B

FUNCTIONS

DEFINITION OF A FUNCTION
Many scientific laws and engineering principles describe how one quantity depends on
another. This idea was formalized in 1673 by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (see p. xxi) who
coined the term function to indicate the dependence of one quantity on another, as described
in the following definition.

B.1 DEFINITION If a variable y depends on a variable x in such a way that each

value of x determines exactly one value of y, then we say that y is a function of x.

Four common methods for representing functions are:

• Numerically by tables • Geometrically by graphs

• Algebraically by formulas • Verbally
Table B.1 The method of representation often depends on how the function arises. For example:
indianapolis 500
qualifying speeds • Table B.1 shows the top qualifying speed S for the Indianapolis 500 auto race as a
year t speed S function of the year t. There is exactly one value of S for each value of t.
(mi/h)
• Figure B.1 is a graphical record of an earthquake recorded on a seismograph. The
1994 228.011
1995 231.604 graph describes the deflection D of the seismograph needle as a function of the time
1996 233.100 T elapsed since the wave left the earthquake’s epicenter. There is exactly one value
1997 218.263 of D for each value of T.
1998 223.503 • Some of the most familiar functions arise from formulas; for example, the formula
1999 225.179 C = 2πr expresses the circumference C of a circle as a function of its radius r. There
2000 223.471 is exactly one value of C for each value of r.
2001 226.037
• Sometimes functions are described in words. For example, Isaac Newton’s Law of
2002 231.342
2003 231.725 Universal Gravitation is often stated as follows: The gravitational force of attraction
2004 222.024 between two bodies in the Universe is directly proportional to the product of their
2005 227.598 masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. This
2006 228.985 is the verbal description of the formula
2007 225.817 m1 m2
2008 226.366 F=G 2
r
2009 224.864
2010 227.970 in which F is the force of attraction, m1 and m2 are the masses, r is the distance be-
2011 227.472 tween them, and G is a constant. If the masses are constant, then the verbal descrip-
tion defines F as a function of r. There is exactly one value of F for each value of r.

In the mid-eighteenth century the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (pronounced

“oiler”) conceived the idea of denoting functions by letters of the alphabet, thereby making
it possible to refer to functions without stating specific formulas, graphs, or tables. To

B1
B2 Appendix B: Functions
D

Time of Arrival of Arrival of

earthquake P-waves S-waves
shock 9.4 Surface waves
11.8 minutes
minutes

Time in minutes
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 T

Figure B.1

f understand Euler’s idea, think of a function as a computer program that takes an input x,
Computer operates on it in some way, and produces exactly one output y. The computer program is an
Program object in its own right, so we can give it a name, say f . Thus, the function f (the computer
Input x Output y program) associates a unique output y with each input x (Figure B.2). This suggests the
following definition.

Figure B.2

B.2 DEFINITION A function f is a rule that associates a unique output with each
input. If the input is denoted by x, then the output is denoted by f (x) (read “f of x”).
225
Weight W (pounds)

200
175 In this definition the term unique means “exactly one.” Thus, a function cannot assign
150
125 two different outputs to the same input. For example, Figure B.3 shows a plot of weight
100 versus age for a random sample of 100 college students. This plot does not describe W
75
50 as a function of A because there are some values of A with more than one corresponding
10 15 20 25 30
value of W. This is to be expected, since two people with the same age can have different
Age A (years)
weights.
Figure B.3
INDEPENDENT AND DEPENDENT VARIABLES
For a given input x, the output of a function f is called the value of f at x or the image of x
under f . Sometimes we will want to denote the output by a single letter, say y, and write
y = f(x)
This equation expresses y as a function of x; the variable x is called the independent vari-
able (or argument) of f , and the variable y is called the dependent variable of f . This

Leonhard Euler (1707–1783) Euler was probably the What is particularly astonishing is that Euler was blind for the last
most prolific mathematician who ever lived. It has been 17 years of his life, and this was one of his most productive peri-
said that “Euler wrote mathematics as effortlessly as ods! Euler’s flawless memory was phenomenal. Early in his life
most men breathe.” He was born in Basel, Switzerland, he memorized the entire Aeneid by Virgil, and at age 70 he could
and was the son of a Protestant minister who had himself not only recite the entire work but could also state the first and last
studied mathematics. Euler’s genius developed early. He sentence on each page of the book from which he memorized the
attended the University of Basel, where by age 16 he obtained both work. His ability to solve problems in his head was beyond belief.
a Bachelor of Arts degree and a Master’s degree in philosophy. He worked out in his head major problems of lunar motion that
While at Basel, Euler had the good fortune to be tutored one day baffled Isaac Newton and once did a complicated calculation in his
a week in mathematics by a distinguished mathematician, Johann head to settle an argument between two students whose computa-
Bernoulli. At the urging of his father, Euler then began to study tions differed in the fiftieth decimal place.
theology. The lure of mathematics was too great, however, and by Following the development of calculus by Leibniz and New-
age 18 Euler had begun to do mathematical research. Nevertheless, ton, results in mathematics developed rapidly in a disorganized
the influence of his father and his theological studies remained, and way. Euler’s genius gave coherence to the mathematical landscape.
throughout his life Euler was a deeply religious, unaffected person. He was the first mathematician to bring the full power of calculus
At various times Euler taught at St. Petersburg Academy of Sci- to bear on problems from physics. He made major contributions
ences (in Russia), the University of Basel, and the Berlin Academy to virtually every branch of mathematics as well as to the theory
of Sciences. Euler’s energy and capacity for work were virtually of optics, planetary motion, electricity, magnetism, and general
boundless. His collected works form more than 100 quarto-sized mechanics.
volumes and it is believed that much of his work has been lost. [Image: Georgios Kollidas/Shutterstock]
 Appendix B: Functions B3

terminology is intended to suggest that x is free to vary, but that once x has a specific value
a corresponding value of y is determined. For now we will only consider functions in which
the independent and dependent variables are real numbers, in which case we say that f is a
real-valued function of a real variable. Later, we will consider other kinds of functions.

Table B.2 Example 1 Table B.2 describes a functional relationship y = f (x) for which
x 0 1 2 3 f(0) = 3 f associates y = 3 with x = 0.

y 3 4 −1 6 f(1) = 4 f associates y = 4 with x = 1.

f(2) = −1 f associates y = −1 with x = 2.

f(3) = 6 f associates y = 6 with x = 3.

Example 2 The equation

y = 3x 2 − 4x + 2
has the form y = f(x) in which the function f is given by the formula
f(x) = 3x 2 − 4x + 2
For each input x, the corresponding output y is obtained by substituting x in this formula.
For example,
f(0) = 3(0)2 − 4(0) + 2 = 2 f associates y = 2 with x = 0.

f(−1.7) = 3(−1.7)2 − 4(−1.7) + 2 = 17.47 f associates y = 17.47 with x = −1.7.

√ √ √ √ √ √
f( 2 ) = 3( 2 )2 − 4 2 + 2 = 8 − 4 2 f associates y = 8 − 4 2 with x = 2.

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
If f is a real-valued function of a real variable, then the graph of f in the xy-plane is defined
Figure B.4 shows only portions of the to be the graph of the equation y = f(x). For example, the graph of the function f(x) = x is
graphs. Where appropriate, and unless the graph of the equation y = x, shown in Figure B.4. That figure also shows the graphs of
indicated otherwise, it is understood
that graphs shown in this text extend y y=x y y = x2 y y = x3
indefinitely beyond the boundaries of 4 7 8
the displayed figure. 3 6
6
2 4
5
1 2
x x
0 4 0
−1 3 −2
−2 −4
2
−3 −6
−4 1 −8
−4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
0
−1
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
3
y y = 1/x y y = √x y y = √x
4 4 4
3 3 3
2 2
1 2
1 x x
0 0 1
x
−1 −1 0
−2 −2 −1
−3 −3
√ −4 −2
−4
Since x is imaginary for negative val- −5−4−3−2−1 0 1 2 3 4 5 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 −3
ues of x, there are no points on the
√ −4
graph of y = x in the region where −8 −6 −4 −2 0 2 4 6 8
x < 0.
Figure B.4
B4 Appendix B: Functions

some other basic functions that may already be familiar to you. In Appendix K we discuss
techniques for graphing functions using graphing technology.
Graphs can provide valuable visual information about a function. For example, since
the graph of a function f in the xy-plane is the graph of the equation y = f(x), the points
on the graph of f are of the form (x, f(x)); that is, the y-coordinate of a point on the graph
of f is the value of f at the corresponding x-coordinate (Figure B.5). The values of x
for which f(x) = 0 are the x-coordinates of the points where the graph of f intersects the
x-axis (Figure B.6). These values are called the zeros of f , the roots of f(x) = 0, or the
x-intercepts of the graph of y = f(x).

y y

y = f(x)

(x, f(x))
f (x)
y = f(x)
x x
x x1 0 x2 x3

Figure B.5 The y-coordinate Figure B.6 f has zeros at x1 ,

of a point on the graph of y = f(x) 0, x2 , and x3 .
is the value of f at the
corresponding x-coordinate.

y
THE VERTICAL LINE TEST
Not every curve in the xy-plane is the graph of a function. For example, consider the curve
in Figure B.7, which is cut at two distinct points, (a, b) and (a, c), by a vertical line. This
curve cannot be the graph of y = f(x) for any function f ; otherwise, we would have

(a, c)
f(a) = b and f(a) = c
which is impossible, since f cannot assign two different values to a. Thus, there is no
function f whose graph is the given curve. This illustrates the following general result,
(a, b) x which we will call the vertical line test.
a
Figure B.7 This curve cannot be the
graph of a function.
B.3 THE VERTICAL LINE TEST A curve in the xy-plane is the graph of some func-
tion f if and only if no vertical line intersects the curve more than once.

y
6 Example 3 The graph of the equation
x 2 + y2 = 25
x 2 + y 2 = 25
is a circle of radius 5 centered at the origin and hence there are vertical lines that cut the
x
graph more than once (Figure B.8). Thus this equation does not define y as a function
−6 6
of x.

THE ABSOLUTE VALUE FUNCTION

−6
Recall that the absolute value or magnitude of a real number x is defined by
Figure B.8 
x, x ≥ 0
|x| =
−x, x < 0
The effect of taking the absolute value of a number is to strip away the minus sign if the
number is negative and to leave the number unchanged if it is nonnegative. Thus,
 
|5| = 5, − 4  = 4 , |0| = 0
7 7
 Appendix B: Functions B5

A more detailed discussion of the properties of absolute value is given in Web Appendix
G. However, for convenience we provide the following summary of its algebraic properties.
Symbols such as +x and −x are de-
ceptive, since it is tempting to conclude
B.4 PROPERTIES OF ABSOLUTE VALUE If a and b are real numbers, then
+x is positive and −x is negative.
that
However, this need not be so, since x (a) |−a| = |a| A number and its negative have the same absolute value.
itself can be positive or negative. For
example, if x is negative, say x = −3, (b) |ab| = |a| |b| The absolute value of a product is the product of the absolute values.
then −x = 3 is positive and +x = −3
is negative. (c) |a/b| = |a|/|b|, b = 0 The absolute value of a ratio is the ratio of the absolute values.

(d ) |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b| The triangle inequality

y y = |x|
5
4
The graph of the function f(x) = |x| can be obtained by graphing the two parts of the
3
equation 
2 x, x ≥ 0
y=
1
x −x, x < 0
0
−1 separately. Combining the two parts produces the V-shaped graph in Figure B.9.
−2 Absolute values have important relationships to square roots. To see why this is so,
−3 recall from algebra that every positive real
√ number x has two square roots, one positive and
−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5 one negative. By definition, the symbol x denotes the positive √ square root of x.
Figure B.9 Care must be exercised in simplifying expressions of the form x 2 , since it is not always
√
true that x = x. This equation is correct if x is nonnegative, but it is false if x is negative.
2
WARNING
For example, if x = −4, then
To denote the negative square root you
√  √
must write
√
− x. For example,
x 2 = (−4)2 = 16 = 4 = x
√ the
positive square root of 9 is 9 = 3, A statement that is correct for all real values of x is
whereas the negative square root of 9
√
is − 9 = −3. (Do not make the mis-
√
√ x 2 = |x| (1)
take of writing 9 = ±3.)

PIECEWISE-DEFINED FUNCTIONS
T E C H N O L O G Y M A S T E RY
The absolute value function f(x) = |x| is an example of a function that is defined piecewise
Verify (1) by using a graphing√
utility to in the sense that the formula for f changes, depending on the value of x.
show that the equations y= x 2 and
y = |x| have the same graph.
Example 4 Sketch the graph of the function defined piecewise by the formula
⎧
⎪
⎨√0, x ≤ −1
f(x) = 1 − x , −1 < x < 1
2
⎪
⎩
x, x≥1

Solution. The formula for f changes at the points x = −1 and x = 1. (We call these the
y breakpoints for the formula.) A good procedure for graphing functions defined piecewise
2 is to graph the function separately over the open intervals determined by the breakpoints,
and then graph f at the breakpoints themselves. For the function f in this example
√ the graph
is the horizontal ray y = 0 on the interval (−∞, −1], it is the semicircle y = 1 − x 2 on
1
the interval (−1, 1), and it is the ray y = x on the interval [1, +∞). The formula for f
x
specifies that the equation y = 0 applies at the breakpoint −1 [so y = f(−1) = 0], and it
−2 −1 1 2
specifies that the equation y = x applies at the breakpoint 1 [so y = f(1) = 1]. The graph
of f is shown in Figure B.10.
Figure B.10

REMARK In Figure B.10 the solid dot and open circle at the breakpoint x = 1 serve to emphasize that the point
on the graph lies on the ray and not the semicircle. There is no ambiguity at the breakpoint x = −1
because the two parts of the graph join together continuously there.
B6 Appendix B: Functions

Example 5 Increasing the speed at which air moves over a person’s skin increases
the rate of moisture evaporation and makes the person feel cooler. (This is why we fan
ourselves in hot weather.) The wind chill index is the temperature at a wind speed of
4 mi/h that would produce the same sensation on exposed skin as the current temperature
and wind speed combination. An empirical formula (i.e., a formula based on experimental
data) for the wind chill index W at 32 ◦ F for a wind speed of v mi/h is

32, 0 ≤ v ≤ 3
W=
55.628 − 22.07v 0.16, 3 < v
A computer-generated graph of W(v) is shown in Figure B.11.

35
30

Wind chill W (°F)

25
20
15
© rechitansorin/Depositphotos 10
The wind chill index measures the 5
sensation of coldness that we feel from
0
the combined effect of temperature and 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75
Figure B.11 Wind chill versus
wind speed. Wind speed v (mi/h)
wind speed at 32 ◦ F

DOMAIN AND RANGE

If x and y are related by the equation y = f(x), then the set of all allowable inputs (x-values)
is called the domain of f , and the set of outputs (y-values) that result when x varies over
the domain is called the range of f . For example, if f is the function defined by the table
in Example 1, then the domain is the set {0, 1, 2, 3} and the range is the set {−1, 3, 4, 6}.
Sometimes physical or geometric considerations impose restrictions on the allowable in-
puts of a function. For example, if y denotes the area of a square of side x, then these
variables are related by the equation y = x 2 . Although this equation produces a unique
value of y for every real number x, the fact that lengths must be nonnegative imposes the
requirement that x ≥ 0.
When a function is defined by a mathematical formula, the formula itself may impose
One might argue that a physical square
restrictions on the allowable inputs. For example, if y √= 1/x, then x = 0 is not an allowable
cannot have a side of length zero. How-
ever, it is often convenient mathemati- input since division by zero is undefined, and if y = x, then negative values of x are not
cally to allow zero lengths, and we will allowable inputs because they produce imaginary values for y and we have agreed to
do so throughout this text where ap- consider only real-valued functions of a real variable. In general, we make the following
propriate. definition.

B.5 DEFINITION If a real-valued function of a real variable is defined by a formula,

and if no domain is stated explicitly, then it is to be understood that the domain consists
y of all real numbers for which the formula yields a real value. This is called the natural
domain of the function.
y = f(x)
Range

The domain and range of a function f can be pictured by projecting the graph of y = f(x)
x onto the coordinate axes as shown in Figure B.12.
Domain

Figure B.12 The projection of Example 6 Find the natural domain of

y = f(x) on the x-axis is the set of
(a) f(x) = x3 (b) f(x) = 1/[(x − 1)(x − 3)]
allowable x-values for f , and the √
projection on the y-axis is the set of (c) f(x) = tan x (d) f(x) = x 2 − 5x + 6
corresponding y-values.
 Appendix B: Functions B7

Solution (a). The function f has real values for all real x, so its natural domain is the
interval (−∞, +∞).

Solution (b). The function f has real values for all real x, except x = 1 and x = 3,
where divisions by zero occur. Thus, the natural domain is
{x : x = 1 and x = 3} = (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, 3) ∪ (3, +∞)

Solution (c). Since f(x) = tan x = sin x/ cos x, the function f has real values except
where cos x = 0, and this occurs when x is an odd integer multiple of π/2. Thus, the natural
For a review of trigonometry see Ap- domain consists of all real numbers except
pendix A.
π 3π 5π
x = ± ,± ,± ,...
2 2 2

y y = x2 Solution (d). The function f has real values, except when the expression inside the
radical is negative. Thus the natural domain consists of all real numbers x such that
x 2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 3)(x − 2) ≥ 0
This inequality is satisfied if x ≤ 2 or x ≥ 3 (verify), so the natural domain of f is
x
(−∞, 2] ∪ [3, +∞)

In some cases we will state the domain explicitly when defining a function. For exam-
y y= x ,x ≥0 ple, if f(x) = x 2 is the area of a square of side x, then we can write
2

f(x) = x 2 , x≥0
to indicate that we take the domain of f to be the set of nonnegative real numbers (Fig-
ure B.13).
x

THE EFFECT OF ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS ON THE DOMAIN

Algebraic expressions are frequently simplified by canceling common factors in the nu-
Figure B.13 merator and denominator. However, care must be exercised when simplifying formulas for
functions in this way, since this process can alter the domain.
y
6 Example 7 The natural domain of the function
5
y = x+2
4 x2 − 4
3 f(x) = (2)
2 x−2
1 x consists of all real x except x = 2. However, if we factor the numerator and then cancel
−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 the common factor in the numerator and denominator, we obtain
(x − 2)(x + 2)
(a) f(x) = =x+2 (3)
x−2
y
Since the right side of (3) has a value of f (2) = 4 and f (2) was undefined in (2), the alge-
6
5 x −4
2 braic simplification has changed the function. Geometrically, the graph of (3) is the line in
y= Figure B.14a, whereas the graph of (2) is the same line but with a hole at x = 2, since the
4 x−2
3 function is undefined there (Figure B.14b). In short, the geometric effect of the algebraic
2
1
cancellation is to eliminate the hole in the original graph.
x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5
Sometimes alterations to the domain of a function that result from algebraic simplifica-
(b) tion are irrelevant to the problem at hand and can be ignored. However, if the domain must
Figure B.14 be preserved, then one must impose the restrictions on the simplified function explicitly.
B8 Appendix B: Functions

For example, if we wanted to preserve the domain of the function in Example 7, then we
would have to express the simplified form of the function as
f(x) = x + 2, x = 2

y
y = 2 + √x − 1 Example 8 Find the domain and range of
5
√
4 (a) f(x) = 2 + x − 1 (b) f(x) = (x + 1)/(x − 1)
3
2
1 Solution (a). Since no domain is stated explicitly, the domain
√of f is its natural domain,
x [1, +∞). As x varies over the interval [1,√+∞), the value of x − 1 varies over the in-
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 terval [0, +∞), so the value of f(x) = 2 + x − 1 varies over the interval [2, +∞), which
Figure B.15 is the range of f . The domain and range are highlighted in green on the x- and y-axes in
Figure B.15.

Solution (b). The given function f is defined for all real x, except x = 1, so the natural
domain of f is
{x : x = 1} = (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞)
To determine the range it will be convenient to introduce a dependent variable
x+1
y= (4)
x−1
y
Although the set of possible y-values is not immediately evident from this equation, the
x+1 graph of (4), which is shown in Figure B.16, suggests that the range of f consists of all
y=
5 x−1 y, except y = 1. To see that this is so, we solve (4) for x in terms of y:
4
3 (x − 1)y = x + 1
2 xy − y = x + 1
1
x xy − x = y + 1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x(y − 1) = y + 1
−1
−2 y+1
x=
y−1
Figure B.16
It is now evident from the right side of this equation that y = 1 is not in the range; otherwise
we would have a division by zero. No other values of y are excluded by this equation, so the
range of the function f is {y : y = 1} = (−∞, 1) ∪ (1, +∞), which agrees with the result
obtained graphically.

DOMAIN AND RANGE IN APPLIED PROBLEMS

In applications, physical considerations often impose restrictions on the domain and range
of a function.

Example 9 An open box is to be made from a 16-inch by 30-inch piece of card-

board by cutting out squares of equal size from the four corners and bending up the sides
(Figure B.17a).

(a) Let V be the volume of the box that results when the squares have sides of length x.
Find a formula for V as a function of x.
(b) Find the domain of V.
(c) Use the graph of V given in Figure B.17c to estimate the range of V.
(d) Describe in words what the graph tells you about the volume.
 Appendix B: Functions B9

800

Volume V of box (in3 )

x x
x 700
x x
600
16 in 500
16 – 2x 400
x x 300
x x 200
30 in 30 – 2x 100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Side x of square cut (in)
(a) (b) (c)
Figure B.17

Solution (a). As shown in Figure B.17b, the resulting box has dimensions 16 − 2x by
30 − 2x by x, so the volume V(x) is given by
V(x) = (16 − 2x)(30 − 2x)x = 480x − 92x 2 + 4x 3

Solution (b). The domain is the set of x-values and the range is the set of V-values.
Because x is a length, it must be nonnegative, and because we cannot cut out squares
whose sides are more than 8 in long (why?), the x-values in the domain must satisfy
0≤x≤8

Solution (c). From the graph of V versus x in Figure B.17c we estimate that the V-values
in the range satisfy
0 ≤ V ≤ 725
Note that this is an approximation. Later we will show how to find the range exactly.

Solution (d). The graph tells us that the box of maximum volume occurs for a value of x
that is between 3 and 4 and that the maximum volume is approximately 725 in3 . The
graph also shows that the volume decreases toward zero as x gets closer to 0 or 8, which
should make sense to you intuitively.

In applications involving time, formulas for functions are often expressed in terms of a
Radar Tracking variable t whose starting value is taken to be t = 0.
6000
Distance D (ft)

5000
4000
3000
Example 10 At 8:05 A.M. a car is clocked at 100 ft/s by a radar detector that is
2000 positioned at the edge of a straight highway. Assuming that the car maintains a constant
1000 speed between 8:05 A.M. and 8:06 A.M., find a function D(t) that expresses the distance
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 traveled by the car during that time interval as a function of the time t.
8:05 a.m. Time t (s) 8:06 a.m.
Figure B.18 Solution. It would be clumsy to use the actual clock time for the variable t, so let us
agree to use the elapsed time in seconds, starting with t = 0 at 8:05 A.M. and ending with
y t = 60 at 8:06 A.M. At each instant, the distance traveled (in ft) is equal to the speed of the
car (in ft/s) multiplied by the elapsed time (in s). Thus,

x
D(t) = 100t, 0 ≤ t ≤ 60
The graph of D versus t is shown in Figure B.18.

ISSUES OF SCALE AND UNITS

The circle is squashed because 1 In geometric problems where you want to preserve the “true” shape of a graph, you must
unit on the y -axis has a smaller use units of equal length on both axes. For example, if you graph a circle in a coordinate
length than 1 unit on the x -axis. system in which 1 unit in the y-direction is smaller than 1 unit in the x-direction, then the
Figure B.19 circle will be squashed vertically into an elliptical shape (Figure B.19).
B10 Appendix B: Functions

However, sometimes it is inconvenient or impossible to display a graph using units of

equal length. For example, consider the equation

In applications where the variables on

y = x2
the two axes have unrelated units (say,
If we want to show the portion of the graph over the interval −3 ≤ x ≤ 3, then there is
centimeters on the y-axis and seconds
on the x-axis), then nothing is gained
no problem using units of equal length, since y only varies from 0 to 9 over that interval.
by requiring the units to have equal However, if we want to show the portion of the graph over the interval −10 ≤ x ≤ 10, then
lengths; choose the lengths to make the there is a problem keeping the units equal in length, since the value of y varies between 0
graph as clear as possible. and 100. In this case the only reasonable way to show all of the graph that occurs over the
interval −10 ≤ x ≤ 10 is to compress the unit of length along the y-axis, as illustrated in
Figure B.20.

y y

9
8 100

7
80
6
5 60
4
3 40

2
20
1
x x

Figure B.20 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 −10 −5 5 10

EXERCISE SET B Graphing Utility

1. Use the accompanying graph to answer the following ques- x −2 −1 0 2 3 4 5 6

tions, making reasonable approximations where needed.
(a) For what values of x is y = 1? y 5 1 −2 7 −1 1 0 9
(b) For what values of x is y = 3? Table Ex-2
(c) For what values of y is x = 3?
(d) For what values of x is y ≤ 0?
(e) What are the maximum and minimum values of y and 3. In each part of the accompanying figure, determine whether
for what values of x do they occur? the graph defines y as a function of x.
y y
y
3

2 x x

1
x
0 (a) (b)

−1 y y

−2
x x
−3
−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 Figure Ex-1

2. Use the accompanying table to answer the questions posed (c) (d)
in Exercise 1.
Figure Ex-3
 Appendix B: Functions B11

4. In each part, compare the natural domains of f and g. 8. Find g(3), g(−1), g(π), g(−1.1), and g(t 2 − 1).
√
x2 + x x+1 x + 1, x≥1
(a) f(x) = ; g(x) = x (a) g(x) = (b) g(x) =
x+1 x−1 3, x<1
√ √
x x+ x √
(b) f(x) = ; g(x) = x
x+1 9–10 Find the natural domain and determine the range of each
function. If you have a graphing utility, use it to confirm that
your result is consistent with the graph produced by your graph-
FOCUS ON CONCEPTS
ing utility. [Note: Set your graphing utility in radian mode when
5. The accompanying graph shows the median income in graphing trigonometric functions.]
U.S. households (adjusted for inflation) between 1990 1 x
9. (a) f(x) = (b) F(x) =
and 2005. Use the graph to answer the following ques- x−3 |x|
tions, making reasonable approximations where needed. √ √
(c) g(x) = x 2 − 3 (d) G(x) = x 2 − 2x + 5
(a) When was the median income at its maximum
value, and what was the median income when that 1 x2 − 4
(e) h(x) = (f ) H(x) =
occurred? 1 − sin x x−2
(b) When was the median income at its minimum value, √ √
10. (a) f(x) = 3 −√x (b) F(x) = 4 − x 2
and what was the median income when that oc-
(c) g(x) = 3 + x (d) G(x) = x 3 +√2
curred?
(e) h(x) = 3 sin x (f ) H(x) = (sin x)−2
(c) The median income was declining during the 2-year
period between 2000 and 2002. Was it declining FOCUS ON CONCEPTS
more rapidly during the first year or the second year
of that period? Explain your reasoning. 11. (a) If you had a device that could record the Earth’s
population continuously, would you expect the
Median U.S. Household Income in
graph of population versus time to be a continu-
Thousands of Constant 2005 Dollars ous (unbroken) curve? Explain what might cause
Median U.S. Household Income

48 breaks in the curve.

(b) Suppose that a hospital patient receives an injection
46 of an antibiotic every 8 hours and that between in-
jections the concentration C of the antibiotic in the
44 bloodstream decreases as the antibiotic is absorbed
by the tissues. What might the graph of C versus
42 the elapsed time t look like?
12. (a) If you had a device that could record the tempera-
1990 1995 2000 2005 ture of a room continuously over a 24-hour period,
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, August 2006. would you expect the graph of temperature versus
Figure Ex-5 time to be a continuous (unbroken) curve? Explain
your reasoning.
(b) If you had a computer that could track the number
6. Use the median income graph in Exercise 5 to answer the of boxes of cereal on the shelf of a market contin-
following questions, making reasonable approximations uously over a 1-week period, would you expect the
where needed. graph of the number of boxes on the shelf versus
(a) What was the average yearly growth of median in- time to be a continuous (unbroken) curve? Explain
come between 1993 and 1999? your reasoning.
(b) The median income was increasing during the 6-year
13. A boat is bobbing up and down on some gentle waves.
period between 1993 and 1999. Was it increasing
Suddenly it gets hit by a large wave and sinks. Sketch
more rapidly during the first 3 years or the last 3
a rough graph of the height of the boat above the ocean
years of that period? Explain your reasoning.
floor as a function of time.
(c) Consider the statement: “After years of decline, me-
dian income this year was finally higher than that of 14. A cup of hot coffee sits on a table. You pour in some
last year.” In what years would this statement have cool milk and let it sit for an hour. Sketch a rough graph
been correct? of the temperature of the coffee as a function of time.
√ 15–18 As seen in Example 3, the equation x 2 + y 2 = 25 does
7. Find f(0), f(2), f(−2), f(3), f( 2 ), and f(3t).
⎧ not define y as a function of x. Each graph in these exercises
⎨ 1, x > 3 is a portion of the circle x 2 + y 2 = 25. In each case, determine
2
(a) f(x) = 3x − 2 (b) f(x) = x
⎩ whether the graph defines y as a function of x, and if so, give a
2x, x ≤ 3 formula for y in terms of x.
B12 Appendix B: Functions

L
15. y 16. y θ
5 5 θ 10 cm
L

h
x x
−5 5 −5 5 Figure Ex-25 Figure Ex-26

27–28 Express the function in piecewise form without using

−5 −5 absolute values. [Suggestion: It may help to generate the graph
of the function.]
27. (a) f(x) = |x| + 3x + 1 (b) g(x) = |x| + |x − 1|
28. (a) f(x) = 3 + |2x − 5| (b) g(x) = 3|x − 2| − |x + 1|
17. y 18. y
5 5
29. As shown in the accompanying figure, an open box is to
be constructed from a rectangular sheet of metal, 8 in by 15
in, by cutting out squares with sides of length x from each
corner and bending up the sides.
x x
(a) Express the volume V as a function of x.
−5 5 −5 5
(b) Find the domain of V.
(c) Plot the graph of the function V obtained in part (a) and
estimate the range of this function.
−5 −5
(d) In words, describe how the volume V varies with x, and
discuss how one might construct boxes of maximum
volume.
19–22 True–False Determine whether the statement is true or
x x
false. Explain your answer. x x
19. A curve that crosses the x-axis at two different points can- 8 in
not be the graph of a function. x x
x x
20. The natural domain of a real-valued function defined by a 15 in
formula consists of all those real numbers for which the
Figure Ex-29
formula yields a real value.
21. The range of the absolute value function is all positive real 30. Repeat Exercise 29 assuming the box is constructed in the
numbers. same fashion from a 6-inch-square sheet of metal.
√ 31. A construction company has adjoined a 1000 ft2 rectan-
22. If g(x) = 1/ f(x), then the domain of g consists of all
those real numbers x for which f(x) = 0. gular enclosure to its office building. Three sides of the
enclosure are fenced in. The side of the building adjacent
23. Use the equation y = x 2 − 6x + 8 to answer the following
to the enclosure is 100 ft long and a portion of this side is
questions.
used as the fourth side of the enclosure. Let x and y be the
(a) For what values of x is y = 0?
dimensions of the enclosure, where x is measured parallel
(b) For what values of x is y = −10?
to the building, and let L be the length of fencing required
(c) For what values of x is y ≥ 0?
for those dimensions.
(d) Does y have a minimum value? A maximum value? If
(a) Find a formula for L in terms of x and y.
so, find them.
√ (b) Find a formula that expresses L as a function of x alone.
24. Use the equation y = 1 + x to answer the following ques- (c) What is the domain of the function in part (b)?
tions. (d) Plot the function in part (b) and estimate the dimen-
(a) For what values of x is y = 4? sions of the enclosure that minimize the amount of
(b) For what values of x is y = 0? fencing required.
(c) For what values of x is y ≥ 6?
32. As shown in the accompanying figure, a camera is mounted
(d) Does y have a minimum value? A maximum value? If
at a point 3000 ft from the base of a rocket launching pad.
so, find them.
The rocket rises vertically when launched, and the camera’s
25. As shown in the accompanying figure, a pendulum of con- elevation angle is continually adjusted to follow the bottom
stant length L makes an angle θ with its vertical position. of the rocket.
Express the height h as a function of the angle θ. (a) Express the height x as a function of the elevation an-
26. Express the length L of a chord of a circle with radius 10 cm gle θ.
as a function of the central angle θ (see the accompanying (b) Find the domain of the function in part (a).
figure).
 Appendix B: Functions B13

(c) Plot the graph of the function in part (a) and use it to (d) Use the graph to estimate the length of the longest pos-
estimate the height of the rocket when the elevation an- sible straightaways, and then find that length exactly.
gle is π/4 ≈ 0.7854 radian. Compare this estimate to
the exact height.

160´
Rocket

x 360´
Figure Ex-34
θ

3000 ft 35–36 (i) Explain why the function f has one or more holes
Camera Figure Ex-32 in its graph, and state the x-values at which those holes occur.
(ii) Find a function g whose graph is identical to that of f , but
33. A soup company wants to manufacture a can in the shape without the holes.
of a right circular cylinder that will hold 500 cm3 of liquid. (x + 2)(x 2 − 1) x 2 + |x|
The material for the top and bottom costs 0.02 cent/cm2 , 35. f(x) = 36. f(x) =
(x + 2)(x − 1) |x|
and the material for the sides costs 0.01 cent/cm2 .
(a) Estimate the radius r and the height h of the can that 37. In 2001 the National Weather Service introduced a new
costs the least to manufacture. [Suggestion: Express wind chill temperature (WCT) index. For a given outside
the cost C in terms of r.] temperature T and wind speed v, the wind chill tempera-
(b) Suppose that the tops and bottoms of radius r are ture index is the equivalent temperature that exposed skin
punched out from square sheets with sides of length would feel with a wind speed of v mi/h. Based on a more
2r and the scraps are waste. If you allow for the cost of accurate model of cooling due to wind, the new formula is
the waste, would you expect the can of least cost to be 
T, 0≤v≤3
taller or shorter than the one in part (a)? Explain. WCT =
(c) Estimate the radius, height, and cost of the can in 35.74 + 0.6215T − 35.75v 0.16 + 0.4275Tv 0.16 , 3<v
part (b), and determine whether your conjecture was
where T is the temperature in ◦ F, v is the wind speed in
correct.
mi/h, and WCT is the equivalent temperature in ◦ F. Find
34. The designer of a sports facility wants to put a quarter-mile the WCT to the nearest degree if T = 25 ◦ F and
(1320 ft) running track around a football field, oriented as (a) v = 3 mi/h (b) v = 15 mi/h (c) v = 46 mi/h.
in the accompanying figure on the next page. The foot-
Source: Adapted from UMAP Module 658, Windchill, W. Bosch and
ball field is 360 ft long (including the end zones) and 160 L. Cobb, COMAP, Arlington, MA.
ft wide. The track consists of two straightaways and two
semicircles, with the straightaways extending at least the 38–40 Use the formula for the wind chill temperature index
length of the football field. described in Exercise 37.
(a) Show that it is possible to construct a quarter-mile track
around the football field. [Suggestion: Find the short- 38. Find the air temperature to the nearest degree if the WCT
est track that can be constructed around the field.] is reported as −60 ◦ F with a wind speed of 48 mi/h.
(b) Let L be the length of a straightaway (in feet), and let x 39. Find the air temperature to the nearest degree if the WCT
be the distance (in feet) between a sideline of the foot- is reported as −10 ◦ F with a wind speed of 48 mi/h.
ball field and a straightaway. Make a graph of L ver- 40. Find the wind speed to the nearest mile per hour if the WCT
sus x. is reported as 5 ◦ F with an air temperature of 20 ◦ F.
(c) Use the graph to estimate the value of x that produces
the shortest straightaways, and then find this value of x
exactly.