Why we carry out Geophysical testing of soil ?

In what circumstance which particuar type

of test is preffered ?

Geophysical testing is carriy out as a part of the initial site exploretion phase of a project to
provide supplementary information collected by widely spaced observations like borings, test
pits, etc. Testing involve measuring the physical properties of ground and determines if there are
any variations or anomalies in the ground readings.

Geophysical information can be used to help identify changes in subsurface stratigraphy, as

well as assess dynamic elastic properties of the soil. In particular, a profile of shear wave velocity
is required for assessing the site-specific response of the ground to earthquake shaking. It is also
used to help evaluate soil stiffness and density for use in assessing liquefaction potential.
Compression wave velocity can be used to determine the depth to full soil saturation.

Geophysical testing is carry out for following purposes:

- To measure vertical distribution of seismic velocity in the earth.

- To detect subsurface contrasts including mass density relationships, electric potentials,

magnetic susceptibilities and elemental decay.

- To identify the location of archeological resources and lead to their identification.

- For locating and assessing groundwater potential and its quality.

Geophysical methods:

·0 Electrical resistivity method:

-Resistivity profiling
-Resistivity sounding

·1 Seismic method:
-Reflection test
-Rafraction test

·2 Electromagnetic method:
-Frequency domain electromagnetic method
-Transient electromagnetic method

·3 Gravity geophysical method.

·4 Sesmic Cone penetration test.
·5 Seismic cross-hole test.
·6 Seismic down-hole test.
Particular type of testing is preferred under following circumstances:

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY METHOD:

We determine electrical characteristics of subsurface areas due to changes in composition and

contamination levels in soil, bedrock, and ground water.

Electrical resistivity can determine the depth of the water table and indicate where
contaminates are, as well as where faults and burdens lie in the ground below.

This method is an effective way to assess a site’s environment status and stability.

Profiling and Sounding are two types of resistivity investigations. Profiling is done to
detect lateral changes in resistivity. This throws light on the change in the subsurface
lithology or structure from place to place.

Sounding is done to determine the vertical changes in resistivity. In other words, this
study reveals changes in lithology, etc. at a particular place with increasing depth.

SEISMIC METHOD:

Seismic method Reveals What is Under the Surface.

REFLECTION TEST:

Depending upon whether reflected waves or refracted waves are used in the investigation,
there are two types of methods, namely, seismic reflection method and seismic refraction
method.

We use seismic reflection as a method of geophysical exploration that uses the principles of
seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves.
The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite, a specialized air
gun or a seismic vibrator, commonly known by the trademark name Vibroseis. By noting the time
it takes for a reflection to arrive at a receiver, it is possible to estimate the depth. Seismic
reflection is particularly suited to marine applications (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, etc.) where the
inability of water to transmit shear waves makes collection of high quality reflection data
possible even at very shallow depths that would be impractical to impossible on land.

REFRACTION TEST:

The seismic-refraction method requires that the earth in the survey area be made up of
layers of material that increase in seismic velocity with each successively deeper layer. The data
analysis becomes more complicated if the layers dip or are discontinuous. The requirement for
increasing velocity is a severe constraint for many shallow applications where low-velocity layers
are often encountered within a few meters or tens of meters below the earth's surface. For
example, a sand layer beneath clay in an alluvial valley commonly has a lower seismic velocity
than the clay, so seismic refraction cannot be used in such a situation without giving erroneous
results. The technique is cheap and often cost-effective in those cases where it works. Refraction
methods are useful in many respect such as oil exploration, prospecting for some economic
minerals, geological mapping, ground water studies and bed-rock studies at foundation sites of
civil engineering projects. In ground water studies, this method helps in detecting fractured
zones which have the potential for ground water occurrence.

A geophone an amplifier and a galvanometer are the basic units required for reflected or
refracted wave registrations.

ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD:

Electromagnetic surveys are conducted using frequency-domain or transient

electromagnetic techniques.

In the near-surface (15 to 20 feet deep), frequency-domain electromagnetic methods can be

applied to:

·7 Detecting and mapping lateral variations in the lithology of soils and rocks.

·8 Finding and mapping contaminant plumes.

·9 Locating buried metallic objects, such as tanks, drums, pipes, and utilities.

At near- to mid-surface depths of 20 to 3,000 feet, transient electromagnetic methods can

be applied to:

·10 Delineating depth and thickness of geologic and hydrologic units

·11 Detecting the water table and water quality, including salinity.

GRAVITY GEOPHYSICAL METHOD:

The Gravity method is used by GeoSearches while working in difficult settings where other,
more rapid and economical methods cannot be employed. It is an unobtrusive method capable
of performing in environmentally sensitive areas such as inside buildings and parking garages,
involve mapping voids, underground wash-outs, sink holes and other cavities.

In gravity method, the nature of distribution of gravity g on the surface is analyzed. The
gravity is influenced positively if the causative body is heavier, larger and occurs at a shallow
depth.

The gravimeter, used in relative gravity measurement is a mass loaded spring. If the
subsurface has a relatively heavier body, the gravity pull is more there (+g) and the spring
extends becoming longer. If the subsurface has relatively a lighter body there the gravity pull is
less (-g) and the spring contracts and become shorter.

The gravity method has found wide applications in geothermal energy investigations as well
as the monitoring of geothermal reservoirs under exploitation. This is because it is fairly cheap,
fast in data collection with minimum logistics preparation. The method can infer location of
faults, permeable areas for hydrothermal movement. It is however, more commonly used in
determining the location and geometry of heat sources.

Gravity investigation is preffered under following circumtances:

• Exploration of ore deposits

• In solving regional geological problem

• In exploration of oil and natural gas deposits

• Gravity investigations are carried out always during oil and gas investigations because of
their special success in that area.

• In case of engineering problems, mapping of dam sites, earthquake problems, tracing

buried river channels gravity method are considerably useful.

SEISMIC CONE PENETRATION TEST (SCPT):

Seismic Cone Penetration Testing (SCPT) sounding provides a rapid and cost-effective method for
directly measuring shear wave velocity of soils in situ. Shear wave velocity is used as an index of
liquefaction resistance since both are influenced by many of the same factors. Alternatives to
using SCPT for these geotechnical analysis can require laboratory testing or less reliable, highly
empirical assessments.

SCPT shear wave velocity measurements are used in these evaluations:

·12 Liquefaction Risk.

·13 Earthquake generated ground-surface movements.

·14 Foundations for vibrating equipment.

·15 Behavior of offshore structures due to wave loading.

SEISMIC CROSSHOLE TEST:

Crosshole testing determines the shear wave velocity of soils which provides an indication of
it’s stiffness. Until recently this method has not been commonly used for liquefaction
assessment and is relatively specialised.
 Using shear wave velocity measurements from this test, the composite stiffness of the soil –
combined stiffness of the soil and ground improvement – can be determined. This is particularly
useful for some ground improvement methods, such as Rammed Aggregate Piers, which
increase the composite stiffness of the soil to improve the performance of the ground.

Crosshole geophysical testing is useful in two key ways:

• It can be used very soon after ground improvement construction.

• It assesses soil properties that are not determined from cone penetration testing. This data
is complementary to cone penetration test data and is particularly useful when assessing the
effectiveness of the ground improvement construction.

Owing to the high cost of this test, the cone penetration test method is generally used.
However, crosshole geophysical testing may show that the ground has been suitably improved in
some cases where cone penetration tests are unable to demonstrate an equivalent level of
improvement. In addition, it may be used to verify variations of commonly accepted designs,
which can save construction time and costs.

SEISMIC DOWNHOLE TEST (DST):

This technique measures vertical changes in seismic velocity by placing a source at the top of
a borehole and measuring travel-times at multiple intervals in the borehole, usually with a 3-
component geophone.

Some of the important geotechnical design problems which require the input of the elastic
constants

and absorption properties are:

• Static and dynamic soil analysis

• Pile and Footing Foundation Design for Vibrating Loads

·16 Calculate Constrained Modulus (M), Shear Modulus (G), and Poisson’s Ratio from local
seismic velocities

·17 Calculate dynamic spring constants

• Liquefaction assessment

• Input for near-surface seismological models

• Evaluation of soil improvement from blasting

• Assessment of the regulatory requirements such as those included in the Uniform Building
Code.