A Top-Down Approach

Raising the roof and enhancing the floor slab adds volume and utility
to existing warehouses

by Edward B. Finkel

T
o meet the demands of the revolutionary merchandising F-min number is reconciled by computer analyses of this data.
phenomenon known as Internet retailing, online sales, Meeting these goals requires special placing and finishing
or e-commerce, new distribution centers are being techniques by the flatwork contractor followed by local
planned and constructed in strategic locations throughout the surface grinding, particularly at construction joints.
United States and Canada. Unlike existing structures lacking Meeting the demands associated with increased storage rack
the necessary clear heights, these modern facilities feature post loads and finely tuned flatness/levelness (F-min) values to
uncommonly high storage racking systems and often employ cope with sophisticated operational strategies, however, begins
wire-guided, swivel-reach materials-handling equipment. with research and analyses leading to practical and economic
Accordingly, landlords holding expiring leases on vintage considerations relative to the following options:
low-rise buildings are exploring the feasibility, and imple- 1. Bonded concrete topping;
menting the strategy, of raising the roofs of these buildings to 2. Bonded epoxy mortar overlay;
clear heights upwards of 45 ft (13.5 m). This means an 3. Unbonded concrete overlay; and
increased storage volume of 50% or more. But this maneuver 4. Removal and replacement of the existing floor slab.
is only part of the strategy. What logically follows is an Design and construction of bonded and unbonded overlays
imperative to evaluate the strength and serviceability charac- and high-performance slab-on-ground are covered in
teristics of an existing conventional interior concrete slab-on- ACI 302.1R-041 and ACI 360R-10.2 Bonded and unbonded
ground installed in the facility several decades prior to the toppings were also discussed in the August 2013 Concrete
advent of the laser screed and state-of-the-art construction International Concrete Q&A feature.3
practices used in floating and finishing operations, reliably For decades, existing, predominantly flexible, highway and
reckoned flatness/levelness, slab thickness and subbase roadway pavements have been rehabilitated with concrete
tolerances, and high-performance prescriptive low-shrinkage overlays commonly known as whitetopping. These measures
concrete mixtures. are classified as conventional, thin, and ultrathin, with thick-
Many modern “big box” distribution facilities now feature nesses of more than 8 in. (200 mm), 4 to 8 in. (100 to 200 mm),
towering storage racking units separated by narrow pathways and 2 to 4 in. (50 to 100 mm), respectively. The ultrathin
known as defined traffic aisles, traveled repetitiously around version, 4 in. (100 mm) thickness preferred, is popular because
the clock by wire-guided, three-wheeled turret forklift trucks it is designed to bond compositely with the original pavement.
with tall masts having extraordinary reach. Needless to say, Regarding behavioral characteristics and life-cycle predictions,
the floors carrying these vehicles must be exceptionally caution is advised in drawing comparisons between roadway
smooth to manage multidirectional travel while maintaining paving and industrial floor rehabilitation protocols, given the
operational efficiency of the materials handling equipment. disparities in load distribution (large, tandem pneumatic tires
Thus, the emergence of F-min numbers prescribed by manu- versus small, hard polyurethane wheels), serviceability
facturers matching the productivity standards established for requirements, and construction methodology.
their forklift equipment. The F-min is not to be confused with
superflat, a term associated with random traffic floors tradi- Comparative Features of the Four Options
tionally measured with the F-Meter or other suitable handheld Before the most suitable choice is selected in connection
device. Defined traffic aisle tolerances are recorded by a with conversion of an existing facility to Internet-era function,
profilograph replicating a three-wheel configuration and the the original floor slab-on-ground installation must be thoroughly

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investigated. Studies pertinent to forming judgments about the contemplated generations ago. Nowadays, safety factors are
bonded, unbonded, and replacement options include: being streamlined and slab thickness analyses are relegated to
•• Flatness/levelness and impulse radar (slab thickness) the computer in a futile search for greater accuracy, despite
measurements; the fact that software programs also ask for modulus of
•• Petrographic and environmental studies; subgrade reaction input. No matter how you figure it, the
•• Moisture emission tests; and concrete floor slab-on-ground is demonstrably stronger than it
•• Compressive and flexural strength evaluations of in-place looks on paper.
concrete test specimens. Nonetheless, judicious estimates need to be made about
The subbase materials also need to be examined for loading expectations consistent with enlarged storage volume.
evidence of latent adverse chemical activity and, perhaps, The building adaptation may be undertaken on a speculative
prior leakage of stored toxic liquids or intrusion of contami- basis or with particular new tenant occupancy in mind.
nated floor cleaning solutions. This information is essential to Manufacturer’s rated rack post load data are not normally
evolving structural section properties, finishing and detailing available until the equipment is ordered, so the product should
characteristics, moisture mitigation techniques, construction be “weighed” or the loading otherwise rationally determined
practices, and comparative costs commensurate with antici- statistically.
pated usage criteria and serviceability standards. Historically,
the thickness of an industrial concrete floor slab has been Option 1: Bonded concrete topping
derived manually from empirical data embodied in design Structural capacity of an existing industrial floor slab can,
charts published by the Portland Cement Association (PCA) in theoretically, be substantially enhanced by a relatively thin,
several editions dating back to 1967. The essentials of this reliably bonded overlay minimally 2 in. (50 mm) thick, but
method, also appearing in the appendixes of ACI 360R-10,2 this option requires invasive preparation involving rehabilitation
are rooted in the pioneering work of H.M. Westergaard4 and of intrusive random drying shrinkage cracks and curled joint
others early in the twentieth century. In theory, the floor slab is edges as well as sealant replacement. Surface contaminants,
assumed to behave as a flexible mat, relying on such criteria dirt, and debris are removed by blast-tracking (a minimally
as modulus of subgrade reaction, in lieu of bearing capacity intrusive dust-free process in which a hand-operated apparatus
applicable to rigid foundations, and modulus of rupture spews a metal abrasive by means of a rotating blast wheel) to
(flexural strength) assigned to the subbase soil and plain render a uniformly bondable texture. This is followed by
concrete slab, respectively. Early on, the determinations grinding at repair locations, using equipment fitted with
were bloated with rather sizeable safety factors. It is also high-efficiency air filters to protect workers and others from
notable that the allowable unit stress for flexural tension, for accumulated dust. It is critically important to install this
example, stipulated in the ACI 318-56 Building Code,5 topping immediately after application of a proper, uniformly
hovered around 100 psi (700 kPa). Estimates of flexural distributed bonding agent. To facilitate placement and
strength can be determined conservatively from the popular finishing of a thin topping, the concrete mixture must uniquely
compressive strength test on cylinders commonly cast at incorporate a single coarse aggregate with a nominal maximum
construction sites. Actually, flexural beam specimens drawn top size of 3/8 in. (9.5 mm), commonly referred to as pea
from modern concrete floor slabs made up of uniformly gravel. Such a mixture, tending to be highly shrinkage-prone,
graded and well-proportioned concrete mixtures have yielded requires especially judicious proportioning of the mixture
upwards of 10 times the flexural capacity of plain concrete ingredients and rigorous water control management. The
finished topping slab is to be moist cured and provided with
full-depth early entry saw cuts at precisely matched, existing,
closely spaced contraction joints.
Errata for ACI Publications Option 2: Bonded epoxy mortar overlay

Available Online
Contrasted with the other options, an oversized epoxy
mortar/fine aggregate blended material, 1/2 to 3/4 in.
(13 to 19 mm) thick, provides a dependable bonded topping
capable of increasing the geometric section properties of a
Under the menu for “Publications” at nominal 6 in. (152 mm) existing industrial concrete floor as
much as 20 to 30%—sufficient to sustain correspondingly
www.concrete.org, document errata can be
elevated rack post loads. The finished surface is notably
searched by document number or keywords.
strong, with superior abrasion and impact resistance, and may
Call ACI Member Services at +1.248.848.3700 for preclude dock leveler adjustments. This method entails a
more information. multistep epoxy installation entrusted to an experienced
coating contractor with demonstrated expertise in this
particular specialty.6

54 february 2015 | Ci | www.concreteinternational.com

Option 3: Unbonded concrete overlay Industrial floors and the subbase strata below them, constructed
The minimum thickness of this plain concrete installation before 1990, in general, are known to vary considerably in
must be 4 in. (102 mm). Considerably thicker than a bonded thickness and are not notably flat or leveled. Demolished
topping, it is much less invasive. Surface preparation comprises recyclable crushed concrete retrieved from the existing slab
only power-washing the existing slab and placement of a can be used to improve subbase properties and, through
puncture-resistant plastic membrane spread evenly over the re-grading adjustments, restore a level profile and allow space
entire floor area (to mask existing slab abnormalities such as within the original subbase to accommodate increased slab
cracks, curled joint edges, and repairs) and lapped upward to thickness. Recycling trucks are designed to selectively root
form a flashing continuously at the perimeter. Slab anchorages, out reinforcing steel and other unwanted embedments and
embedments, and steel reinforcing bars tending to restrain or equipped to minimize dispersion of dust, while reducing the
otherwise inhibit slab movement are to be scrupulously concrete to a suitably well-graded and compactible subbase
avoided. Obtrusive cracking and slab edge curling are directly material. The new floor slab can then be designed to meet
related to restrained drying shrinkage. The smooth membrane anticipated forklift truck wheel and rack post loading criteria
acting as a slip sheet directly beneath the overlay dramatically and usage and serviceability requirements. The concrete
reduces subgrade drag, thereby permitting the new slab to mixture, with an added ASTM C33/C33M No. 4, 1-1/2 in.
shrink freely. (37.5 mm) top size coarse aggregate, will fundamentally
The overlay concrete is to be proportioned for the lowest mirror Option 3, focusing on a low-shrinkage mixture with
shrinkage characteristics attainable with locally available optimized aggregate grading, minimal mixing water and paste
materials. This formulation typically embodies at least two contents, and steel fibers; likewise affording the opportunity
coarse aggregates, beginning with a reasonably well-graded for extended contraction joint spacing boundaries.7 Under
No. 57 ASTM C33/C33M blend, 1 in. (25.0 mm) top size, and special circumstances, depending upon contractor skill and
an added No. 8, a 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) intermediate size. It is also experience in managing paste content, placement of a membrane
strongly recommended that the mixture includes monofilament slip-sheet between bottom of slab and the subbase will
synthetic fibers for control of plastic shrinkage cracking and drastically reduce subgrade drag.8 Naturally, Option 4 has
properly configured ASTM A820/820M Type II steel fibers, additional benefits that accrue from beginning anew.
1 in. (25 mm) long and continuously deformed, at dosage
rates prescribed by the manufacturer and consistent with Discussion
contractor experience, proportioned according to slab thickness, The surge in Internet commerce underlying the discussion
and meeting targeted widely spaced contraction jointing. of floor Options 3 and 4 lends a sense of urgency to challenges
Needless to say, minimization of contraction joints in a finely facing a concrete industry overwhelmingly reluctant to change
tuned floor slab, with embedded wire guidance and meeting course with respect to the traditional strength-driven perfor-
critical surface tolerances, is a high priority. Achieving crucial mance mixture design strategy. These formulations are usually
F-min readings at construction joints may require special gap graded and offer little prospect for shrinkage curtailment,
localized grinding, particularly at those that are armored. which is vital to modern industrial floors. Surely, the substantial
Expectations of extending joint spacing boundaries to column expenditure involved in reaching historic heights in new and
lines and beyond, enclosing two full bays in each direction, adapted buildings outfitted with sophisticated materials
are not unreasonable in a floor slab constructed by an experi- handling equipment is not to be squandered due to neglect of
enced and enlightened flatwork contractor. the important role played by slab-on-ground under these
ACI 302.1R-041 has traditionally advocated limiting joint circumstances. Unfortunately, it often is.
spacing in feet as a function of 2 to 3 times slab thickness Understandably, the idea of prescriptive lowest shrinkage
(expressed in inches). This, of course, is a capitulation to the concrete mixtures is not about to become universal overnight
inevitability of excessive drying shrinkage in generic floor but personal experience, during the past two decades with
slabs made up of unworthy concrete mixtures. Chapter 6 of hundreds of floors, has proven that the prescriptive mixture is
this guide delves thoroughly into the fundamentals of pre- easy to do and quality control managers in ready mixed
scriptive, low-shrinkage concrete mixture proportioning concrete plants throughout the country are eager for the
which, when combined with judgment and experience, will opportunity. Meanwhile, added to the usual list of suspects
dramatically reduce drying shrinkage. Yet, inexplicably, a enlisted in the battle against excessive random cracking and
recent trend favors limiting this outmoded ratio to 2 to 2.5 joint edge curling in the generically formulated concrete floor
times the slab thickness. After all, a sawn joint is also a crack, is the notion that a chemical additive will magically lower the
albeit aesthetically more pleasing than a random drying shrinkage threshold to a prescribed limit confirmed by
shrinkage crack but more likely to curl. standardized test. It should be noted that a 4 x 4 x 11 in.
(102 x 102 x 279 mm) specimen, tested in a controlled
Option 4: Removal and replacement of existing slab laboratory environment per ASTM C157/C157M, “Standard
This option virtually precludes investigative study of the Test Method for Length Change of Hardened Hydraulic-
existing slab. Only the subbase will require rehabilitation. Cement Mortar and Concrete,” does not replicate acres of

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 centers upon bleed water management, profoundly important
Raising the Roof in the “window of finishability” period during the floating and
The proprietary E-Z Riser process can be used to lift
finishing processes. The debate persists because excessive
an existing roof to two or more times its original height.
initial slump has predominated slab-on-ground discourse since
Interior columns are enclosed within steel sleeves that
time immemorial. Judgment of the finisher regarding “set
allow the original columns to rise as they lift the roof.
time” is guided by skill honed through prior experience. This
The original columns remain attached to the roof
skill can be successfully adapted to managing low slump in
structure, and the sleeves remain in place to provide
concrete mixtures cast directly upon a membrane slip-sheet.
new and stronger lower support. Perimeter columns are
In the strictest sense, concrete is not an elastic material. It
fitted with additional telescoping columns that remain
is, nevertheless, blessed with an ill-defined modulus of
as integral parts of the lifted, strengthened structure.
elasticity (E) that varies with time and stress gradient.
The condition and pitch of the existing roof are main-
Concrete is an exceptional material, when treated with
tained, and the existing foundation system continues to
respect. Blended to its full potential, the results are uniformity
support the roof. While additional cladding is required
of strength and shrinkage properties. No other remedies are
and the floor slab may require modification, raising the
necessary. A proper, well-blended formulation negotiated with
roof is an economical and sustainable way to modernize
the local ready mixed concrete supplier is as good as it gets
a facility. Additional information can be found at
and no one need bear the onus of a target shrinkage limit
www.rooflift.com.
governed by an indeterminate standard of measurement. The
concrete industry, languishing in a perpetual state of inertia, is
burdened with an archaic method of formulating concrete
mixtures, notably those dedicated to slab-on-ground usage.
Most building materials are manufactured under strict quality
control protocols aimed at product quality and consistency.
An industrial floor constructed of a worthy plain concrete and
treated to a superior hard trowel finish will surely suffice. The
performance concept applied to concrete manufactured
universally under the aegis of the concrete industry is a good
idea. Why not merge it with the lowest attainable shrinkage
characteristics of the prescriptive formula and make them one
and the same? This is inevitable; simply a matter of time.
An example of capturing unused air space to enlarge an
industrial facility (photo courtesy of John J. Bernauer, EZ Riser Roof Summary
Raising Services) The slabs covered in Options 1 through 3 will reside upon
an impervious, virtually inflexible, concrete substrate (rather
than directly against a proper moisture absorbent granular
slab-on-ground cast in the field under variable climatic subbase). All of the options provide aesthetic improvement
conditions, moist at the bottom while drying out at the top. and refined surface tolerances. Options 3 and 4 also offer
Larger-size test specimens have been suggested to overcome substantially reduced subgrade drag, allowing the new slab
this disparity dating back, at least, to 1984, but there is little in increased shrinkage freedom, thereby dramatically reducing
the way of reported statistical data to support this alternative. the incidence of random restrained drying shrinkage cracking
The concrete floor slab-on-ground, operational heart of an and perceptible joint edge curling. Both options will necessitate
industrial facility is much less expensive than the roof that rearrangement of embedded steel load dock leveler apparatus
hovers above it. Consider the following fundamental truths to meet the newly raised floor elevation.
about plain concrete: it is a nonhomogenous material that, While roof and floor adaptations may be implemented in
unlike structural steel, is inconsistent in manufacture and footprint segments as small as 100,000 ft2 (9290 m2), it is
behaviorally unpredictable, especially when formulated likely that buildings selected for high-rise conversion will be
generically in accordance with mythical rules limited to a considerably larger. Floor slab upgrades in a vacant space may
single quality marker, compressive strength, often accompanied begin at once, await arrival of a prospective tenant with specific
by a targeted water-cement ratio (w/c) bearing no known usage requirements, or may not be done at all depending on
relationship to it. Compressive strength is not normally investigative findings and economic considerations.
influential in the design of concrete subjected to flexure, Options 1, 3, and 4 contemplate uniquely blended plain
notably slabs-on-ground, and w/c is evolved at the jobsite to concrete mixtures with lowest attainable shrinkage character-
suit optimum paste content consistent with hard-trowel istics, conventionally deposited and appropriately flowable for
finishability. The historic fascination with vapor retarder laser placement without benefit of excess mixing water;
positioning relative to the “blotter effect” of the subbase adding a first-generation high-range water-reducing admixture

56 february 2015 | Ci | www.concreteinternational.com

(Super P) in the field to insure control of initial “water can be expected to reach many millions of dollars. The urgent
slump.” It is not necessary or beneficial to perform shrinkage need for higher space accommodating vastly expanded
tests to quantify shrinkage limits in such concrete formulations. storage volume is often accompanied by the yearning for
Shrinkage test prism specimens in the laboratory do not larger floor area. Major Internet-commerce companies are
replicate the behavior of a slab-on-ground in the field, and currently building facilities more than 1,000,000 ft2 (92,900 m2)
adding a shrinkage-reducing admixture to an unworthy in area throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Landlords
concrete is an unacceptable alternative. holding smaller, low-rise buildings with expiring leases may
Option 1 not only requires less concrete volume than opt to hold out for a tenant whose needs suit the space.
Option 3, it adds theoretically reliable composite geometric Inevitably, contemplation of adapting a building trumps the
section properties and increases flexural capacity of the floor. thought of replacing it.
However, there is insufficient evidence to engender full
confidence in the long-term survivability of a thin concrete References
topping bonded to a generic industrial floor that is destined, in 1. ACI Committee 302, “Guide for Concrete Floor and Slab
the modern era under perennial 24/7 continuous operations, to Construction (ACI 302.1R-04),” American Concrete Institute,
endure hard-wheeled forklift traffic abuse. While the degree of Farmington Hills, MI, 2004, 76 pp.
risk associated with debonding may not be fully known, the 2. ACI Committee 360, “Guide to Design of Slabs-on-Ground
consequences of operational interruption are all but unthinkable. (ACI 360R-10),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI,
Option 2 combines reliably with an existing floor slab to 2010, 72 pp.
effect composite structural enhancement at a threshold 3. Tarr, S., “Concrete Q&A: Concrete Toppings,” Concrete
meeting the needs of many prospective tenants. Absent the International, V. 35, No. 8, Aug. 2013, pp. 83-84.
specter of major adaptations, it lends an attractive, nonslip, 4. Westergaard, H.M., “On the Design of Slabs on Elastic Foundation
durable finish to a worn and outmoded floor, significantly with Special Reference to Stresses in Concrete Pavements,” Ingenioren,
prolonging its serviceable life and limiting maintenance costs. V. 12, 1923, Copenhagen, Denmark. (in German)
Favoring the low-shrinkage approach, Option 3 involves 5. ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Requirements for Reinforced
twice as much concrete volume as Option 1. Extensive Concrete (ACI 318-56),” American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
rehabilitation of the existing floor slab is avoided and the MI, 1956, 74 pp.
opportunity to broaden joint spacing boundaries is available. 6. Gardner, M., “Replace or Resurface?,” CoatingsPro, NACE
Unlike Option 1, the independent overlay does not unite with International, Houston, TX, Jan. 2006.
the existing slab in creating composite geometric section 7. Finkel, E.B., “What’s Up Down Under and Elsewhere?,” Concrete
characteristics essential to enhanced structural behavior. But, International, American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, V. 33,
the thickened overlay does improve the surface profile as it No. 7, July 2011, pp. 45-50.
introduces a stratum of broadened influence over which 8. Finkel, E., “The Inevitable Choice for Industrial Floor Slabs,”
concentrated loads are distributed through the existing slab to Concrete Construction, Hanley Wood, Rosemont, IL, Sept. 2013.
the subbase.
Option 4 requires minimal study and will not usually Note: Additional information on the ASTM standards discussed in this
involve extensive reworking of the subbase or membrane article can be found at www.astm.org.
vapor emission protection (except in relatively small areas
destined for office occupancy). It offers the best attributes of Selected for reader interest by the editors.
the other options, fulfilling modern usage requirements,
serviceability standards, and minimal future maintenance
expectations, while curtailing investigative efforts and Edward B. Finkel, FACI, is President
rehabilitation protocols. of Edward B. Finkel Associates. He
Nevertheless, it is prudent to compare and contrast the received his master’s degree in engineering
expectations and costs associated with all of the options on a from Yale University, New Haven, CT, and
project-specific tenant usage basis. Depending on building has been in private practice since 1962,
size, scope of façade work, and extent of utility, mechanical, delivering structural engineering services
and electrical adaptations, the expenditure for a floor slab to architects and private industry. He is a
upgrade is estimated to be somewhat less than the cost of the 50 year member of ACI, serving on
roof conversion. The roof transformation adds substantially to Committees 302, Construction of Concrete
Floors, and 360, Design of Slabs on Ground. He was the 2010
the property value and is also environmentally friendly;
honoree in the ACI Commemorative Lecture Series honoring his
adding little new material to the building, it simply moves
mentor Hardy Cross. His lecture, “The Artful Professor,” was
things around. But, the floor does not just lie there covering
delivered at the ACI Fall 2010 Convention in Pittsburgh, PA. He is a
the earth. It deserves more than a sprucing up with a surface
Life Member and Fellow of ASCE and Past President and life
hardener or deep-penetrating chemical densifier to meet the
member of the New Jersey Chapter – ACI.
demands of modern commerce. The total adaptation expenditure

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