Contents

CHAPTER 13

RADAR NAVIGATION

PRINCIPLES OF RADAR OPERATION

1300. Introduction helps to measure ranges and bearings. In the “heading-

upward” presentation, which indicates relative bearings,
Radar determines distance to an object by measuring the top of the scope represents the direction of the ship’s
the time required for a radio signal to travel from a head. In this unstabilized presentation, the orientation
transmitter to the object and return. Such measurements can changes as the ship changes heading. In the stabilized
be converted into lines of position (LOP’s) comprised of “north-upward” presentation, gyro north is always at the
circles with radius equal to the distance to the object. Since top of the scope.
marine radars use directional antennae, they can also
determine an object’s bearing. However, due to its design, 1303. The Radar Beam
a radar’s bearing measurement is less accurate than its
distance measurement. Understanding this concept is The pulses of energy comprising the radar beam would
crucial to ensuring the optimal employment of the radar for form a single lobe-shaped pattern of radiation if emitted in
safe navigation. free space. Figure 1303a shows this free space radiation
pattern, including the undesirable minor lobes or side lobes
1301. Signal Characteristics associated with practical antenna design.
Although the radiated energy is concentrated into a
In most marine navigation applications, the radar relatively narrow main beam by the antenna, there is no
signal is pulse modulated. Signals are generated by a timing clearly defined envelope of the energy radiated, although
circuit so that energy leaves the antenna in very short most of the energy is concentrated along the axis of the
pulses. When transmitting, the antenna is connected to the beam. With the rapid decrease in the amount of radiated
transmitter but not the receiver. As soon as the pulse leaves, energy in directions away from this axis, practical power
an electronic switch disconnects the antenna from the limits may be used to define the dimensions of the radar
transmitter and connects it to the receiver. Another pulse is beam.
not transmitted until after the preceding one has had time to A radar beam’s horizontal and vertical beam widths are
travel to the most distant target within range and return. referenced to arbitrarily selected power limits. The most
Since the interval between pulses is long compared with the common convention defines beam width as the angular
length of a pulse, strong signals can be provided with low width between half power points. The half power point
average power. The duration or length of a single pulse is corresponds to a drop in 3 decibels from the maximum
called pulse length, pulse duration, or pulse width. This beam strength.
pulse emission sequence repeats a great many times, The definition of the decibel shows this halving of
perhaps 1,000 per second. This rate defines the pulse power at a decrease in 3 dB from maximum power. A
repetition rate (PRR). The returned pulses are displayed decibel is simply the logarithm of the ratio of a final power
on an indicator screen. level to a reference power level:

1302. The Display P1

dB = 10 log ------
P0
The radar display is often referred to as the plan
position indicator (PPI). On a PPI, the sweep appears as a where P1 is the final power level, and P0 is a reference
radial line, centered at the center of the scope and rotating power level. When calculating the dB drop for a 50%
in synchronization with the antenna. Any returned echo reduction in power level, the equation becomes:
causes a brightening of the display screen at the bearing and dB = 10 log ( .5 )
range of the object. Because of a luminescent coating on the dB = – 3 dB
inside of the tube, the glow continues after the trace rotates
past the target. The radiation diagram shown in Figure 1303b depicts
On a PPI, a target’s actual range is proportional to its relative values of power in the same plane existing at the
distance from the center of the scope. A moveable cursor same distances from the antenna or the origin of the radar

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beam. Maximum power is in the direction of the axis of radar tends to illuminate more of the shadow region behind
the beam. Power values diminish rapidly in directions an obstruction than the beam of a radar of higher frequency
away from the axis. The beam width is taken as the angle or shorter wavelength.
between the half-power points. Attenuation is the scattering and absorption of the
The beam width depends upon the frequency or energy in the radar beam as it passes through the
wavelength of the transmitted energy, antenna design, and atmosphere. It causes a decrease in echo strength.
the dimensions of the antenna. For a given antenna size Attenuation is greater at the higher frequencies or shorter
(antenna aperture), narrower beam widths result from using wavelengths.
shorter wavelengths. For a given wavelength, narrower While reflected echoes are much weaker than the
beam widths result from using larger antennas. transmitted pulses, the characteristics of their return to the
With radar waves being propagated in the vicinity of source are similar to the characteristics of propagation. The
the surface of the sea, the main lobe of the radar beam is strengths of these echoes are dependent upon the amount of
composed of a number of separate lobes, as opposed to the transmitted energy striking the targets and the size and
single lobe-shaped pattern of radiation as emitted in free reflecting properties of the targets.
space. This phenomenon is the result of interference be-
tween radar waves directly transmitted, and those waves 1305. Refraction
which are reflected from the surface of the sea. Radar
waves strike the surface of the sea, and the indirect waves If the radar waves traveled in straight lines, the
reflect off the surface of the sea. See Figure 1303c. These distance to the radar horizon would be dependent only on
reflected waves either constructively or destructively inter- the power output of the transmitter and the height of the
fere with the direct waves depending upon the waves’ phase antenna. In other words, the distance to the radar horizon
relationship. would be the same as that of the geometrical horizon for the
antenna height. However, atmospheric density gradients
bend radar rays as they travel to and from a target. This
bending is called refraction.
The distance to the radar horizon does not limit the dis-
tance from which echoes may be received from targets. As-
suming that adequate power is transmitted, echoes may be
received from targets beyond the radar horizon if their re-
Figure 1303a. Freespace radiation pattern. flecting surfaces extend above it. The distance to the radar
horizon is the distance at which the radar rays pass tangent
to the surface of the Earth.
The following formula, where h is the height of the an-
tenna in feet, gives the theoretical distance to the radar
horizon in nautical miles:

d = 1.22 h .

Figure 1303b. Radiation diagram.

1306. Factors Affecting Radar Interpretation

Radar’s value as a navigational aid depends on the

navigator’s understanding its characteristics and
limitations. Whether measuring the range to a single
reflective object or trying to discern a shoreline lost amid
severe clutter, knowledge of the characteristics of the
Figure 1303c. Direct and indirect waves. individual radar used are crucial. Some of the factors to be
considered in interpretation are discussed below:
1304. Diffraction and Attenuation
• Resolution in Range. In part A of Figure 1306a, a
Diffraction is the bending of a wave as it passes an transmitted pulse has arrived at the second of two
obstruction. Because of diffraction there is some illumi- targets of insufficient size or density to absorb or
nation of the region behind an obstruction or target by the reflect all of the energy of the pulse. While the pulse
radar beam. Diffraction effects are greater at the lower has traveled from the first to the second target, the echo
frequencies. Thus, the radar beam of a lower frequency from the first has traveled an equal distance in the
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RADAR NAVIGATION 189

opposite direction. At B, the transmitted pulse has times be detected by reducing receiver gain to eliminate
continued on beyond the second target, and the two weaker signals. By watching the repeater during several ro-
echoes are returning toward the transmitter. The tations of the antenna, the operator can often discriminate
distance between leading edges of the two echoes is between clutter and a target even when the signal strengths
twice the distance between targets. The correct from clutter and the target are equal. At each rotation, the
distance will be shown on the scope, which is signals from targets will remain relatively stationary on the
calibrated to show half the distance traveled out and display while those caused by clutter will appear at differ-
back. At C the targets are closer together and the pulse ent locations on each sweep.
length has been increased. The two echoes merge, and Another major problem lies in determining which
on the scope they will appear as a single, large target. features in the vicinity of the shoreline are actually
At D the pulse length has been decreased, and the two represented by echoes shown on the repeater. Particularly in
echoes appear separated. The ability of a radar to cases where a low lying shore is being scanned, there may be
separate targets close together on the same bearing is considerable uncertainty.
called resolution in range. It is related primarily to A related problem is that certain features on the shore
pulse length. The minimum distance between targets will not return echoes because they are blocked from the
that can be distinguished as separate is half the pulse radar beam by other physical features or obstructions. This
length. This (half the pulse length) is the apparent factor in turn causes the chart-like image painted on the
depth or thickness of a target presenting a flat perpen- scope to differ from the chart of the area.
dicular surface to the radar beam. Thus, several ships If the navigator is to be able to interpret the presentation
close together may appear as an island. Echoes from a on his radarscope, he must understand the characteristics of
number of small boats, piles, breakers, or even large radar propagation, the capabilities of his radar set, the
ships close to the shore may blend with echoes from reflecting properties of different types of radar targets, and
the shore, resulting in an incorrect indication of the the ability to analyze his chart to determine which charted
position and shape of the shoreline. features are most likely to reflect the transmitted pulses or to
be blocked. Experience gained during clear weather
• Resolution in Bearing. Echoes from two or more comparison between radar and visual images is invaluable.
targets close together at the same range may merge to Land masses are generally recognizable because of the
form a single, wider echo. The ability to separate targets steady brilliance of the relatively large areas painted on the
close together at the same range is called resolution in PPI. Also, land should be at positions expected from the ship’s
bearing. Bearing resolution is a function of two navigational position. Although land masses are readily
variables: beam width and range to the targets. A recognizable, the primary problem is the identification of
narrower beam and a shorter distance to the objects specific land features. Identification of specific features can be
both increase bearing resolution. quite difficult because of various factors, including distortion
resulting from beam width and pulse length, and uncertainty as
• Height of Antenna and Target. If the radar horizon is to just which charted features are reflecting the echoes.
between the transmitting vessel and the target, the Sand spits and smooth, clear beaches normally do not
lower part of the target will not be visible. A large appear on the PPI at ranges beyond 1 or 2 miles because these
vessel may appear as a small craft, or a shoreline may targets have almost no area that can reflect energy back to the
appear at some distance inland. radar. Ranges determined from these targets are not reliable.
If waves are breaking over a sandbar, echoes may be returned
• Reflecting Quality and Aspect of Target. Echoes from the surf. Waves may, however, break well out from the
from several targets of the same size may be quite actual shoreline, so that ranging on the surf may be
different in appearance. A metal surface reflects radio misleading.
waves more strongly than a wooden surface. A surface Mud flats and marshes normally reflect radar pulses
perpendicular to the beam returns a stronger echo than only a little better than a sand spit. The weak echoes received
a non perpendicular one. A vessel seen broadside at low tide disappear at high tide. Mangroves and other thick
returns a stronger echo than one heading directly growth may produce a strong echo. Areas that are indicated
toward or away. Some surfaces absorb most radar as swamps on a chart, therefore, may return either strong or
energy rather that reflecting it. weak echoes, depending on the density type, and size of the
vegetation growing in the area.
• Frequency. As frequency increases, reflections occur When sand dunes are covered with vegetation and are
from smaller targets. well back from a low, smooth beach, the apparent shoreline
determined by radar appears as the line of the dunes rather
Atmospheric noise, sea return, and precipitation com- than the true shoreline. Under some conditions, sand dunes
plicate radar interpretation by producing clutter. Clutter is may return strong echo signals because the combination of
usually strongest near the vessel. Strong echoes can some- the vertical surface of the vegetation and the horizontal
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Figure 1306a. Resolution in range.

beach may form a sort of corner reflector. water, or waves breaking over a reef, may appear on the
Lagoons and inland lakes usually appear as blank areas PPI.
on a PPI because the smooth water surface returns no If the land rises in a gradual, regular manner from the
energy to the radar antenna. In some instances, the sandbar shoreline, no part of the terrain produces an echo that is
or reef surrounding the lagoon may not appear on the PPI stronger than the echo from any other part. As a result, a
because it lies too low in the water. general haze of echoes appears on the PPI, and it is difficult
Coral atolls and long chains of islands may produce to ascertain the range to any particular part of the land.
long lines of echoes when the radar beam is directed Blotchy signals are returned from hilly ground, because
perpendicular to the line of the islands. This indication is the crest of each hill returns a good echo although the valley
especially true when the islands are closely spaced. The beyond is in a shadow. If high receiver gain is used, the pat-
reason is that the spreading resulting from the width of the tern may become solid except for the very deep shadows.
radar beam causes the echoes to blend into continuous Low islands ordinarily produce small echoes. When
lines. When the chain of islands is viewed lengthwise, or thick palm trees or other foliage grow on the island, strong
obliquely, however, each island may produce a separate echoes often are produced because the horizontal surface of
return. Surf breaking on a reef around an atoll produces a the water around the island forms a sort of corner reflector
ragged, variable line of echoes. with the vertical surfaces of the trees. As a result, wooded
One or two rocks projecting above the surface of the islands give good echoes and can be detected at a much
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Figure 1306b. Effects of ship’s position, beam width, and pulse length on radar shoreline.

greater range than barren islands. PPI. This effect is greater with the wider beam widths. Note
Sizable land masses may be missing from the radar dis- that this distortion increases as the angle between the beam
play because of certain features being blocked from the radar axis and the shoreline decreases.
beam by other features. A shoreline which is continuous on Figure 1306c illustrates the distortion effects of radar
the PPI display when the ship is at one position, may not be shadow, beam width, and pulse length. View A shows the
continuous when the ship is at another position and scanning actual shape of the shoreline and the land behind it. Note the
the same shoreline. The radar beam may be blocked from a steel tower on the low sand beach and the two ships at an-
segment of this shoreline by an obstruction such as a prom- chor close to shore. The heavy line in view B represents the
ontory. An indentation in the shoreline, such as a cove or bay, shoreline on the PPI. The dotted lines represent the actual
appearing on the PPI when the ship is at one position, may position and shape of all targets. Note in particular:
not appear when the ship is at another position nearby. Thus,
radar shadow alone can cause considerable differences be- 1. The low sand beach is not detected by the radar.
tween the PPI display and the chart presentation. This effect 2. The tower on the low beach is detected, but it looks like a
in conjunction with beam width and pulse length distortion ship in a cove. At closer range the land would be detected
of the PPI display can cause even greater differences. and the cove-shaped area would begin to fill in; then the
The returns of objects close to shore may merge with tower could not be seen without reducing the receiver gain.
the shoreline image on the PPI, because of distortion effects 3. The radar shadow behind both mountains. Distortion
of horizontal beam width and pulse length. Target images owing to radar shadows is responsible for more
on the PPI are distorted angularly by an amount equal to the confusion than any other cause. The small island does
effective horizontal beam width. Also, the target images al- not appear because it is in the radar shadow.
ways are distorted radially by an amount at least equal to 4. The spreading of the land in bearing caused by beam
one-half the pulse length (164 yards per microsecond of width distortion. Look at the upper shore of the
pulse length). peninsula. The shoreline distortion is greater to the west
Figure 1306b illustrates the effects of ship’s position, because the angle between the radar beam and the shore
beam width, and pulse length on the radar shoreline. Be- is smaller as the beam seeks out the more westerly shore.
cause of beam width distortion, a straight, or nearly 5. Ship No. 1 appears as a small peninsula. Its return has
straight, shoreline often appears crescent-shaped on the merged with the land because of the beam width
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Figure 1306c. Distortion effects of radar shadow, beam width, and pulse length.

distortion. Side-lobe effects are readily recognized in that they

6. Ship No. 2 also merges with the shoreline and forms a produce a series of echoes (Figure 1307b) on each side of
bump. This bump is caused by pulse length and beam the main lobe echo at the same range as the latter. Semicir-
width distortion. Reducing receiver gain might cause cles, or even complete circles, may be produced. Because of
the ship to separate from land, provided the ship is not the low energy of the side-lobes, these effects will normally
too close to the shore. The Fast Time Constant (FTC) occur only at the shorter ranges. The effects may be mini-
control could also be used to attempt to separate the ship mized or eliminated, through use of the gain and anti-clutter
from land. controls. Slotted wave guide antennas have largely elimi-
nated the side-lobe problem.
Multiple echoes may occur when a strong echo is
1307. Recognition of Unwanted Echoes received from another ship at close range. A second or third
or more echoes may be observed on the radarscope at
Indirect or false echoes are caused by reflection of the double, triple, or other multiples of the actual range of the
main lobe of the radar beam off ship’s structures such as radar contact (Figure 1307c).
stacks and kingposts. When such reflection does occur, the Second-trace echoes (multiple-trace echoes) are
echo will return from a legitimate radar contact to the echoes received from a contact at an actual range greater
antenna by the same indirect path. Consequently, the echo than the radar range setting. If an echo from a distant target
will appear on the PPI at the bearing of the reflecting is received after the following pulse has been transmitted,
surface. As shown in Figure 1307a, the indirect echo will the echo will appear on the radarscope at the correct bearing
appear on the PPI at the same range as the direct echo but not at the true range. Second-trace echoes are unusual,
received, assuming that the additional distance by the except under abnormal atmospheric conditions, or
indirect path is negligible. conditions under which super-refraction is present. Second-
trace echoes may be recognized through changes in their
Characteristics by which indirect echoes may be recog-
positions on the radarscope in changing the pulse repetition
nized are summarized as follows:
rate (PRR); their hazy, streaky, or distorted shape; and the
erratic movements on plotting.
1. Indirect echoes will often occur in shadow sectors.
As illustrated in Figure 1307d, a target return is detect-
2. They are received on substantially constant ed on a true bearing of 090° at a distance of 7.5 miles. On
bearings, although the true bearing of the radar changing the PRR from 2,000 to 1,800 pulses per second,
contact may change appreciably. the same target is detected on a bearing of 090° at a distance
3. They appear at the same ranges as the of 3 miles (Figure 1307e). The change in the position of the
corresponding direct echoes. return indicates that the return is a second-trace echo. The
4. When plotted, their movements are usually actual distance of the target is the distance as indicated on
abnormal. the PPI plus half the distance the radar wave travels be-
5. Their shapes may indicate that they are not direct tween pulses.
echoes. Electronic interference effects, such as may occur
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RADAR NAVIGATION 193

Figure 1307a. Indirect echo.

when near another radar operating in the same frequency of similar appearance through observation of the steady rel-
band as that of the observer’s ship, is usually seen on the ative bearing of the spoke in a situation where the bearing
PPI as a large number of bright dots either scattered at ran- of the Ramark signal should change. Spoking indicates a
dom or in the form of dotted lines extending from the center need for maintenance or adjustment. The PPI display may
to the edge of the PPI. appear as normal sectors alternating with dark sectors. This
Interference effects are greater at the longer radar is usually due to the automatic frequency control being out
range scale settings. The interference effects can be distin- of adjustment. The appearance of serrated range rings indi-
guished easily from normal echoes because they do not cates a need for maintenance.
appear in the same places on successive rotations of the After the radar set has been turned on, the display may
antenna. not spread immediately to the whole of the PPI because of
Stacks, masts, samson posts, and other structures, may static electricity inside the CRT. Usually, the static electric-
cause a reduction in the intensity of the radar beam beyond these ity effect, which produces a distorted PPI display, lasts no
obstructions, especially if they are close to the radar antenna. If
longer than a few minutes.
the angle at the antenna subtended by the obstruction is more
than a few degrees, the reduction of the intensity of the radar Hour-glass effect appears as either a constriction or ex-
beam beyond the obstruction may produce a blind sector. Less pansion of the display near the center of the PPI. The
reduction in the intensity of the beam beyond the obstructions expansion effect is similar in appearance to the expanded
may produce shadow sectors. Within a shadow sector, small center display. This effect, which can be caused by a non-
targets at close range may not be detected, while larger targets at linear time base or the sweep not starting on the indicator at
much greater ranges will appear. the same instant as the transmission of the pulse, is most ap-
Spoking appears on the PPI as a number of spokes or radial parent when in narrow rivers or close to shore.
lines. Spoking is easily distinguished from interference effects The echo from an overhead power cable can be wrongly
because the lines are straight on all range-scale settings, and are identified as the echo from a ship on a steady bearing and de-
lines rather than a series of dots. creasing range. Course changes to avoid the contact are
The spokes may appear all around the PPI, or they may ineffective; the contact remains on a steady bearing, decreas-
be confined to a sector. If spoking is confined to a narrow ing range. This phenomenon is particularly apparent for the
sector, the effect can be distinguished from a Ramark signal power cable spanning the Straits of Messina.
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Figure 1307b. Side-lobe effects. Figure 1307c. Multiple echoes.

Figure 1307d. Second-trace echo on 12-mile range scale. Figure 1307e. Position of second-trace echo on 12-mile
range scale after changing PRR.

1308. Aids to Radar Navigation echoes from radar targets, other means are required for more
positive identification of radar targets. Radar beacons are
Radar navigation aids help identify radar targets and transmitters operating in the marine radar frequency band,
increase echo signal strength from otherwise poor radar which produce distinctive indications on the radarscopes of
targets. ships within range of these beacons. There are two general
Buoys are particularly poor radar targets. Weak, classes of these beacons: racons, which provide both
fluctuating echoes received from these targets are easily lost bearing and range information to the target, and ramarks
in the sea clutter. To aid in the detection of these targets, which provide bearing information only. However, if the
radar reflectors, designated corner reflectors, may be used. ramark installation is detected as an echo on the radarscope,
These reflectors may be mounted on the tops of buoys or the range will be available also.
designed into the structure. A racon is a radar transponder which emits a charac-
Each corner reflector, shown in Figure 1308a, consists teristic signal when triggered by a ship’s radar. The signal
of three mutually perpendicular flat metal surfaces. A radar may be emitted on the same frequency as that of the
wave striking any of the metal surfaces or plates will be triggering radar, in which case it is superimposed on the
reflected back in the direction of its source. Maximum ship’s radar display automatically. The signal may be
energy will be reflected back to the antenna if the axis of the emitted on a separate frequency, in which case to receive
radar beam makes equal angles with all the metal surfaces. the signal the ship’s radar receiver must be tuned to the
Frequently, corner reflectors are assembled in clusters to beacon frequency, or a special receiver must be used. In
maximize the reflected signal. either case, the PPI will be blank except for the beacon
Although radar reflectors are used to obtain stronger signal. However, the only racons in service are “in band”
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RADAR NAVIGATION 195

Figure 1308a. Corner reflectors.

beacons which transmit in one of the marine radar bands, tinuously or at intervals. The latter method of transmission
usually only the 3-centimeter band. is used so that the PPI can be inspected without any clutter
The racon signal appears on the PPI as a radial line introduced by the ramark signal on the scope. The ramark
originating at a point just beyond the position of the radar signal as it appears on the PPI is a radial line from the cen-
beacon, or as a Morse code signal (Figure 1308b) displayed ter. The radial line may be a continuous narrow line, a
radially from just beyond the beacon. broken line (Figure 1308c), a series of dots, or a series of
A ramark is a radar beacon which transmits either con- dots and dashes.

Figure 1308b. Coded racon signal. Figure 1308c. Ramark appears as broken radial line.
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RADAR PILOTING

1309. Introduction bearings and ranges for the ship’s piloting party. Care must
be taken that fixes are not taken on any nearby stationary
When navigating in restricted waters, a mariner most vessel.
often relies on visual piloting to provide the accuracy This methodology is limited by the inherent inaccuracy
required to ensure ship safety. Visual piloting, however, associated with radar bearings; typically, a radar bearing is
requires clear weather; often, mariners must navigate accurate to within about 5° of the true bearing. Therefore,
through fog. When weather conditions render visual the navigator must carefully evaluate the resulting position,
piloting impossible on a vessel not equipped with ECDIS, possibly checking it with a sounding. If a visual bearing is
radar navigation provides a method of fixing a vessel’s available from the object, use that bearing instead of the
position with sufficient accuracy to allow safe passage. See radar bearing when laying down the fix. This illustrates the
Chapter 8 for a detailed discussion of integrating radar into basic concept discussed above: radar ranges are inherently
a piloting procedure. more accurate than radar bearings. One must also be aware
that if the radar is gyro stabilized and there is a gyro error
1310. Fix by Radar Ranges of more than a degree or so, radar bearings will be in error
by that amount.
Since radar can more accurately determine ranges than Prior to using this method, the navigator must ensure
bearings, the most accurate radar fixes result from that he has correctly identified the object from which the
measuring and plotting ranges to two or more objects. bearing and range are to be taken. Using only one
Measure objects directly ahead or astern first; measure navigation aid for both lines of position can lead to disaster
objects closest to the beam last. if the navigation aid is not properly identified.
This procedure is the opposite to that recommended for
taking visual bearings, where objects closest to the beam
are measured first; however, both recommendations rest on 1312. Fix Using Tangent Bearings and Range
the same principle. When measuring objects to determine a
line of position, measure first those which have the greatest This method combines bearings tangent to an object
rate of change in the quantity being measured; measure last with a range measurement from some point on that object.
those which have the least rate of change. This minimizes The object must be large enough to provide sufficient
measurement time delay errors. Since the range of those ob- bearing spread between the tangent bearings; often an
jects directly ahead or astern of the ship changes more island or peninsula works well. Identify some prominent
rapidly than those objects located abeam, we measure rang- feature of the object that is displayed on both the chart and
es to objects ahead or astern first. the radar display. Take a range measurement from that
Record the ranges to the navigation aids used and lay feature and plot it on the chart. Then determine the tangent
the resulting range arcs down on the chart. Theoretically, bearings to the feature and plot them on the chart.
these lines of position should intersect at a point coincident Steep-sided features work the best. Tangents to low,
with the ship’s position at the time of the fix. sloping shorelines will seriously reduce accuracy, as will
Though verifying soundings is always a good practice tangent bearings in areas of excessively high tides, which
in all navigation scenarios, its importance increases when can change the location of the apparent shoreline by many
piloting using only radar. Assuming proper operation of the meters.
fathometer, soundings give the navigator invaluable infor-
mation on the reliability of his fixes. 1313. Fix by Radar Bearings

1311. Fix by Range and Bearing to One Object The inherent inaccuracy of radar bearings discussed
above makes this method less accurate than fixing position by
Visual piloting requires bearings from at least two radar range. Use this method to plot a position quickly on the
objects; radar, with its ability to determine both bearing and chart when approaching restricted waters to obtain an
range from one object, allows the navigator to obtain a fix approximate ship’s position for evaluating radar targets to use
where only a single navigation aid is available. An example for range measurements. Unless no more accurate method is
of using radar in this fashion occurs in approaching a harbor available, this method is not suitable while piloting in
whose entrance is marked with a single, prominent object restricted waters.
such as Chesapeake Light at the entrance of the Chesapeake
Bay. Well beyond the range of any land-based visual 1314. Fischer Plotting
navigation aid, and beyond the visual range of the light
itself, a shipboard radar can detect the light and provide In Fischer plotting, the navigator adjusts the scale of
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RADAR NAVIGATION 197

the radar to match the scale of the chart in use. Then he the chart, he matches the features traced from the radar with
places a clear plastic disk, sized to the radar, on the center the chart’s features. A hole in the center of the plastic
of the radar screen and quickly traces the shape of land and allows the navigator to mark the position of the ship at the
location of any navigation aids onto the plastic overlay with time the tracing was done.
a grease pencil. Taking the plastic with the tracings on it to

RASTER RADARS

1315. Basic Description screen. A pixel is the smallest area of a display that can be
excited individually.
Conventional PPI-display radars use a circular In order to produce a sufficiently high resolution,
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to direct an electron beam at a larger raster radars require over 1 million pixels per screen
screen coated on the inside with phosphorus, which glows combined with an update rate of 60 or more scans per
when illuminated by the beam. Internal circuitry forms the second. Processing such a large number of pixel elements
beam such that a “sweep” is indicated on the face of the requires a rather sophisticated computer. One way to lower
PPI. This sweep is timed to coincide with the sweep of the cost is to slow down the required processing speed. This
radar’s antenna. A return echo is added to the sweep signal speed can be lowered to approximately 30 frames per
so that the screen is more brightly illuminated at a point second before the picture develops a noticeable flicker, but
corresponding to the bearing and range of the target that the best radars have scan rates of at least 60 scans per
returned the echo. second.
The raster radar also employs a cathode ray tube; Further cost reduction can be gained by using an
however, the end of the tube upon which the picture is interlaced display. An interlaced display does not draw the
formed is rectangular, not circular as in the PPI display. The entire picture in one pass. On the first pass, it draws every
raster radar does not produce its picture from a circular other line; it draws the remaining lines on the second pass.
sweep; it utilizes a liner scan in which the picture is This type of display reduces the number of screens that
“drawn,” line by line, horizontally across the screen. As the have to be drawn per unit of time by a factor of two;
sweep moves across the screen, the electron beam from the however, if the two pictures are misaligned, the picture will
CRT illuminates the picture elements, or pixels, on the appear to jitter.
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Contents RADAR NAVIGATION