CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Development of Cable Stayed Bridge

Cable stayed bridge is a one of the long span bridges that utilizes
high-strength cables as a connector of the girder and the tower. Cable
stayed bridge is developed in Europe since 1784 to 1824 using the
material of wood, wire, chain, and steel bar. But, this development was
stopped because of some failure of the bridge, so cable stayed bridge
development is also stopped and suddenly become not recommended by
the engineers. As time goes by, bridge become crucial, and the
development is increase, especially in Germany. After world war II, cable
stayed bridge is again developed to cross the Rhine river in Germany.

Figure 2.1 Norderelbe Cable Stayed Bridge in Germany

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)
 In the beginning of the development, cable stayed bridge only
consist of some cable, that is about two to six cables, with the span length
of thirty to sixty meter. So, the cable used in these bridge is not too big
and the anchor to connect the cable to the girder is so complicated. Cable
stayed bridge the beginning of its development can be seen in figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2 Cable Stayed Bridge in The Beginning of its Development

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

Along the times, engineers had studied about the design and
construction of cable stayed bridge. Engineers found that it would be
easier to build cable stayed bridge with more cable on it. So, nowadays,
cable stayed design is using more cable.

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2.2 Component of Cable Stayed Bridge
Cable stayed bridge consist of five main elements, they are pylon,
cables, anchor, deck, and girder. Work principal of cable stayed bridge is
at the first loads are received by the deck, and then the by the deck the
loads are distributed to all the girder. From these girder, loads will be
channelled to cables that connect girder with the pylon. Pylon will
continue these loads by compression to the foundation. And the last, the
foundation pick these loads up to the soil. This work principal of cable
stayed bridge can be seen in this following figure.

Figure 2.3 Work Principal of Cable Stayed Bridge

(https://slideplayer.com/)

Generally, all the components of cable stayed bridge withstand

all the loads axially. In the cables, it will have tension to bear the loads,
whereas in the pylon, it will have a really big compression due to these
loads.

2.2.1 Pylon
Pylon is a very important component of cable stayed bridge. This
tower has the function to dispense loads derived from the cable to the
foundation. The pylon height depends on the amount of the cable, the

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cable type arrangement, and also the ratio of the esthetic of pylon height
to the bridge length.
Pylon height will influence the behavior of all components of
this bridge. It could be shown like this. The more the height of the pylon,
the more axial force in the pylon and the less both axial force and bending
moment in the deck. According to the research in International Journal of
Science Technology & Engineering (IJSTE), the effective pylon height is
range from L/4 to L/5, where L is the longest span of the bridge.
The force in the pylon is the resultant from all force by the cables
that attached in the top of the pylon, as shown in this following figure.

Figure 2.4 RT in the pylon as the Result from TA and TC

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

Pylon of cable stayed bridge has been developed to so many

types. The choice of pylon type is to accommodate the cable arrangement
in the bridge as the esthetic function. Some of pylon shape are: H-shaped

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pylon, Y-shaped pylon, converted Y shaped pylon, and diamond shaped
pylon. These type of pylon can be seen in this following figure.

Figure 2.5 Kinds of Pylon

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

In comparison A-shaped pylon to the single-column pylon, the

A-shaped pylon has the bigger cost because of the two horseblock
column. But, in the other side, A-shaped column enable the large width
of the deck. In other view, A-shaped pylon also spend much fees in the
substructure because of the separate pylon foot. So, this problem then A-
shaped pylon switch to the diamond shaped pylon, where in this kind of
pylon has two body column but one feet column at the bottom.
Beside the cost, there is some consideration in choosing the pylon
shape, one of the consideration is the internal force and the deformation
of the pylon, as shown in figure 2.6.
From figure 2.6, it is shown that diamond shaped pylon has the
bigger moment comparing to the A-shaped pylon. For the deformation,
the biggest deformation is shown in the diamond shaped pylon, whereas

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at the A-shaped pylon, there almost no deformation at the top of the pylon.
But, this can’t block the use of diamond shaped pylon. The use of
diamond shaped pylon has to consider the high flexural stiffness at the
bottom of the pylon.

Figure 2.6 Moment and Deformation in Three Pylon Shaped

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

2.2.2 Cables System

Cable is the component of cable stayed bridge that has the
function to continue the loads from the bridge girder to the top of the

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pylon. Cable in cable stayed bridge is a set of an amount wire that stated
in strands, this kind of cable is the same with the cable used in a
prestressed concrete. Generally, cable stayed bridge use seven wire strand
(seven wire form into one cable), with the tensile strength in the range
from 1170 MPa to 1860 MPa, with the elastic modulus is about 190000
MPa.
Cable in cable stayed bridge is made of high strength steel that
wrapped with steel and filled with the grouting. There are several type of
cable, they are:
 Spiral Strand
This kind of cable consist of several circle wire and twisted in such
way to get the homogeneity in bearing the loads. The disadvantage
of using this cable is the reduction of strength resulting from the
twisted wire. Typically, the strength reduction is about 10% lower
comparing to the sum of breaking strength of the single wires. This
following figure show the spiral strand cable.

Figure 2.7 Spiral Strand Cable

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

 Parallel Wire Strand

This kind of cable consist of several galvanize wire with a five to
seven mm diameter forming hexagonal shape. These wire are
wrapped with high density polyethylene (HDP) tube. But, to using

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 this kind of cable, there is consideration. The main disadvantage in
using this cable as the stay cable is that this cable has a large outer
diameter because of the void for the corrosion inhibitor and the PE
tube. This following figure show the parallel wire strand.

Figure 2.8 Parallel Wire Strand

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

The main advantage of using cable as structural element is that

cable become so efficient in transfer all the loads into the tension.
Comparing to the other structural element, like beam, if the beam under
loading, the beam must have specific dimension especially in its height to
carry the loads. But in cable, cable can handle the loads just by its specific
weight and transfer them into tension. Comparing these two structural
element, for the same weight of cable and beam, cable only need one-
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twelfth the weight of the beam. But the disadvantage of cable system is
that cable must have horizontal reaction at its two end to make sure that
cable is still in tension (J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012) as described in
following illustration.

Beam Cable

Figure 2.9 Reaction of Beam and Cable

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

It can be seen from the figure that at the under loading cable,
cable show the deformed geometry, just like the cable deflection
(sagging) and of course the cable has the elongation as described like
the forces below.

Figure 2.10 Reaction of Under Loading Cable

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)
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 With the same load to a simple beam, this following figure show
the forces in the beam.

Figure 2.11 Reaction of Under Loading Beam

(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

At the length of x, for the cable is come V(x), H(x) and N(x),
whereas at the beam is M(x) and S(x). In this case, the deformation of
the cable is the same with the moment result in the simple beam with
the similarity factor is 1/H. Then, the sagging of the cable can be derived
from this following equation.
𝑀(𝑥)
𝑘(𝑥) = (1)
𝐻
With the cable curve equation:
−𝑀(𝑥) ℎ
𝑦= + 𝑥 (2)
𝐻 𝑎
The choosing of type, amount, and the cable dimension
influence to the dimension of the girder and the pylon. The choosing of
the cable depend on the bridge length, the loading type, the pylon height,
and also for the aesthetic consideration. The use of the more cable can
reduce the girder and the pylon dimension and of course result the
spread distribution of the forces. Using more cable also good to reduce

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the cable dimension, so the installation of the cable to the anchor can be
simply easy.
Generally, cable system of cable stayed bridge has various
configuration, such as radiating, harp, and fan. From all these
configurations, the fan type is the widely used nowadays. These
configurations are shown in this following figure.

a. Radiating Type

b. Harp Type

c. Fan Type
Figure 2.12 Cable Arrangement Configurations of Cable Stayed Bridge
(Shah, 2018)

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 At the fan type configuration, cables are spread at the top of the
pylon and tied to the deck along the bridge length. These cables will
sustain the sagging and elongation. Because of the elongation of the
cables, the bridge deck is allowed to have a deformation, as shown in
this following illustration.

Figure 2.13 Deformed Deck of Bridge as the Result of Cable Elongation

(Huang, Wang, Fu, Liu, & Gao, 2018)

This deformation in the deck can be derived from this

equation below.
𝑥2
𝛿𝑦 (𝑥) = ℎ (1 + )𝜀 (3)
ℎ2 𝑐
Where h is the cable height at the pylon, x is the horizontal cable
from the pylon, and εc is the strain of the concrete.
Beside the elongation of the cable, anchor at the top of the pylon
is also have its displacement caused by the loadings. The displacement of

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this anchor is resulting the deformation of the bridge deck, as described
from the illustration below.

Figure 2.14 Deformed Bridge Deck as The Result of Anchor Displacement

(Huang, Wang, Fu, Liu, & Gao, 2018)

So, the total displacement at the deck is

𝑥2 ℎ2 + 𝑎𝑎 2
𝛿𝑦 (𝑥) = ℎ (1 + ) 𝜀 + ( ) 𝜀𝑐 𝑥 (4)
ℎ2 𝑐 ℎ2
Where 𝑎𝑎 is the side span of the bridge.
In choosing the cable, there are some mechanical property to
consider, they are Elasticity Modulus (Ec), 0.2% proof stress, the limit if
the proportionality, the limit of the tensile strength, and the total
elongation at the break (εcbu) (J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012).
The maximum space of the cable in the bridge girder depend on
some parameter, especially the deck width and shape. For a steel girder,
the space of each cable usually 15 meter to 25 meter. For a concrete girder,

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the cable space can be use is about 5 meter to 10 meter (Walther, Houriet,
Isler, Moia, & Klein, 1999).
The comparison of the cable space or the panel length from the
last bridge show these optimum value.
 For a 130 to 150 meter main span, it is recommended to have 20
meter panel length.
 For a shorter main span, the panel length is recommended to be 15
meter to 17 meter.
 For a longer main span, the panel length is recommended to be 30
meter
The panel length at the main span is usually be longer that those
in the side span. From the experience, the panel length at the main span is
20% to 30 % longer that the other panel length (Supriadi & Muntohar,
2007).

2.2.3 Deck and Girder

Deck is the first structural element to carry all loads in the bridge.
This is because the deck directly bear all the transportation loading and in
the most case, there are the bigger dead load and wind load at the deck of
the bridge.
Deck must be able to distribute all the loads and proceed them to
the girders. By the girder, the loads will be divided for each cable to
proceed it through the pylon, as described by the illustration below.

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 Figure 2.15 Load Distribution by the Bridge Deck
(J. Gimsing & T. Georgakis, 2012)

Deck of cable stayed bridge is directly connected by the cable

through the anchor to the pylon. Deck of cable stayed bridge is separated
from the pylon stiffener. Both are not the unity. The pylon stiffener is only
to stiff and tie the frame of the pylon bottom. Deck of cable stayed bridge
is illustrated by the following figure.

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 Figure 2.16 Deck of Cable Stayed Bridge
(Basic Civil Engineering, 2018)

Girder is the structural component of cable stayed bridge to

proceed the load from deck to the cables and pylon. there are two types of
girder widely used, they are:
 Stiffening Truss
Stiffening truss usually used for the steel structural. One of cable
stayed bridge that use this type of girder is Yokohama Bay Bridge.

Figure 2.17 Stiffening Girder in Yokohama Bay Bridge

(Yokogawa Bridge Corp, 2018)

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  Solid Web
Solid web can be used for both steel and concrete structural, and
including the prestressed concrete. There are also two types of solid
web, they are plate girder and box girder. Plate girder usually consist
of two or much girder, whereas the box girder usually just one to
two units rectangle or trapezoidal box.

2.2.4 Anchor
Structural component of the deck and the pylon are
connected using the structural connection, named anchor. In this
structural connection, cable system is attached to the deck and the
pylon. At the end of the anchor, there are parts as live anchor (as
the cable fastener) and the dead anchor (as the cable holder). This
following illustration illustrate the anchor in the deck of the bridge.

Figure 2.18 Anchor at the Deck Cable Stayed Bridge

(J. Reis, Pedro, Pereira , & Sousa, 1999)

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 Deck must be able to distribute all the loads and proceed them to
the girders. By the girder, the loads will be divided for each cable to
proceed it through the pylon, as described by the illustration below.

2.3 Loads of the Bridge

Generally, there are three types to be consider in designing
bridge, they are:
1. Dead Load
Dead load in the bridge is the bridge’s own weight, including
foundation, pylon, girder, deck, cables, and all of the component in
the bridge.
2. Live Load
Live load of the bridge is the moving load along the bridge length,
including the vehicle weight and pedestrian weight. Vehicle weight is
divided into two types, they are lane load (“D” load) and truck load
(“T” load). “D” load usually used to design the girder of the bridge,
whereas “T” load used to design and calculate the deck of the bridge.
3. Dynamic Load
Dynamic load is the load that has the different value due to the time.
Dynamic load only work at the specific range of time. But, this type
of load can result so much damage in the bridge. There are three types
of dynamic load, they are:
 Periodic Load
Periodic load mean the load works over and over with the same
value, as illustrated in figure 2.19.

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 Figure 2.19 Load Vs Time Diaphgram – Periodic Load
(Ardhany, 2012)

 Impulse Load
Impulse load only work in one moment and cause vibration
sudden after the load removed. The graph of impulse load
illustrated below.

Figure 2.20 Load Vs Time Diaphgram – Impulse Load

(Ardhany, 2012)

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  Random Load
The type of random load is just like seismic load, where the
intensity and the frequency of the load change over the time.
Seismic load only work for one moment, but it cause a big
damage. The random load can be seen below.

Figure 2.21 Load Vs Time Diaphgram – Random Load

(Ardhany, 2012)

Seismic load is a dynamic load caused by the land movement

due to earthquake. Seismic load is a land acceleration load as the
record of the land acceleration in the place where the bridge is located.
Bridge must be planned to have a little possibility to collapse, but still
can have a significant failure caused by the earthquake. Seismic load
ususally define into a spectrum response.
Spectrum response is a spectrum served in a graph of the
structure period (T) to the maximum response of the structure.
Spectrum response can be in maximum spectrum displacement,

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 spectrum velocity, and spectrum acceleration. This value is influenced
by the vibration period, damping ratio, ductility level, and the land
type of the structure. Spectrum response in the ground surface is
determined by three peak acceleration (PGA, Ss, S1) and also the
amplification factor FPGA, Fa, and Fv. Graph of spectrum response
can be seen in this following figure.

Figure 2.22 Spectrum Response Graph

(SNI Perencanaan Jermbatan Terhadap Beban Gempa, 2016)

2.4 Dynamic Amplification Factor

In designing a bridge, dynamic response of the bridge can be
stated in Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF). Dynamic Amplification
Factor (DAF) is an undimension number as the result of the comparison
between the dynamic effect to the static effect of a bridge. Dynamic
Amplification Factor (DAF) show how much the static response of a
bridge could be multiply to get the same effect as the dynamic effect. This
comparison can be done with comparing the stress or strain of the bridge,
as describe in this following equation.

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 𝐷𝑑𝑦𝑛
𝐷𝐴𝐹 = (5)
𝐷𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡
Comparison of stress can be done by comparing the internal force
such as moment, shear, and axial, but the most widely use is just moment
comparison. Whereas comparison of strain can be done with comparing
the displacement of the dynamic analysis and the static analysis.
There are some aspect influencing the Dynamic Amplification
Factor (DAF) number, they are the dynamic load, the bridge support, the
relation of the soil and the bridge, vehicle velocity, and also the vehicle
weight (Paultre, Chaallal, & Proulx, 1992). Dynamic Amplification
Factor (DAF) is different depend on the component of the bridge. This
means that the Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) in the girder is
diffent with the Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) in the pylon, the
cable, and any other different component of the bridge. According to
American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE 1931), deck of the bridge has
the different characteristic response comparing to the longitudinal
component of the bridge. In some code, Dynamic Amplification Factor
(DAF) usually made into a graph of DAF vs natural frequency or DAF vs
bridge length (Ghildiyal, 2016), just like this following graph.

Figure 2.23 DAF vs Bridge Length Graph Based on SniP 2.05.03-84

(Paeglite & Paeglitis, 2014)

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