The Equations of Electromagnetism

q
Gauss’ Law for Electrostatics:  E  dA  0
Gauss’ Law for Magnetostatics:  B  dA  0
d
Faraday’s Law of Induction:  E  dl  
dt
B

Ampere’s Law:  B  dl  0 I
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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
(Maxwell’s Equation)
1. Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics: Integral form
The number of electric field lines – passing through a closed surface S,
whereas the right side is the total amount of charge contained within that
surface divided by a constant called the permittivity of free space.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics…

It was Michael Faraday who first referred to an electric ‘‘field of force,’’

Further, James Clerk Maxwell identified that a space in which electric forces
act.
An electric field is the electrical force per unit charge exerted on a charged
object and given as:

 F
E

q 0
where, F is the electrical force on a small charge q0.

(1) E is a vector quantity with magnitude directly proportional to force.

(2) E has units of newtons per coulomb (N/C), which are the same as volts per
meter (V/m), since volts = newtons × meters/coulombs.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics…
Here are a few rules of thumb that will help you visualize and sketch the electric
fields produced by charges:
Electric field lines must originate on positive charge and terminate on negative
charge.
The net electric field at any point is the vector sum of all electric fields present at
that point.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics…

Gauss’s law involves only the enclosed charge – that is, the charge within the
closed surface over which the flux is determined.
Any charge located outside the surface produces an equal amount of inward
(negative) flux and outward (positive) flux, so the net contribution to the flux
through the surface must be zero.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics: Differential Form

“The electric field produced by electric charge diverges

from positive charge and converges upon negative charge”
If positive charge is present, the divergence is positive, meaning that the electric
field tends to ‘‘flow’’ away from that location.
If negative charge is present, the divergence is negative, and the field lines tend to
‘‘flow’’ toward that point.

Gauss Divergence Theorem:

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
(Maxwell’s Equation)
2. Gauss’ Law of Magnetostatics: Integral Form

The total magnetic flux through closed surface must be zero.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Gauss’ Law of Magnetostatics …

Just as the electric field may be defined by considering the electric force on a
small test charge, the magnetic field may be defined using the magnetic force
experienced by a moving charged particle.
The magnetic field, as shown by the Lorentz equation for magnetic force:


Where F is the magnetic force, q is the particle’s charge, v is the particle’s velocity
B
 
(with respect to B ), and B is the magnetic field.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Gauss’ Law of Magnetostatics …
Here are a few rules of thumb
that will help you visualize and
sketch the magnetic fields
produced by currents:
Magnetic field lines do not
originate and terminate on
charges; they form closed
loops.
The magnetic field lines that
appear to originate on the
north pole and terminate on
the south pole of a magnet are
actually continuous loops
(within the magnet, the field
lines run between the poles).
The net magnetic field at any
point is the vector sum of all
magnetic fields present at that
point.
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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Gauss’ Law of Magnetostatics …
But unlike electric field lines, magnetic field lines do not originate and terminate
on charges – instead, they circulate back on themselves, forming continuous
loops.
If one portion of a loop passes through a closed surface, another portion of that
same loop must pass through the surface in the opposite direction.
Thus the outward and inward magnetic flux must be equal and opposite through
any closed surface.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Gauss’ Law of Electrostatics: Differential Form

The divergence of the magnetic field at any point is zero.

Since it is not possible to isolate

magnetic poles, you can’t have a
north pole without a south pole,
and the ‘‘magnetic charge
density’’ must be zero
everywhere.
This means that the divergence of
the magnetic field must also be
zero.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Faraday’s Law: Integral Form

If the magnetic flux changes through a surface, an electric field is

induced along the boundary of that surface. If a conducting material
is present along that boundary, the induced electric field provides an
emf that drives a current through the material.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Fraday’s Law …
Here are a few rules of thumb that will help you visualize and sketch the electric
fields produced by changing magnetic fields:

Induced electric field lines produced by changing magnetic fields must form
complete loops.
The net electric field at any point is the vector sum of all electric fields present at
that point.
Electric field lines can never cross, since that would indicate that the field points
in two different directions at the same location.


In summary, the E in Faraday’s law represents the induced electric field at each
point along path C, a boundary of the surface through which the magnetic flux is
changing over time. The path may be through empty space or through a physical
material – the induced electric field exists in either case.

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Fraday’s Law …

The circulation of the electric field around a circuit has come to be known as an
‘‘electromotive force’’:

The right side of the common form of Faraday’s law

d B
 E  dl   dt
may look intimidating at first glance, but a careful
inspection of the terms reveals that the largest portion
of this expression is simply the magnetic flux φB:

E 
dB
dt

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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Faraday’s Law: Differential Form

“A circulating electric field is produced by a magnetic field that

changes with time”

E 
dB
dt

The left side of this equation is a mathematical description of the curl of the
electric field – the tendency of the field lines to circulate around a point. The right
side represents the rate of change of the magnetic field over time.
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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Ampere’s Law: Integral Form

“An electric current or a changing electric flux through a surface

produces a circulating magnetic field around any path that
bounds that surface”

Ampere’s Law

 B  dl   I 0

.......is the reverse

true..?

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 ...lets take a look at charge flowing into a capacitor...

when we derived Ampere’s Law B E

we assumed constant current

 B  dl  0 I
E
.. if the loop encloses one
B
plate of the capacitor..there is a
problem … I = 0

Side view: (Surface

is now like a bag:)
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 Maxwell solved this problem
by realizing that....
Inside the capacitor there must B E
be an induced magnetic field...

How?. Inside the capacitor there is a changing E 

B A changing
d E
 B  dl  00 dt  0 Id
x
x x x x electric field
E
x x x x x induces a
where Id is called the
x x
magnetic field
displacement current

d
 B  dl  0 I  00 dt
Therefore, Maxwell’s revision
of Ampere’s Law becomes.... E
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 Derivation of Displacement Current
dq d( EA )
For a capacitor, q   0 EA and I    0 .
dt dt
d ( E )
Now, the electric flux is given by EA, so: I  0 ,
dt
where this current, not being associated with charges, is
called the “Displacement Current”, Id.
d E
Hence: I d  0  0
dt
and:  B  dl  0( I  Id )
d
  B  dl  0 I  00 E
dt
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 The Equations of Electromagnetism
Ampere’s Law: Differential Form

“A circulating magnetic field is produced by an electric current and by

an electric field that changes with time”

d E
 B  dl  0 0 dt
v
B 
dE
dt

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 Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetism

q
Gauss’ Law for Electrostatics
 E  dA  0
Gauss’ Law for Magnetism
 B  dA  0
d
Faraday’s Law of Induction  E  dl  
dt
B

d E
Ampere’s Law
 B  dl  0 I  00 dt
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 Maxwell’s Equations of Electromagnetism
in Vacuum (no charges, no masses)
Consider these equations in a vacuum.
- no mass, no charges. no currents

q
 E  dA   0  E  dA  0
 B  dA  0  B  dA  0
d B d B
 E  dl   dt  E  dl   dt
   d E d E
 B  dl  0
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I  0 0
dt  B  dl  0 0 dt 22