TABLE OF CONTENTS:
1. Introduction
a. Introduction
b. Objective of the study
c. Location of the Study area
2. Study and identification of rocks
a. Rock definition
b. Classification
c. Field identification
i. Marble
ii. Granite
iii. Schist
iv. Quartzite
v. Phyllite
vi. Slate
vii. Limestone
viii. Gneiss
d. Sketched and photographs
3. Study and identification of geological structures
a. Phenomenon of geological structures
b. Major geological structures
i. Joints
ii. Folds
iii. Faults
iv. Unconformity
v. Thrust
vi. Foliation
vii. Bedding plane
4. Handling of geological compass and measurement of attitudes of
geological planes
a. Types of geological compass
b. Handling of geological compass
i. Observation data in the field
ii. Sketched and photographs
5. Study of river Channel Morphology
a. Definition of River Channel Morphology
b. Types of River Channel Morphology
c. Feature developed by river channel
d. Sketches, photographs, description of the location
6. Conclusions
7. References
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INTRODUCTION:
Engineering is a study largely based on practical
study and field visits. Among the different fields of
engineering, Civil Engineering is the one in which
field visits proves most fruitful for both the
learning students and teaching teachers as only
learning by studying in a classroom is far the
insufficient to produce a good and skilled Civil
Engineer. Civil Engineering infact is one the most
interesting study to learn having wide and
interdisciplinary subjects included within the
course.
Based on these proven principles, we the 2nd year
students were taken to the field visit for subject
Engineering Geology (CE 503) in Malekhu area of
Dhading district of Central Nepal as per the syllabus
for B.E Civil given by the Tribhuvan University. This
subject provides the basic knowledge of geology to
the students. It helps to understand how to identify
the rocks, minerals, geological structures,
geological processes and their impacts on engineering
structures. Engineering gelogy is one of the most
important subject for civil engineering as every
civil engineering works/construction are done on the
land and construction of any kind of civil
engineering projects without taking into account the
geological features of that place can lead to the
failure of such high cost projects.Engineering
geology gives the idea of site selection, proper
investigation and eligibility of the area for
particular type of engineering project.
We would like to acknowledge our subject teachers Mr.
Basanta Raj Adhikari and Mr. Prakash Chandra Gautam
for assisting us during the two day visit. We would
also like to thank the civil department for providing
us the transportation facility for the field visit.
This field visit has proven very fruitful for all of
us and it has also given us a basic experience about
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working in the field for the first time and this is
sure to help us in our near future to work as a civil
engineer. Again we would like thank our teachers who
also assisted us to prepare this report and helped us
to achieve our objectives invariably during this
entire semester. We have tried our best to reduce the
errors during the report writing as well in the
fields but there might still be some errors and lack
and hope you will consider them.
OBJECTIVES OF STUDY:
Our field works was based on the following
objectives:
1) Study of geological works of river and landform
developed by erosional and depositional
activities of river.
2) Study and identification of rocks in the field (
Marble, Granite, Schist, Quartzite, Phyllite,
Slate, Gneiss, Limestone).
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3) Handling of geological compass and measurement of
attitude of geological planes (Bedding plane,
Foliation plane, Joint plane, Fault plane, etc.)
4) Study and identification of geological structures
(Joints, Folds, Faults, Unconformity, Thrust,
Foliation, Bedding Plane).
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LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY OF STUDY AREA:
LOCATION:
The study area is connected with Kathmandu valley
through the Prithvi Highway, which is also considered
as a channel linking Kathmandu with Pokhara, Birgunj,
Butwal & other major cities of the country. It has wide
range of geological features within a small range of
area. The Malekhu V.D.C. of Dhading district lies about
70 Km south west of Kathmandu valley and is located at
latitude of 27o 50' 38''E to 27o 45' 50''E and longitude
of 24o49'5''N to 24o50' 50’’N. Malekhu Bazaar is
therefore accessible by motor able and graveled roads.
TOPOGRAPHY:
The topography of Malekhu is very rough. It includes
hills, river valleys, spurs, saddles, river plain and
terrace etc. The lowest altitude of this area is about
340m at the Trishuli river valley and the highest
altitude of this area is about 1525 m at the north of
the Dharapani village.
Malekhu lies on lesser Himalayan unit of Nepal. It is
situated on the bank of Trishuli and Malekhu river. The
Trishuli river is running from the eastern direction to
the western direction and the Malekhu river from south
to north which mingles into the Trishuli river. Also,
the Malekhu river has a tributary namely the Apakhola
which meets the Malekhu river at a distance about 3 kms
from the Malekhu bazzar. Climatically Malekhu is a sub-
tropical zone. The Trishuli River, a snow fed river of
the Central Nepal, is the main drainage of Malekhu and
its surrounding areas. It flows through the east to the
west, more or less parallel to the structure strike.
Because of the variation in altitude, ranging from 350
m from sea-level (at the bank of Trishuli River) to
1000m , the local climate varies throughout the year.
There is tropical to sub-tropical climate in valleys
and temperate climate at higher areas. Physiographic
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condition, monsoon winds, altitude & vegetation
controls the climate of the area.
Temperature ranges from 250c to 380c in summer and 100c
to 200c during winter season. Valley area is relatively
warmer than higher areas. Rainy season brings
difficulties in habitation. Various disasters like
floods, landslides etc. cause the damage to the highway
bridges, agriculture lands, houses etc.
STUDY AND IDENTIFICATION OF ROCKS
Rock Definition:
ROCK is a relatively hard, naturally occurring mineral
material. It consists of a single mineral or of several
minerals that are either tightly compacted or held
together by a cement like mineral matrix.
Classification of Rocks:
The three main types of rock are Igneous, Sedimentary,
and Metamorphic.
A) Igneous Rock
These types of rocks are formed by the solidification
of magma either under the surface of earth or over it.
These are of three types according to the
solidification process.
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Plutonic Rock :- The rocks, which are formed underneath
the surface of the earth, are called the plutonic
rocks.
Volcanic Rock :- The rocks, which are solidified on the
surface of earth, are called volcanic rocks.
Hypabyssal Rock :- The rocks, which are solidified on
the way of extrusion process, are called hypo basal
rocks.
Igneous rocks are commonly identified in the field by
the study of their interlocking crystallization of a
number of mineral grains. Igneous rocks are generally
hard, massive, compact, having no bedding plane and
interlocked grains. It usually contains much feldspar.
By the study of these properties we can identify the
igneous rocks in the field. e.g.,
Granite - generally equigranular texture,
light colour appearance
Gabbro - coarse grain and dark colour
Dolerite - containing dark minerals in good
proportion with medium grain sized
B) Sedimentary Rock:
These rocks are derived from pre-existing rocks through
the process of erosion, transportation and deposition
by various natural agencies such as wind, water,
glacier etc. The loose sediments undergo compaction and
form resulting products as sedimentary rocks. According
to the mode of transportation the sedimentary rocks are
divided into three different types.
Clastic Rocks :- The rocks which are formed by
deposited mechanically are known as clastic rocks.
Chemical Deposits :-The rocks which are formed by
chemical precipitation are known as chemical deposits.
Organic Deposits :-The rocks which are formed by
deposited organically are called organic deposits.
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Sedimentary rocks are identified in the field by the
study of different layers, which are originally bedded
or laminated under suitable conditions. There may be
the impression of fossils in sedimentary rocks. The
colour and the grain size of the rocks may be different
in different layers. By the study of these properties
also the rocks may be identified. e.g.,
Conglomerate - grain size greater than 2 mm
Sandstone - grain size is equal to sand
(i.e. 1/16 mm –2 mm),
quartz is common
Clay stone - formed by deposition of
clay, shale is
common example
C) Metamorphic Rock
These are formed by alteration of alignment, texture,
structure, chemical composition etc. in pre-existing
rocks due to the action of temperature, pressure and
chemical reaction. Metamorphic rocks are generally hard
and having of interlocking grains.
• Contact Metamorphic
• Dynamic Metamorphic
• Dynamo Thermal
• Metasomatic
Metamorphic rocks are distinctly distinguished from
other types of rocks by the development of features
like cleavage, foliation, schistosity and by the
presence of such minerals which are known to be of
metamorphic origin. Metamorphic rocks often exhibit an
interlocking texture of the constituent minerals
grains. Thus these rocks are basically identified in
the field on the basis of colour, texture as well as
structure.
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Different types of rock cleavages are:
1. Slaty cleavage: Cleavage may be parallel to
original bedding or at certain angles to it. It is
due to parallel arrangement of highly cleavable
minerals in rocks. Eg:slate, phyllites
2. Schistosity: Rocks are made up of parallel layers
of platy and flaky minerals. It is due to
recrystallization and reorientation of minerals due
to thermal and dynamic metamorphism. Eg: Schist
3. Gneissosity: Rocks are made of alternate bands of
flaky/platy minerals and equidimensional granular
minerals. Alternate black and white bands are seen.
Slate - slaty cleavage
Phyllite - soapy feeling
Schist - rough, irregular and undulated
plane, unequal growth of minerals
Gneiss - band of contrast colour,
composition and texture (mica band)
Field Identification
Location 3:About 150m from Malekhu Suspension bridge
along Dhadhing Basi due north.
Sample 1(Slate)
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Physical Properties:
Color: Grey
Structure: Foliation-Plane
Texture: Non-Crystalline
Grain Size: Fine
Specific Gravity: Medium
Acid Test: No Acid Test
Hammer Test: No Hammer Test
Mineral Composition: Quartz, Feldspar
Rock Type: Metamorphic Rock
Rock Name: Slate
Engineering Properties:
Strength: Low
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Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: Low
Uses: Roofing, Construction material
Geological Unit: Benight slate
Location 4: About 100 m from Malekhu Suspension bridge along Dhading Basi due
north.
Sample 2(limestone):
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Bedding plane
Texture: Non crystalline
Grain Size: Fine
Specific Gravity: Medium
Acid Test:
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Hammer Test: hammer scratches rock
Mineral Composition: Calcite
Rock Type: Sedimentary
Rock Name: Limestone
Engineering properties:
Strength: Low
Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: High
Uses: To make Cement
Geological Unit: Malekhu Limestone
Location 6: Situated just after 700m upstream from Broken Bridge and in the right
bank of Malekhu river
Sample 3:
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Physical Properties:
Color: Grey
Structure: Foliation Plane
Texture: Non-Crystalline
Grain Size: Fine
Specific Gravity: Low
Acid Test: No acid test
Hammer Test: No hammer test
Mineral Composition: Quartz, Feldspar, Saricite
Rock Type: Metamorphic
Rock Name: Phyllite
Engineering properties:
Strength: Low
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Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: low
Uses: To make dry wall
Geological Unit: Robang Phyllite
Sample 4:
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Foliation
Texture: Crystalline
Grain Size: Medium
Specific Gravity: Medium
Acid Test:
Hammer Test: Rock scratches hammer
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Mineral Composition: Quartz
Rock Type: Metamorphic
Rock Name: Quartizite
Engineering properties:
Strength: High
Drillialibility: Low
Blastabity: High
Uses: Construction, Riprap material
Geological Unit: Dunga Quartzite
Location 8 :Situated about 850 m upstream from broken bridge and in the right
bank of malekhu river
Physical Properties:
Color: Dark grey
Structure: Foliation(Schistocity)
Texture: Non-Crystalline
Grain Size: Fine
Specific Gravity: Low
Acid Test: no acid test
Hammer Test: no hammer test
Mineral Composition: Quartz, Feldspar, Chlorite, Biotite, Muscobite
Rock Type: Metamorphic
Rock Name: Schist
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Engineering properties:
Strength: Low
Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: LOW
Uses: Construction material
Geological Unit: Raduwa Formation
Location 11: situated about 875 m upstream from broken Bridge and in the right
bank of malekhu river
Sample 6:
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Random Orientation
Texture: Crystalline
Grain Size: Coarse
Specific Gravity: High
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Acid Test: No acid test
Hammer Test: No hammer test
Mineral Composition: Plogioclase(milky white), Quartz(dirty white)
Rock Type: Igneous
Rock Name: Granite
Engineering properties:
Strength: High
Drillialibility: Low
Blastabity: High
Uses: High Construction material
Geological Unit: Agra granite
(Undigested foreign material present in plutonic rock like granite is xenolith rock)
Sample 7:
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Location 10
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Random Orientation
Texture: Crystalline
Grain Size: Coarse
Specific Gravity: medium
Acid Test: No acid test
Hammer Test: No hammer test
Mineral Composition: Plogioclase(milky white), Quartz(dirty white)
Rock Type: sedimentary
Rock Name: conglomerate
Engineering properties:
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Strength: Low
Drillialibility: Low
Blastabity: High
Uses: Aggregates
Geological Unit: -
Location 12: situated about 870m upstream from broken Bridge and right bank of
Malekhu river
Sample 8:
Physical Properties:
Color: White
Structure: Accroidal
Orientation: Preferred
Texture: Crystalline
Grain Size: Coarse
Specific Gravity: Medium
Acid Test:
Hammer Test: Hammer Scratches sample(hardness 3)
Mineral Composition: 99% calcite
Rock Type: Metamorphic
Rock Name: Marble
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Engineering properties:
Strength: High
Drillialibility: High
Blastabity: High
Uses: Decoration, Flooring
Geological Unit: Bhaisedobhan Marble
Study and Identification of Geological
Structures
Study and identification of geological structures was
done in location no 5, about 300m upstream from the old
bridge Highway on the left bank of Trishuliriver.
Structural Geology:
Structural geology is the branch of geology which deals
with the mechanism and types of deformations of the
rocks of earth due to influence of stress generated by
various geological processes.
Geological structure:-
The feature developed in the rock during the formation
and after the formation of rock due to the influence of
different stresses is known as geological structure.
Types of geological structures:
a) Primary geological structures:-
Those structures of features developed by on the rock
during the formation of rock due to the different
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deformations appeared is known as primary structures.It
is usually found in sedimentary rock.For
example,bedding,cross-bedding,lamination ripple,etc.
b) Secondary geological structures:-
Those geological structures or features developed on
the rock after the formation of rock due to the
different deformations is known as secondary geological
structures.For example: fold, fault,thrust, rock
cleavage, etc.
Several of these secondary structures were
observed during our field visit.
a) Fold:-
The ductile deformation of rock due to which the rock
strata forms bendings or 0curvatures is known fold.The
force acting may be shear or compressive.Process of its
formation is a very slow geological process.
Limb: It is a side of the fold.
Crest and Trough: These are the convex and concave
portions of the fold.
b) Fault:-
Rupture of fracture along which
there is relative displacement of
rock parallel to the fracture plane
due to brittle deformation due to
the stress i.e. compressive, shear
or tensile is known as fault.
c) Joint:-
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Rupture or fracture along which there is no relative
displacement along fracture plane due to brittle
deformation under the influence of shear,compressive or
tensile stress.
Classification of fold:-
Based on upward or downward bend:-
a) Anticline fold:-
strata convex upwards.
limbs dip away from each other.
older beds at core.
older rocks are exposed near the fold axis and
younger rocks are exposed away from the axis.
b) Syncline fold:-
strata concave upwards.
limbs dip towards each other.
younger beds at core.
younger rocks are exposed near the fold axis and
older rocks are exposed away from the axis.
tensile stress acts on the trough.
Axial plane:-The imaginary plane which divides the
folds into two equal halves is known as axial plane.
Based on relationship of the axial plane to the limb:-
a) Symmetrical fold:-
limbs are mirror image of each other.
axial plane is vertical.
limbs of both sides dip at equal angles.
b) Asymmetrical fold:-
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limbs of both sides dip at different angles.
axial plane is inclined.
c) Overturned fold:-
Axial plane is inclined but both the limbs dip at
unequal angle in same direction.
d) Recombent fold:-
Both the limbs are laid horizontal.
axial plane is also horizontal.
Classification of fault:-
Genetic classification:-
a) Normal fault:The fault in
which hanging wall moves
downward with respect to the
footwall is known as normal
fault.
b) Reverse fault: The fault
in which hanging wall moves
upward with respect to the footwall is known as reverse
fault.
c) Thrust fault:-These fault are reverse fault in which
fault planes are generally inclined at 10° to 45° to
the vertical.is known as thrust fault.If the angle is
less than 10° it is known as overthurst.
d) Strike slip fault: In this fault movement takes
place parallel to the strike of the fault.
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Terminologies of faulting:-
a) Fault gauge: During faulting,rubbing and shearing of
the rock takes place. The rocks are finely pulverized
into clay like fine black powder rock material which is
caused at the near part of the fault region called
fault gauge.
b) Fault breccia:-The angular, fragmentary material
produced during faulting is known as fault breccia.
Evidences of faulting:-
a) Presence of slicken slides: The parallel grooves
formed due to frictional sliding on flat, polished
surface is known as slicken slides.
b) Fault gauge and fault breccia: Presence of fault
gauge and fault breccia on the location indicates
faulting.
c) Abrupt termination: Abrupt termination of strata or
any geological structure indicates presence of fault.
c) Unconformity
Surface of erosional and depositional gap within a
sequence of strata is called unconformity.
These are usually the weak contact where the failure
starts to generate. It created permeability contrast
thus natural springs or discharge can occur in such
places.
At Chainage 100m from suspension bridge above Trishuli
River along DhadingBesi old road unconformity was seen.
Among series of rock strata soil and stone deposition
could be seen which established an unconformity at that
place.
d) Thrust
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A kind of reversed fault in which hanging wall has
actually moved up relative to the footwall is called
trust.
e.g.: - Mahabharata thrust separates Nuwakot complex
and Kathmandu complex.
e) Foliation
Foliation is usually formed by the preferred
orientation of minerals within a rock. Foliation is any
penetrative planar fabric present in rocks. Foliation
is common to rocks affected by regional metamorphic
compression typical of orogenic belts. Rocks exhibiting
foliation include the typical metamorphic rock sequence
of slate, phyllite, schist and gneiss.
Foliation in areas of shearing, and within the plane of
thrust faults, can provide information on the transport
direction or sense of movement on the thrust or shear.
Generally, the acute intersection angle shows the
direction of transport. Foliations typically bend or
curve into a shear, which provides the same
information, if it is of a scale which can be observed.
f) Bedding Plane
In geology a bed is the smallest division of a geologic
formation or stratigraphic rock series marked by well-
defined divisional planes (bedding planes) separating
it from layers above and below. A bed is the smallest
litho stratigraphic unit, usually ranging in thickness
from a centimeter to several meters and distinguishable
from beds above and below it. Beds can be
differentiated in various ways, including rock or
mineral type and particle size. The term is generally
applied to sedimentary strata, but may also be used for
volcanic flows or ash layers.
In a quarry, a bedding is a term used for a structure
occurring in granite and similar massive rocks that
allows them to split in well-defined planes
horizontally or parallel to the land surface.
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Handling of geological compass and measurements
of attitudes of geological planes
Handling of geological compass was done in location no
4, situated about 20m downstream from Malekhu suspended
Bridge on the right bank of Trishuli river.
Geological Compass
-geological compass is defined as the combination of
compass and inclinometer.
Types of Geological Compass
There are mainly three types of geological compass.They
are:
1. Brunton Compass
2. Clar Compass
3. Digital Compass
In the geological field we used brunton compass for
measurement of various parameter like dip
amount,dip direction etc.
Brunton Compass
Brunton Compass, properly known as the Brunton
Pocket Transit, is a type of precision compass made
by Brunton.Unlike most modern compasses, the
Brunton Pocket Transit utilizes magnetic induction
daping rather than fluid to damp needle
oscillation.Although Brunton makes many other types
of magnetic compass,the Brunton Pocket Transit is a
specialized instrument used widely by those needing
to make accurate degree and anglemeasurements in
the field.
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Fig: Brunton Compass
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Handling Of Brunton Compass:
Brunton compass have three main parts,box,sighting
arm,and lid.The box contains most of components: the
needle; bull’s eye level( round level to read
horizontal angles); clinometer level(barrel shaped) and
clinometer scale( for reading vertical angles); damping
mechanism; lift pin( to lock the needle);side brass
screw and index pin(to set and display the
declination);graduated circle or card( to read the
bearing).It is used to measure the dip direction and
dip amount.While measuring the dip direction,
geographic north of compass should be pointed towards
the water- flow and take the reading shown by magnetic
north of compass.
Measurement of attitudes
S.N. Strike Dip Amount Dip
direction
1 165 71 260
2 345˚ 62˚ 262˚
3 171˚ 58˚ 77˚
4 166˚ 83˚ 256˚
5 347˚ 62˚ 262˚
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Dip direction measurement
RIVER CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY
River is a mass of water that flows along a path high
to low gradient carrying different materials and
responsible for different geological actions, such as
erosion, transportation and deposition of sediments.
The route along which the river flows is called river
channel. In engineering practice, many structures, such
as dam, bridge, reservoirs etc. are constructed in
river channels. Besides construction of
infrastructures, construction materials are also
barrowed from the river territory. Types of river
channel and the availability of construction materials
in the site greatly affects the design and cost of such
structures.
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TYPES OF RIVER CHANNEL
1. Straight River: This type of river follows a
straight path. The topography of the area is
characterized by steep relief. The gradient of the
river path is also high causing the flow velocity
of water high. Since the energy level of such river
is high, the erosional rate is intensely higher
than the deposition of sediments. Deep scouring
along the river path is higher than the side
cutting. Straight rivers are dominantly occurred in
the higher Himalayan region.
2. Meandering river: This type of river follows a
zigzag path. The topography of the area is
characterized by moderate relief. The gradient of
the river path is so moderate that the river
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strikes in one end and return to other direction
making the path zigzag. The river is widened and
flow with lower velocity than that of Straight
River. Since energy level of such river is medium,
the erosional rate and the deposition rate of
sediments is comparatively equal. The side cutting
by the river is higher than the deep scouring along
the river path. In the striking bank, the side
cutting is higher with higher erosional rate and
opposite to strike bank in a depositional bank
where deposition of sediments takes place. Due this
phenomenon, the channel shifting is prominent in
such type of river system. Meandering rivers are
dominantly occurred in the midlands and lesser
Himalayan region.
3. Braided river: In this type of river, a single
river path is diverted into several paths and may
converge to single later. The topography of the
area is characterized by low relief. The gradient
of the river path is so low and the river area is
widened and flow with lower velocity. Since the
energy level of such river is low, the deposition
rate of sediments is intensely higher than the
erosional rate. Thick successions of sediments go
on depositing along the river path and the river
diverts to other sub paths for flow down. Many
channel bars occur along the river path. Due to
this phenomenon, the channel shifting is prominent
in such type of river system. Braided rivers are
dominantly occurred in terai regions.
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FEATURES DEVELOPED BY RIVER:
1. Erosional landforms
a. Ox bow Lake: An oxbow lake is U-shaped body of
water that forms when a wide meander from main
stem is cut off, creating a free-standing body of
water. This landform is so named for its
distinctive curved shape, resembling the bow pin
of an oxbow. An example of an entirely artificial
waterway with oxbows is the Oxford canal in
England.
b. River valley: A valley formed by flowing water,
or river valley, is usually V-shaped. The exact
shape will depend on the characteristics of the
stream flowing through it. Rivers with steep
gradients, as in mountain ranges, produce steep
walls and a bottom. Shallower slopes may produce
broader and gentler valleys. However, in the
lowest stretch of a river, where it approaches
its base level, it begins to deposit sediment and
the valley bottom becomes a flood plain.
c. Pothole: A pothole is a type of failure in an
asphalt pavement, caused by the presence of water
in the underlying soil structure and the presence
of traffic passing over the affected area.
Introduction of water to the underlying soil
structure first weakens the supporting soil.
Traffic then fatigues and breaks the poorly
supported asphalt surface in the affected area.
Continued traffic action ejects both asphalt and
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the underlying soil material to create a hole in
the pavement.
d. Gorge: It is a deep ravine between pairs of
cliffs and is the most often carved landscape by
the erosive activity of a river over geological
timescales. Rivers have a natural tendency to cut
through underlying surfaces so will eventually
wear away rock layers to lessen own pitch slowing
their water; given enough time, their bottoms
will gradually reach a baseline elevation-which
is the same elevation of the body of water it
will eventually drain into.
e. Rock island:
I: Bed rock: It is the part of rock island which is
formed by the erosional activity and some part of
rock island gets removed and the remaining part of
rock is called bed rock.
II: Boulder: It is also the part of rock island
which is the removed part from bed rock. It is
about 200 mm in size.
2. Depositional landforms
a. Point bar deposit: It is a type of deposition in
which many rivers deposit the sediments at a
single point.
b. Side bar deposit: In this type of deposit, the
channel moves in a straight path and it carries
away the sediments side by side forming side bar
deposition landforms.
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c. Channel bar deposit: Here two channels move in a
parallel format with certain gap between them and
deposits the sediments in the middle of them
which gives a formation of channel bar.
d. Fan: When sediments flow down from high gradient
tributaries on the low relief, the sediments get
accumulate forming a fan shaped deposit, which is
called fan deposit. Since deposit is due to
water, the fan is known as alluvial fan. If the
materials are dominantly composed of large
angular fragments, then the deposit is called
debris fan.
e. Delta: This feature is
common on the confluence
of river and sea. Rivers
take sediment along with
it and on the flat land,
the sediments spread.
The sediment deposits
resemble the Greek
letter delta, so the
deposit is called Delta. Delta is land of fertile
soil. Delta of Ganga and Brahmaputra River, delta
of Nile River, Delta of Mississippi River are the
world’s largest Deltas.
Description of location:
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In Malekhu, River channel morphology of Trishulikhola
was studied.
The location of our study was along the roadway to
Dhadingbesi at a distance of about 60m from the
suspended bridge to the left with respect to the flow
of river.
Following features of river was observed at the site:
1. Meandering river channel
2. Still water present in some parts
3. Rock island formed at the junction of Trishuli and
Thopalriver.
4. Point bar deposit in Trishuliriver
5. Large and wide striking bank
6. Oxbow
CONCLUSION:
At last we had concluded the Malekhu and its
surrounding is the answer for geological curiosity.
Actually the Malekhu is small in area but it has large
amount or number of the geological phenomena and
features and hence it can provide broad knowledge for
the learners like us.
Along the Malekhu river, we found sedimentary rocks
and gradually metamorphised from phyllite to
crystalline schist and along the way to Dhading, it
gradually metamorphised to limestone to phyllite and to
the slate.
We have learnt different methods of geological data
collection measures and the way how the rock mapping is
done. Handling compass and to measure the attitude of
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rock outcrop is now very easy to us. We also got chance
to know about river channel morphology that how the
river flows, what are the factors affecting erosion and
deposition and how it occurs.
REFERENCES:
: From the note provided in the field visit.
: From observation of different rocks and
structures.
: From book "Engineering Geology" by Prakash
Chandra Ghimire.
: From internet ( google , wikipedia).
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