Chapter II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND FRAMEWORK

This chapter presents the related literature and studies after the

thorough and in-depth search done by the researchers. This will also

present the synthesis of the mother tongue based multi-lingual education

as predictors to teaching strategies, instructional materials and teachers’

training, theoretical and conceptual framework to fully understand the

research to be done.

Mother Tongue Based Multi-Lingual Education As a Medium of

Instruction

Devi (2007), the role of language as a medium of instruction in

promoting an effective teaching and learning is an issue that has occupied

many scholars all over the world for many years. This role of language

as a medium of instruction has been a concern mostly in countries

where immigrant children are in the minority such as United States and

Canada (Deyi, et al., 2007). It is in these countries where research

has been widely conducted and a number of legislations have been passed

and amended throughout the years. Despite such developments, debates

on the use of language persist.

Isagani Cruz (2009) states that one of the most significant and far-

reaching contributions of Secretary Jesli Lapus to the history of Philippine

 11

education, the DepEd issued Order No. 74 series of 2009, entitled

Institutionalizing Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-

MLE).

Asserting that the lessons and findings of various local initiatives

and international studies in basic education have validated the superiority

of the use of the learner’s mother tongue or first language in improving

learning outcomes and promoting Education for All. Order No. 74

institutionalizes Mother Tongue-Based MLE that is, the use of more than

two languages for literacy and instruction as a fundamental policy and

program in the whole stretch of formal education including preschool (

Cruz, 2009).

In high school, although classes will be taught in Filipino and

English, the first language will be used as an auxiliary medium of

instruction when explaining concepts and the teachers will be able to

utilize the first language to make sure students understand (Cruz, 2009).

Malone (2007), one of the latest developments in the Philippine

educational system is the Mother Tongue – Based Multilingual

Education (MTB-MLE). MTB-MLE refers to the use of students’ mother

tongue and two or more additional languages as Languages of

Instruction in school. In other contexts, the term is used to describe

bilingual education across multiple language communities each

community using its own mother tongue aside from the official school
 12

language of instruction. In South Asia, multilingual education usually

follows the first definition, learning and using multiple languages in

school. In some countries, MTB-MLE includes four languages which is

the students’ mother tongue or first language, a regional language, the

national language and an international language.

UNESCO (2003), many studies have already revealed that teaching

using the mother tongue in the early grades enhances children’s ability to

learn better compared to the use of a second or foreign language . It has

also been reported that if children are taught in languages which

are different from their home language or mother tongue, they drop out

from school, have low academic performance, and repeat classes due to a

high failure rate. Research that has been conducted on language

education has also shown that children are quicker to learn, to read, and

to acquire other academic skills when instructed in the language that they

speak at home rather than taught in an unfamiliar language (Langer,

2013).

According to Hovens (2002) that the use of mother tongue

instruction promotes more interaction in the classroom and less reliance

on traditional rote learning styles. If indeed language of instruction also

affects teaching style, local language use in the classroom may contribute

to active and interactive learning. Initial start-up costs for mother tongue

programming are higher than for traditional programs. Local language

 13

materials and texts must be created and printed, and teachers must be

trained in teaching local language literacy. However, when we consider the

costs over the entire primary school cycle, they are actually much lower

for mother tongue programs, mainly because of the decreased rates of

repetition and dropout.

Recently, in the educational reforms in the country, the mother

tongue in the regions plays an important role especially in the educational

system. To strengthen this, the Department of Education (DepEd) has

implemented the use of mother tongue as a medium of instruction

(DepEd order No. 74, series of 2009).

Problems Encountered by Teachers in Implementing Mother

Tongue - Based Instruction in a Multilingual Setting

Problems often seen in students are using limited set of words,

lack of talking subject, inability to use proper terms, inability to enrich

the speech with suitable metaphors, idioms, and proverbs, and word

misusages. Students use their mother tongue after they start the school

too. Standard spoken language is the language free of any dialects. One

of the objectives of Turkish language curriculum is to provide students

with the ability to use standard language to express themselves (Sagir,

2002: 12-13).
 14

The problems encountered in Turkish language teaching is the

teachers, as they are the ones who face the problems in the first sense

and in charge of implementation of the program. Taking the teachers’

opinions into consideration is an effective way to find solutions to the

problems. The efficiency of Turkish language teaching undoubtedly

decreases due to both problems about implementation of the

curriculum and inadequate training of the teachers (Celenk, 2002:42).

According to Pai (2005) that the teachers in Mumbai encountered

some problems upon implementing the mother tongue based

instruction. Although the teachers are trying their best to explain the

lesson using mother tongue but still there were problems encountered

upon implementing the mother tongue (Pai, 2005). This adds to the

teachers’ problem on how to address their needs (Pai, 2005). Aside from

that, Pai (2005) stresses that there are also problems they encountered

in the implementation of mother tongue - based instruction in a

multilingual setting. These are (a) absence of books written in mother

tongue, (b) lack of vocabulary, and (c) lack of teacher-training.

Translation of Target Language to Mother Tongue

It is commonly believed that translators are better at translating

into their native language than into a second language. The underlying

reason for this assumption is that translators have a more profound

linguistic and cultural background of their mother tongue than of a

 15

second language which they have to learn in order to be well-versed

translators (Skutnabb-Kangas, 2008). Skutnabb-Kangas (2008) states

that the translator who translates into his or her native language has a

more natural and practical knowledge of the various linguistic elements

of his or her native language, such as semantics, syntax, morphology

and lexicology than the translator who translates into a foreign

language. In addition, Kavaliauskiene (2009) that translation into the

first language enables translators to render cultural elements such as

proverbs, idioms, metaphors, collocations, swear words and others into

proper equivalents in their mother tongue because such translators are

born and bred in the culture into which they translate these culture-

bound aspects. In fact, the translators' first language is naturally

acquired in a culture and environment where the first language is

naturally acquired and practiced.

Translation is very beneficial to learning when it comes to

learning through the use of the students' mother tongue because it

serves as a bridge to connect students to the lesson (Kavaliauskiene,

2009). Translation is sometimes referred to as the fifth language skill

alongside the other four basic skills of listening, speaking, reading, and

writing. Translation holds a special importance at an intermediate and

advanced level: in the advanced or final stage of language teaching,

translation from first language to second language and from second

 16

language to first language is recognized as the fifth skill and the most

important social skill, since it promotes communication and

understanding between strangers (Kavaliauskiene, 2009). It is

commonly believed that translators are better at translating into their

native language than into a second language.

The above statements support the claim of Jabak, (2013) that

translator training normally focuses on translation into the mother

tongue, because higher quality is achieved in that direction than in

translating into a foreign language.

Cummins (2008), there are two main types of bilingualism. First is

the additive bilingualism. The first language is continually developed and

the home culture valued while the second language is added. Then the

subtractive bilingualism, in which the second language is added at the

expense of the first language and culture which diminish as a

consequence.

Utilization of Multi-Lingual Teaching

Multilingual teaching is when teachers use varied languages in

the whole duration of teaching for the reason of accommodating

students who do not speak a particular language and including them

in the discussion. This is defined as speaking two or more languages in

a growing worldwide phenomenon (Milambiling, 2011).

 17

According to Milambiling (2011) that multilingual language

awareness is a necessity for teachers of multilingual students. Besides

knowing about languages, subject matter, and teaching methodology,

teachers should have an understanding of the political struggles and

social circumstances of pupils. This strategy also allows the students

to explore and learn the language of others.

Milambiling (2011) further states that those who speak more than

one language are also generally more aware of sociolinguistic variables

and functions than those who speak one language, and they are adept

at switching between different regional varieties, registers, and formal

and informal language styles. This same author stated that the

advantage of being a multilingual is that it creates different kinds of

connections in the brain, which gives multilingual individuals an

advantage in some respects compared with monolingual individuals.

Instructional Materials Written in Mother Tongue

Instructional materials are the basic channel of communication

in the classroom for the purpose of bringing about effective teaching

and learning (Sunday & Joshua, 2010).

Sunday & Joshua (2010) added that the instructional resources

in teaching and learning make students learn more and retain better

what they have been taught and that these instructional resources also
 18

promote and sustain students’ interest. These resources also allow the

learners to discover themselves and their abilities.

These instructional materials are entertaining at the same time

educational and can cater to the different senses. This is one way of

motivating the class to participate during the discussion. Instructional

materials are vital to teaching-learning process (Sunday & Joshua,

2010). Teaching can only be effective when adequate and relevant

instructional materials are used (Sunday & Joshua, 2010).

According to Sunday & Joshua (2010) Instructional resources in

teaching and learning make students learn more and retain better what

they have been taught and that they also promote and sustain students’

interest. These instructional resources also allow the learners to

discover themselves and their abilities.

Remediation of Instruction

The school thought of this as best for they know that it will help

their pupils who are failing to excel or follow in the class. Having their

proof that most of the class are always participating by the help of the

mentioned strategy and that the discussion is more interactive, the

teachers concluded that this strategy is an effective one for both the

teachers and students (Milambiling, 2011).

 19

Sunday and Joshua (2010) states that their should be a remedial

class given to a learner to give them an opportunity to ask the teacher

about his/her difficulties in understanding the lesson especially when

the problem has something to do with the mother tongue the teacher is

using during the class discussion. In this case, it will also help the

pupils learn most, from utilizing their mother tongue.

It was clearly stated of Sunday and Joshua (2010) that this

remediation requires pupils to stay after class hours for an extra

learning especially for those pupils who have difficulty with the lessons

and for those who are behind in their lesson. This means that the

teacher will tutor to accommodate all the learners despite of their levels

of intelligence.

Utilization of Literary Piece Written in Mother Tongue as

Motivation
Literary pieces are used by teachers as a springboard to teach

other concepts or ideas that are beneficial to the pupils. Teachers

integrate literature within the discussion and these literary pieces are

already translated in preferred mother tongue. There are four main

reasons that lead a language teacher to use literature in the classroom

namely: valuable authentic material, cultural enrichment, language

enrichment, and personal involvement (Hismanoglu, 2005).

 20

Literature of any kind can be important for children of other

cultures and is a powerful tool to weaken and dissolve racism.

Multicultural literature can also play a very important role for teachers.

This serves as an instrument for the teachers to see first in themselves

the importance of being a multicultural person in order to appreciate

the different cultures found or emanating from the literature that they

are reading or they are teaching. Through this, they can impart to their

students the importance of having a multicultural literature so that in

turn the students will also understand and appreciate different

cultures. The teachers must be very keen in selecting the different

literatures that can show the diversities of cultures of the pupils

especially those that are found in the classroom. Multicultural literature

can be used as a tool to open pupil’s minds. It helps to stimulate an

understanding of diversity in the classroom and helps to build an

understanding of and respect for people from other cultures (Boles,

2006). Also, multicultural literature can be used to eliminate racism

(Boles, 2006).

Instructional Materials and Teacher Training.

This is the condition of having no textbooks or dictionaries in the

mother tongue that are needed to accommodate the needs of the learners

having different mother tongues. Although one of the strategies in

implementing MTB-MLE is the improvisation of instructional materials

 21

written in mother tongue, still teachers need books that are accurate and

reliable (Dekker, et al., 2008).

According to Dekker, et al (2010), that no teacher can teach

effectively without appropriate materials that are based on two

components: established government curriculum goals and pupil’s prior

knowledge, culture, and value systems. With few books available for most

of the 170 languages of the Philippines, materials development appears a

daunting task.

Books are one of the most needed materials in the learning process

of the pupils. Teaching and learning cannot be effective without adequate

and relevant use of instructional materials (Sunday & Joshua, 2010). One

of the respondents emphasized that in order to effectively implement MTB-

MLE, curriculum should be updated and textbooks and teaching materials

should be made available in advance.

In implementing MTB-MLE, goals are not being attained if there is

deficiency of materials needed; hence, there is a need for the provision of

the books and instructional materials that are helpful to the learning of

pupils which will increase their understanding. Malone (2007) stated that

literacy can only be maintained if there is an adequate supply of reading

materials.

Lack of Vocabulary implies that the teachers need to be more

fluent in order to address the needs of the pupils. This makes their
 22

learning interactive and meaningful. This means that the task of

educating children becomes much more difficult when teachers have to

face a heterogeneous group with multilingual and multicultural

background (Pai, 2005).

Malone (2007) agreed that although the teachers are trying their

best to explain the lesson using mother tongue; still, the learners

cannot interact well during the discussion because the pupils are not

that fluent in using the same mother tongues. This adds to the teachers’

problem on how to address their needs.

Training and seminars are important for teachers who are

teaching multilingual learners because they need to be oriented and

guided on how to handle learners with different languages. Also,

through training and seminars, the teacher’s knowledge is enriched

because they are being involved in the different workshops during

seminars. Seminars and training also served as an opportunity for the

teachers to learn from and interact with the different participants

(Dutcher, 2004).

Dutcher (2004) states that the teachers need training in using

first language in the classroom and that the materials have to be

appropriate, available, and interesting to the pupils, as well used. If

they are not being used learning is not progressive. Most teachers need

training in methodology so that they can exploit the advantages of

 23

teaching in the language that children can understand (Dutcher, 2004).

This means less emphasis on rote learning, repetition and copying, and

more on peer-to-peer interaction and on encouraging students to think

for themselves, read, and come to their own conclusions (Dutcher,

2004).

Learners begin their education in the language they understand

best, their mother tongue, and develop a strong foundation in this

language before other languages. Mother Tongue instruction allows

teachers and students to interact naturally and negotiate meanings

together, creating participatory learning environments that are conducive

to cognitive as well as linguistic development. In implementing the MTB-

MLE in a multilingual setting reflected in the teaching strategies like

translating of target language to mother tongue, utilizing multilingual

teaching, improvising instructional materials written in mother tongue,

remediating instruction, utilization of literary piece written in mother

tongue; and the instructional materials. Through these strategies

employed by the teachers, they are able to effectively implement the use of

MTB-MLE in helping their pupils acquire the necessary information and

learning in the classroom. These innovative strategies help the students

attain the maximum learning and helps build firm foundations, valuing

and developing the oral and written skills that young children bring to

school without rushing literacy.

 24

Children with a solid foundation in their mother tongue develop

stronger literacy abilities in the school. Their knowledge and skills will be

developed through languages. The implementation of MTB-MLE enables

the learners to use different languages for success in school and for lifelong

learning

Theoretical Framework

A concept that is key to understanding Cummins’ Common

Underlying Proficiency theory is cross-linguistic transferor simply transfer.

Transfer enables second language learners to make use of the cognitive

and linguistic skills they attained while learning to read in the first

language (L1) (Cummins, 1981). These very same skills gained during L1

reading such as visual and phonemic awareness, and speed of processing

or automaticity contribute to reading the second language (L2) and any

 25

other language, even when the languages are typologically different and/or

have different writing systems (Benson, 2008). Once they develop these

skills in one language, according to the theory, they will not need to relearn

them in their next language. The skill set will remain; the child will only

have to focus on learning the new vocabulary and grammar of the second

language. Thus, by focusing on fully developing their reading skills in the

L1, students are also facilitating learning to read in the L2.

The process of transfer also works in both directions, as can be seen

from the results of a study conducted in Niger (Hovens, 2002) with

students who only studied in French immersion programs. Yet Hovens

found they were still able to read their L1 even though they never officially

studied it as a subject. Hovens’ results from testing 1664 children, in both

traditional French immersion programs as well as in mother tongue-based

bilingual schools in Niger clearly demonstrate the power of transfer in

either direction.

All students were tested in both French and their mother tongue,

even though the students in 18the French immersion schools had never

studied their L1. Students in the French immersion schools were able to

use their L2 literacy skills to decipher and decode their L1, even though

they had never officially learned to read in their L1. It is also quite telling

that these same students actually tested better in their L1 than they did

in French, which they had been studying (Hovens, 2002).

 26

The findings from this study support the theory that initial literacy

learning is most efficient when conducted in a language the learner is

familiar with and knows how to speak because so much of the automaticity

and psycholinguistic guessing that are part of fluent reading rely on deep

understanding of the language being read (Benson, 2008). However, if the

child has underdeveloped literacy skills in the L1, they will have very little

to help them with the L2.

Cummins’ (1981) developmental interdependence hypothesis states

that “To the extent that instruction in Lx is effective in promoting

proficiency in Lx, transfer of this proficiency to Ly will occur provided there

is adequate exposure to Ly (either in school or environment) and adequate

motivation to learn Ly.” In other words, how students fare in their L2 is

intricately related to how well they have developed their L1 at the point at

which the medium of instruction switches to the L2. Cardenas-Hagan,

Carlson, and Pollard-Durodola (2007) summarize this relationship by

stating that the acquisition of L2 is mediated by the level of L1 proficiency

that children have at the time they begin to acquire L2. Thus, building a

strong foundation in the L1 is more beneficial to L2 learning than early or

long exposure to the L2. This theory maintains that the most efficient and

effective way to help children acquire literacy and become bilingual is to

invest in developing L1 language and literacy. Skutnabb-Kangas (2008)

support the developmental interdependence hypothesis, arguing that:

 27

The basis for the possible attainment of the threshold level of L2

competence seems to be the level attained in the mother tongue. If in an

early stage of its development a minority child finds itself in a foreign-

language learning environment without contemporaneously receiving the

requisite support in its mother tongue, the development of its skill in the

mother tongue will slow down or even cease, leaving the child without a

basis for learning the second language well enough to attain the threshold

level in it. There may also be a specific threshold level that, if not reached

in the L2, would prohibit children from transferring reading skills to the

L2. Clark’s Linguistic Threshold Hypothesis (LTH) suggests that L1 reading

ability only transfers to L2 reading once children have reached a certain

level, referred to as the critical threshold of L2 proficiency (Cui, 2008).

Cui (2008) suggests that in order for transfer to take place, the

transition from L1 to L2 must not happen too early. Children must have

time to fully develop their L1 reading and writing skills as well as having a

firm based in L2 vocabulary before they are able to successfully transfer

L1 literacy skills to the L2.

These theories present a strong argument in favor of using the

mother tongue as the language of instruction at the primary level before

transitioning into an official language. Research clearly indicates that

children learn both content knowledge and literacy best in the language in

which they are most familiar. The difficulty is providing these children with
 28

both the skills they need to become literate, while at the same time

teaching them oral L2 skills so that at a later point they are able to

transition into using the official language as a language of instruction.

CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
 29

Independent Variable Dependent Variable

1. Teaching Strategies
MTB-MLE
instruction a. Translation of Target

Language to Mother Tongue

b. Utilization of Multi-Lingual

teaching

c. Instructional Materials

Written in Mother Tongue

d. Remediation of Instruction
Age
e. Utilization of Literary Piece
Gender
Written in Mother Tongue as
Position
Motivation
Ethnicity
2. Instructional Materials and
Intervening Factors Teacher Training

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the study

 30

Mother language is the medium of one’s inner thoughts and

reflections. The mother tongue being the primary tool for thought

processing and knowledge acquisition is considered as the best medium

of instruction. As source of creativity and which for social expressions, the

mother language along with linguistic diversity matter for the identity of

individuals and vital for the health of societies. It opens opportunities for

dialogue necessary for understanding and cooperation. (Manila Bulletin,

Editorial Column, February 21, 2012).

One’s own language enables a child to express himself easily, as

there is no fear of making mistakes. MLE encourages lecture participation

by children in the learning process because they understand what is being

discussed and what is being ask of them. They can immediately use the

mother tongue to construct and explain their world, articulate their

thoughts and add new concepts to what they already know. (Nolasco,

2010)

Nolasco (2010) claims that the use of mother tongue in education

has shown to facilitate acquisition and literacy skills and provide the

foundation for continuing autonomous learning. In addition to outcomes

associated with learner achievement in the classroom, multilingual

education also offers a context for the maintenance of local language

acquisition and instruction, and promotes learner integration into the

 31

national society without forcing children to sacrifice their linguistic and

cultural heritage.

By using the child’s language for basic education, we start from what

they already know and build on this. Since the child is already familiar

with language used, learning to read and write becomes the focus and not

learning the medium instruction. The child can immediately use this

language to add new concepts to what she/he has already learned. Rote

memorization where the children know to “used” but do not understand

can be avoided, (Nolasco, 2010).

Language is a set of sounds with a particular meaning attached to

each sound (King, K. and Benson, C., 2010). The differences and nuances

of men in their everyday lives. According to King, K. and Benson, C. (2010)

that languages of culturally simple groups show that, phonetically and

grammatically, they are systematic and orderly. Because of these, linguists

believe that, like culture, all human groups have a language which is

unique to each group but should not be considered as inferior or superior

to the others. A language whether primitive, preliterate or modern- should

possess grammar, syntax, phonetics, vocabulary, among other things. The

main function of language is to transmit knowledge, experiences, values,

beliefs, ways of life, old and new inventions and discoveries. It has enabled

man to come up with norms which regulate his interrelationship with

 32

others; it has led to the growth and development of books and artifacts of

civilization, including the present age of computer technology (King, K. and

Benson, C., 2010)

Literature is a composition that tells a story, dramatizes a situation,

expresses emotions, analyses and advocates ideas, shaping ones goals and

values by clarifying own identities, both positively and negatively (Hull,G.

& G. Hernandez, 2010).

Hull,G. & G. Hernandez (2010) claimed literary piece written in

mother tongue enables one to know, experience, to feel the problems, the

frustrations, the needs, the capabilities, the interests, the aspirations and

the dreams of a group of people. Having indigenized instructional

materials, students find subject matter more interesting (Corpuz, 2003).

The connectedness of the classroom lessons with life outside the classroom

will be reinforced. Pupils’ cultural identity will be affirmed and validated,

thus making them feel proved of their cultural identity (Corpuz, 2003).

Teachers’ training are one factor affecting the implementation of the

mother tongue teaching (Cooper, R., 2012). As cited by Allen (2002),

trained teachers’ clearly implies that there is effectiveness in the teaching

learning process. There precepts become the vessel within which all future

teaching ideas are contained and the perspective through which new ideas

are filtered (Allen, 2002).

 33

Another factor that affects the implementation is the use of

instructional materials (Cooper, 2012). According to Cooper (2012) that

the selection of informational books can provide the depth and richness of

detail not possible in textbook coverage of the same topic. The latest

informational books are also likely to be more up-to-date than textbooks

since the process of producing and choosing textbooks may take many

months or over years. The availability of several informational books on a

single topic is important for teachers to consider because it presents ready-

made opportunities to encourage critical reading (Huck, 2011).

Huck (2011) claimed that sing informational books leads to varied

opportunities for teaching critical reading in context rather than with skill

sheets or sterile exercises. Children who have searched for information on

a topic need to synthesize and report their learning. Some of the

possibilities are ABCs, question and answer formats, guided tours, diaries

and life stories of plants, animals or machines. Not only is this usually

more fun, it often encourages more of the kind of thinking the teacher is

trying to promote (Huck, 2011).