GEOSCIENCE FRONTIERS 3(6) (2012) 737e744

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China University of Geosciences (Beijing)

GEOSCIENCE FRONTIERS
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EDITORIAL

Charnockites and charnockites

1. Introduction and Frost (2008) reviewing the varied and controversial aspects of
the term charnockite, suggested that the term charnockite should be
The continental crust, covering nearly a third of the Earth’s surface, is a general term that is applied to orthopyroxene-bearing granitic rock
dominantly made up of granites and granodiorites (Rudnick and Gao, that is clearly of igneous origin or that is present as an orthopyroxene-
2003). Although the vast majority of these granitoids are amphibole- bearing granitic orthogneiss within a granulite terrane.
and/or biotite-bearing, orthopyroxene-bearing granitoids form Although the classification of granitoid rocks involving various
a minor but important component of the lower continental crust in criteria has been the subject of frequent debate and voluminous
many high-grade terrains (e.g., Bohlender et al., 1992; Kilpatrick and literature, the different classification schemes have evolved from
Ellis, 1992; Sheraton et al., 1992; Berger et al., 1995; Zhou et al., genetic (e.g. Chappell and White, 1974) and/or tectonic (e.g. Pearce
1995; Peucat et al., 1996; Duchesne and Wilmart, 1997; Hughes et al., 1984) in nature to non-genetic and non-tectonic in nature (e.g.
et al., 1997; Prame, 1997; Frost et al., 2000; Janasi, 2002; Mendes Frost et al., 2001). IUGS, representing the vast community of geol-
et al., 2002; Percival and Mortensen, 2002; Kar et al., 2003; ogists, realized the importance in having the term charnockite to
Keppie et al., 2003; Rajesh and Santosh, 2004; Shang et al., 2004; recognize the unusual presence of orthopyroxene instead of mica or
Janou
sek et al., 2006; Mikhalsky et al., 2006; Tollo et al., 2006; amphibole, which in a granitoid rock, meant the rock was unusually
Motuza et al., 2008; Skridlait_e et al., 2008). This scenario is clearly anhydrous. It should be pointed out that a minor but considerable
evident from the early part of Earth’s history, with typical granitoid proportion of geologists do question the logic of using the term
rocks in Archean cratons, dominantly botite
amphibole-bearing charnockite for orthopyroxene-bearing granitoids. In this context, it
tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) series (Jahn et al., 1981; is significant to point out that the same people, who question the
Martin, 1994). In contrast to these gneissic rocks, orthopyroxene- validity (even the necessity) of the term charnockite to refer to
bearing granitoids constitute minor volumes mostly along Archean orthopyroxene-bearing granites, are ardent followers of the terms I-
cratonic margins (e.g. Condie et al., 1982; Bohlender et al., 1992; and S-type granites. The I-S genetic classification of granites imply
Ridley, 1992; Berger et al., 1995; Peucat et al., 1996; Shang et al., that granitic rocks have a simple crustal source, which can be
2004). consistently deduced from mineralogy and geochemistry, when in
Following the original usage by Holland (1900), IUGS (Le practice, most granitic magmas contain contributions from multiple
Maitre, 2002) recommends referring to orthopyroxene-bearing sources and the extent to which the compositional features have been
granitoids as charnockites. Like Holland, the IUGS approved defi- modified by the relative contribution between crust and mantle (e.g.
nition of charnockites recognizes the orthopyroxene-bearing gran- Kemp and Hawkesworth, 2003).
itoid variants often seen in individual charnockite plutons. These are Charnockites are generally characterized by their occurrence as
referred by using the appropriate IUGS modifier, as massive plutons with dark olive-green to greyish-green to
orthopyroxene-bearing granodiorite, orthopyroxene-bearing tonalite, brownish-green homogenous exposures with small (dm) to large
orthopyroxene-bearing monzonite, orthopyroxene-bearing quartz (km) scale enclaves (Fig. 2). In contrast to Precambrian char-
monzonite and orthopyroxene-bearing monzodiorite (Fig. 1). Frost nockites, the late Cretaceous charnockites (Zhang et al., 2010)
from the Gangdese batholith, Tibet are gray-white in color
(Fig. 2e). Metamorphic overprint is common in many Precambrian
charnockites. Often exposures vary from massive unfoliated rocks
to weak- to strongly-foliated rocks (Fig. 3). In rare circumstances,
1674-9871 ª 2012, China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking
extreme deformation is reported from charnockite plutons with
University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
orthopyroxene grains defining a strong gneissic fabric (Fig. 4).
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences The dark color and uniform granulitic texture of the charnockites,
(Beijing). as well as the general lack of planar penetrative fabrics, make it
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2012.07.001 difficult to identify the nature of their protoliths in the case of
metamorphosed charnockites.
The debate on charnockite nomenclature started with the usage of
the term incipient charnockite to refer to orthopyroxene-garnet
Production and hosting by Elsevier bearing dark greenish metamorphic dehydration zones
(Pichamuthu, 1960) which have similar appearance and mineral
738 Editorial / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 737e744

metamorphic assemblage. With supportive illustrations from litera-

ture, Touret and Huizenga (2012) review the significance of micro-
structures in resolving whether the orthopyroxene is igneous or
metamorphic in origin.
Grantham et al. (2012) follow up with a study on charnockitic
rocks from the Mesoproterozoic Natal belt in South Africa. They
recognize that the stabilization of orthopyroxene relative to biotite
in granitoid rocks is a function of low aH2O (
high CO2), high
temperature, and composition (especially Fe/(Fe þ Mg)). Field,
petrographic, mineral chemical, including p-T estimates,
geochemical and stable isotope characteristics are presented for
four different varieties of charnockites from the Natal belt. These
include mantle-derived hot differentiated melts to wet granitic melts
that have interacted with dry country rock to produce localized
charnockitic marginal facies to post-emplacement sub-solidus
varieties related to metamorphic-metasomatic or anatectic meta-
morphic processes.
The occurrence of charnockites along Archean craton margins
have attracted a plethora of studies in the literature with some
considering these charnockites as high-grade (granulite-facies)
equivalents of the low-grade (greenschist-facies) supracrustal rocks
Figure 1 Quartz-alkali feldspar-plagioclase (QAP) diagram within the cratons, probably related to a crustal thickening event (e.g.
(Streckeisen, 1974) showing the different compositional variants Bohlender et al., 1992), while others interpreting these
observed among orthopyroxene-bearing granitoids. The terms in paren- orthopyroxene-bearing granitoids as representing quartzo-
thesis are widely used in the literature. feldspathic crust that accreted to the cratons along their margins
(e.g. Peucat et al., 1989; Rollinson, 1993). The high-grade Southern
Granulite Terrain and Eastern Ghats Belt crustal provinces of
assemblage to the charnockites at the type locality in southern India,
peninsular India bordering the Archean Dharwar, Bastar and
described by Holland (1900). Such localized, dehydration zones,
Singbhum cratons are typical examples. Rajesh (2012) compiles the
occurring over a scale of centimeters to a few meters in granitoid
available geochemical data on charnockites from these two high-
gneisses (Fig. 5), have been documented in various granulite facies
grade crustal provinces. The change in composition of charnock-
terrains around the world (Newton et al., 1980; Santosh, 1986;
ites with time from Neoarchean to Neoproterozoic is used to argue
Hansen et al., 1987; St€ahle et al., 1987; McLelland et al., 1988; Todd
that the charnockite magmatism registers the crustal growth of the
and Evans, 1994; Knudsen and Lidwin, 1996; Van den Kerkhof and
Indian plate on its southern and eastern sides, along active continental
Grantham, 1999; Perchuk et al., 2000; Harlov and F€orster, 2002;
margins by accretion of arcs.
Rajesh, 2004; Ravindra Kumar, 2004; Harlov et al., 2006). Signifi-
The presence of mineral assemblages, like orthopyroxene, cli-
cantly, the geochemical studies on dehydration zones and their host
nopyroxene, amphibole and ilmenite-magnetite, that are appropriate
gneissic rocks indicate that the orthopyroxene-bearing mineral
for the calculation of intensive parameters, such as temperature,
assemblages are indeed occurring in granitoid rocks. However, as has
pressure, and oxygen fugacity, is another fascinating aspect of
been widely documented, the orthopyroxene in these rocks is
studying charnockites (Frost and Frost, 2008). In this respect, char-
a product of metamorphic dehydration reaction involving the
nockites associated with anorthosite-mangerite-charnockite-granite
breakdown of hornblende, biotite or garnet, with the appearance of
(AMCG) suites (e.g. Emslie, 1991) are interesting candidates as
orthopyroxene and/or clinopyroxene. Characteristic development of
they often also preserve olivine together with the pyroxenes. Sup-
such dehydration zones in prograde amphibolite to granulite facies
ported by petrographic and mineral chemical characteristics, Mendes
transitions, suggests that the reaction is a fundamental feature of
and De Campos (2012) carries out a detailed characterization of
granulite facies metamorphism, implying active and causal partici-
intensive parameters, including re-equilibration temperatures, of
pation of migrating fluids, especially a low-aH2O fluid (Newton,
Neoproterozoic charnockites associated with norites as part of the
1992; Santosh and Omori, 2008; Touret and Huizenga, 2012).
zoned Venda Nova pluton in SE Brazil.
Recognizing the occurrence of orthopyroxene-bearing granitoid
The second half of the special issue focuses on charnockites
rocks as massive plutons (of igneous origin) and as centimeter-scale
that are clearly metamorphic in origin (incipient charnockites).
to meter-scale dehydration patches (as part of a granulite-facies
Since the original description of vein and patchy orthopyroxene-
metamorphic assemblage), this special issue of Geoscience Fron-
bearing metamorphic dehydration zones from Kabbaldurga,
tiers is titled e charnockites and charnockites.
southern India has been a playground for studies characterizing
granulite formation on a mesosopic scale (e.g. Fig. 5; Newton
2. Special issue papers et al., 1980; Janardhan et al., 1982; Ravindra Kumar et al.,
1985; Chacko et al., 1987; Hansen et al., 1987; Santosh et al.,
The opening paper by Touret and Huizenga (2012) provides 1990; Raith and Srikantappa, 1993; Fonarev et al., 2003). Endo
a comprehensive background on the usage of the term charnockite. et al. (2012) presents a detailed phase equilibrium modeling
This study recognizes the occurrence of two types of orthopyroxene- (in the NCKFMASHTO and MnNCKFMASHTO systems) of
bearing granitoid rocks e one in which orthopyroxene crystallized patches and lenses of orthopyroxene-bearing incipient charnock-
directly from a magma, as originally defined by Holland, and the ites from Rajapalaiyam in southern India. Using pseudosections,
other in which orthopyroxene formed as part of a granulite-facies Endo et al. points out the role of oxidation conditions of the rocks
 Editorial / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 737e744 739

Figure 2 (continued).

on the stability of orthopyroxene and infiltration of a reduced fluid

(e.g. H2O þ CH4) to account for the low oxygen fugacity
conditions in the charnockite compared to the host garnet-biotite
gneiss.
The mechanism of dehydration in the orthopyroxene-bearing
dehydration zones still continues to be a matter of debate. The
debates are polarized between a fluid-absent dehydration melting
alternative, in which hydrous minerals such as biotite and horn-
blende melt incongruently to form orthopyroxene and a H2O-
bearing melt (Brown and Fyfe, 1970; Fyfe, 1973; Powell, 1983;
Lamb and Valley, 1984; Waters, 1988; Thompson, 1990; Clemens,
1992), and a fluid-presenst alternative, in which they are a product
of dehydration by an immiscible low-aH2O fluid (Newton, 1992),
that is either CO2-rich (e.g. Touret, 1971) or a Na and K concen-
trated Cl-rich brine (e.g. Newton et al., 1998) or both as coexisting
immiscible fluids (e.g. Perchuk and Gerya, 1993; Touret and
Huizenga, 2012). Harlov (2012) addresses the potential role of
fluids with a review of characteristic features of localized dehy-
Figure 2 Typical occurrences of charnockites in the field. Both dration zones from S€ ondrum in southwestern Sweden and Kigluaik
feldspars and orthopyroxene tend to have a greenish or brown hue and Mountains in Alaska likely supporting the role of CO2-rich fluids in
quartz crystals may contain rutile needles which give them the bluish the dehydration process. On the basis of a review of experimental
tinge. Examples from South Africa (a), southern India (b), Brazil (c), and natural observations from regional amphibolite- to granulite-
East Antarctica (d) and Tibet (e). A xenolith of banded gneiss occurs facies traverses from the Ivrea-Verbano Zone, Italy and lower
in the late Cretaceous charnockites from the Gangdese batholith, Archean crust in the Dharwar craton, southern India, Harlov further
Tibet. The image of the ca. 500 Ma charnockite of the Wohlthat argues for the dominant role of concentrated NaCl- and KCl-brines
massif in the central Dronning Maud Land, East Antarctica was taken for the dehydration process on a regional scale.
by Norbert Roland during the 1995/96 expedition. The width of the It must also be noted that some workers consider the fluid
view is 7 cm for (a) and 10 cm for (c). present and fluid absent alternatives for the dehydration process to
be more complimentary than exclusive (e.g. Touret and Dietvorst,
1983; Touret, 1989; Nair and Chacko, 2002). Studies on
740 Editorial / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 737e744

Figure 3 Foliated and nonfoliated charnockites from the Appalachian Blue Ridge in Virginia. Foliated types are pre- to syn-orogenic, while
nonfoliated type is post-orogenic. (a) Foliated, dominantly medium-grained, biotite þ orthopyroxene charnockite (age e 1161
10 Ma);
(b) Strongly foliated, dominantly medium-grained, hornblende þ orthopyroxene charnockite (age e 1120
12 Ma). The lighter color corre-
sponds to weathered surface; darker green at lower left is less weathered; (c) Layered, medium- to coarse-grained,
hornblende þ biotite þ orthopyroxene charnockitic gneiss (age e 1165
7 Ma); (d) Nonfoliated, dominantly medium-grained,
hornblende þ orthopyroxene charnockite (age e 1050
8 Ma). See Aleinikoff et al. (2000) and Tollo et al. (2004) for details.
 Editorial / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 737e744 741

Figure 5 Typical occurrences of dehydration zones as irregular

greenish to greenish-brown patches and veins in amphibolite-facies
Figure 4 Charnockites from the Unango Complex, NE
gneissic rocks. Examples from southern India. In (a) the host rock is
Mozambique. (a) Very coarse-grained charnockitic orthogneiss with
amphibole-biotite gneiss, while in (b) the host rock is garnet-biotite
large orthopyroxene crystals, partially altered to amphibole, with
gneiss. The feature in the center of (a) is a folded dyke in banded gneiss.
plagioclase and minor quartz. (b) Coarse pegmatitic charnockite vein,
with large ‘rusty’ orthopyroxenes and white feldspar þ quartz. Both
and 5.5 kbar clearly demonstrates where to draw the line between
photographs were taken by Gediminas Motuza.
fluid induced dehydration and partial melting in the localized
dehydration zones studied from the Limpopo Complex.
orthopyroxene-bearing dehydration zones in migmatitic gneisses Although not exhaustive, our compilation of papers for this
are certainly interesting in addressing whether the properties of special issue of Geoscience Frontiers covers significant aspects of
granitic magmas imply that the generation of orthopyroxene- charnockites occurring as orthopyroxene-bearing massive plutons
bearing patches occurred in the absence of excess pervasive and charnockites occurring as centimeter- to meter-scale dehy-
fluid (e.g. Fyfe, 1973; Powell, 1983; Lamb and Valley, 1984; dration patches (incipient charnockites). These contributions
Waters, 1988; Thompson, 1990; Clemens, 1992; Brown, 1994; suggest that orthopyroxene-bearing granitoids are an important
Stevens et al., 1997; Daczko et al., 2001; Guernina and Sawyer, rock type of the lower continental crust. One potential area of
2003; Clarke et al., 2007). On the other hand, several studies immediate interest in the understanding of charnockites is the
argued using mass balance calculations from whole-rock chemical usage of various features of individual charnockites, whether
analyses, supported by mineral assemblages and/or structural metamorphosed or un-metamorphosed, to address the origin of
evidence that in some orthopyroxene-bearing migmatites element orthopyroxene, which would have broad implications in charac-
transport by a fluid phase played an important role, with the terizing the tectonic setting and origin of these rocks.
metasomatism either preceding or accompanying anatexis (e.g.
St€ahle et al., 1987; Pattison, 1991; Hansen and Stuk, 1993;
Perchuk et al., 2000; Blattner, 2005; Hansen and Harlov, 2009). Acknowledgments
Safonov et al. (2012) present experimental results in this regard
from the local-scale orthopyroxene-bearing patches within the We thank all the authors, including those whose articles did not
Paleoarchean migmatitic Sand River biotite-hornblende gneiss reach the final stage of acceptance, for providing interesting articles
from the Central Zone of the Limpopo Complex in South Africa. covering aspects of the different charnockite types. Special mention
Experiment results on the interaction of the biotite-hornblende of gratitude goes to all the reviewers, some of whom carried out
gneiss with the H2O-CO2-(K, Na)Cl fluids at 750 and 800  C multiple reviews, whose prompt feedback on short notice were very
742 Editorial / Geoscience Frontiers 3(6) (2012) 737e744

much instrumental in deciding the direction of the special issue. Frost, B.R., Frost, C.D., Hulsebosch, T.P., Swapp, S.M., 2000. Origin of
Lily Wang at the GSF office provided valuable editorial assistance. the charnockites of the Louis Lake Batholith, Wind River Range,
Richard Tollo, Bob Nesbitt, Bob Thomas, Eugene Mikhalsky, Wyoming. Journal of Petrology 41, 1759e1776.
Zeming Zhang and Toshiaki Tsunogae are thanked for providing Frost, B.R., Arculus, R.J., Barnes, C.G., Collins, W.J., Ellis, D.J.,
Frost, C.D., 2001. A geochemical classification of granitic rocks.
images of charnockites from different areas for this Preface. Two
Journal of Petrology 42, 2033e2048.
images in Fig. 2 were obtained with kind permission of Siim Sepp Fyfe, W.S., 1973. The Granulite Facies, Partial Melting and the
from www.sandatlas.org. Archaean Crust, A273. Transactions of the Royal Society of London.
457e461.
Grantham, G.H., Mendonidis, P., Thomas, R.J., Satish-Kumar, M., 2012.
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