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Review Article

The diagnosis of brain death

Ajay Kumar Goila, Mridula Pawar
Abstract

Physicians, health care workers, members of the clergy, and laypeople throughout the world have accepted fully that
a person is dead when his or her brain is dead. Although the widespread use of mechanical ventilators and other
advanced critical care services have transformed the course of terminal neurologic disorders.Vital functions can now
be maintained artificially for a long period of time after the brain has ceased to function. There is a need to diagnose
brain death with utmost accuracy and urgency because of an increased awareness amongst the masses for an early
diagnosis of brain death and the requirements of organ retrieval for transplantation. Physicians need not be, or consult
with, a neurologist or neurosurgeon in order to determine brain death.The purpose of this review article is to provide
health care providers in India with requirements for determining brain death, increase knowledge amongst health
care practitioners about the clinical evaluation of brain death, and reduce the potential for variations in brain death
determination policies and practices amongst facilities and practitioners. Process for brain death certification has been
discussed under the following: 1. Identification of history or physical examination findings that provide a clear etiology
of brain dysfunction. 2. Exclusion of any condition that might confound the subsequent examination of cortical or brain
stem function. 3. Performance of a complete neurological examination including the standard apnea test and 10 minute
apnea test. 4. Assessment of brainstem reflexes. 5. Clinical observations compatible with the diagnosis of brain death. 6.
Responsibilities of physicians. 7. Notify next of kin. 8. Interval observation period. 9. Repeat clinical assessment of brain
stem reflexes. 10. Confirmatory testing as indicated. 11. Certification and brain death documentation.

Key words: Apnoea test, brain stem function, brain stem reflexes, confounding and compatible conditions

DOI: 10.4103/0972-5229.53108

Introduction There is a clear difference between severe brain damage

and brain death. The physician must understand this
In the practice of critical care, ‘the care of a severely
difference, as brain death means that life support is
brain injured patient ‘ is one of the toughest challenges futile, and brain death is the principal prerequisite for
for a critical care physician. Initial therapy provided for the donation of organs for transplantation.
patients with severe brain injury or insult, is directed
towards preservation and restoration of neuronal This review focuses on the clinical determination
function. When this primary treatment is unsuccessful of brain death in adults and children, including the
and the patient’s condition evolves to brain death, the potential confounding factors, and provides an overview
of valid confirmatory tests
critical care physician has the responsibility to diagnose
brain death with certainty and to offer the patient’s
Evolution of the criteria for brain death
family the opportunity to donate organs and / or tissues.
Historically death was defined by the presence of
putrefaction or decapitation, failure to respond to
From:
Department of Anesthesia, Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia Hospital, painful stimuli, or the apparent loss of observable
New Delhi-110 001, India cardio respiratory action. The widespread use of
Correspondence: mechanical ventilators that prevent respiratory arrest has
Dr. Ajay Kumar Goila, E-mail: [email protected] transformed the course of terminal neurologic disorders.

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Indian J Crit Care Med January-March 2009 Vol 13 Issue 1

Vital functions can now be maintained artificially after function and electroencephalographic testing,
the brain has ceased to function. In 1968, an ad hoc like anaesthetic agents, neuroparalytic drugs,
committee at Harvard Medical School reexamined methaqualone, barbiturates, benzodiazepines,
the definition of brain death and defined irreversible high dose bretylium, amitryptiline, meprobamate,
coma, or brain death, as unresponsiveness and lack of
trichloroethylene, alcohols.
receptivity, the absence of movement and breathing, the
d. Brain stem encephalitis.
absence of brain-stem reflexes, and coma whose cause
e. Guillain- Barre’ syndrome.
has been identified.
f. Encephlopathy associated with hepatic failure,
Definition uraemia and hyperosmolar coma
g. Severe hypophosphatemia.
Brain death is defined as the irreversible loss of all
functions of the brain, including the brainstem. The
3. Performance of a complete neurological examination.
three essential findings in brain death are coma, absence
of brainstem reflexes, and apnoea. An evaluation for Components of a complete neurological examination
brain death should be considered in patients who are:
have suffered a massive, irreversible brain injury of i. Examination of the patient- absence of spontaneous
identifiable cause. A patient determined to be brain dead movement, decerebrate or decorticate posturing,
is legally and clinically dead. seizures, shivering, response to verbal stimuli,
and response to noxious stimuli administered
The diagnosis of brain death is primarily clinical. No through a cranial nerve path way.
other tests are required if the full clinical examination, During the examination spinal reflexes may be
including each of two assessments of brain stem reflexes
present.
and a single apnoea test, are conclusively performed.
ii. Absent pupillary reflex to direct and consensual
light; pupils need not be equal or dilated. The
Determination of brain death
pupillary reflex may be selectively altered by
The process for brain death certification includes eye trauma, cataracts, high dose dopamine,
1. Identification of history or physical examination glutethamide, scopolamine, atropine, bretilium
findings that provide a clear etiology of brain or monoamine oxidase inhibitors.
dysfunction. iii. Absent corneal, oculocephalic, cough and gag
The determination of brain death requires reflexes. The corneal reflex may be altered as a
the identification of the proximate cause and result of facial weakness.
irreversibility of coma. Severe head injury, iv. Absent oculovestibular reflex when tested with
hypertensive intracerebral hemorrhage, aneurysmal 20 to 50 ml. Of ice water irrigated into an external
subarachnoid hemorrhage, hypoxic-ischemic brain auditory canal clear of cerumen, and after
insults and fulminant hepatic failure are potential elevating the patients head 30’. Labyrinthine injury
causes of irreversible loss of brain function. or disease, anticholinergics, anticonvulsants,
The evaluation of a potentially irreversible coma tricyclic antidepressants, and some sedatives may
should include, as may be appropriate to the alter response.
particular case; clinical or neuro-imaging evidence v. Failure of the heart rate to increase by more than
of an acute CNS catastrophe that is compatible with 5 beats per minute after 1- 2 mg. of atropine
the clinical diagnosis of brain death; intravenously. This indicates absent function of
the vagus nerve and nuclei.
2. Exclusion of any condition that might confound the vi. Absent respiratory efforts in the presence of
subsequent examination of cortical or brain stem hypercarbia.
function. The conditions that may confound clinical Generally, the apnoea test is performed after the
diagnosis of brain death are: second examination of brainstem reflexes.
a. Shock/ hypotension The apnoea test need only be performed once
b. Hypothermia -temperature < 32°C when its results are conclusive. Before performing
c. Drugs known to alter neurologic, neuromuscular the apnoea test, the physician must determine that

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Indian J Crit Care Med January-March 2009 Vol 13 Issue 1

the patient meets the following conditions: an Fi02 of 1.0 and normalization of patients PaCO2
• Core temperature ≥ 36.5°C or 97.7°F to 40 mmHG.
• Euvolemia. Option: positive fluid balance in the
previous 6 hours Assessment of brainstem reflexes
• Normal PCO2. Option: arterial PCO2 ≥ 40 mm Hg 1. Pupils- no response to bright light Size: midposition
• Normal PO2. Option: pre-oxygenation to arterial (4 mm) to dilated (9 mm) (absent light reflex - cranial
PO2 ≥ 200 mm Hg nerve II and III)
2. Ocular movement- cranial nerve VIII, III and VI
After determining that the patient meets the above • No oculocephalic reflex (testing only when no
prerequisites, the physician should conduct the apnoea fracture or instability of the cervical spine or skull
test as follows:
base is apparent)
1. Connect a pulse oximeter and disconnect the
• No deviation of the eyes to irrigation in each ear
ventilator.
with 50 ml of cold water (tympanic membranes
2. Deliver 100% O2, 6 l/min, into the trachea. Option:
intact; allow 1 minute after injection and at least
place a cannula at the level of the carina.
5 minutes between testing on each side)
3. Look closely for any respiratory movements
3. Facial sensation and facial motor response
(abdominal or chest excursions that produce
• No corneal reflex (cranial nerve V and VII)
adequate tidal volumes).
• No jaw reflex (cranial nerve IX)
4. Measure arterial PO 2 , PCO 2 , and pH after
• No grimacing to deep pressure on nail bed,
approximately 8 minutes and reconnect the
supraorbital ridge, or temporo-mandibular joint
ventilator.
(afferent V and efferent VII)
5. If respiratory movements are absent and arterial
4. Pharyngeal and tracheal reflexes (cranial nerve IX
PCO2 is ≥ 60 mm Hg (option: 20 mm Hg increase
and X)
in PCO2 over a baseline normal PCO2), the apnoea
• No response after stimulation of the posterior
test result is positive (i.e. it supports the diagnosis
pharynx
of brain death).
• No cough response to tracheobronchial suctioning
6. If respiratory movements are observed, the apnoea
test result is negative (i.e. it does not support the
clinical diagnosis of brain death). Clinical observations compatible with the diagnosis
7. Connect the ventilator, if during testing of brain death:
The following manifestations are occasionally seen and
• the systolic blood pressure becomes < 90 mm Hg
should not be misinterpreted as evidence for brainstem
(or below age appropriate thresholds in children
function:
less than 18 years of age)
i. spontaneous movements of limbs other than
• or the pulse oximeter indicates significant oxygen
pathologic flexion or extension response
desaturation,
ii. respiratory-like movements (shoulder elevation
• or cardiac arrhythmias develop;
and adduction, back arching, intercostal expansion
without significant tidal volumes)
Immediately draw an arterial blood sample and
analyze arterial blood gas. iii. sweating, flushing, tachycardia
• If PCO2 is ≥ 60 mm Hg or PCO2 increase is ≥ 20 mm iv. normal blood pressure without pharmacologic
Hg over baseline normal PCO2, the apnoea test result support or sudden increases in blood pressure
is positive (it supports the clinical diagnosis of brain v. absence of diabetes insipidus
death). vi. deep tendon reflexes; superficial abdominal reflexes;
• if PCO2 is < 60 mm Hg and PCO2 increase is < triple flexion response
20 mm Hg over baseline normal PCO2, the result vii. Babinski reflex
is indeterminate and a confirmatory test can be
considered. Responsibilities of Physicians Determining
• When appropriate a 10 min. apnoea test can be Brain Death
performed after preoxygenation for 10 minutes with The diagnosis of brain death is primarily clinical. No

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Indian J Crit Care Med January-March 2009 Vol 13 Issue 1

other tests are required if the full clinical examination, • Angiography (conventional, computerized
including each of two assessments of brain stem reflexes tomographic, magnetic resonance, and radionuclide):
and a single apnoea test, is conclusively performed. In Brain death confirmed by demonstrating the absence
the absence of either complete clinical findings consistent of intracerebral filling at the level of the carotid
with brain death, or confirmatory tests demonstrating
bifurcation or Circle of Willis. The external carotid
brain death, brain death cannot be diagnosed and
circulation is patent, and filling of the superior
certified. These guidelines apply to patients one year of
age or older. sagittal sinus may be delayed.
• Radionuclide angiography (CRAG) does not
Notify Next of Kin adequately image vasculature of the posterior fossa.
The facility must make diligent efforts to notify • MRI angiography can be quite challenging in an ICU
the person closest to the patient that the process for patient because of magnet incompatibility with lines,
determining brain death is underway. Consent need not ventilator tubing and other hardware.
be obtained but requests for reasonable accommodation • Cerebral arteriography: This test is often difficult to
based on religious or moral objections should be noted perform in a critically ill, unstable patient.
and referred to appropriate hospital staff. Where family • Electroencephalography: Brain death confirmed
members object to invasive confirmatory tests, physicians
by documenting the absence of electrical activity
should rely on the guidance of hospital counsel and the
during at least 30 minutes of recording that
ethics committee.
adheres to the minimal technical criteria for EEG
recording in suspected brain death as adopted by
Interval Observation Period
After the first clinical exam, the patient should be the American Electroencephalographic Society,
observed for a defined period of time for clinical including 16-channel EEG instruments. The ICU
manifestations that are inconsistent with the diagnosis of setting may result in false readings due to electronic
brain death. Most experts agree that a 6 hour observation background noise creating innumerable artifacts.
period is sufficient and reasonable in adults and children • Nuclear brain scanning: Brain death confirmed by
over the age of 1 year. Longer intervals are advisable in absence of uptake of isotope in brain parenchyma
young children. and/or vasculature, depending on isotope and
technique used. (“hollow skull phenomenon”).
Repeat Clinical Assessment of Brain Stem Reflexes • Somatosensory evoked potentials: Brain death
The examination as described above should be repeated confirmed by bilateral absence of N20-P22 response
in full and documented. When clinical circumstances
with median nerve stimulation. The recordings
prohibit completion of any steps in the clinical
should adhere to the minimal technical criteria
examination, these should be documented.
for somatosensory evoked potential recording in
Confirmatory Testing as Indicated suspected brain death as adopted by the American
When the full clinical examination, including both Electroencephalographic Society.
assessments of brain stem reflexes and the apnoea test, is • Transcranial doppler ultrasonography: Brain death
conclusively performed, no additional testing is required confirmed by small systolic peaks in early systole
to determine brain death. without diastolic flow, or reverberating flow,
indicating very high vascular resistance associated
In some patients, skull or cervical injuries, cardiovascular with greatly increased intracranial pressure.
instability, or other factors may make it impossible • Since as many as 10% of patients may not have
to complete parts of the assessment safely. In such temporal insonation windows because of skull
circumstances, a confirmatory test verifying brain death
thickness, the initial absence of Doppler signals
is necessary. These tests may also be used to reassure
cannot be interpreted as consistent with brain death.
family members and medical staff.

Any of the suggested tests may produce similar results Certification of Brain Death
in patients with catastrophic brain damage who do not Brain death can be certified by a single physician
fulfill the clinical criteria of brain death. The confirmatory privileged to make brain death determinations.
tests are. However, before a patient can become an organ donor,

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Indian J Crit Care Med January-March 2009 Vol 13 Issue 1

New York State law requires that the time of brain death (U.L.A.) 589 (West 1993 and West Supp. 1997).
2. Guidelines for the determination of death: Report of the medical
must be certified by the physician who attends the donor
consultants on the diagnosis of death to the President’s commission for
at his death and one other physician, neither of whom the study of ethical problems in medicine and biomedical and behavioral
shall participate in the process of transplantation. This research. JAMA 1981;246:2184-6.
requirement ensures that all evaluations meet accepted 3. The Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of
Neurology. Practice parameters: Determining brain death in adults.
medical standards, and that all participants can have Neurology 1995;45:1012-4.
confidence that brain death determination has not been 4. Florida State Statutes. Available from: http://www.leg.state.fl.us/
influenced by extraneous factors, including the needs of statutes. [cited in 2004].
5. Withholding and withdrawal of life sustaining equipment: Patient with
potential organ recipients. brain death for adults and minors. Orlando regional healthcare policy
#1725. Revision date 1/04.
When two physicians are required to certify the time 6. Wijdicks EF. Determining brain death in adults. Neurology
1995;45:1003-11.
of death, i.e., when organ donation is planned, both 7. Wijdicks EF. The diagnosis of brain death. N Engl J Med 2001;344:1215-
physicians should affirm that the clinical evaluation 21.
meets accepted medical standards, and that the data fully 8. Belsh JM, Blatt R, Schiffman PL. Apnea testing in brain death. Arch
Intern Med 1986;146:2385-8.
support the determination of brain death. Generally, both 9. Goudreau JL, Wijdicks EF, Emery SF. Complications during apnea
physicians should observe the patient, review the medical testing in the determination of brain death: Predisposing factors.
record, and note whether any additional information is Neurology 2000;55:1045-8.
required to make a definitive determination. Neither 10. Sapsosnik G, Rizzo G, Vega A, Sabbatiello R, Deluca JL. Problems
associated with the apnea test in the diagnosis of brain death. Neurol
physician should certify brain death unless all aspects India 2004;52:342-5.
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settings. Anesthesia 2000;55:676-7.

Medical Record Documentation: All phases of the

determination of brain death should be clearly Appendix:
documented in the medical record; The medical record
must indicate: Determination of Brain Death in Children Less Than One Year of
Age
• etiology and irreversibility of coma / 1. General Policy Statement.
unresponsiveness The brains of infants and young children have increased
• absence of motor response to pain resistance to damage and may recover substantial functions
even after exhibiting unresponsiveness on neurological
• absence of brainstem reflexes during two separate examination for longer periods as compared to adults. When
examinations separated by at least 6 hours applying neurological criteria to determine death in children
younger than one year, longer observation periods are required.
• absence of respiration with pCO2 ≥ 60 mm hg 2. The patient must not be significantly hypothermic or hypotensive
• justification for, and result of, confirmatory tests if for age.
used 3. Observation Periods According to Age.

The recommended observation period depends on the age of the

Withdraw cardio-respiratory support in patient and the laboratory tests utilized. It is assumed that the child
was born at full term Between the ages of 2 months and 1 year, an
accordance with hospital policies, including interval of at least 24 hours should be used. Between the ages of 7
those for organ donation days and 2 months, the minimum interval should be 48 hours.
1. Reliable criteria have not been established for the determination
When a patient is certified as brain dead and the
of brain death in children less than 7 days old.
ventilator is to be disconnected, the family should be 2. Seven days to two months: Two examinations and
treated with sensitivity and respect. If family members electroencephalograms (EEGs) should be separated by at least
wish, they may be offered the opportunity to attend while 48 hours.
3. Two months to one year: Two examinations and EEGs should
the ventilator is disconnected. However, family members
be separated by at least 24 hours. A repeat examination and
should be prepared for the possibly disturbing clinical EEG are not necessary if a concomitant radionuclide (CRAG)
activity that they may witness when organ donation is or other angiographic study demonstrates no visualization of
contemplated, ventilatory support will conclude in the cerebral arteries.
operating room and family attendance is not appropriate.

Bibliography
Source of Support: Nil, Conflict of Interest: None declared.
1. Uniform Determination of Death Act, 12 Uniform Laws Annotated

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