Chapter-3.

Flood Protection Methods

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Design Discharge

3.3 Stream/River Training Works

 Improvement of Cross-section

 Channel Rectification

 Dykes

3.4 Storage Ponds

3.5 Flood Protection Through Planning of Reservoir Capacities

3.6 Non-structural Measures

 3.1 Introduction
 Flood is a relatively high stage of a river which is accompanied by
overtopping of the natural banks of the river at any particular reach.

 It is a temporary inundation of land as a result of surface water

(stagnant or flowing) escaping from their normal confines or as a
result of heavy precipitation.

 Floods are natural processes in which the river spills over its banks.

 Consequences of Floods:
 Inundate vast areas of fertile land,

 Damaging standing crops,

 Makes lands unproductive due to huge quantities of sand deposit over

long periods,

 Cities, towns and villages are eroded and washed away,

 Lines of communications are threatened, etc.

 Cont’d…

Fig. 3.1 Flooded town, Arkansas, United States

 Cont’d…

Fig. 3.2 Flooding in Bangladesh

 Cont’d…

Fig. 3.3 Flood in Jiujiang, China

Cont’d…
 Cont’d…
 Causes of Flood
 Excess rainfall, snowmelt, dam break, earthquake, landslides, ice jams, high
tides, storm surges, operational failure,

 Most human activities tends to increase flood risk, by reducing the interception
store and thus increasing the amount of surface run-off:-
 Deforestation
 Urbanisation
 Others like climate changes
 Whereas cultivation and afforestation reduces the flood risk by
encouraging infiltration.

 Human occupancy of this flood zone needs for hazard response,

 Hazard responses are required as to flooding causes economical, social and

physical losses.
 Cont’d…
 Flood Affected Regions:-
 Flood plains because rivers in the tail reaches are mostly alluvial in nature
and therefore, very unstable /shifting of the river courses prevails.

Flood Plains
 Positive Aspects:
 Preferred places for socio-economic activity due to development potentials
 Provide easy access to natural resources
 Possess fertile land for agriculture
 Give services provided by ecosystems
 Negative Aspects:
 Areas frequently affected by flooding.
Adoption of Flood Control and Protection Works
Flood control is a relative term as it is not economical to
provide protection for the largest flood that will occur.
 Cont’d…
 Flood control is required to reduce damage.

 It is the protection of life and property as well as public benefits based on the
annual savings from flood control against construction and maintenance costs.

 Flood damages may be classified as:

1. Direct losses such as crops and property due to physical contact with flood,

2. Indirect losses due to disruption in communication and trading such as traffic

delays, loss of income, etc.,

3. Tangible losses the damage can be determined in monetary values.

4. Intangible losses that is not subject to monetary evaluation such as health

hazards, loss of life, loss of records, community insecurity, etc.

 The effect of Small floods are often unnoticed but have much consequences
that can be seen many years after the event. E.g. erosion of fertile soils from
agricultural lands every after heavy rain.
Cont’d…
 Possible Flood Alleviation/Mitigation Measures
1. Structural Measures:
 Whose purpose is to Change the characteristics of flood.
i) Dams and Reservoirs:–
 Store part of the flood waters resulting in moderation of flood stages and
discharges.
 Regulated releases to ensure seasonal variability.
 Usually employed on upper reach.
ii) Embankments/dykes/levees:–
 Providing embankments on the banks of rivers,
 Can be planned in conjunction with other structural measures like dam,
detention basins and non-structural measures.
iii) Detention/retention basins:–
 Artificial wetlands or permanent ponds on new developments.
 Cont’d…
iv) Bypass and diversion channels:–
 Diverting part of the flood waters into old channels
 Can be planned in conjunction with detention basin
v) Channelization (River training works):–
 Modification of river channels – like slope, width, etc.
2. Non-structural Measures:
 Whose objectives are in reduction of damage and loss of life.
i) Flood proofing:–
 Includes:–
(a) Use of closures bunds and small walls to keep out floodwaters and
(b) Raising existing structures like levees in-place to reduce damage.
 Appropriate for damage reduction for single-story, residential structures.
 Does not reduce damage to utilities, infrastructure, lawns, and other exterior
property but used by individual owners to protect their property.
 These measures are limited generally to property frequently flooded.
 Cont’d…
ii) Relocation:–
 It means moving property so it is less susceptible to damage.
 This may be accomplished either by:
(a) relocating contents within an existing structure at its current location,
(b) permanently removing the contents or the structure and contents
from a flood hazard area.
iii) Flood forecasting and flood warning/ preparedness:–
 A FW/P plan reduces flood damage by providing the public with an
opportunity to act before stages increase to damaging levels.
 The savings due to a FW/P plan reduces:
 Inundation damage and cleanup costs,
 Costs due to reduction of health hazards,
 Risk to life of floodplain occupants.
 Flood damages cannot always be prevented but reduced by flood
forecasting & by using proper flood control measures.
 3.2 Design Flood Discharge
 Before adopting any flood control measures, it is necessary to know
the maximum flood likely to occur & select suitable design discharge.
 The Design Flood Discharge for hydraulic structures may also be defined in a
number of ways, like:

 The Maximum Flood that any hydraulic structure can safely pass.

 The flood considered for the design of a hydraulic structure

corresponding to a maximum tolerable risk.

 The flood which a project (involving a hydraulic structure) can sustain

without any substantial damage, either to the objects which it protects or
to its own structures.

 The largest flood that may be selected for design as safety evaluation of a
structure.
 Choice of Design Flood
Design Flood Discharge(DFD) of a hydraulic structure may be chosen from either
one of the following:

 Probable Maximum Flood (PMF):-

 This is the flood resulting from the most severe combination of critical
meteorological and hydrological conditions that are reasonably possible in
the region.

 Standard Project Flood (SPF):-

 This is the flood resulting from the most sever combination of meteorological
and hydrological conditions considered reasonably characteristic of the
region.

 Flood of a Specific Return Period:-

 This flood is estimated by frequency analysis of the annual flood values of

adequate length.
 Estimation of Design Flood
 Design flood discharge is commonly estimated based on the following

methods
a) Maximum Observed Flood Method

b) Empirical Flood Estimation Methods

c) Unit Hydrograph Method

d) Flood Frequency Analysis Method

A. Maximum Observed Flood Method

 The Design Discharge is obtained by applying a suitable multiplying factor
to the maximum observed flood at the project site.

 The multiplying factor is selected based on hydrological conditions

however this method is rarely used in practice.

 This method of estimation is unreliable b/s it is highly subjective on the

selection of multiplying factor.
 Cont’d…
B. Empirical Flood Estimation M ds
 The Design Discharge is sometimes estimated by empirical formulas.

 Some of the commonly used formulas are Dicken’s formula, Ryve’s formula,
and Inglis’ formula.

 These formulas do not give reliable results b/s selection of the coefficients is
subjective.
Reading Assignment
C. Unit Hydrograph Method
 More rational than the methods discussed above.

 The development of flood hydrograph for use in design of hydraulic structures.

D. Flood Frequency Analysis Method

 This method involves statistical analysis of observed floods over a fairly long
period (at least 25-30 yrs record should be available).

 The greater the period of record the more accurate is the analysis.
 Cont’d…
 A simple optimization
procedure for a flood control
project is schematically shown
here.
1 is the project co
2 is the flood damage

Recommended
 Return periods of 10,000 yrs Flood plain characteristics flood return
period (yrs)
and more are known to have 1. Extensive agriculture 6-7
2. Intensive agriculture 15-20
been chosen in many cases of 3. Thinly or medium 100-200
important population centers populated living areas
4. Densely populated living 200-1000
and industrial parks. areas and industrial
centers
5. Important urban centers >1000
 Cont’d…
 For a given natural waterco under consideration, if discharge
measurement over a representative time period of (25-30 yrs) are
available, flood frequency analysis can be carried out to obtain by
extrapolation probable discharge values for time periods greater than
the actual year-series measurements.
 When no such measurements exist or are scarce, special hydrologic
methods can be applied to develop synthetic series to derive the
design discharge. Rainfall-runoff modeling(rational, SCS curve number,
regionalization etc...)
 3.3 Stream/River Training Works
 Flood Control By Structural Measures
 Stream training and regulation
 Flood reduction by levees and dikes
 Reduction of flood peak by routing through reservoirs
 Flood Abatement/Reduction
 Reduction of the flood volume by land management
 Reduction in stormflow and peak discharge levels achieved by
Afforestation or reforestation of upper catchment slopes
Comprehensive protection of vegetation
Terracing of farmland
Contour ploughing/farming
 Behavioural Measures
 Societies adopt different coping strategies (flood insurance etc.)
 Stream/River Training and Regulation
 These are methods that reduce flood hazard by increasing the
carrying capacity of a stream and, thus, lowering its water stages.
 They can be used individually or in combination. Some of these are:
 Cross-section improvement (Dykes, Channel widening etc.…)
 Channel rectification (Cut-off etc…)
 Reduction of river bed slopes (Drop structures, Check dams,
Bottom sills etc…)
 River bank protection (Riprap protection, Gabions and mattress
etc…)
 Artificial channel linings (Concrete lined channels etc…)
 I. Dams and Reservoirs
 The principal objective of dam and reservoir (Structural measure) is to

protect the d/s communities from floods.

 A reservoir reduces flood inundation damage by temporarily holding
excess runoff then releasing that water d/s to the channel at a lesser
rate over a longer period of time.
 This permits a reduction in peak flow rate, resulting in lower stage and
less damage.
 The rate of release depends on the characteristics of the outlet works
and spillway.
 Reservoir Regulation in developed nations use satellite communications
and computer technology to constantly monitor river levels and
weather conditions and to decide when and where to close the
floodgates of the dams and store flood water in the reservoir valley.
 Cont’d…
 Reservoirs for flood control may
 Natural:– lakes, swamps, and other low
areas on the land surface have a
tendency to reduce flood heights.

 Artificial:– through construction of dams

 Reservoirs for flood control may be :

 Single purpose:– it is economically
feasible if the protected area has high
value.

 Multipurpose:– for power generation,

irrigation and water supply in addition
to flood mitigation.
 Cont’d…
Specifically, a reservoir is well for damage reduction in the
following cases:

a. Damageable property is spread over a large geographic area.

b. A high degree of protection, with little residual damage, is desired.

c. A variety of property, including infrastructure and agricultural lands,

is to be protected.

d. Water impounded may be used for other purposes, including water

supply, hydropower, and recreation.

f. The economic value of damageable property protected will justify

the cost of constructing the reservoir.
 II. Flood Routing or Flood Absorption
 The hydrograph of a flood ent a reservoir will change in shape as
it emerges out of the reservoir because certain volume of its water is
stored in the reservoir temporarily & is let off as the flood subsides.

 The base of the hydrograph, therefore, gets broadened, its peak gets
reduced & the time of peak delayed.

 The extent by which the inflow hydrograph gets modified due to the
reservoir storage can be computed by a process known as flood
routing.
 Cont’d…
Routing method employs th ntinuity equation:
I - O= ds/dt I t-O t= S
Where:
I = average inflow rate in time t
O = average outflow rate in time t
S = change in storage in time t
Data required:
 Inflow hydrograph
 Elevation capacity or elevation area curve
 Elevation outflow curve
Methods to solve equations (to find maximum reservoir & spillway crest level):–
 Trial and error
 Pul’s method Reading Assignment
 Goodrich method
III. Levees – Definition and Function
 Levees are raised earthe ks along rivers that prevent the
water from overflowing & flooding the surrounding areas.

 Levees are the oldest & the most extensively used method of
flood control.

 They prevent flood waters from inundating valuable agricultural

land, residential & business property as well as infrastructure.

 They are often built a short way from the river's edge to stop the
river from undermining the embankment.

 Levee heights may be supplemented by adding concrete

floodwalls or sand bags to their tops if the land value dictates to
do so.
 Levees – Design Considerations
 Levee surfaces are commonly protected from erosion by grass.

 A banquette, or low terrace of earth, is usually added on the land

side of high levees to prevent loss of material from the slope
through rain erosion.

 On the river side, plantings of grass, or concrete revetments protect

those sections of levee that are exposed to strong waves or
currents.
 Cont’d…
 Even though levees are sim o small earth dams they differ from
earth dams in the following important respects:
a) A levee embankment may become saturated for only a short
period of time beyond the limit of capillary saturation,
b) Levee alignment is dictated primarily by flood protection
requirements, which often results in construction on poor
foundations.
 Cont’d…
 A general logical steps, ba n experience, that can be followed
in levees design are:
1. Conduct geological study based on a thorough review of available data.
2. Analyze preliminary exploration data & from this analysis establish
preliminary soil profiles, borrow locations, and embankment sections.
3. Using the information obtained in Step 2:
a) Determine both embankment & foundation soil parameters and
refine preliminary sections where needed, noting all possible
problem areas.
b) Compute rough quantities of suitable material and refine borrow
area locations.
4. Divide the entire levee into reaches of similar foundation conditions,
embankment height, and fill material & assign a typical trial section to each
reach.
 Cont’d…
5. Analyze each trial section as ne for:
a) Under seepage and through seepage.
b) Slope stability.
c) Settlement.
d) Trafficability along infiltration routes of the levee surface.
6. Design special treatment to preclude any problems as determined from
Step 5. Determine surfacing requirements for the levee based on its
expected future use.
7. Based on the results of Step 6, establish final sections for each reach.
8. Compute final quantities needed; determine final borrow area
locations.
9. Design embankment slope protection.
 Cont’d…

Fig. 3.4 Typical Levee and part of the river that has breached
its banks, spilling out into the surrounding area, Italy
 Cont’d…

Fig. 3.5 Section of a levee

 Cont’d…
 Additional considerations:

 Traditionally, in areas of high property values, high land use, and good
foundation conditions, levees have been built with relatively steep
slopes using controlled compaction,

 While in areas of lower property values, poor foundations, or high

rainfall during the construction season, un-compacted or semi-
compacted levees with flatter slopes are more typical.

 Levee maintenance is another factor that often has considerable

influence on the selection of a levee section.
 Causes of Levee Failures
The principal causes of levee e are:
1) Overtopping during high floods.
2) Surface erosion.
3) Internal erosion (piping) due to through seepage.
4) Slides within the levee embankment or the foundation soils.
 3.4 Storage Ponds
 In newly developed areas, rvious
surfaces replace open space &
decreases area available for infiltration,
and the amount of runoff increases.

 The most common method for

maintaining pre-development runoff
conditions is through the use of a
storage/detention pond.
 A detention pond captures flow and
releases it slowly over time, thereby
decreasing peak flows and associated
flooding problems.
 Cont’d…

Fig. 3.6 Impacts of urbanization on storm water runoff

 Detention Basins –Types
 Types of Detention Basins:
1. Wet Detention Basins or Retention Basin
2. Dry Detention Basin or Dry Pond
 The main d/c b/n a detention & a retention basin is whether it
has a permanent pool of water or not.
1. Wet Detention Basins or Retention Basin :-
 Have a permanent pool of water year-round.
 The permanent pool allows pollutant particles in storm
water runoff to settle out over an extended period of time.
 The goal of this basin is to achieve at least an 80%
reduction in suspended solids.
 Cont’d…
2. Dry Detention Basins:-
 Typically designed to store runoff volume & discharge it
slowly to reduce the peak discharge d/s.
 The peak flow reduction is often accomplished through the
use of a multistage outlet structure that allows increased
discharge as water levels in the basin increase.
 There is no a permanent pool of water for solids to
permanently settle out and accumulate.
 Cont’d…

Detention/Dry Basin

Retention/Wet Basin
 Cont’d…
 Wet or Dry Detention Bas
The decision to provide wet or dry detention basin should be based
on the goal to be achieved and on-site constraints.

 Wet detention basins can be cost effective in highly urban areas if a

single basin can treat a large area where using source controls are
difficult or impossible.

 The primary costs of wet detention basins are the construction and
land acquisition costs. Maintenance costs vary depending on the
extent of landscaping and frequency of sediment removal.

 Dry detention is most economical when it is incorporated into

planned open space. Maintenance costs are limited to periodic
mowing and sediment removal.
 Detention Basins – Design Considerations
 A detention basin function allowing large flows of water to
enter but limits the outflow by having a small opening at the lowest
point of the structure.
Inlet:

 Storm water is typically channeled to a basin through a system of

street storm drains, and a network of drain channels or
underground pipes.

 Frequently the inflow area is constructed to protect the structure

from some types of damage together with a stilling basin.
Outlet:

 The size of the outflow opening is determined by the capacity of

underground and d/s culverts and washes to handle the release of
the contained water.
 Cont’d…
 A common design of utlet structure has a series of
orifices or weirs that allow increased discharge as basin
water levels increase.

 Most of the time the orifice/weir is part of a metal or concrete

structure called a riser.

 A detention, or dry basin has an orifice level with the bottom

of the basin so that all of the water eventually drains out and
it remains dry between storms – hence, a dry basin.

 Retention basins have a riser with an orifice at a higher point

so that it retains a permanent pool of water.
 Cont’d…
 Detention Pond Typical Com nts
 Inflow (ditch or pipe)
 Storage
 Outflow (single/multiple stage)
1. Orifice
2. Weir
 Emergency spillway
Cont’d…
 Cont’d…
 Detention basin is designe discharge at pre-development
conditions to ensure that there is no net increase in peak
runoff.

 A hydraulic structure, such as a weir/orifice, is typically used to

control the outflow from a detention pond.

 For determining the pre and post development runoff

conditions, the most common method used are:
1. Curve Number Method (Technical Release no. 55, TR-55)
2. Modified Rational Method

 The volume/size of a detention pond can be estimated by

comparing the predicted inflow and outflow hydrographs.
 Detention Basins–Design
Example: The triangular hydrogra ing method
Using this fact, we can plot the pre-development runoff peak on the post
development hydrograph. The area difference between these two curves
yields the approximate storage volume.

Fig. Detention pond sizing

with triangular hydrographs
 Cont’d…
Routing
Information Needed to Routing
 Inflow hydrograph

 Relation of storage volume to elevation in the proposed detention

basin

 Relation of outflow to water level elevation (discharge rating)

1. Inflow Hydrograph
Curve number method
Modified rational method
Simple symmetrical triangle (2*tc)
Asymmetrical triangle (total base = 2.67 tc)
 Cont’d…
Example : Inflow Hydrogra Flow (cfs) Flow (cfs)
Time (hrs) Undeveloped Developed
Curve number Method 12.7 246 631
12.8 284 670
13 366 739
13.2 433 820
13.4 503 861
TR-55 Hydrograph 13.6 575 872
13.8 636 861
14 686 833
1000 14.3 720 755
9 00 Undeveloped
8 00 14.6 701 679
7 00 Developed 15 631 568
6 00 15.5 529 412
5 00
4 00
3 00
2 00
1 00
0
0 5 10 15 20

Time (hrs)

Peak flow is higher after development

Peak flow occurs earlier after development
 Cont’d…
Rational Method: Simple Sy ical Triangle

Triangular Runoff Hydrograph

Tc=2 hours; Qp=200 cfs

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (hrs)
 Cont’d…
RATIONAL METHO MMETRICAL TRIANGLE

Time base of 2.67Tc

Base of 2.67*Tc
Tc=2 hours; Qp=200 cfs

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (hr)
2.67* 2 = 5.34 hr
 Computing Storage Volumes
 Elevation-Area Method
 Contour lines are determined around the basin
 Determine area of each contour
 Volume between 2 contours = average area*depth between
the contours
 Prepare a table showing elevation, area, incremental volume
and cumulative volume
 Cont’d…
Example: Eleva Area Method
Elev (ft) Area (ft2) Incr. Vol (ft3) Cum. Vol (ft3)

230 0 0 0

231 250 (250/2*1)=125 125

232 840 ((250+840)/2*1)= 670

545

233 1350 1095 1765

234 2280 1815 3580

235 3680 2980 6560

236 5040 4360 10,920

 Cont’d…
Stage vs Volume

1 2000

1 0000

8 000

6 000

4 000

2 000

0
230 231 232 233 234 235 236

Elev (ft)
 Cont’d…
 Discharge Rating
 Calculate outflows based on water elevation in the
detention pond,

 Orifice and weir equations are used

1. Single stage

2. Two stage

 If more than one stage, calculate each outlet separately and

add to get stage-discharge curves
 Cont’d…

Orifice

 When water flows through an orifice the water contracts with a smaller area
(vena contracta) than the original orifice opening.

Q=ca(2gh)0.5

Where: Q=discharge (cfs or cms)

c=discharge coefficient (0.62 often used)

a=cross-sectional orifice area (sq ft or sq meters)

h=total head (ft or m)

g=gravitational constant (32.2 or 9.81)

 Cont’d…
 Weir
Horizontal surface over which water is allowed
to flow. Used to regulate and measure flows
Rectangular, Sharp-Crested Weir
Q=cLH3/2
c-adjusted discharge coefficient
L-effective crest length
H-head above crest

V-Notch or Triangular Weir

Q=c*tan(angle/2)*H5/2
 Detention Outlet Structures
 Single Stage (culvert or or

 Multi-Staged to handle different flows

 Combination of orifices &/or weirs

 Cont’d…
 Example 3.1

 Single Stage Outlet

 An outlet consisting of a 12” pipe is proposed for

detention basin. The invert of the pipe is 320.00 ft and
the top of berm is 325.00 ft. Compute the discharge
rating for the outlet.

 Area=0.785 sq ft

 Assume c=0.62

 Use orifice equation: Q=ca(2gh).5

Cont’d…
 Detention Basins – Maintenance
 One of the most important elements of maintaining basins is making

sure the low flow orifice is not blocked or clogged.

 Other maintenance activities include repairing erosion, removing
sediment, and managing the vegetation.

 Repairing erosion early can save significant costs, both in the erosion
and the resulting sedimentation that can end up needing to be
removed from the basin.

Riser in detention basin

 Diversion and Channelization
Channelization refers to river channel modification such as channel
widening, deepening, straightening, and bed & bank protection.
 Channelization
The intended impact of a channel modification is reduction of stage for
a given discharge (see figure)

Fig. 3.7 Stage-discharge function modifications due to channel improvement

 Channelization-Design Considerations
 The planning and design of projects that substantially alter an
existing channel is not an easy task because rivers are
naturally dynamic.

 Thus, designs have frequently been based on previous

experience and intuition.

 Otherwise, by altering one or more of the interdependent

hydraulic variables of slope, width, depth, roughness, or size
of the sediment load the existing equilibrium is disrupted,
necessitating adjustments of other hydraulic variables as a
channel attempts to attain a new state of equilibrium.
 Cont’d…
Therefore, to ensure that chan modifications yield the damage
reduction anticipated must give careful consideration to:
 Identification and solution of erosion and deposition
problems,
 Design for stability (especially if high velocities are
anticipated),
 Diversion Channels
 Diversion channels are const to divert water from the main
channel for purposes such as flood control, municipal water supply, and
irrigation.

 A type of diversion channel used for flood control is a flood bypass

channel or floodway.

 It is a separate channel into which flood waters are directed to lessen

the impact of flooding on the main river system.

 Control structures may be located at the head of the diversion channel

to divert flows during periods of high water and return flows during low
water.

 Some diversion channels bypass the flood flows into an adjacent

waterway, while others return the flows back into the same stream a
distance d/s from the point of the diversion.
 Cont’d…
 Diversion channels are often u urban areas where it is not possible
to widen the existing channel due to development.

 Diversion channels may be used to provide a means of diverting

floodwater across the neck of a meander or series of meanders.

 Major design considerations for diversion channels include:

1) Decide if the channel should convey partial or all flows
2) Design of appropriate controls
3) Sizing of the channel to convey the design discharge and
4) Design to reduce maintenance

 To be effective in reducing the flood stage, the distance between the

point of diversion and point of return to the main channel must be of
sufficient length to prevent backwater effects.
 Cont’d…

Major components of diversion

Plan view of diversion

 Diversion Channels –Function
 When the discharge/flow rate in the main channel reaches a
predetermined threshold, the stage at the overflow is sufficient to
permit water to flow into the diversion channel.

 This, in turn, reduces discharge in the main channel, thus eliminating

or reducing damage to the d/s property.

 As a diversion alters discharge for individual flood events, it will

eventually alter the discharge-frequency function.
 Cont’d…

Discharge-frequency function modifications due to diversion

 Cont’d…
 The solid line represents th hout-project discharge frequency
function at a location d/s of the diversion control structure.

 Q1 represents a target flow at that point; as with a reservoir, this

may be the channel capacity d/s, the flow corresponding to the
maximum stage before damage is incurred, or any other target
selected for a particular alternative.

 If the main-channel discharge is less than the target, no water need

be diverted.

 When the main channel discharge exceeds the target, the excess is
diverted, limiting main-channel discharge to the target.

 Consequently, the with-project function has flows equal to Q1 when

the main channel discharge exceeds this target.
 Cont’d…
 The with-project frequency f on, which is shown as a dashed
line, is equal to the without-project frequency function for events
with exceedence probabilities greater than P1 and discharges less
than Q1.

 However, regardless of the design, some extreme event of

probability P2 will cause the bypass channel to reach its capacity.

 Then the diversion will no longer be capable of limiting main

channel flow to Q1. At Q3 the diversion channel will have negligible
impact.
 Integrated Flood Management
DEVELOPMENT DILEMMA
 Development imperatives
 Poverty alleviation
 Improving livelihood and human security
 Need for interference in fluvial Ecosystem
 Preservation of Fluvial ecosystem

Harmonizing conflicting objectives

Integrated flood management

Objectives of IFM:
 Maximizing net benefits from flood plains
 Reducing loss of life from flooding
Reducing flood vulnerability and risks
 Preserving ecosystems and their associated biodiversity
Consequences of Structural Measures
Natural environment of the rivers is altered :
 River shape is fixed
 River channels are separated from their flood plains
 Natural morphological and ecological processes are impeded.
Resulting in:
 Maximizing net benefits from flood plains
 Reducing loss of life from flooding
 Reducing flood vulnerability and risks
 Preserving ecosystems and their associated biodiversity
 Loss of habitat
 Loss of biological diversity
 Loss of ecosystem productivity
 Loss of services provided by such ecosystems
 Understanding Ecosystems
It requires knowledge on:
1. Basic concepts of river morphology (seen in the first chapter)
2. Flood processes and ecosystem services: interrelationship
3. Impact of flood management interventions on ecosystems
4. Mitigation Measures
 Flood Management Interventions and
Their Impact on Ecosystems
Reservoirs and Dams:
 Store flood waters and sediment
 Submerge large areas u/s
 Destroy forests and other vegetation.
 Destroy or disturb habitat of terrestrial fauna and flora.
 Prevent seasonal fish migration.
 Modify flow regime in the d/s and reduce sediment discharge.
 Changes in morphologic features
 Drastic changes in habitat for flora and fauna
 Water quality changes
 Toxic algal growth
 Adverse impact on d/s food web
 Cont’d…
 Flood Embankments/ Dyke ees:
Reduction in flood plain inundation
Disrupt lateral hydrological connectivity
Increased flow velocities
Changes in sediment transport
Reduction in habitat heterogeneity
Detention & Retention Basins
Reduce peak floods d/s
These basins can act as wetlands or permanent ponds
Create habitat for aquatic & semi-aquatic species
 Cont’d…
 Bypass & Diversion Channel
 Reduce flood discharge in bypassed reach.
 Drastic change in habitat for flora & fauna.
 Change in morphologic features
 Channelization
 Simplifies channel form and flood plain
 Disconnects the channel from side channel features
 Changes sediments transport & deposition process
 Reduces habitat diversity
 Flood in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is endowed with many rivers.
 12 major river basins with annual flow of 122 Bm3.

 As the topography of the country is rather rugged with distinctly

defined watercourses, large scale flooding is limited to the lowland
flat parts of the country.

Highland floods:– Intense rainfall causes flooding of settlements in

a number of river basins. E.g. the Awash River Basin

Lowland floods:– Little settlement & Flood spates in these areas are
welcome by the population as such floods improve grazing and
water supply for livestock and people.
 Cont’d…
Large scale flooding is rare mited to the lowland areas where
major rivers cross to neighboring countries.
The most serious flood problems are found in:
 The Awash River basin (inundated surface area 200,000-
250,000 ha during high flows).
 More than 70% of large scale irrigation of the country.
 Irrigation development on flood-plains on both sides of a river
 Thus, high economic damage during flooding.
 The Wabi-Shebelle River near the Somali border (inundation
area 100,000 ha)
 Baro-Akobo/Sobat River near the Sudanese border
(inundation area 300,000 -350,000ha)
 Cont’d…
 Others:
 The level of the waters of two main lakes in the rift valley (Awassa
and Besseka):– their levels gradually increasing & causing damage
to infrastructure in adjoining areas.

 Several small streams originating in the mountain range at the

foot of Addis Ababa traverse the city & sudden rise in the flow of
these streams during rainy seasons causes flood damages to
settlements along their banks.

 A similar situation affects the town of Dire Dawa.

 Flood Management & Mitigation in Ethiopia
 Integrated water resources ma ement (IWRM) in Ethiopia is not at an
advanced stage.

 The main flood control & management activity being carried out in the
country is in the Awash River Basin.

 Before the construction of the Koka Dam on the Awash River in the late
fifties, widespread flooding along the river was common.

 The creation of this reservoir, with an initial capacity of 1.8 billion m3

Provided, in addition to the primary purpose of irrigation water & the
production of electric energy, flood protection to the upper & middle
Awash areas.

 As a result, irrigation development d/s was expanded safely with

minimal flood protection works by individual farms.
 Cont’d…
 In the middle Awash, with t plementation of a major irrigation
scheme of 10,000 ha, the Amibara Irrigation Project, a flood protection
scheme of dykes was constructed around the project to protect the
development.

 With the establishment of a Project Control Center, equipped with

adequate maintenance equipment, the flood protection dykes were
Maintained keeping the farms safe from flood damages.

 The Awash River in the Lower Plains has a very unstable course and
reduced slope, tending to change its direction with the raising of its bed
due to silt deposition.

 As a result it branches out into effluents reducing flows in the original

channel and denying supply to existing farms d/s.
 Cont’d…
 To control this situation, Go ment established a River Training
Unit for the Lower Plains area, with equipment to remove silt from
the river and maintain its original depth & width, so as to enable it to
carry floods coming from tributary rivers.

 The Unit also constructs & maintains flood protection dykes along
the river to protect the farms.

 Today, there is a constant increase in sediment load over the years

on Awash River flows.

 Root cause for sediment - soil erosion & land degradation on the u/s
due to deforestation and expansion of farmlands.
 Cont’d…
 With most of the sediment lo ought in by the river inflow to the
Koka reservoir being deposited there, its capacity has gradually been
reduced over more than forty years of its existence.

 At this time estimates are that the reservoir volume, having lost more
than 40% of its capacity, does not have a remaining capacity of more
than about 1.0 billion m3, which is incapable of withholding a major
flood.

 As it is not purely a flood retention reservoir but basically a supplier of

water for power generation and irrigation d/s, the reservoir
operation schedule, geared to retaining as much water as possible
during the rains, will necessarily reduce its flood retention capacity
substantially.
 Cont’d…
 Regarding the urban an rastructure flooding, the city
administration of Addis Ababa has prepared a flood protection
scheme including structural and non-structural activities to be
implemented over a15-year period.

 The structural intervention covers construction of retaining walls

and dykes and improvement of river channels.

 The non-structural plans include reforestation and proper zoning

concerning settlements close to the streams and adequate early
warning. Similar plans have been developed for the city of Dire
Dawa.
 Cont’d…
 There is no flood forecasting warning mechanism in Ethiopia.

 Reservoir Operational Committee, composed of representatives

from the Electric Board and Ministry of Water and Energy,
establishes operation schedules for the reservoir to be followed for
each rainy season.

 This schedule takes into account irrigation water requirement,

flood security for developments d/s as well as power generation.

 A close follow-up of the operation by this committee has made it

possible to avert significant damages by floods and has rendered
improved water supply for developments.
 Cont’d…
Institutions responsible for floo agement:–
 Awash valley agency established in 1998.
 semi-autonomous government organization responsible for
integrated water resources development including flood
management.
 Questions
1. Give a brief account of flood damage in Ethiopia. Discuss the basic
causes of flood in different regions of the country.

2. Discuss briefly about the various engineering measures commonly

used in flood control. What are the different administrative measures
of flood control?

3. What is flood forecasting and flood warning? Discuss briefly the

various flood control measures.

4. What are the structural measures used to protect flood.

5. What is the difference between dry and wet detention basins?

6. Define a levee.