CoTm Hydra

Hydraulics
ulics 2015

CHAPTER 6
HYDRAULIC MACHINES
Introduction
The function of a hydraulic machine is to effect an exchange of energy between a
mechanical and a fluid system. Pumps are a means of adding energy to water. They
convert mechanical energy (imparted by rotation) in to water (hydraulic) energy used in
lifting water to higher elevations. The mechanical energy is provided by an electric
motor.

6.1 Pump Types

There are two main categories of pumps:
i. Positive
ive displacement pumps
ii. Rota-dynamic
dynamic pumps

I. Positive displacement pumps

Positive displacement pumps usually deliver only small discharges irrespective of the head
pumped against. Typical examples of this type of pumps include:
a) Reciprocating pump
b) Rotary pump

a. Reciprocating pump

This type of pump is often used for domestic water supplies in developing countries for lifting
ground water. In its usual form it consists of a ram, piston, and valve arrangement.
The piston moves up & down in a cylinder (see figure 6.1).. When the lever is pushed downwards
the piston rises, lifting water above it through the outlet. At the same time it sucks water up the
well through the non-return
return valve & fills the cylinder. When the lever is raised the
th non-return
valve close & the piston descends allowing water to flow through another valve in to the upper
part of the cylinder. The process is then repeated.

Fig. 6.1 Reciprocating pump

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b. Rotary Pump

Rotary pump
mp contains two gears or rotors, which mesh together as they rotate in opposite
directions (see fig. 6.2).. Pressure is generated by the intermeshing gears, which operate
with minimum clearance. Water becomes trapped between the gears and forced in to the
delivery pipe.

This form of pump is eminently suited to handling small discharges (<30 l/s) and viscous liquids.

Fig. 6.2
.2 Rotary Pump

II. Rota-dynamic
dynamic Pumps

Rota-dynamic
dynamic pumps rely on rotational movement for their pumping action. A rotating
element, known as impeller,, imparts velocity to a liquid and generates pressure. An outer
fixed casing, shaft, & diving motor complete the pump unit.

Rota-dynamic
dynamic pumps are the most widely used types of pumps in civil Engineering. Its
field of employment ranges from public water supply, drainage, & irrigation to the very
special requirements of sucti
suction
on dredging & the transport of concrete or sludge. There are
three main categories of Rota-dynamic
dynamic pumps based on the way water flows through them:
a) Centrifugal (radial flow) pumps
b) Axial flow pumps
c) Mixed them pumps

a) Centrifugal pumps

Centrifugal pumpsps are the most widely used of all the Rota
Rota-dynamic
dynamic pumps. They are
named because of the fact that the pressure head created is largely attributable to
centrifugal action. They may be designed to handle up to a head of 120m.

Water is drawn in to the pump ffrom rom a source of supply through a short length of pipe
called the suction (see fig. 6.3).
.3). Water enters at the center or eye of the impeller, is picked
up by the vanes, and forced outwards in a radial direction.. The water is collected by the
pump casing & guided
ided towards the outlet called the delivery.
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Fig. 6.3
.3 Centrifugal pump
In order that energy shall, not be wasted and efficiency there by lowered, it is essential to
convert as much as possible of the considerable velocity hhead
ead at exit from the impeller in
to useful pressure head. Normally, this is achieved by shaping the outer casing in spiral
form so that the sectional area of flow around the periphery of the impeller is gradually
expanded.

b) Axial flow pumps

This type of pump is well suited to situations where a large discharge is required to be
delivered against a low head. The maximum operating head is between 9 and 12m. Axial
flow pumps consist of a propeller housed inside a tube that acts as a discharge pipe (see
fig 6.4). The power unit turns the propeller by means of a long shaft running down the
middle of the pipe & this
his lifts the water up the pipe.

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Fig. 6.4
.4 Axial flow pump
Water enters axially and the impeller imparts a rotational component, the actual path
followed by a particle being that of a helix on a cylinder. Head is developed by the
propelling action of the vanes, centrifugal effects playing no part.

c) Mixed flow pumps

Mixed flow pumps occupy an intermediate position between the centrifugal & axial flow
types and so combine the best features of both pump types. Flow is part radial & part
axial, the impeller being shaped accordingly. The path traced by a fluid particle is that of
a helix on a cone. The head range is up to about 25m. Mixed flow pumps are efficient at
pumping larger quantities of water than centrifugal pumps and are more efficient at pumping to
higher pressures than axial flow pumps.

6.2 Head on pumps

The total head on a pump is the excess of the outlet head over the inlet head. Each of
these heads may be regarded as being composed of elevation head, pressure head, and
velocity head. Referring to fig 6.5, the total head on a pump may be expressed by:
H = H s + H d + H Ls + H Ld −−−−−−−−− (1)
Where, Hs & Hd are the static suction and delivery lifts respectively, and HLs & HLd are
the energy head losses (friction + minor) iin suction and delivery branches respectively.
respective If
4 the pump is situated below the level of the water surface in the suction well, Hs is
negative.

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Fig. 6.5 Head on a pump

6.3 Specific Speed

It is useful to have a common basis on which different types of pump or turbine design
can be compared in respective of size. The parameter known as specific speed has been
introduced for this purpose, and the respective definitions could be as follows:

The specific speed of a pump is the speed in rev/min of a geometrically similar

pump of such a size that it delivers 1 m3/s against 1 m head. It is expressed by:

nQ1/ 2
ns = −−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−− (3)
H 3/ 4

Where, ns is specific speed (rev/min), n is speed of rotation (rev/min), and Q & H are
discharge (m3/s) and head (m) respectively
respectively.

The above definitions of the specific speed have recognized the significant performance
parameters. The values of n, Q & H in the expressions for the specific speed are those for
normal operating condition (the design point), which would generally coincide with the
optimum efficiency.

It can be noted that the specific speed is iindependent

ndependent of the dimensions and therefore
relates to shape rather than size. Thus, all pumps or turbines of the same shape have the
same specific speed.
5
The valve of specific speed is mainly used for selection of a suitable type of pump or
turbine for a particular site. The following table gives guidelines on this purpose.

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Table: Specific speeds for different types of pumps

Machine type ns (rpm) Comments

Centrifugal High head – small discharge

Pumps 10 – 80
Mixed flow Medium head - medium
70 – 180
discharge
Axial flow 150 – 320
Low head – large discharge

6.4 Performance
Losses & efficiencies

The overall efficiency η of a pump is the ratio of the useful power output to the power
input or available. Thus,
• For pumps;
γQH
η =
Pi
Where, Pi is the power input to a pump

Pump efficiencies are usually of the order of 80 %. The energy losses that occur within a
pump are attributable to volumetric, mechanical, and hydraulic losses.

• The volumetric loss arises from the slight leakage (from the high pressure side to
the low pressure side) in the small clearances that must be provided between the
rotating element and the casing.
• The mechanical loss is a result of power loss due to mechanical friction at bearings
and fluid shear in the clearances.
• The hydraulic loss arises from head loss in the flow passages due to friction and
eddies.

6.5.2 Characteristics

[Link] Pump characteristics

As the discharge is nearly the primary factor, it is customary for the performance curves
to consist of the three curves of head, power input, and efficiency, drawn to common
baseline of discharge. Each design of pump has its own characteristic behavior.

6 Figure 6.6 shows the performance curves for the centrifugal and axial flow pumps. The
curves are drawn for a particular operating speed.

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Fig. 6.6 Pump characteristics

Suction and cavitation, the Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

Cavitation consists of local vaporization od a liquid due to a drop in its pressure below its vapour
pressure. In a pump
mp installation if the pump is located above the liquid surface of the reservoir
from which it delivers then there could be a danger of cavitation. Cavitation causes physical
damage, reduction in discharge and makes undesired noise.

Thus for cavitation nott to occur the suction pressure (Ps) should not equal the vapour pressure
under the given conditions.
If the suction pressure head is expressed in absolute terms ( i.e. wrt absolute zero), then the Net
Positive Suction Head (NPSH) is defined as
Ps Pv Pa Pv
NPSH = − = − Hs −
γ γ γ γ
where
Pa is the local atmospheric pressure,
Pv = vapor pressure of the liquid at the given temperature,
Vs2
Hs = the manometric suction head = hs + hls +
2g
Vs = velocity in the suction pipe.
Values of NPSH are delivered from the manufacturer of the pumps and should not be exceeded
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Fig. 6.7 Head conditions in suction pipe

୒୔ୗୌ
Tahoma introduced a cavitation number (σ = ) and from physical tests found this to
ு೘
be strongly related to specific speed.

Fig. 6.8 Cavitation in a pump impeller

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Example 1
A centrifugal pump has a 100 mm diameter suction pipe and a 75 mm diameter delivery
pipe. When discharging 15 l/s of water, the inlet water mercury manometer with one limb
exposed to the atmosphere recorded a vacuum deflection of 198mm; the mercury level on
the suction side was 100 mm below the pipe centerline. The delivery pressure gauge, 200
mm above the pump inlet, recorded a pressure of 0.95 bars. The measured input power
was 3.2 kW. Calculate the pump efficiency.
Solution
Manometric head = rise in total head
࢖૛ ࢂ૛ ૛ ࡼ ࢂ૚ ૛
Hm =
࣋ࢍ
+ ૛ࢍ
+ z – (࣋ࢍ૚ + ૛ࢍ
)
1 bar = 10.198 m of water
‫ܘ‬૛
ૉ܏
= 0.5 x 10.198 m = 9.69 m of water
‫۾‬૚
ૉ܏
= - 0.1- 0.198 x 13.6 = -2.793 m water
V2 = 3.39 m/s
‫܄‬૛ ૛
= 0.588 m
૛܏
V1 = 1.91 m/s
ࢂ૚ ૛
૛ࢍ
= 0.186 m
Then Hm = 9.69 m + 0.588 m +0.2 m – (-2.793 m + 0.186 m)
Hm = 13.09 m
‫ܚ܍ܟܗܘ ܜܝܘܜܝ۽‬ ૉ܏‫ۿ‬۶
Efficiency (ŋ) = ۷‫ܚ܍ܟܗܘ ܜܝܘܖ‬
x 100% = ૜૛૙૙‫ܕ‬
ૢ.ૡ૚‫ܠ‬૙.૙૚૞‫ܠ‬૚૜.૙ૢ
ŋ= ૜૛૙૙
x100% = 60.2 %

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Example 2

A laboratory test on a pump revealed that the onset of cavitation occurred, at a discharge
of 35 l/s, when the total head at inlet was reduced to 2.5 m and the total across the pump
was 32 m. Barometric pressure was 760 mm Hg and the vapour pressure 17 mm Hg.
Calculate the Tahoma cavitation number. The pump is to be installed in a situation where
the atmospheric pressure is 650 mm Hg and water temperature 10°C (vapour pressure
9.22 mmHg) to give the same total head and discharge. The losses and velocity head in
the suction pipe are estimated to be 0.55 m of water. What is the maximum height of the
suction lift?
Solution
‫܉۾‬ ‫۾‬
NPSH = ( – Hs) - ૉ܏‫ ; ܞ‬where Hs = manometric suction head.
ૉ܏
‫܉۾‬
= 10.3 m of water
ૉ܏
‫ܞ۾‬
ૉ܏
= 0.23 m of water
‫܉۾‬
– Hs = 2.5 m
ૉ܏

∴ NPSH = 2.5 m - 0.23 m = 2.27 m

୒୔ୗୌ
Cavitation number, σ = ு
૛.૛ૠ
σ= ૜૛
= 0.071 m
Installed condition;
‫܉۾‬ ‫ܞ۾‬
= 8.84 m; = 0.1254 m (at 10° C)
ૉ܏ ૉ܏

‫܉۾‬ ‫ܞ۾‬
Then, NPSH = – Hs –
ૉ܏ ૉ܏
2.27 = 10.3 – Hs – 0.23
Hence, Hs = 6.44 m
௏మ
But, Hs = hs + hls + ଶ௚
௏మ
Where, hls + ଶ௚ = 0.55 m
=> hs = 6.44 – 0.55
hs = 5.89 m → suction lift

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