Superconductividad

Física del Estado Sólido

Introducción
 Introducción
Efecto Meissner (levitacion magnética)
Introducción
Efecto Meissner
Introducción
 Introducción
Table 2 Superconductivity of selected compounds

Compo~~nd T,,in K Compound T,,in K

Nb,Sn
Nb,Ge
Nb,AI
NbN
C60
I

Introducción
Superconductores tipo I

Hc=H(1-T/Tc)

re 3 Experimental threshold
s of the critical field H,(T)
s temperature for sc\reral su-
nductors. .%specimenis super-
ucting bclow the curve and
al above the C I I ~ V . Temperature, in K
long thin specimens with long axes parallel to R,: now the demagnet~zingfield
contrihution (see Chapter 16) to B will bc negligible, whence:"
Efecto Meissner
Dentro de un superconductor se tiene, en unidades SI:

La magne6zación inducida es nega6va, por lo tanto el material se comporta como diamagné6co

The resillt B = 0 cannot be derived from the characterization of a super-
condr~ctoras a medium of zero resistivity. From Ohm's law, E = pj, we see that
if the resistivity p goes to zero while j is held finite, then E must be zero. By a
Maxwell equation clBldi is proportional to curl E, so that zero resistivity im-
plies dB/& = 0, but not B = 0. This argument is not entirely transparent, but
the result predicts that the flux through the metal cannot changc on cooling
through the transition. The Meissner effect suggests 4that perfect diamagnet-
ism is an essential property
Applicd mapctic field B,
(a!
+
11,:
of the
41 H,
supercondi~cting - 2

state.
Applied rnag~eticfield B,

\'ire expect another differe~~ce between a superconductor and a perfect

 Applied magnetic field B, in gauss

Figure 5a S~~perconductimg ~~ragnctization

Efecto Meissner
curves of annealed polycrystalline lead and lead-
indium alloys at 4.2 K. (A) lead; ( R ) lead-2.08 u*. percent indium; (C) lead-8.23 wt. percent
indinm; ( D )lad-20.4 wl, percent indium. (After Livingston.)

En superconductores tipo II aparecen un

campo critico 2 o Hc2 que tiene una
magnitud mayor que el campo crítico I, Hc1
(cuando el material comienza a ser
penetrado por el campo).

Temperature, K
Figure 5b Strong magnetic fields are within thc capability of certain Type I1 materials.
Termodinámica de la superconductividad

Temperature, K
Figure 6 E ~ ~ t r o pSyof aluminnm in the l~nrrnaland superconducting states as a function of the
Termodinámica de la superconductividad

-0.1 -
-0.2 -

0 . 3-

.C- -0.6 -
9;-0.7-
a,
4.8-
ir
4.9-
1 . 0-

-1.1 -
-1.2 - I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I

0 0.5 1.0 1.5

Ternperatue, K
Figure 7 Experilllcntal values of the fiec energy as a fimction of temperatnre fur alurninum in
the ~u~crconducting state and in the normal state. Bclow the transition tc~nperatureT, = 1.180 K
the free energy is lower in the silperconducting state. The two curves merge at thc transition tem-
 the free energy is lower in the silperconducting state. The two curves merge at thc transition tem-
perature, so that the phase transition is second order (there is 11" latent heat of transition at T,).

Termodinámica de la superconductividad
The curve F, is measured in zero magnetic field, and F> is measured in a magnetic field snfiicient
to put the specirncn in the normal state. (Courtesy of U.E. Phillips.)

1.5-
-
I I I
Gallium
I

OB, = 200G
I I I I I I I
.. I
I
I I I

- 'B,=O .& .' t

- &S" I Tc
G4. - B I
I
I
_Y' 1.0- I
I I
I

C/T = 0.596 + 0.0568 T' -

- #

- I
-

L I L 1 l L 1 l l l l l l
0 0.5 1.0
T 2 ,K~ T</T
(a) (b)
Figure 8 (a) The heat capacity of gallium in the norrnal and snpercondlcti~~g states. The normal
state (which is restored by a 200 G field) has electronic, lattice, and (at low tempenrturcs) nuclear
rluddrupole contrihntions. In (b) the electronic part C, of the heat capacitj' in the soper~vnduct-
 Gap de energía en los superconductores

Superconductor
(h
Figure 9 (a) Conduction band in the normal state: (h) enerby gap at the Fermi level in the super-
conducting state. Electrons in excited states ahove the gap hehave as normal electrons in rf Fields:
they cause resistance; at dc they are shorted out hy the superconducting electrons. The gap Ez is
-
exaggerated in the figure: tn~icallyl$ lo-' E,;.
 Figure 9 (a) Conduction band in the normal state: (h) enerby gap at the Fermi level in the super-
conducting state. Electrons in excited states ahove the gap hehave as normal electrons in rf Fields:

Gap de energía en los

- superconductores
they cause resistance; at dc they are shorted out hy the superconducting electrons. The gap Ez is
exaggerated in the figure: tn~icallyl$ lo-' E,;.

Table 3 Energy gaps in superconductors, at T = 0

second-order transition there is no latent heat, but there is a discontinuity in

Gap de energía en los superconductores

Figure 10 Reduced values of the o

energy gap E,(T)/E,(O) as a functioi
reduced temperature T/T,, after Toms
Sutton. The solid curve is drawn for
theory
verage atomic mass A4 varies from 199.5 to 203.4 atomic mass units. The tran-
is the stabilization free energy of the superconducting state.
tion terr~perature changes smoothly when
from the we mix different isotopes of the

state, at constant temperature. The argumentEfecto isotopico

In the magnetic method the stabilization free energy is found
value of the applied magnetic field that will destroy the superconducting
me element. The experimental resillts
follows. Consider the
within each series of isotopes may be
work done
(Fig. 11)on a superconductor when it is brought reversibly at constant tem-
Predicción
perature fromde la teoría BCS (where the applied field is zero) to a posi-
tted bytionarrelation of the form
a position at infinity
in the field of a permanent magnet:

M-dBo , MOT, = constant

(3) . (2)
bserved values of cu are given in Table 4

a) Superconductor tipo I

b) Superconductor tipo II

Superconductor phase
_=aJ
jm = H, -\~ormal phase
(coexistingin
equilibrium)

Figure 11 (a) A superconductor in which the Meissner effect is complete has B = 0, as if the
magnetization were M = -B,14~, in CGS units. (h) When the applied field reaches the value B.,
the normal state can coexist in equilibrium with the superconducting state. In coexistence the free
 in TP, Chapter 8.
Termodinámica de la transición de fase
For a superconductor with M = -M .dB, ,
dFrelated to B, by ( 1 ) we have (4)
in TP, Chapter 8. superconductor-normal
For a superconductor with M This
per unit volume of specimen. related to B, by
work appears ) we have
( 1energy
in the of the magnetic
El trabajo hecho
field. porthermodynamic
The el campo sobre elidentity
material for
se expresa como: is
the process

= -M .dB, ,
The increase in the free energydF
density of the superconductor is (4)
as in TP, Chapter 8.
En SI queda:
For a superconductor with M related to B, by ( 1 ) we have
The increase in the free energy density of the superconductor is

on being brought
El incremento de lafrom a libre
energía position where the applied
en el superconductor es: field is zero to a position
The increase
where in the
the applied fieldfree
is B,.energy density of the superconductor is
Now consider a normal nonmagnetic metal. If we neglect the small
susceptibility4Theofincrease
a metalinin thethe
free energystate,
normal density of the
then Msuperconductor is
= 0 and the energy of the
En el metal normal:
normal metal isfrom
n being brought independent
a position of field.
whereAt the
thecritical
applied field we have
field is zero to a position
here the applied field is B,. FN(B,) = FN(O) . (7)
 The results ( 6 ) and (7) are all we need to determine the stabilization
Termodinámica de la transición de fase
energy of the superconducting state at absolute zero. At the critical value B,,
of the applied magnetic field the energies are equal in the normal and super-
superconductor-normal
conducting states:

Entonces:
In SI units H , = B,,/p,, whereas in CGS units H, = B,,.
The specimen is stable in either state when the applied field is equal to
Por tanto:
the critical field.
In SI units Now by ( 7whereas
H , = B,,/p,, )it follows
in CGSthat
units H, = B,,.
The specimen is stable in either state when the applied field is equal to
10 Superconductivity
the critical field. Now by ( 7 )it follows that

4This is an adequate assumption for type I superconductors. In type I1 superconductors in

high fields the change
4This is aninadequate
spinFNparamagnetism
assumption for typeof the conduction
I superconductors. electrons
In type lowers the
I1 superconductors in energy of the
highsignificantly b
.- In
fields the change in spin paramagnetism of thetype
conduction electrons lowers thethe energy of the critical field is
normal phase 2 some, hut not all, I1 superconductors
Figure the
12 Tlrc frcecritical
upper
energy field
densityisF, of a nonmag-
normal phase significantly
-8 In some, hut not all, type I1 superconductors upper
limited by this effect.
limited by this Clogston
p
effect. hashas
Clogston suggested that
suggested that H,,(max)
H,,(max) netic18,400
= T,,
normal metal iswhere
= 18,400 T,,where H,, is in gauss and
is in gauss
H,,independent
approximately of tlrc and
T,in K. T,in K. c
intensity of the applied magnetic field B,. At a temper-
ature T : T, the nlctal is a superconductor in zero mag-
a,
e,
Lr,
netic field, so that FJT, 0) is Iowver than F,(T, 0). AII
applied magnetic field increases Ii, by A ~ X T , in CGS
~mits,so that Fs(T, B,) = FF(T,0 ) + B;/Xv. If B, is larger
than the critical field R,, the free energy density is
lowcr in the normal state than in the superconducting
I
state, and now the rror~~ral state is the stable state. The
B,
origin of the vertical scale in the drawing is at Fs(T, 0).
Applied magnetic field B, -+
The figurc cqually applies to Usand U, at ?' = 0.
 0)
is the
nits
is speed
we
understood
write
of light andto
-Up,+!. Thus
A, be
Ecuaciones
written
is a constant with
with the de London
vector
the dimensions po-
of length.
inInHere
which div A = 0, and A, = 0 on any external
c is the speed of light and A, is a constant with the dimensions of length.
SI unitsSiwe! write
= #$%& entonces:
-Up,+!. Thus
ternal
j = --A current
C
C ; is fed. The subscript n denotes the
(CGS) 4TrA;
j = --A ;
rface. Thus 4TrA;div j = 0 and j, = 0, the actual physi-

etheThis
form is the (10)
London London applies
equation. WeWe
equation. to
expressa simply
express itit another
anotherwayconnected
way by taking
by taking super-
the
the curl of curl of
both Por to
sides tanto:
obtain
des to obtain
may be present in a ring or- cylinder, but (11) - a
-
(SI) curl j = -- 1 B1
C - a

ometry.
(CGS) curl j =C - -B
curl j = - -B 4 5 ~;~ :
;
(SI) curl j =g,+: -- B
(11)
(11)
ondon 4 5 ~ ~ : leads to the Meissner g,+:
equation effect. By a
The London equation (10) is understood to be written with the vector po-
hattential in the London gauge in which div A = 0, and A, = 0 on any external
e London equation (10) is understood to be written with the vector po-
Dethrough
surface las ecuaciones
which no deexternal
Maxwellcurrent
se tieneis que:
fed. The subscript n denotes the
incomponent
the London normalgauge
to the in which
surface. ThusdivdivAj =
=00,and j, =A,
and = 0actual
0, the on any
physi-external
through which
cal boundary no external
conditions. The formcurrent is fed.
(10) applies to aThe subscript
simply denotes the
connectedn super-
conductor;
nent normaladditional terms may
to the surface. be present
Thus div j = in 0a and
ring j,
or cylinder,
= 0, thebut (11) physi-
actual
holds true independent of geometry.
ndaryFirst
conditions. The
we show that the form
London(10) applies
equation leadsto a simply
to the Meissnerconnected
effect. By a super-
tor; additional
Maxwell equationterms
we knowmaythat be present in a ring or cylinder, but (11)
 penetration depth A is defined as the distance in
under static conditions.
- Wefield
which the

air1 curl
take the curl
decreases
Ecuaciones
of both
by the

B = - V'Bde=London
factor sides
cally, A 500 A in a pure superconductor.
k ,curl j
to obtain
[Link]-

;
(CGS)
Entonces: curl curl B = -V'B Figure
= 13 jPenetration
curl ; of an applied magnetic
fieldIf B(0)
n the positive side of the x axis, as in Fig. 13. into ais semi-infinite
the superconductor. The
air1iscurl B = - V'Bpenetration j ; A is defined as the distance in
= k ,curldepth
-
undary, then the field inside
ay be combined with the London whichequation (11)bytothegive
the field decreases factor for as
[Link]
cally, A 500 A in a pure superconductor.
or Y combinando esta ecuacion con la obtenida para !"# $ nos queda:
which may
n of (13). Inbe
thiscombined withmagnetic
example the the London
field isequation
assumed(11)
to to give for a super-
conductor
oundary. Thus we see hL measures the depth of penetration
occupy the space on the positive side of the x axis, as in Fig. 13. If B(0) is the
ld; it isDonde
known as the London penetration depth. Actual
obtenemos:
ield at the plane boundary, then the field inside is
equation
are is seen
not described to account
precisely by hL alone, forforthe Meissner effect because it
the London
own This
to be equation
somewhatisoversimplified.
seen to account It is for theby
shown Meissner
compari-effect because it does
w a solution uniform in space, so that a uniform magnetic field c
not
1) allow
that a solution uniform in space, so that a uniform magnetic field cannot
Siendo:
aexist
orsuperconductor.
this
in is a solution of That
a superconductor. is,
ThatIn
(13). B(r)
is,this
B(r) == BoBo
example = the constant
= magnetic
constant aissolution
is notfield not a ofsoluti
is assumed to
be4ss
mparallel
(13) qthe
2 ) u 2constant
unless to the
; the boundary.
field
constant Bo
field Thus
Boisis identically
identically measures
we see hLzero. zero. Thethe depth
The result followsofbecause
result penetration
follows be
 little effect of B, on the energy density of the superconducting state, so that
(6) does not apply.
- - . I t follows that the critical field H, of thin films in parallel

Ecuaciones de London
magnetic fields will be very high

Table 5 Calculated intrinsic coherence length and

London penetration depth, at absolute zero

Intlins~cPippard London
coherence penetration
length 50, depth A,,
Metal in cm in 10-%m A~/50

Sn 23. 3.4 0.16

A1 160. 1.6 0.010
Pb 8.3 3.7 0.45
Cd 76. 11.0 0.14
Nb 3.8 3.9 1.02

After R. Meservey and B. B. Schwartz.

La longitud de coherencia es la distancia en la cual la concentracion de electrones no cambia cuando hay
variacion espacial del campo magnético
 We compare the plane wave $(x) = dkXwith the strongly modula
kinetic energy. A modillation of an cigcnfunction increases the kinetic energy
restrict the spatial variation of j ( r ) in such a way that thc cxtra energy is less
vcfunction: because the modulation will increase the integral of d'p/dx2. It is reasonable to
Ecuaciones de London
than the stabilizatiori energy of the superconducting state.
restrict the spatial variation of j ( r ) in such a way that thc cxtra energy is less
We compare
Si se &ene una funcion
We de
,(,) 2-112
the plane
than the stabilizatiori
onda dethe
compare
wave
energy
la forma
=of the$(x)
plane!wave
" = $%
superconducting
(e:(kiq)r + &)
= dkXwith
&'( entonces:
$(x) =
state. the, strongly modulated
dkXwith the strongly modulated (1
wavcfunction: wavcfunction:
e probability dcnsity associated ,(,) = 2-112
,(,) with
= 2-112 (e:(kiq)r the
(e:(kiq)r ++&)plane wave is(15a)
&) , , u~iiforrrl
(15a)in spa
$ =The
e-"' eik
Calculamos 1 , whereas
= probability
The
ahora la densidad dcnsity
de q * q is
associated
probabilidad: modulated
with with
the plane wave the
is u~iiforrrl
probability dcnsity associated with the plane wave is u~iiforrrlin space:
wavevector
in space: q :
$*$ = e-"' eik = 1 , whereas q * q is modulated with the wavevector q :
$*$ = e-"' eik = 1 , whereas
p*q = ;p*q( , - N=qk ;+*
( ,q
q +is
- N)k x
modulated
,-ik~)(~iik+ql'
q)x +
with
+ ,-ik~)(~iik+ql'
+&I)
the wavevector
+&I)
q:
p*q ++,-ik~)(~iik+ql'
N ki+(q2) x+ eiQX
= ; ( , -= e-qX) = 1 + cos+qx
& I ).

+ eiQX+ e-qX) = 1 + cos qx

(15b)
= i(2 . (1
= i ( 2 + eiQX+ e-qX) = 1 + cos qx .
The kinetic energy of the wave $ ( x ) is 6 = fi2k2/2m;thc kinctic energy of (15b)
the rrlodulated density distribution is higher, for
La energía cinética viene dada por:
The kinetic energy
The kinetic energyofofthe
the wave ) is
wave $ $( x()xis = fi2k2/2m;
6 =6fi2k2/2m; thc kinctic
thc kinctic energy ofenergy
e rrlodulated density
the rrlodulated distribution
density distribution isishigher,
higher, for for

where we neglcct q' for q < k.

The increase of energy requircd to modulate is R?kq/2nx. If this increase
ncrease of energy requircd to modulate is R?kq/2nx. If this increase
Ecuaciones will
e energy gap E,, s~spercondnctivity de be
London
destroyed. The critical
10 Superco
10 Superconductivity
the modulation wavevector is given by
Entonces:

We define
We define an intrinsic coherence
an intrinsic coherencelength 5, related5,torelated
length the critical
tomodu-
the critical
lation by 5, = lly,. W7efrave
5, = lly,. W7efrave
on byLuego:

where c Fis the electron vclocity at the Fermi surface. On the BCS theory a
ere csimilar result
Flaisteoria
the isobtiene:
found: vclocity at the Fermi surface. On the BCS
electron t

u
De BCS se

milar result is found: to= z l i o d ~ E ,.

Calculated values of 5, from (17) are =
u to p eznl ini o d ~
Table E5.$,.The intrinsic coherence
(17)

Donde !" es la longitud de coherencia intrínseca que se define como: !" = , que es la longitud de coherencia de un
length to is characteristic of a pure superconductor. %&
superconductor puro. Los superconductores con impurezas tienen una longitud de coherencia igual a !.
In impure materials and in alloys the coherence length 5 is shorter than 6".
1957 papers of Bardeen, Cooper, and Schriefler. There is a "BCS theory of

Ecuaciones de London
superconductivity" with a very wide range of applicability, from He3 atoms in
their conderlsed $lase, to type I and type I1 metallic superconductors, and to
high-temperature supercondnctors hased on planes of cuprate ions. Further,

Figure 14 Penetration depth A a

length 6 as fi~nctinnsof the mean
0.2
I
conduction electrons in the n
0.1 lenbehma in units of $, the in
length. The mNpS are sketched f
0 1 I short mean free ~ a t h sthe cohe
0 1 2 comles sl~orterand thc penetratio
-
[-. longer The increase in the ratio d
50 superconductivity.
 Teoria BCS
(Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer, 1957)

Robert R Schrieffer
John Bardeen Leon N Cooper

Pares de Cooper que no son dispersados al moverse en la red debido a la energía

intercambiada con los fonones.
 Teoria BCS
(Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer, 1957)
La red al deformarse (fonones) entrega una energía que es suficiente para superar la repulsión electrostática entre
dos electrones y asi se forma el par de Cooper, estos tienen simetría ya que tienen espines opuestos y están
separados una distancia igual a la longitud de coherencia. Las funciones de onda que describen los pares de Cooper
se expresan como:
! "# , %# , … "' , %' = ) "# , %# , "* , %* …. ) "'+# , %'+# , "' , %'

Para cada uno de los N/2 pares. Pero para que se pueda representar estas deben ser funciones antisimetricas que
cumplan con el principio de exclusion de Pauli, por tanto la función que representa el estado de los pares de Cooper
se expresa como:
!,-. = ℌ!

Cada electrón que forma el par de Cooper se representa por una función simétrica ) " − "´ entonces:

1
2 " − "´ = 5 26 7 86.: 7 86.:´
4
6
 Teoria BCS
(Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer, 1957)
Por tanto ! es la superposición de productos con un nivel electrónico en cada termino del cual electrones con
opuesta función de onda forman un par. La separación entre electrones es menor que la longitud de
coherencia "# entonces:
() (,
∆= &' = & *+
= +
&-=./ &(

Entonces:

ℏ ℏ./ 1 5/
&# ~ ~ ~
&- Δ 4/ ∆

Siendo 5/ ~107 8 109 veces la magnitud de ∆, y 4/ ~10: cm-1, entonces "# ~107 Å.̇