Cosmic Chemistry: Cosmogony
Mathematical Models
STUDENT ACTIVITY
Models in science come in different forms. A physical model that you probably are familiar with is an anatomically detailed
model of the human body. Mathematical models are less commonly found in science classes, but they form the core of
modern cosmology. Mathematical models are extremely powerful because they usually enable predictions to be made
about a system. The predictions then provide a road map for further experimentation. Consequently, it is important for you
to develop an appreciation for this type of model as you learn more about cosmology.
Two sections of the activity develop mathematical models of direct relevance to cosmology and astronomy. The math skills
required in the activity increase with each section, but nothing terribly advanced is required.
A very common approach to the mathematical modeling of a physical system is to collect a set of experimental data and
then figure out a way to graph the data so that one gets a straight line. Once a straight line is obtained, it is possible to
generalize the information contained in the straight line in terms of the powerful algebraic equation:
y = mx +b
You probably are familiar with this equation. In it y represents a value on the y axis, x represents a value on the x axis, m
represents the slope of the straight line, and b represents the value of the intercept of the line on the y axis. In all sections of
this activity, your goal will be to analyze and then graph a set of data so that you obtain a straight line. Then you will derive
the equation that describes the line, and use the equation to make predictions about the system. So relax and have fun with
math!
PART 1
a) In this part of the activity, your team will investigate the way in which points on an elastic
material move as the material is stretched. Discuss among yourselves the experimental
set-up that you will use. Your discussion should include:
i. the number of points that you wish to follow;
ii. how you will mark the points;
iii. how far you will stretch the elastic; and
iv. how you will hold the elastic in the stretched state while you make measurements on
the positions of the points.
Furthermore, you should decide on what point will be your “reference point” from which
all measurements are made (i.e., the “zero” point on the elastic). Also discuss the
meaning of “rate” or “speed.” Everyone on the team should understand that rate is
distance traveled divided by the time of travel. Discuss whether or not you actually want
to measure the actual time taken to stretch the elastic material or whether you will treat this as a constant that applies
equally to all points as they move. If you keep stretching time constant, then its exact value does not come into play at
all.
b) As a team, develop a diagram showing how you think the positions of a set of points on an elastic material will change
as the material is stretched. For example, if you have points located at 4, 7, and 15 cm from the end of the elastic, show
where you think these points will be located (relative to the end) when the material is stretched 10 cm.
c) Write a description of the procedure that your team will employ, including materials needed before submitting it to your
teacher. Include your diagram.
d) After your teacher approves your plans and diagram, acquire the materials you need and conduct the experiment.
Record your measurements.
STUDENT ACTIVITY • MATHEMATICAL MODELS GENESIS 1
e) Construct a graph that shows the rate of movement of the points on the y-axis and the initial positions of the points with
respect to the reference point on the x-axis. Be sure to construct a graph that utilizes most of the graph paper.
f) Draw a best-fit line through the points on the graph. If you made careful measurements, it will be linear, (i.e., a straight
line) and it will pass through the origin of the graph.
g) Noting that the y intercept has a value of zero, the equation for a straight line becomes in this case:
y = mx + 0
Select two points on the line and from their x- and y-coordinates, and determine the slope of the line.
h) Submit a written report to your teacher in which you discuss whether the prediction made in step b) was a good one in
light of the experimental evidence that you now have. Include in your report your graph and your derived equation. Also,
include a calculation of the rate of movement of a point initially located 200 cm from the initial reference point, assuming
that you have a very long piece of elastic. Last, include in your report a statement of how this experiment relates
to the expansion of the universe. Refer to Appendix A, “Cosmology” for help in writing this statement.
PART 2
In all three parts of this activity, you will develop mathematical models. The first two parts deal with
hypothetical situations, but the last part pertains to actual planetary motion. In each case you will be
presented with a set of data that you will need to analyze and then graph in such a way as to produce a
straight line. From the straight line, you will derive an equation that models the original data.
a) In this section, let us imagine that there is another universe—call it HOHUM—where the physical laws
are similar to ours in many respects, but different in others. We wish to model one of the distinctly
different aspects of HOHUM, namely that the mass of an object depends on its temperature. Yes, this is
weird. But remember, we are talking about another universe. Who is to say that this might not be possible?
For fun, let’s assume that the data shown below are available, where q represents the mass of a HOHUM object in
grams and T represents temperature in degrees Celsius.
Temperature, T 10 20 30 40 50
Mass, q 7 26 69 148 275
Lets say that a HOHUM scientist communicates to you the idea that the general relationship between q and T is q =
(HO)T + (HUM)T3, where HO and HUM are constants. Obviously, for this equation to be very useful, you need to know
the values of the constants. To obtain these values, remember that when you plot data to get a straight line of general
form, y = mx + b, the constants m and b can be evaluated from the slope and intercept of the straight line.
Since b is a constant, you probably will want to rearrange your initial equation to provide a similar constant term, HO, on
the right-hand side, that is: q/T = (HUM)T2 + (HO). Now it should be clear that the rearranged equation is in the form of
an equation for a straight line, and if we plot q/T versus T2, the straight line obtained will have a slope of HUM and an
intercept of HO. In other words, q/T is the y and T2 is the x of the generalized equation.
Draw a graph based on the data above and determine the value of the constants HUM and HO. Now, write your final
equation on the graph paper showing how mass, q, depends on T in the HOHUM universe. This is your mathematical
model of the relationship of mass to temperature in the strange universe HOHUM. Finally, predict the mass of an object
having a temperature of 100 degrees Celsius and write your prediction on the graph paper. Turn your graph in to the
teacher.
STUDENT ACTIVITY • MATHEMATICAL MODELS GENESIS 2
b) In this section, you will attack a problem that deals with the variation of atmospheric pressure with altitude on a planet.
Let us assume that a spacecraft has arrived at a distant planet and that a probe dropped through the atmosphere has
sent back the following data to you:
Altitude, km 0 2 5 8 10 15 20 25 30
Pressure, ktorr 3160 1910 890 417 251 70.8 12.0 5.60 1.60
A torr is a unit of pressure equivalent to 1 mm of Hg. One atmosphere of pressure is the same as 760 torr.
Again, the objective is to find a mathematical expression that models the variation of the pressure with the altitude. As
before, the technique is to find some way to graph the data to obtain a straight line.
i. Construct a graph of pressure, P, (y-axis) versus altitude A, (x-axis). Discuss among classmates why the graph
shows that the equation sought is NOT of the form P = mA + B.
ii. Notice that the pressure rises very rapidly with decreasing altitude. This suggests that a fruitful approach might be
to involve logarithms, since logarithms (logs) “compress” large numbers into smaller ones. For example, the log of
100 is 2, the log of 1000 is 3, and so on. So, junior spaceperson, how about trying a graph of log P versus altitude?
Go ahead and construct such a graph.
iii. Did you obtain a straight line? You should have. Now you are in position to develop a mathematical statement that
models the pressure variation as a function of altitude. Note the arithmetic sign of the slope carefully.
iv. Based on the equation you have developed, you are now in a position to predict the altitude at which the pressure
would be 100 ktorr. On the one that is a straight line, show your equation and your prediction of the altitude where
the pressure is 100 ktorr. Turn in both of your graphs.
c) The following scenario involves actual data from the solar system, as opposed to the previous two hypothetical
situations. Shown in the table below are the distances of the planets from the sun and the time it takes the planets to
travel around the sun one time (the sidereal period).
Planet Distance, D Sidereal Period, T
(millions of km) (Days)
Mercury 57.9 88
Venus 108.2 225
Earth 149.6 365
Mars 227.9 687
Jupiter 778.3 4329
Saturn 1427 10753
Uranus 2870 30660
Neptune 4497 60150
Pluto 5914 90670
Construct three graphs, one of D versus T, one of log T versus D, and one of log D versus log T. From these graphs
decide on the form of the mathematical model that relates D and T, and then derive the equation that expresses the
relationship between sidereal period and distance.
Finally, if your teacher instructs you to do so, show that your result is
consistent with Kepler’s third law. This seventeenth century law states that
the square of the sidereal period is proportional to the cube of the distance of
the planet from the sun.
Turn your three graphs, your derived mathematical model, and, if so
instructed, your demonstration that you have derived Kepler’s third law in to
your teacher.
STUDENT ACTIVITY • MATHEMATICAL MODELS GENESIS 3
