Political Culture and Political Participation 63

Chapter 2

Political Culture and Political Participation

2.1 Introduction

Political socialization cannot be studied in isolation of the culture of the masses.

This culture influences the relationship between polity and society1. The

relationship between polity and society can be analyzed on the basis of political

culture and political participation. “The political culture of a society is one of the

important variable which helps in understanding different levels of political

participation of different segments of society”2. The nature and process of political

socialization in a society shapes the political culture and determines the nature of

political participation. “It implies that political socialization is that process through

which the political culture of a nation is developed and transmitted to the future

generation. This therefore means that political socialization is the process by which

political culture is developed and maintained. It signifies the development of those

attributes which people learnwhile interacting with one another, via the media and

also through observation of surroundings. Political culture is associated with the

collective aspect of society while political socialization is concerned with the

individuals. It focuses on the upbringing and different interactions of the

individuals that result in the acceptanceof thepolitical culture of the nation. The

groups and institutions which contribute towards the process of political

socialization are known as the agents of socialization. They influence the

development of political values and attitudes in different ways, but they all
Political Culture and Political Participation 64

contribute to the individual's orientation towards the political system and

understanding of politics.”3

The orientations of the people are directed towards political objects. “Political

objects include the political system as a whole, political parties, interest groups,

legislature, executive, judiciary, individual or group roles, ministers etc. They also

include the self as a political actor. The political objects are classified under four

categories:

• System as a whole: It includes the political system, its history, its size,

location of power, constitution etc. People have knowledge of, feelings

about and judgments on the political system and it is these orientations that

condition the development of national identity.

• Input Processes: It includes those organizations and institutions which

channel flow of demands and supports into the political system. They affect

the decision making process like political parties, pressure groups, media

etc.

• Out Process: It includes the work of the bureaucracy, the courts and other

institutions concerned with applying and enforcing authoritative decisions.

• The Self: It includes the individual’s role in the political system.”4

Thus political socialization is associated with orienting the members of the society

towards political objects and inculcating in them a sense of belongingness and

responsibility towards one’s nation.“Political Socialization forms political culture

which in turn influences political socialization. Both are directly related to each

other . Political culture is an essential component of the continuous process of

Political Culture and Political Participation 65

social order which is responsible for inculcating certain types of political behaviors

to the new members of a society in order to encourage mental and behavioral

conformity with the changing political system they live in.”5 It is essential that a

society should maintain its culture through the process of political socialization in

order to maintain solidarity and stability. The political socialization helps an

individual in acquisition of a particular political personality which in turn leads the

individual to accept a certain role within the framework of the political system and

inculcates an understanding of social and political issues. Political Socialization

and political culture share a reciprocal relationship. The political socialization,

polity and society interface can be discussed in terms of political culture and

political participation.

2.2 Political Culture

Political culture implies that the all individuals generally have the same level of

awareness of their rights, duties and expectations from the government and society

as citizens.All societies imparts their own specific set of norms6 and values to the

members who develop their own perception about the functioning of political

system and the responsibility of government towards the citizens. They also

develop their own ideas about their own roles and responsibilities. This complete

set of beliefs, symbols, and values associated with the political system comprises

the political culture of a nation.Thepolitical culture has been defined by social

scientists in various ways:

Political Culture and Political Participation 66

According to Talcott Parson “Political Culture is concerned with orientation

towards political objectives.”7

“Political Culture can be defined as the political psychology of a country or a

nation. The studies related to political culture make an attempt to expose the deep-

seated durable values which are characteristic of a society or a group.It is not

associated with the transient attitudesof individualstowards some general issues

that have been analyzed through opinion surveys conducted by some agencies.”8

“Political Culture refers to the patterns of perception and orientation of members

of the society towards the political system of a country.” 9

“ Political Culture depicts the political personality of a nation. It encompasses the

deep rooted, well established political traits which are the characteristics of a

particular society. It takes into account the attitudes, values and beliefs that people

in a society have about the political system, including standard assumptions and

notions about the way their government works.”10

Political culture is the “aggregate of attitudes, beliefs, norms and values which

impart a significant order and meaning to the political processes of a nation.It

provides an understanding of the rules and regulations which govern various

aspects of the political system.”11

Thus, political culture is a set of ideas, norms, beliefs, and sentiments of

individuals about the political system .

Political Culture and Political Participation 67

2.2(i) Components of Political Culture

Political culture is the pattern of individual attitudes orientations towards politics.

“It is composed of attitudes and orientations which people in a given society

develop towards objects within their political system. These orientations have

three distinct dimensions which are as follows:

• Cognitive Orientation

Cognitive orientation refers to acquisition of knowledge and skills by

individuals which enable them to participate as members of a particular

group. In context of political socialization it refers to people’s knowledge of

political objects, beliefs and familiarity with the working of the political

system .

• Affective Orientation

Affective orientation reflects emotions and feelings of the individuals

towards the political system. It is related to the subjective feelings of

attachment, disenchantment or alienation towards the political system and

political issues confronting the nation. It also refers to the parameters which

shape the attitude and judgment of people towards the political systems.

• Evaluative Orientation

“Evaluative orientation encompasses the judgments and opinions of

individuals about the political objects, which generally involve application

of value standards to the political objects and phenomena.”12 These

Political Culture and Political Participation 68

components of political culture help to assess the level of political

socialization in a particular society.

2.2(ii) Types of Political Culture

“On the basis of participation level of citizens the political culture can be classified

into three types:

•
Parochial Culture- This type of political culture is characterized by low

awareness, expectations and participation of citizens.In this type the

citizens do not possess a satisfactory level of cognitive orientation towards

the political system. Societies characterized by this type of political culture

neither expect anything positive from government nor do they participate

in politics because it is visualized as an elite domain.

•
Subject Culture – This type is characterized by higher level of awareness

and expectation but low participation on part of the citizens. In this typethe

citizens have cognitive orientations only towards the output aspect of the

political system. This tends to be reflected in a citizens who expectpositive

action from government but they themselves are not politically active and

have less inclination for any kind of political participation.

•
Participatory Culture – This type of culture is characterized by higher levels

of awareness, expectation and participation on part of the citizens. In this

type the citizens have cognitive orientations towards both the input and

output aspects of the political system. The societies which possess this type

of political culture tend to have citizens with high expectations from

government and high levels of participation in politics. This type of culture

Political Culture and Political Participation 69

is central to the principles and successful functioning of any democratic

system.”13

Thus in parochial culture the citizens tend to be passive and do not take any part in

the decision making process. In subject political culture the citizens perceive

themselves as subjects of the government and not as participants in the political

system of the nation. “In participant political culture the citizens actively

participate in the politics of the country. The masses play a major role in

influencing the government. Participant political culture is the foundation of

democratic system.

In addition to the above mentioned types of political culture, some intellectuals

give importance to another type of culture which is known as political subculture.

They are of the view that entire population of a political system may not have the

same culture. Some sections of the society may have developed participant

political culture while others may not. Political sub cultures may grow on the basis

of region, religion, social class, caste, language, ethnic membership, occupation

and like. When a particular set of political orientation is distinguished from the

other in the same political system, it is known as political subculture. This

subculture can be different due to diversity of language, religion, caste , class

etc.”14

Thus different types of political culture are based on participation level of citizens.
Political Culture and Political Participation 70

2.2 (iii)Factors Responsible for the Development of Political Culture

“The Political Culture of nations is determined by various factors. They are:

• Historical factors

Historical facts and truths have their impacts on the general attitude, beliefs,

values and behaviors of the people of a country. For example political

continuity of India is due to the fact that the old values of its people have

been allowed to emerge with modern attitudes without any disturbance.

• Geographical factors

Geographical factors also help to fashion the political culture of the people

of a nation. Indian geographical situation is such that foreign invasions and

annexations were followed one after the others. As a result there was

massive influx of foreign races that stayed and settled here permanently.

That was why there developed the values of secularism or secular political

culture.

• Socio- Economic Factors

The socio-economic structure of a society is another determinant of its

Political Culture. The rural societies with peasant population tend to be

more conservative in attitudes, beliefs and values. The changes in such

societies are slow.A predominantly urban industrialized society is a

complex society. The emergence of rapid communication, higher

educational standards, group consciousness and participation in decision

Political Culture and Political Participation 71

making process may provoke a change in political values and beliefs. In this

way there may be continuous development in Political Culture.

• Political Continuity

It is an important determinant of political culture. Political continuity results

in unbroken sets of beliefs and attitudes. It is necessary for merging the

older values with new attitudes.

• Symbols

In the development of political culture symbols play an important role.

National flag and national anthem, political rituals like ceremonial opening

of parliament, religious rituals like coronation ceremonies , social rituals

like observance of different martyrs day and many other symbols are

constantly made use of to evoke people ‘s emotional attachment to and

reverence for the political system.”15

Thus a number of factors play an important role in the development of political

culture of a nation. This in turn influences the political participation of the citizens.

2.3 Political Participation

Political participation is that process through which the citizens of a country exert

influence on the political system of the country. Singh opines that “political

participation does not imply only the right to vote but also means power sharing by

various stakeholders, collective decision making and collective contribution in

policy making at all stages of governance of state.”16 It is related to active roles of

the citizens in political life of the country. According to Almond and Powell
Political Culture and Political Participation 72

“Political participation is the involvement of the individuals of a particular

society in the decision making process of the political system. The citizens can

participate in a number of ways in order to influence the government and the

political system as a whole. These alternative ways of political participation

depend on the type and organizational abilities of the citizens who participate, the

way in which they conduct their activities, the level of pressure they can exert on

the government and the reaction of the system towards their activities. Political

participation is more than just voting during the time of elections and involves

many other aspects other than participation in the electoral system.”17 .

Thus

political participation involves various kinds of activities undertaken by the

citizens.

Voting during the elections is just one aspect of political participation. Verba and

Nie have outlined four types of activities which can be used as indicators of

political participation. According to them “the other activities through which the

citizens can participate in politics of the nation are voting, campaigning activities,

co-operative activities and citizen-initiated contacts”.18

Milbrath and Goel“have supplemented the above mentioned activities by protest

and communication by arguing that these will relate the individuals to local

politics. Members of the society can be grouped into four categories on the basis

of their political participation. Firstly, politically apathetic who are not aware of

the political world around them, secondly, those involved in spectator activities,

which include voting and taking part in informal discussions about political issues,
Political Culture and Political Participation 73

those involved in transitional activities like attending a political meeting or

making a financial contribution to a political party and lastly, those who enter the

political sphere and participate in gladiatorial activities such as standing for

elections and holding public and party offices”19. In India since politics has been

considered to be the sole domain of men a large percentage of women can be put

under the category of politically apathetic. Only a few women take interest in day

to day politics and still fewer have shown the courage to enter into the political

sphere. Schonfeld has further analyzed political participation by delineating ten

types of activities which include “running for or holding public or party offices,

belonging to a party or other political organization, working in an election,

attending political meetings or rallies, making financial contribution to a party or a

candidate, contacting a public official, publicly expressing a political opinion to

convince others, participating in political discussion, voting, and exposing oneself

to political stimuli”.20 Thus political participation includes a wide range of

activities and is a multidimensional and comprehensive process. The levels of

participation of men and women in any society be assessed on the basis of above

parameters.Indian society is a gendered society where gender disparity exists in all

spheres of life. It is permeated with a number of diversities along with sharp

gender cleavages. The traditional patriarchal norms play a dominant role in Indian

society which also have marked effect on political socialization and political

participation of women due to complex interplay of various social and cultural

factors.
Political Culture and Political Participation 74

2.3 (a) Political Participation of Women

The existence of discrimination among boys and girls as regard to political

socialization is well established. Many studies have reported that the girls show

less interest in political affairs of the country this is because of differential levels

of socialization. The girls have lower levels of political socialization. The political

participation of women can be assessed on the basis of various parameters. An

analysis of these parameters reveals that women in Indian society are lagging far

behind in political participation. Their political participation is limited only to

voting. The voting behavior of the women is also influenced by male relatives in

the family since they lack understanding about political and developmental issues.

Political participation is required to strengthen democracy and in the context of

women it becomes significant in the sense that active political participation of

women in large numbers will prove to be a milestone in gender mainstreaming.

The inclusion of women in the mainstream of development is one of the top

priorities of the government. The perspectives of development have shifted from

welfare approach, to development approach and finally to empowerment approach.

The Indian government is continuously striving to increase women’s participation

and leadership in the political system and concrete steps have been taken by the

government to ensure the participation of women within local governance

structures. The 73rd& 74th amendment act in the constitution provides reservation

of a minimum of one-third of seats for women in the panchayati raj system &

urban local bodies respectively. Provision of reservation is an important step in

Political Culture and Political Participation 75

democratic decentralization and ensuring representation of women. However,

provision of quotas in itself cannot be considered as an end since in spite of entry

into the local politics the women continue to face several institutional, social and

cultural barriers. The institutional barriers refer to capacity of women leaders to

implement reforms and ensuring transparency and accountability of the system.

Social barriers include lack of proper education and respect for women in

panchayati raj institutions and urban local bodies, violence against women,

oppressive patriarchal structures and dominant caste norms.Kaushik opines that

“several studies conducted after the implementation of seventy third amendment

reveal that after the introduction of the seventy-third amendment act the rural

women are participating in large numbers in the rural grass-root level institutions

but they still remain largely outside the realm of power sharing and decision

making. The gender difference in rural participatory politics is obvious and still

very high. There are many interrelated factors which affect the women’s ability to

participate in politics. The social hierarchies and inequalities that exist in Indian

society play a major role in excluding the women from active politics and for

decades have restricted the women from playing an active role in the social life

which includestheir participation in political institutions.”21 The quotas reserved

for women have resulted in increase in number of women in politics but effective

role in decision making is yet to seen. The social and cultural environment of any

society is largely responsible for determining the political participation of

women.The women have to face many barriers in the process of assimilation in

politics since the societal norms for success in politics are stereotypically
Political Culture and Political Participation 76

masculine. Nirmala opines that “the traditional power hierarchies are skewed

infavour of men and show great resistance in giving any kind of space or

recognition to women’s attempts to be a part of the political life of the country.

Although there are a number of women sarpanches who have taken initiatives on

their own and have made remarkable changes in their constituencies yet it is

widely acknowledged that generally they confront many facades of gender

discrimination”.22

These structural and functional constraints limit the political participation of

women and also de-motivate others for entry into the political world. Desai &

Thakur argue that “one of the main reasons for political non-participation of

women is that they do not take initiative on their own which results in large scale

political isolation. The judgment regarding successfully women is based on two

parameters. One is related to the aspect of feminity in the private sphere where

certain qualities are attributed to women like sensitive, caregiver and a passive

actor who is subordinate to men in the house. The other aspect relates to public

spheres where she is expected to be active, rational, modern in outlook and having

a competitive spirit. These parameters have a marginalizing impact on political

participation of women”.23

This role conflict acts as a significant deterrent for political participation.

Moreover, day to day political activities require long working hours and lack of

support services for householdresponsibilities de-motivate women from active

participation.
Political Culture and Political Participation 77

According to Rai “the Indian female marginalization from electoral participation

stems mainly from political party competition, as national political parties and

regional parties in the states discriminate not only in terms of seat allotments in the

electoral fray. This could be attributed to a large extent to the party competition

structure in the Indian subcontinent that is encumbered by inherent male

dominance and a patriarchal mindset that excludes women from the electoral

process.”24 The caste and patriarchal norms prevalent in Indian society pose major

challenges for political participation of women. The women face gender

constraints and also there is lack of respect for the opinion of women and their

ability to take decisions in the male dominated political world. Apart from this

several factors play an instrumental role in limiting the participation of women like

gender based division of labour , lack of family support, gender roles and cultural

norms which subordinate women to men, lack of understanding of political process

and limited access to information and knowledge, development of apathy due to

political violence and criminalization of politics. Thus several key factors like

illiteracy, dominance of patriarchal structures and cultural norms have been

identified as factors restricting the political participation of women. The

institutional as well as social framework of the society is to be transformed to

ensure meaningful participation of women.

Political Culture and Political Participation 78

2.3 (b) Political Participation and Empowerment of Women

The principle of inclusion is based on active political participation of women.

Political participation is one of the pillars of empowerment of women. It is closely

related to power which means exercising power to influence decision making

process. Political participation by women is process of empowerment and reflects

the nature and functioning of government as well as democracy. Democracy

cannot be successful if there is under-representation of women. The visibility of

women in the political system of a country is essential for gender sensitive

policies. One of the key determinants ensuring political participation of women is

education. It is the crucial link between political participation and empowerment of

women. It is essential that women have an in-depth knowledge of national and

international issues and are able to analyze situations in from a holistic perspective

for meaningful political participation. Chattopadhaya (2004) states that “the

elected women political leaders lay stress on priorities and preferences that are

different from men, although these priorities largely remain within the framework

of general development process which includes access to basic amenities and

infrastructural facilities. These priorities only serve the general gender needs and

do not serve the strategic gender interests. The general gender needs are immediate

perceived needs which have been identified by the majority of women such as

potable drinking water and healthcare needs, which actually fall within the

purview of their socially defined roles”25. Fulfillment of these needs and

infrastructural development does not play an instrumental role in transforming the

status of women in the society or challenging the patriarchal structures of

Political Culture and Political Participation 79

discrimination. The women have to be oriented towards raising gender issues in

government bodies. For this purpose capacity building political socialization

programmers are required so that issues related to gender can be raised in an

effective manner. According to Fadia (2014) “Women empowerment is crucial in

all spheres, particularly inthe political sphere for advancement towards the

foundation of a gender-egalitarian society. The concept of women’s political

empowerment is based on three fundamental and non-negotiable principles. These

principles are the equality between women and men, the right of women towards

development of their inherent potentials and their right to self-esteem, self-

representation and self-determination. The concept of empowerment is associated

with the power to access, control and to make informed choices.”26 Thus together

with mass participation of women in politics it is also essential that women are

able to take rational decisions and contribute to the overall development of the

nation. Gender socialization in Indian society results in differential political

socialization whereby the females are not socialized into political culture of the

nation. The gender roles and gendered division of labour does not leave any space

for political socialization of women through families. Political socialization is

directly related to political participation.

2.4 Political Non-Participation

The political participation involves voluntary participation of citizens in the

political affairs of the country. It is an important aspect of functioning democracy.

Political Culture and Political Participation 80

At the same time since it is not mandatory. There is no compulsion for the citizens

to participate in the political activities of the nation. In almost all societies have to

deal with political non-participation. Several factors are attributed to this there are

various types of political non participation.

“Non-participation is the absence of citizens from the political process. The central

measure of non-participation is concerned with those registered to vote who

choose not to, which is measured by ‘turnout’. However, other forms of non-

participation reflect the alternative opportunities to participate in the politics,

which can include membership of political parties and membership of pressure

groups. It is also true that sometimes high participation means that there is a high

amount of discontent, with many people feeling that they need to protest. Non-

participation is a negative aspect as it usually suggests alienation from the system,

makes it more likely that people use non-peaceful and undemocratic methods of

making themselves heard. It undermines the legitimacy of the political system,

perhaps forcing the state to rely more on coercion. Finally, it can allow

unrepresentative minorities to control decision-making, and encourages social

exclusion.”27Essentially, if people are not motivated toparticipate in a democracy

then they are likely to loose the rights and freedoms that have been established.

Non- participation exists in various forms and can be attributed to diversity of

factors.
Political Culture and Political Participation 81

2.4 (i) Types of Political Non- Participation

The types of Non- Participation are as follows:

• Apathy – “This is characterized by lack of interest in political and social

affairs of the nation or lack of concern for individuals, circumstances or

phenomena in general. There are a number of individuals who do not know

have any knowledge about politics and are not bothered about the political

issues. The apathetic characteristics comprise of the inability to recognize

personal responsibilities, to accept one’s own emotions and feelings;

feelings of worry, insecurity and threat; and complete, unchallenging

acceptance of constituted authority i.e the social codes, parents and

religious norms.

• Alienation – The individuals do not participate in politics because they

feel that no one in authority gives importance to their views and that the

government is indifferent to attitudes. Political alienation is a sense of

estrangement of an individual from the politics and the government of the

country .

• Cynicism – Cynicism is being ‘contemptuously distrustful of human

nature’. It suggests certain dislike for politics and politicians. Political

cynicism manifests itself in a variety of ways: the feelings that politics is ‘a

dirty business’, that politicians are not to be trusted, that the individuals are

at the mercy of manipulating groups. The ‘real’ power is exercised by

Political Culture and Political Participation 82

‘faceless men’. This type of cynicism is prevalent in political system

which is generally regarded as enjoying widespread legitimacy.”28

Thus political non-participation points towards uncoupling of individuals and

formal world of politics. There is a need to establish a better understanding of

interest and perception of youth towards politics. Political non-participation is a

product of low levels or absence of political socialization. This is another form of

political exclusion which has emerged in contemporary democratic societies.

Conclusion

Political Socialization is important for proper functioning of any democratic

system. It helps in the development of political culture and influences political

participation. Political culture of a society can be assessed on the basis of cognitive

, affective and evaluative orientation. The culture of any society can be classified

into parochial culture, subject culture and participatory culture on the basis of

participation levels of individual members of society Political participation relates

to involvement of individuals in decision making process. It includes activities

such as voting, campaigning, participation in demonstrations, protest movements,

canvassing, holding party positions etc. In context of women there are several

challenges in the path of political participation. These challenges are due to

traditional and patriarchal sources prevalent in the society. Along with less

participation of women the contemporary societies are also facing the problem of

political non-participation in the form of apathy, alienation and cynicism. This can

be attributed to differential and low levels of political socialization which

disengages the individuals from mainstream politics.

Political Culture and Political Participation 83

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