms : . ( Ammoniacal Nitrogen (free and saline ammonia) (ii) Albuminoid Nitrogen. (ii) Nitrite (iv) Nitrate. ( Ammoniacal Nitrogen The occurrence of free ammonia indicates the direct inclusion of organic matter, particularly those arising from the excrement (urine) of animal and human species. Surface water may also get pollyted