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MEMORANDUM
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z
-C &6 13498
(ACCESSION N U M B E R ) (THRUI

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83 (PAOES)
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(CODE1

32
(CATEGORY)
(NASA C R OR TMX O R A D NUMBER)

L.

L.

INTERFACES BETWEEN FATIGUE, CREEP, A N D FRACTURE

by S. S. Manson
Lewis Research Center
Cleveland, Ohio

I Special Lecture presented at the

International Conference on Fracture,
’ Sendai, Japan, September 14, 1965

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS A N D SPACE ADMINISTRATION * WASHINGTON, D.C. 1966

,

INTERFACES BETWEEN FATIGUE, CREEP, AND FRACTURE

by S. S. Manson

Lewis Research Center

Cleveland, Ohio

Special Lecture presented at the International

Conference on Fracture, Sendai, Japan,
September 14, 1965

Published in the International Journal of Fracture

Mechanics, March 1966, and to be published in the
Proceedings of the International Conference on Fracture

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

 INTERFACES BETWEEN FATIGUE, CREEP, AND FRACTURE

by S . S. Manson

Lewis Research Ceater

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Cleveland, Ohio

INTRODUCTION

I n attempting t o decide upon the content of t h i s l e c t u r e , I d e l i b e r -

a t e d between t h e choice of providing a summary of t h e e x i s t i n g l i t e r a t u r e

on t h e s u b j e c t assigned t o m e by the Organizing C o d t t e e for t h e Confer-

0
CX
cu ence, and t h e a l t e r n a t i v e o f p r e s e n t b g t o you some c u r r e n t thoughts oil
N-I
I

t h e subject--thoughts t h a t had not previously matured t o t h e p o i n t of publica-

tion. I chose t h e l a t t e r a l t e r n a t i v e , r e a l i z i n g t h a t many of my remarks

would have t o b e regarded as speculative r a t h e r t h a n being based on an

e x t e n s i v e experimental foundation. The i n t e n t i s t o s t i m u l a t e thought and

perhaps f u r t h e r work i n t h e a r e a s of r e s e a r c h t o be discussed r a t h e r t h a n

t o p r e s e n t conclusive evidence of t h e i r v a l i d i t y .

The s u b j e c t assigned t o me w a s " I n t e r f a c e s Between Fatigue, Creep,

and F r a c t u r e " . I s h a l l i n t e r p r e t " i n t e r f a c e s " t o imply t h a t concepts

used i n two or more d i s c i p l i n e s have t o b e brought t o g e t h e r i n order t o

a r r i v e a t a conclusion. I n attsmpting t o f u l f i l l t h e requirement, my

l e c t u r e w i l l d e a l w i t h t h r e e subjects. The f i r s t i s an i n t e r f a c e between

f a t i g u e and f r a c t u r e which w i l l b e concerned with t h e f a t i g u e problem of

q u a s i - b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s ; t h e second w i l l attempt t o b r i n g t o g e t h e r creep

and f a t i g u e by considering f a t i g u e i n t h e creep range a t elevated temper-

atures, and t h e t h i r d w i l l d e a l w i t h cumulative f a t i g u e damage. Since I:

s h a l l consider cumulative f a t i g u e damage as a process of i n i t i a t i n g and

 2

propagating a crack, it may p r o p e r l y be considered as a second i n t e r f a c e

between f a t i g u e and f r a c t u r e .

Background

Some of t h e concepts t h a t w i l l be used a r e contained i n a paper pre-

sented t o t h e Society f o r Experimental S t r e s s Analysis i n 1964 ( r e f . 1).

Before considering t h e various i n t e r f a c e s it would be i n s t r u c t i v e t o review

s e v e r a l p o i n t s of t h i s e a r l i e r paper. A t t h e o u t s e t it i s very important

t o emphasize t h a t t h e [Link] drawn a r e s p e c i f i c a l l y a p p l i c a b l e only t o

c e r t a i n types of specimem. Extendicg them t o specimens of d i f f e r e n t geom-

e t r i e s or t o engineering s t r u c t u r e s may involve new and d i f f i c u l t procedures.

The type of specimen used t o o b t a i n most of t h e data upon which t h e concepts

presented here a r e based i s shown i n f i g u r e 1. It i s unnotched and has an

hour-glass shape w i t h a minimum diameter of 1 / 4 inch. I n most of our s t u d i e s

on such specimens, load i s a p p l i e d a l t e r n a t e l y i n tension and compression,

c y c l i n g about a z e r o mean s t r e s s and a zero mean s t r a i n . Usually t h e s t r a i n

i s measured i n a t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n . A few of our t e s t s ( r e f . 2 ) have been

conducted on specimens with notches as shown i n f i g u r e 2 . m e notch depth i s

approximately 0.010 inch; t h i s dimension i s e s p e c i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t s i n c e it

e n t e r s i n t o t h e determination of t h e "engiceering s i z e crack" discussed i n

r e f e r e n c e 2. Specimens with notches of t h i s depth with concentration f a c t o r s

of 2 o r 3 have been t e s t e d i n our program. For some of our t e s t s conventional

R. R. Moore bending specimens have also been used. It must be recognized,

*
t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e t e s t r e s u l t s which w i l l be r e f e r r e d t o w e r e obtained on

r a t h e r small specimens. The specimens u s u a l l y had c a r e f u l l y machined s u r -

f a c e s , and i n most cases were t e s t e d i n a i r i n t h e absence of pernicious

environments.
 3

I n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s of our low-cycle f a t i g u e t e s t s , it i s

common t o regard c y c l i c l i f e a s being governed l a r g e l y by t h e s t r a i n range

t o which t h e t e s t s e c t i o n i s subjected. Figure 3 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e concept

we have applied t o t h e p l o t of t o t a l s t r a i n range a g a i n s t t h e number of

cycles t o f a i l u r e . F a i l u r e i s defined here as s e p a r a t i o n of t h e specimen

i n t o two p a r t s . The t o t a l . s t r a i n range which i s given by t h e curved l i n e has

been separated i n t o i t s two components, p l a s t i c and e l a s t i c . It i s evident

from t h e f i g u r e t h a t on a log-log p l o t of s t r a i n versus number of cycles t o

f a i l u r e , b o t h t h e e l a s t i c and t h e p l a s t i c components a r e assumed t o b e

represented by s t r a i g h t l i n e s . The l i n e a r i t y of a logarithmic p l o t of p l a s -

t i c s t r a i n range versus l i f e has been w e l l accepted i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e on

f a t i g u e i n r e c e n t years. We f i r s t proposed t h i s l i n e a r i t y i n 1952 ( r e f . 3)

i n connection with t h e thermal f a t i g u e of t u r b i n e buckets. The concept w a s

a l s o proposed independently by Coffin ( r e f . 4 ) and much r e s e a r c h information

has been compiled by numerous authors t o v e r i f y that such a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n -

s h i p e x i s t s between p l a s t i c s t r a i n and l i f e . The -0.6 slope shown i n f i g -

u r e 3 f o r t h e p l a s t i c l i n e i s a reasonable average r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of most

of t h e m a t e r i a l s we have t e s t e d . It is common t o assume t h a t t h e p l a s t i c

l i n e has a u n i v e r s a l slope of -0.5. However, t h e r e i s r e p l l y no b a s i c eon-

f l i c t w i t h t h e -0.6 slope shown i n figure 3 s i n c e i n most cases where -0.5

has been proposed t h e l i f e has been t h a t required t o generate a crack r a t h e r

t h a n t h a t required t o separate t h e specimen i n t o two p a r t s . I n reference 1

we have attempted t o demonstrate t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n slopes i s d i r e c t l y

a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n d e f i n i t i o n of f a t i g u e l i f e .

It i s evident from f i g u r e 3 t h a t t h e e l a s t i c l i n e i s a l s o assumed t o

 4

be s t r a i g h t . This observation i s of more r e c e n t o r i g i n ( r e f s . 5 - 8 ) . The

slope i n t h i s case i s on t h e order of -0.12. A s implied i n t h e f i g u r e ,

b o t h the p l a s t i c and t h e e l a s t i c components can be estimated from measure-

ments of p r o p e r t i e s obtained i n a simple t e n s i l e t e s t . Thus from a know-

ledge of t h e d u c t i l i t y of t h e material, it i s p o s s i b l e t o determine one

p o i n t on t h e p l a s t i c l i n e , and from the u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and elas-

t i c modulus one p o i n t on t h e e l a s t i c l i n e may b e determined. Then, by

means of t h e assumed u n i v e r s a l slopes b o t h components can be drawn. The

equation f o r t o t a l s t r a i n range as a function of l i f e i s given a t t h e t o p

of f i g u r e 3.

The v a l i d i t y of t h e procedure shown i n f i g u r e 3 for estimating t h e

f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s from a knowledge of t h e s t a t i c t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s has

been demonstrated i n reference 1 f o r 29 m a t e r i a l s . Comparison between es-

timated and observed f a t i g u e l i v e s for 10 a d d i t i o n a l m a t e r i a l s khat have

s i n c e been t e s t e d a r e shown i n f i g u r e 4. The c i r c l e s r e p r e s e n t t h e e x p e r i -

mental data; t h e curves t h a t are shown i n connection with t h e d a t a p o i n t s

for each material r e p r e s e n t t h e p r e d i c t i o n s based on t h e method of u n i v e r s a l

slopes j u s t discussed. Very good agreement w a s obtained between t h e e s t i -

mated and observed l i v e s f o r all t h e materials shown.

Additional confidence i n t h e approximate v a l i d i t y of t h e method of

u n i v e r s a l slopes has been gained by considering i t s usefulness i n determin-

i n g from s t a t i c t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s alone whether t h e m a t e r i a l w i l l b e s t r a i n

hardening o r s t r a i n softening under c y c l i c conditions. This subject i s d i s -

cussed i n appendix A and i l l u s t r a t e d i n figure 5 ( a ) . R e s u l t s are presented

for 30 m a t e r i a l s i n t h e b a r graph of f i g u r e 5 ( b ) . According t o t h e p r e d i c -

 5

t i o n s of t h e a n a l y s i s based on t h e method of u n i v e r s a l s l o p e s a l l t h e b a r s

t h a t l i e above t h e h o r i z o n t a l a x i s i n t h i s f i g u r e should be c y c l i c s t r a i n

hardening, while all those l y i n g below t h e h o r i z o n t a l axis should be s t r a i n

softening. That t h e p r e d i c t i o n s agreed w e l l w i t h t h e experimental observa-

t i o n s i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e shading of the bars.

We have developed a considerable degree of confidence i n t h e method

of u n i v e r s a l slopes f o r p r e d i c t i n g t h e f a t i g u e l i v e s at room temperature and

i n a l a t e r s e c t i o n of t h i s paper t h e concept i s f u r t h e r discussed i n connec-

t i o n w i t h p r e d i c t i o n s of f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s at high temperature.

INTERFACE BETWEEN FATIGUE AND FRACTURE

L e t us now examine t h e model of f i g u r e 3 i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e determina-

t i o n of t h e f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s of a q u a s i - b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l . We note t h a t

i n e s t i m a t i n g t h e f a t i g u e p r o p e r t i e s on t h e b a s i s of t h i s model only t h e

p r o p e r t i e s o r d i n a r i l y obtained i n a conventional t e n s i l e t e s t , such as duc-

t i l i t y , u l t i m a t e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and e l a s t i c modulus a r e used. From t h e

p o i n t of view of f r a c t u r e mechanics it might b e considered t h a t such prop-

e r t i e s as f r a c t u r e toughness should be involved. A f t e r a l l , i s not t h e

f i n a l cycle of t h e fatigue t e s t one which t e r m i n a t e s i n f r a c t u r e due t o t h e

development of a crack of c r i t i c a l size f o r t h e s t r e s s range t o which t h e

m a t e r i a l i s subjected? Why, then, should f r a c t u r e toughness n o t e n t e r i n t o

t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of t h e fatigue behavior? The primary reason i s t h a t i n

t h e t e s t i n g of small unnotched specimens most of t h e - f a t i g u e l i f e i s taken

UP i n i n i t i a t i n g a crack and i n t h e e a r l y stages of propagation. The l a t e r

development of t h e crack from a moderate s i z e t o c r i t i c a l s i z e t a k e s only a

s m a l l f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l f a t i g u e l i f e because t h e r a t e of crack propaga-

 6

t i o n per cycle at t h i s s t a g e i s r e l a t i v e l y highr., Thus t h e f r a c t i o n of..the

t o t a l l i f e involved i n t h i s stage i s q u i t e s m a l l and v a r i a t i o n s i n t h i s

f r a c t i o n may b e i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e within t h e s c a t t e r of t h e f a t i g u e l i f e

data. I n a d d i t i o n , t h e s i z e of t h e 1/4 i n c h diameter f a t i g u e specimen

does not permit much v a r i a t i o n i n c r i t i c a l crack s i z e s . The toughness of

most engineering m a t e r i a l s i s s u f f i c i e n t l y high t h a t f a i l u r e of such a

specimen a t a n e t s e c t i o n stress l e s s t h a n t h e y i e l d s t r e n g t h cannot occur.

Since t h e conditions f o r a l i n e a r e l a s t i c f r a c t u r e mechanics toughness t e s t

are r a r e l y r e a l i z e d i n f a t i g u e t e s t i n g of small, smooth specimens, it

should occasion no s u r p r i s e t h a t t h e f a t i g u e l i f e of a s m a l l specimen can

be p r e d i c t e d without r e f e r e n c e t o the f r a c t u r e toughness of t h e material.

I n order t o determine wherein the importance of f r a c t u r e toughness

l i e s , we must, t h e r e f o r e , r e s o r t t o m a t e r i a l s of low toughness, so t h a t

b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e w i l l be manifest even i n s m a l l specimens. We must a l s o

start w i t h a notched specimen, such as t h e one shown i n f i g u r e 2, t o pro-

mote t h e process of crack i n i t i a t i o n e a r l y i n t h e c y c l i c loading process.

A s a v e h i c l e f o r d i s c u s s i n g t h i s i n t e r f a c e between f a t i g u e and f r a c t u r e we

w i l l t h e r e f o r e choose t o t r e a t the behavior of notched specimens of quasi-

b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s which have r e l a t i v e l y low f r a c t u r e toughness. Before do-

i n g so, however, it i s necessary t o e s t a b l i s h a model f o r crack i n i t i a t i o n

and f o r crack growth, as w e l l as t o p o s t u l a t e a condition f o r b r i t t l e f r a c -

t u r e of specimens of t h e type shownin figure 1. Here it i s important t o

emphasize t h e s p e c u l a t i v e f e a t u r e discussed i n t h e INTRODUCTION. The models

t o b e discussed a r e not based on abundant or conclusive evidence, b u t they

may b e h e l p f u l as a start.
 7

Ductile Versus B r i t t l e Behavior

Before d i s c u s s i n g b r i t t l e behavior i n f a t i g u e it i s important t o know

how a highly d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l behaves under t h e same conditions. We s h a l l

consider copper, a t y p i c a l f a i l u r e surface of which i s shown i n f i g u r e 6.

Each of t h e progressive s t r i a t i o n s is caused during one cycle of loading.

These s t r i a t i o n s extend almost across t h e e n t i r e c r o s s s e c t i o n , i n d i c a t i n g

t h a t t h e crack depth at f a i l u r e can be regarded as almost t h e e n t i r e d i a -

meter of t h e specimen. On t h e other hand, t h e spacing of t h e s t r i a t i o n s

becomes p r o g r e s s i v e l y l a r g e r as t h e crack g e t s l a r g e r . Thus, whether f a i l -

u r e i s considered t o occur when t h e crack l e n g t h i s equal t o t h e diameter,

or whether it i s taken as a l a r g e f r a c t i o n of t h e diameter ( s a y 60 t o 90 $)

has r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l e f f e c t on t h e determined number of cycles t o f a i l u r e .

This f a c t of i n s e n s i t i v i t y of cyclic l i f e t o crack l e n g t h at f r a c t u r e w i l l

l a t e r be used i n p o s t u l a t i n g a u n i v e r s a l crack growth l a w f o r d u c t i l e

materials.

It i s important t o recognize t h a t t h e spacing of t h e s t r i a t i o n s a f t e r

t h e crack has penetrated t o an appreciable depth (above approximately

0.003 i n . ) depends t o some e x t e n t on t h e manner i n which t h e f a t i g u e t e s t

i s c a r r i e d out. O u r t e s t s a r e conducted by maintaining a constant dia-

m e t r a l s t r a i n range, which implies an almost constant exial s t r a i n range

(depending on t h e degree of hardening or s o f t e n i n g during t h e t e s t ) . This

d i a m e t r a l s t r a i n i s monitored by means of o p t i c & stm5n gages which i n -

volve t h e use of k n i f e edges t h a t beas on t h e specimen at t h e t e s t sec-

tion (ref. 5). Once a n appreciable crack develops, t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of

t h e readings of t h e d i a m e t r a l gage becomes d i f f i c u l t .

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Several a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e possible for continuing t h e t e s t once t h e

crack i s of macroscopic s i z e . One approach i s t o continue t o monitor

I .
t h e apparent t r a n s v e r s e s t r a i n as i f t h e crack were absent; another i s t o

remove t h e gage and t o continue t h e t e s t maintaining e i t h e r t h e l o a d range

o r the end-displacement achieved a t the t i m e of gage removal. Crack growth

r a t e s may depend appreciably on which of t h e procedures i s followed, and

discrepancies i n results based on s t r i a t i o n measurements may, i n f a c t , be

due t o d i f f e r e n c e s i n techniques used by d i f f e r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r s . In

most of our tests we have p r e f e r r e d t o remove the gage and maintain end-
P
displacement. This approach would appear t o be more r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of what

happens i n t h e region of a small crack i n a l a r g e body which i s , i n t h e

main, undergoing e l a s t i c loading; the displacements a t t h e boundary of t h e

region of t h e small crack tend t o be governed by t h e e l a s t i c s t r a i n s i n t h e

s t r u c t u r e , which change l i t t l e a s t h e crack grows. There i s , however, a n

a d d i t i o n a l reason f o r p r e f e r r i n g t h e fixed end-displacement procedure.

When t h e load range i s maintained constant, t h e n e t s e c t i o n stress pro-

g r e s s i v e l y i n c r e a s e s as t h e crack grows l a r g e r ; t h e same phenomenon i s ob-

served, under c e r t a i n conditions, when t h e nominal diametral s t r a i n range

i s h e l d constant. The f i n a l f r a c t u r e a r e a w i l l t h e r e f o r e depend t o a con-

s i d e r a b l e e x t e n t on t h e l o a d s imposed. When end displacement i s maintained

c o n s t a n t , however, t h e l o a d progressively decreases, and t h e crack may

g r a d u a l l y p e n e t r a t e t h e e n t i r e cross-section before t h e specimen s e p a r a t e s

i n t o two parts. Highly d u c t i l e materials, such a s copper, w i l l t h e n show

by s t r i a t i o n s a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of progressive crack growth a s i n f i g u r e 6.

It t h u s becomes p o s s i b l e t o assume t h a t i n a completely d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l

 9

t h e crack depth a t f a i l u r e i s approximately constant r e g a r d l e s s of m a t e r i a l

and s t r a i n range, rather than being m a t e r i a l and s t r a i n dependent, as would

be t h e case if l o a d range were maintained constant. This assumption w i l l

be very u s e f u l i n t h e development of t h e a n a l y t i c a l procedure t o be de-

scribed.

I n c o n t r a s t t o the behavior of a highly d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l , a m a t e r i a l

of low notch toughness may develop a failure c r o s s - s e c t i o n such as shown

i n f i g u r e 7, even i f t h e t e s t i s conducted by maintaining end-displacement

amplitude once t h e crack s t a r t s . I n t h i s case the f i n a l f r a c t u r e took

p l a c e w e l l before t h e crack had penetrated t h e e n t i r e c r o s s s e c t i o n . Such

b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e i s due t o t h e attainment of a c r i t i c a l combination of

crack depth and a p p l i e d load. Thus, although t h e l o a d decreases while t h e

crack grows deeper, such a c r i t i c a l combination of crack depth and l o a d can

develop when t h e f r a c t u r e toughness of the m a t e r i a l i s l o w enough. The

procedure whereby the c r i t i c a l combination can be determined w i l l now be

discussed.

Crack I n i t i a t i o n and Crack Growth

Before discussing t h e f r a c t u r e condition of a q u a s i - b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l as

a consequence of t h e development of a f a t i g u e crack within i t s t e s g s e c t i o n ,

it i s necessary t o p o s t u l a t e laws for crack i n i t i a t i o n and f o r crack growth.

An attempt a t t h e treatment of t h i s problem has a l r e a d y been made i n ref-
erence 1. Further a n a l y s i s of s t r i & t i o n data has made p o s s i b l e a t e n t a t i v e

r e v i s i o n and extension of the hypothesis t h e r e s t a t e d .

I n r e f e r e n c e 1 it w a s postulated t h a t i f t h e l i f e of a specimen w a s

Nf c y c l e s , t h e p e r i o d of crack propagation could be taken as 2.5$3

 10

cycles. The period of crack propagation was not c l e a r l y defined because

of t h e l a c k of extensive data, but, as i n d i c a t e d i n r e f e r e n c e 1, t h e ex-

p r e s s i o n r e f e r r e d t o t h e number of cycles t o advance t h e crack from a

depth of approximately 0.002 t o 0.003 i n c h t o a crack s i z e f o r f a i l u r e .

For t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s t h e treatment was g e n e r a l i z e d t o consider crack

growth from a s t a g e earlier than when a depth of 0.002 t o 0.003 inch had

developed. To e s t a b l i s h a more useful working hypothesis t h e s t r i a t i o n

spacings f o r a number of copper and s i l v e r specimens were examined t o de-

termine whether a reasonable crack growth l a w could be e s t a b l i s h e d . Equa-

t i o n (1) appears t o r e p r e s e n t t h e a v a i l a b l e l i m i t e d d a t a :

where

2 = crack l e n g t h

N = number of cycles a t crack length 2

AE = p l a s t i c s t r a i n range
P
The expression f(AEp) i s shown i n equation (1) as a general function

of p l a s t i c s t r a i n range. The exact f u n c t i o n a l form i s not important i n

t h e following development s i n c e t h e e n t i r e term becomes cancelled during t h e

mathematical treatment; however, comments as t o t h e form of t h e f u n c t i o n a r e

included i n appendix B.

Equation (1) may now be integrated on t h e assumption t h a t A€ and

P'
t h e r e f o r e , f ( & ), i s a constant (such an assumption is, of course, only'
P
an approximation s i n c e a f t e r t h e crack starts t h e t e s t becomes one of

constant-end-displacement, s o t h a t AEP probably changes as t h e crack

I 11

advances) giving t h e following equation

1
Ln j- = f(AEp)(N - No)
0

where 2, and No a r e any corresponding values of crack l e n g t h and

cycles. To obtain t h e f r a c t u r e condition we s u b s t i t u t e 2 = Zf and

N = Nf. Thus

Dividing equation ( 2 ) by equation ( 3 ) we g e t

I n order t o a t t a c h a very simple s i g n i f i c a n c e t o equation ( 4 ) we

p o s t u l a t e t h a t both 2, and 2f can be taken a s constant for a l l mater-

ials and s t r a i n l e v e l s . Choosing 2, a s a constant i s p e r f e c t l y admis-

s i b l e s i n c e it i s an a r b i t r a r y constant of i n t e g r a t i o n , and t h e choice of

any s p e c i f i c value merely d e f i n e s the value of l i f e , No, a s s o c i a t e d with it.

We s h a l l d e f i n e l o as t h e lowest value of 2 f o r which equation (1)be-

comes v a l i d a s t h e crack propagation law, and assume f o r t h e p r e s e n t t h a t

t h i s value i s independent of material and s t r a i n range.

The choice of lf as a constant has a l r e a d y been J u s t i f i e d e a r l i e r

i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n connection with the discussion of f i g u r e 6. By s e l e c t -

ing a n a r b i t a r y value of Zf w e are e s s e n t i a l l y d e f i n i n g Nf as t h e number

of c y c l e s r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h i s crack l e n g t h i n s t e a d of t h e number

lf
of c y c l e s required t o s e p a r a t e t h e specimen i n t o two halves. As already
 12

noted, t h e s t r i a t i o n s become so coarsely spaced once t h e crack extends beyond

t h e c e n t e r of the specimen t h a t t h e percentage d i f f e r e n c e between t h e number

of cycles required t o generate a crack deeper than h a l f t h e specimen and t h a t

r e q u i r e d t o break t h e specimen i s very small f o r a l l p r a c t i c a l values of l i f e .

Examination of equation ( 4 ) now shows t h a t s i n c e 2, and Zf a r e con-

s t a n t s , t h e l e f t s i d e of t h e equation depends only on 2. The r i g h t hand

s i d e of t h e equation, which i s t h e f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l crack propagation

period r e q u i r e d t o propagate the crack to a l e n g t h 2 , depends, t h e r e f o r e ,

only on t h e value of 2. Thus a s i n g l e curve should be a b l e t o express 2

i n terms of AN/(AN)f. A s discussed i n appendix B, t h e expression f o r (AN)f

i s taken as Nf i n t h e range of Nf up t o 730 cycles, and a s 14J'?ge6 f o r

3Tf above 730 c y c l e s . Since No can be determined as Nf - (AN)f, both t h e

numerator and denominator i n t h e expression AN/(AN)f can be determined. (A

g r a p h i c a l r e l a t i o n between No, (LW),, and Nf i s shown i n f i g . 8 . ) The

u n i v e r s a l curve between 2 and AN/(AN)f can then be determined as a com-

promise of a v a i l a b l e data on crack growth as determined from s t r i a t i o n

measurements. Based on our l i m i t e d data obtained t o date, we have chosen

t h e following equation as a reasonable t e n t a t i v e approximation:

~ANn r ~ >
= log1015. 3 2 1/4 (5)
f

where ( A N ) f i s taken as Nf for Nf < 730, and 14NgS6 f o r Nf > 730.

This s u b j e c t i s f u r t h e r discussed i n appendix B.

To determine t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of equation ( 5 ) f o r experimental obser-

v a t i o n s of crack growth, t h i s equation is depicted i n f i g u r e 9 on a semi-

l o g a r i t h m i c coordinate system,and i s a s t r a i g h t l i n e . The i n t e r c e p t of

 13

t h e l i n e with t h e a b s c i s s a AN/(AN), = 0, i s 2, = 1.8~10'~

inch, and

t h e i n t e r c e p t w i t h t h e value AN/(AN)f = 1 is 0.18 inch, tmplying t h a t

t h e crack l e n g t h a t f a i l u r e i s 0.18 inch.

Some support f o r t h e v a l i d i t y of equation (5) as a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of

t h e crack growth process f o r a l l d u c t i l e materials can be seen i n f i g u r e 9

by considering t h e value of AN/(AN)f for 2 = 0.013 inch. This value of

crack depth has s p e c i a l significance i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e behavior of notched

specimens such as shown i n f i g u r e 2 which have a machined notch depth of

0.610 inch. The experimental program ( r e f . 2) on such specimens involved

cycling u n t i l a d e t e c t a b l e crack was observed a t t h e r o o t of t h e notch,

implying a crack l e n g t h along t h e surface of approximately 0.010 inch and

a depth of approximately 0.003 inch. Now, as discussed i n reference 2, t h e

a n a l y s i s of t h e crack growth at t h e r o o t of the n o k h is q u i t e complicated.

While the crack i s very small i t s growth is influenced l a r g e l y by t h e l o c a l

s t r a i n a t t h e r o o t of t h e machined notch, and i t s e f f e c t i v e l e n g t h i s t h a t

measured from t h e r o o t of t h e machined notch t o t h e end of t h e crack. At

a l a t e r s t a g e t h e s i t u a t i o n i s b e t t e r represented as one i n which the crack

i s equal i n s i z e t o the a c t u a l crack p l u s the notch depth, and thenominal

s t r a i n f i e l d i s t h a t of an unnotched specimen. The crack depth a t which

t h e t r a n s i t i o n occurred was referred t o i n reference 2 as an "engineering

Eize crack", and w a s assumed t o occur when t h e crack could be v i s u a l l y de-

t e c t e d , or when it was approximately 0.003 inch from t h e r o o t of t h e

machined notch. A t t h i s t r a n s i t i o n , then, t h e e f f e c t i v e crack depth be-

comes 0.010 + 0.003 = 0.013 inch, and the remaining l i f e after such a crack

depth has been reached i n a smooth specimen should be t h e same as when a

 14

dep,th of 0.003 i x h i s reached i n a notched specimen ( f i g . 2 ) . Accord-

ing t o f i g u r e 9, t h e value of AN/(AN)f f o r a value of 2 = 0.013 inch f o r

an unnotched specimen i s 0.715, s o t h a t t h e f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l propaga-

t i o n period, (AN)f, required t o extend t h e crack from a depth of 0.13 inch

t o a depth of 0.18 inch i s 1 - 0.715 = 0.285. Thus, s i n c e (ANf) = 14Nge6,

t h e value of N between t h e t i m e the crack grows from a s i z e of 0.013 inch

0.6
t o f a i l u r e i s 0.285X14Nf
0.6
= 4Nf .
Figure 1 0 shows t h e r e s u l t s of t h e tests on notched specimens of 5

materials as designated. The ordinate i s t h e number of cycles sustained by

t h e specimen from t h e time detectable cracking occurred a t t h e r o o t of t h e

notch t o t h e time f i n a l specimen separation occurred a t t h e t e s t s e c t i o n .

The a b s c i s s a i s t h e c y c l i c l i f e sustained by a smooth specimen under t h e

nominal average s t r a i n range t o which t h e notched specimen i s subjected.

It i s seen t h a t good agreement e x i s t s between t h e experimental d a t a and t h e

prediction
0.6
AN = 4Nf .
Returning t o consideration of f i g u r e 9 it may be seen t h a t t h e f i g u r e

provides, i n f a c t , an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e crack propagation period f o r any

a r b i t r a r y c r i t e r i o n of crack i n i t i a t i o n . For example, i f optically-unaided

d e t e c t a b l e cracking on the surface (implying a depth of about 0.003 i n . ) i s

taken as t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r cracking of an unnotched specimen, f i g u r e 9

would i n d i c a t e a crack propagation period of 6.2$*6, using t h e c a l c u l a t i o n

r a t i o n a l e previously described f o r 2 = 0.013 inch.

It should be emphasized t h a t the above discussion i n which t h e value

of (AN), i s taken as 14Ngo6 i s valid only f o r Nf > 730 cycles. For

lower l i v e s (AN), = Nf, and a l l the numbers c i t e d above must be correspond-

 15

i n g l y amended. Thus, f o r example, a f t e r t h e crack has reached a depth

of 0.003 inch t h e remaining number of cycles before f a i l u r e occurs would

be 0.443N and a f t e r t h e crack has reached 0.013 inch t h e remaining num-

f’
b e r of cycles before f a i l u r e occurs would be 0.285Nf.

Fracture Condition

Equation (5) and f i g u r e 9 represent t h e hypothesized r e l a t i o n f o r

crack growth (and i m p l i c i t l y , crack i n i t i a t i o n ) for a completely d u c t i l e

material. Q u a s i - b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s , which f r a c t u r e w e l l before t h e crack

has progressed across t h e e n t i r e t e s t s e c t i o n w i l l be assumed t o follow

t h e same crack i n i t i a t i o n condition, and t h e same crack propagation condi-

t i o n u n t i l t h e c r i t i c a l crack s i z e is reached, a t which p o i n t b r i t t l e

f r a c t u r e w i l l i n t e r r u p t t h e crack growth process. It i s now necessary,

t h e r e f o r e , t o e s t a b l i s h a f r a c t u r e condition forspecimens of t h e geometry

shown i n f i g u r e s 1 or 2.

Only a f e w t e s t s have been conducted thus far aimed a t t h e d e t e r -

mination of a f r a c t u r e condition for t h e small c i r c u l a r geometry of t h e

conventional f a t i g u e specimen. The results of t h e s e t e s t s a r e shown i n

f i g u r e 11. Specimens of AIS1 52100 s t e e l were machined with t h e notch

geometry of f i g u r e 2 having an e l a s t i c s t r e s s concentration f a c t o r of 2.0.

These specimens were hardened and tempered a t various temperatures t o

achieve s e v e r a l f r a c t u r e toughness l e v e l s K
IC
. The opening-mode f r a c t u r e

toughness KIc value f o r each temper w a s measured using t h e techniques of

r e f e r e n c e 9 on specimens of 1/2 inch square s e c t i o n i n which f a t i g u e

cracks had been introduced. These f r a c t u r e toughness values v a r i e d from

1 7 t o 35 ksi - 6,
as l i s t e d i n figure 11. The round notched specimens
 16

( f i g . 2 ) of s i m i l a r l y h e a t - t r e a t e d material were then f a t i g u e - t e s t e d a t

various s t r a i n l e v e l s . Observations were made of t h e stress amplitude 0,

t h e number of cycles t o f a i l u r e , and t h e depth of p e n e t r a t i o n of t h e crack

at failure. I n determining t h e crack depth, t h e depth of t h e 0.010 inch

machined notch w a s tncluded,and these crack l e n g t h s a t f a i l u r e were p l o t -

ted against KIc/U a s shown i n figure 11. Linear e l a s t i c f r a c t u r e mech-

a n i c s theory would p r e d i c t t h a t a logarithmic p l o t of Zf versus KIc/u

should produce a s t r a i g h t l i n e of slope 2. The d a t a l e n t themselves read-

i l y t o such a c o r r e l a t i o n , t h e equation of t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e of f i g u r e 11

being

2f
' =(w2 or K~~ = u

where i s t h e crack l e n g t h a t f r a c t u r e f o r t h e q u a s i - b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l
2;
( i n c o n t r a s t t o t h e designation Zf f o r t h e f a i l u r e crack l e n g t h f o r

completely d u c t i l e behavior, which is taken as 0.018 i n . for a l l mater-

ials). While equation ( 6 ) i s manifestly derived f o r only one m a t e r i a l ,

and for a l i m i t e d range of K I ~ , i t s remarkable s i m p l i c i t y makes it a t -

t r a c t i v e f o r general use. Further d a t a are needed t o j u s t i f y i t s use f o r

a p p l i c a t i o n s beyond t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s c i t e d here. Equation ( 6 ) , or i t s

more g e n e r a l equivalent when determined, t h e n provides an expression for

t h e crack depth a t f a i l u r e f o r a material of known value of KIc cycled

a t a known s t r e s s amplitude U. I f t h e expression y i e l d s a value of 2;

g r e a t e r than 0.18 inch it may be assumed t h a t completely d u c t i l e behavior

(according t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n previously c i t e d ) w i l l c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e

material a t t e s t conditions involved. I f t h e value of 2 ' is l e s s than

f
 17

0.18 inch a quasi-brittle failure will occur when the crack depth becomes

equal to 2;.

Application to Unnotched Specimens

When a fatigue specimen behaves in a completely ductile manner through-

out a test the fatigue life Nf can be predicted from its relation to the

strain range and the tensile properties of the material as given by the

method of universal slopes (fig. 3). It is of interest to predict the

life
Ni of a specimen which fails prematurely by brittle fracture and to

see to what extent the ratio Nf/N: depends upon KIc. This is accom-

plished by use of equations (5) and (6). Because of the double condition

placed on (AN)f in equation (5) it is necessary to examine separately the

two cases Nf < 730, and Nf > 730.

Case I: Nf < 730 cycles. For this case No = 0, and N = Ni, and
= Nf. By equations (5) and (6)

Therefore

0.6
Case 11: Nf > 730 cycles. Here (AN), = 14Nf , No = Nf - (AN)f =
ITf - 14Go6.
By equations (5) and (6)

AN = ( h->,
LOglol53
@ = 14Nf
0.6 10g1015.3 @
But N;. = No + AN, therefore
 18

The r e l a t i o n s h i p s among Nf, N;, and KIc/O expressed by equations

( 7 ) and (8) a r e shown g r a p h i c a l l y i n f i g u r e 1 2 . It can be seen from f i g -

u r e 1 2 t h a t a t t h e very low c y c l i c l i v e s and very low values of KIc/o,

Yf may be appreciably l a r g e r than Nk. A s t h e l i f e i s increased t h e e f -

f e c t becomes smaller and smaller. This r e s u l t i s t o b e expected on t h e

b a s i s of t h e r e l a t i v e duration o f the crack i n i t i a t i o n and crack propa-

g a t i o n periods. For t h e low c y c l i c l i v e s t h e e n t i r e l i f e c o n s i s t s of

crack propagation. I n t e r r u p t i n g t h e crack propagation by premature b r i t -

t l e f a i l u r e before t h e crack has progressed across t h e e n t i r e section,

t h e r e f o r e , reduces t h e l i f e appreciably. Even s o t h e loss of l i f e i s only

of t h e order of 50 percent or l e s s for p r a c t i c a l ranges of KIc/O, and

t h i s amount of l i f e reduction might not be c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from

t h e data s c a t t e r common i n f a t i g u e measurements.

A t t h e higher c y c l i c l i v e s the e f f e c t becomes very small indeed, and

i s s u r e l y t o be hidden i n data s c a t t e r . The reason f o r t h e small e f f e c t

a t t h e higher c y c l i c l i v e s l i e s i n t h e r e l a t i v e unimportance of t h e crack

propagation phase. Most of t h e l i f e i s consumed i n t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n

phase which i s unaffected by the f r a c t u r e toughness, according t o t h e

approach adopted here. The o n l y e f f e c t of t h e f r a c t u r e toughness i s t o

cause premature f’racture a t some c r i t i c a l crack depth during propagation

of t h e crack. Since t h e crack prgpagation phase i s a small p a r t of t h e

t o t a l l i f e , removing even most o f i t does not have a l a r g e e f f e c t on t o t a l

life.

Thus it can be seen why f r a c t u r e toughness does not e n t e r as a major

v a r i a b l e i n the estimation of fatigue l i f e of small unnotched specimens.

 19

This observation has already been made i n reference' 1; t h e above d i s c u s -

s i o n and f i g u r e 1 2 serve mainly t o make t h e explanation more q u a n t i t a t i v e .

Application t o Notched Specimens

While f r a c t u r e toughness i s r e l a t i v e l y unimportant i n a f f e c t i n g t h e

l i f e of small unnotched specimens, the e f f e c t becomes more important when

a notched specimen i s used f o r m a t e r i a l evaluation. The s t r a i n concentra-

t i o n a t t h e notch r o o t causes t h e crack t o develop a t a r e l a t i v e l y e a r l y

s t a g e i n t h e l i f e of t h e specimen compared t o an unnotched specimen, mak-

i n g t h e crack propagation period a l a r g e r percentage of t h e t o t a l l i f e .

Since low f r a c t u r e toughness serves t o c u t s h o r t t h e crack propagation

period, t h e e f f e c t of low f r a c t u r e toughness would be expected t o be of

g r e a t e r importance i n such notched specimens than i n unnotched specimens.

The method of computation again depends predomifi&mtly on t h e use of equa-

t i o n s (5) and (6), or t h e i r graphical equivalents, f i g u r e s 9 and 11.

W e s h a l l i l l u s t r a t e t h e approach by r e f e r r i n g again t o t h e AISI 52100 s t e e l

tempered a t 600° F f o r which t h e value of KIc was 1 7 k s i - ( f i g . 11).

An i l l u s t r a t i v e computation i s presented i n appendix C; here we s h a l l i n -

d i c a t e only t h e b a s i s of t h e method and t h e results of t h e computations.

I n f i g u r e 1 3 ( a ) t h e continuous l i n e r e p r e s e n t s t h e s t r a i n cycling

f a t i g u e behavior f o r unnotched specimens determined by t h e method of u n i -

v e r s a l slopes. It i s assumed t h a t t h i s curve would be obtained f o r t h e

m a t e r i a l having t h e measured t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e i l l u s t r a t i v e A I S I

52100 s t e e l if it behaved i n a completely d u c t i l e f a s h i o n - - t h a t i s , i f t h e

c r a c k could progress i n f a t i g u e across t h e e n t i r e f a i l u r e s e c t i o n . The

d o t t e d curve i s then obtained f r o m t h e continuous curve by t h e procedure

 20

i n d i c a t e d i n t h e previous s e c t i o n . It i s seen t h a t t h e d a t a p o i n t s on

smooth specimens f o r t h i s material, as shown by t h e c i r c l e s , agree w e l l

with t h e dotted curve. Alternatively, i f t h e experimental data f o r t h e

smooth m a t e r i a l i s well e s t a b l i s h e d over t h e e n t i r e l i f e range ( t h a t i s ,

t h e d o t t e d curve i s w e l l established by experiment), t h e curve for com-

p l e t e l y d u c t i l e behavior (continuous curve) can be obtained from t h e ex-

perimental curve by i n v e r t i n g [Link] described i n the previous see-

t i o n , again using f i g u r e 1 2 t o determine Nf from t h e measured Ni.

Having e s t a b l i s h e d t h e l i f e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e smooth m a t e r i a l

on t h e b a s i s of completely d u c t i l e behavior, i t s f i r s t use i s t o d e t e r -

mine t h e number of cycles required t o s t a r t a crack a t t h e r o o t of t h e

notch. To accomplish t h i s t h e s t r a i n range a t t h e r o o t of t h e machined

notch i s determined using the method described i n reference 2. Once t h e

l o c a l s t r a i n a t t h e r o o t of t h e machined notch i s known, t h e number of

cycles a t t h i s s t r a i n l e v e l required t o i n i t i a t e t h e crack and cause it t o

grow t o a s i z e d e t e c t a b l e with t h e unaided eye (assumed t o be a depth of

G.003 inch from t h e r o o t of t h e notch) can be determined from f i g u r e s 8

and 9. A t t h i s p o i n t we s t a r t t o take i n t o account t h e 0.010 inch depth

of t h e machined notch, and regard the t o t a l crack as extending t o a depth

of 0.013 inch, i n s t e a d of 0.003 inch from t h e r o o t of t h e notch. Con-

c u r r e n t l y , w e r e v e r t t o a consideration of crack growth a s s o c i a t e d with

t h e nominal s t r a i n range i n t h e t e s t s e c t i o n i n s t e a d of t h e l o c a l s t r a i n

range a t t h e r o o t of t h e notch (ref. 2 ) , and a n a l y t i c a l l y determine how

t h e crack would continue t o grow as a function of cycles of l o a d applica-

t i o n i f t h e m a t e r i a l were completely d u c t i l e . From t h e value of KIc/u,

 21

however, we can determine what t h e c r i t i c a l crack l e n g t h i s f o r b r i t t l e

fracture. The-number of cycles required t o reach t h i s c r i t i c a l crack

l e n g t h i s t h e l i f e of t h e notched specimen. This number of cycles can

conveniently be determined with t h e a i d of t h e a u x i l i a r y p l o t shown i n

figure 13(b). The use of t h i s figure i s discussed i n appendix C. The

c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s a r e shown by the dot-dash curve of f i g u r e 13(a) accom-

p a r i e d by t h e experimental d a t a points obtained on notched specimens.

Very good agreement i s seen t o e x i s t between c a l c u l a t i o n s and experiment.

Discuss ion

Although good agreement has been found between t h e p r e d i c t i o n s of

t h e s i m p l i f i e d method o u t l i n e d and the experimental d a t a obtained f o r both

t h e d u c t i l e and q u a s i - b r i t t l e materials evaluated, it must be emphasized

t h a t t h e number of t e s t s i s very limited and t h a t considerably more data

on o t h e r materials a r e needed before a conclusive evaluation o f the v a l i d -

i t y of t h e method can be obtained. A s more d a t a a r e accumulated t h e f o l -

lowing f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e method may be reexamined:

( a ) Consideration of t h e use o f a normalized crack growth r e l a t i o n

(eq. (5) and f i g . 9) f o r a l l materials and f o r a l l l i f e l e v e l s . Even i f

t h e assumption of such a r e l a t i o n is v a l i d , i t s equation may be d e t e r -

mined more a c c u r a t e l y when more extensive d a t a a r e a v a i l a b l e . It may a l s o

be observed t h a t inherent i n the use of a normalized crack growth r e l a t i o n

i s t h e assumption of t h e i n s e n s i t i v i t y of crack growth t o notch toughness

o r o t h e r v a r i a b l e s t h a t do not d i r e c t l y manifest themselves i n a d e t e r -

mination of Nf f o r a given s t r a i n . Thus, two m a t e r i a l s having t h e

same values of d u c t i l i t y , t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h , and e l a s t i c modulus would be

 22

expected t o have t h e same value of Nf a t a given imposed s t r a i n range

on a standard unnotched specimen ( f i g . 1) i n reversed s t r a i n cycling, r e -

g a r d l e s s of t h e f a c t t h a t t h e two may d i f f e r appreciably i n notch tough-

ness. They would thus have t h e same crack growth r e l a t i o n , and t h e same

crack growth p e r cycle a t any s t a g e of crack growth length. This f e a t u r e

i s i n c o n s i s t e n t with o t h e r analyses of t h e problem of crack growth i n

fatigue. Krafft ( r e f . 10) has, f o r example, suggested t h a t t h e crack

growth p e r cycle i s i n v e r s e l y proportional t o K:c. Should t h i s o r some

other assumption be a b e t t e r representation of m a t e r i a l behavior, it

could be incorporated i n t o t h e normalization of t h e crack growth r e l a t i o n .

( b ) The form of t h e expression f o r (AN)f should be reexamined as

more data become a v a i l a b l e . It may b e t h a t t h e value of P i n t h e ex-

0.6
pression PNf , or t h e exponent 0.6, may be material constants. It

may a l s o be t h a t a d i f f e r e n t expression f o r No from t h a t used i n t h e

a n a l y s i s , e s p e c i a l l y i n t h e low ranges of l i f e , might be required. Per-

haps of even g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t is the expression of No d i r e c t l y i n terms

of p l a s t i c s t r a i n r a t h e r than i n d i r e c t l y by f i r s t computing Nf and

(AN),. The r e l a t i o n between AeP and No would then be v a l i d f o r

geometric bodies other than t h e specimen of f i g u r e 1, and would t h e r e f o r e

have g e n e r a l u t i l i t y . Likewise, instead of using a crack propagation per-

i o d r e l a t i o n such as 14$.6, use could be made of more g e n e r a l expressions

f o r crack growth i n terms of p l a s t i c s t r a i n range per cycle, thereby

a g a i n p e r m i t t i n g t h e extension of t h e method t o t h e treatment of more

g e n e r a l geometries. The expression for dZ/dN i n terms of A€ dis-

P
cussed i n appendix B may serve as a s t a r t i n g p o i n t , b u t i t m u s t be r e f i n e d
 23

when more d a t a are a v a i l a b l e .

( c ) The assumption of a normalized f r a c t u r e r e l a t i o n ( f i g . 11) may

r e q u i r e r e v i s i o n both i n form and i n t h e magnitude of t h e parameters i n -

volved i n t h e expression f o r other m a t e r i a l s .

(d) The problem of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of computations of lf l e s s than

0.013 inch r e q u i r e s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . Although a d e f i n i t e value of l i f e

does r e s u l t from f i g u r e 1 3 ( b ) f o r any value of Zf, it must be recognized

t h a t values which t u r n out t o b e l e s s than 0.013 inch imply t h a t b r i t t l e

f r a c t u r e occurs before t h e crack has p e n e t r a t e d a depth of 0.003 inch

beyond t h e machined notch of 0.010 inch. Since t h e method of a n a l y s i s

makes use of r e l a t i o n s developed on l i m i t e d d a t a obtained a t crack depths

g r e a t e r than t h e s e values, it is evident t h a t s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n would

have t o be given t o cases for which KIc/d < 0.36- and f o r which

2f < 0.013 inch.

Despite t h e foregoing l i m i t a t i o n s , some of which might r e a d i l y be

overcome by changes i n t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , t h e method i s of

i n t e r e s t because of i t s s i m p l i c i t y and because it quickly y i e l d s d e f i n i t e

answers i n cases where attempts a t more exact analyses might g r e a t l y com-

p l i c a t e t h e process. It may therefore be a p p l i e d w i t h some confidence,

s i n c e it y i e l d s good results f o r the case i l l u s t r a t e d , but not without a

r e c o g n i t i o n of i t s a s - y e t speculative f e a t u r e s and p o t e n t i a l l i m i t a t i o n s .

INTERFACE BETWEEN FATIGUE AND CREEP

We consider now t h e i n t e r f a c e between f a t i g u e and creep r e p r e s e n t e d

by t h e problem of f a t i g u e a t high temperatures. It has long been recog-

n i z e d t h a t a t a b s o l u t e temperatures exceeding about h a l f t h e melting p o i n t

 24

m a t e r i a l s a r e s u s c e p t i b l e t o time-dependent deformation under steady load,

t h i s type of deformation being known as creep. One of t h e features of

creep f a i l u r e i s the l a r g e amount of a s s o c i a t e d i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking,

i n c o n t r a s t t o t r a n s c r y s t a l l i n e f a i l u r e o f t e n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a t tempera-

t u r e s below t h e creep range. The question a r i s e s , t h e r e f o r e , as t o t h e

importance of such i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracks on t h e f a t i g u e behavior of a

m a t e r i a l a t temperatures within the creep range.

I n approaching t h i s problem a n a t u r a l question arises: How accur-

a t e l y would we p r e d i c t t h e f a t i g u e behavior a t t h e high temperature i f we

proceeded i n t h e same manner as a t room temperature, f o r example by apply-

ing t h e method of universal slopes? Obviously we would expect t o use t h e

t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s measured a t t h e temperature of i n t e r e s t , but i s t h i s

enough? I n t h e creep range t h e properties a r e very s e n s i t i v e t o s t r a i n

r a t e , s o t h a t we might expect t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h and d u c t i l i t y t o depend

on t h e r a t e a t which we apply t h e s t r a i n i n t h e t e n s i l e t e s t . Thus, a t

t h e very l e a s t , we would expect t h a t some time-factor would have t o be

introduced i n t o t h e process of obtaining t h e t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s and apply-

ing them t o t h e a n a l y s i s .

Attempts t o p r e d i c t high temperature f a t i g u e behavior by using prop-

e r t i e s obtained i n a t e n s i l e t e s t a t t h e temperature of i n t e r e s t r e s u l t ,

i n general, i n p r e d i c t i o n s of longer l i v e s than a r e obtained by f a t i g u e

experiments. I n p a r t t h e discrepancies may be due t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n

s t r a i n r a t e imposed i n a t e n s i l e t e s t and i n a f a t i g u e t e s t . Coffin

( r e f . ll), f o r example, discusses t h i s f a c t o r i n connection with a material

 25

which i s s t r o n g l y s t r a i n - a g i n g . However, not a l l unconservative predic-

t i o n s can be s o explained. For example, tests were conducted i n t h e

a u t h o r ' s l a b o r a t o r y a t nominal s t r a i n r a t e s which were approximately equal

t o the s t r a i n r a t e i n t h e conventional t e n s i l e t e s t . These t e s t s s t i l l r e -

s u l t e d i n l a r g e r discrepancies between predicted and experimental f a t i g u e

properties than would be expected on t h e basis of experience with num-

erous m a t e r i a l s a t room temperature.

I n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e Cracking Hypothesis

I n order t o explain a t l e a s t part of t h e discrepancies, w e r e s o r t

t o a consideration of t h e importance of t h e phenomenon o f t e n character-

i s t i c a l l y associated with t h e creep range, namely i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e crack-

ing. That such cracking i s common i n f a t i g u e i n t h e creep range i s i l l u s -

t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 1 4 f o r a cobalt-base a l l o y L-605 and a high-temperature

s t e e l A-286. Numerous other i n v e s t i g a t o r s have found such cracking common

i n o t h e r m a t e r i a l s as well. Wood and Nine ( r e f . 1 2 ) have r e c e n t l y studied

copper a t room temperature and a t 400' C , and have found i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e

cracking c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e 400' C t e s t s but e s s e n t i a l l y absent i n t h e

room temperature t e s t s .

The importance of i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking i n f a t i g u e can b e s t be

emphasized by considering t h e r e l a t i v e importance of crack i n i t i a t i o n and

propagation i n f a t i g u e , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e intermediate c y c l i c l i f e range.

As an i l l u s t r a t i o n , consider a specimen which would survive f o r lo4 cycles

a t a temperature below t h e creep range ( f i g . 1 5 ( a ) ) . I n the e a r l y cycles

of loading t h e s t r a i n i n g causes cyclic s l i p along favorably-oriented s l i p

planes of s e l e c t e d i n d i v i d u a l c r y s t a l s . Figure 15(a) shows schematically

 26

cracks t h a t have nucleated i n t h e s l i p planes of i n d i v i d u a l c r y s t a l s ,

and have l i n k e d together t o form a crack of more appreciable dimension.

The mechanism of e a r l y crack formation has been s t u d i e d by Forsythe ( r e f .

13) and Wood e t a l . ( r e f . 14) among other i n v e s t i g a t o r s . Initially the

crack may be confined t o i n d i v i d u a l s l i p planes (or c l o s e l y spaced planes

forming bands) of individual g r a i n s , and t h e cracks may grow within t h e s e

confined bands u n t i l they reach t h e c r y s t a l boundaries. Eventually t h e s e

microcracks l i n k and form a macrocrack. I n f i g u r e 1 5 ( a ) t h e macrocrack

i s shown as approximately 3 t o 4 grains deep, which f o r a material with ar,

average g r a i n dimension of 0.001 inch, implies a crack depth of approxi-

mately 0.003 inch. The number of cycles required t o generate a crack of

t h i s depth a t a s t r a i n range f o r which Nf = lo4 can be estimated from

f i g u r e 9. According t o t h i s f i g u r e , when 2 = 0.003 inch t h e remaining

l i f e of an unnotched specimen i s 6.2Nf for Nf > 730 cycles. There-

fore, f o r Nf = lo4, (AN), = 6.2Ni'6 = O.15X1O4, making No = 0.85~10~.

Thus, i n t h i s case, t h e number of cycles required t o i n i t i a t e a crack and

t o propagate it t o a depth of approximately 3 g r a i n s deep i s 85 percent

of t h e t o t a l l i f e t o f r a c t u r e .

If we now assume t h a t i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking serves t h e same pur-

pose i n generating t h e i n i t i a l crack as do t h e s l i p plane cracks i n t h e

case i l l u s t r a t e d i n f i g u r e 15(a) we g e t t h e result shown schematically

i n f i g u r e 15(b). We must f i r s t decide how many cycles a r e required t o

cause an i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e crack t o progress 3 t o 4 g r a i n depths. It can

be assumed t h a t i n t h e creep range i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracks form much more

r e a d i l y than s l i p plane cracks. We consider, t h e r e f o r e , the extreme case

 27

i n which such i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking occurs immediately upon t h e a p p l i -

c a t i o n of t h e f i r s t cycle of loading. If t h i s were a c t u a l l y t h e case,

then 85 percent of t h e l i f e i n t h e sub-creep range, which w a s t h e period

r e q u i r e d t o generate t h e 0.003 inch crack, would now be bypassed. Next we

must decide how much of t h e 15 percent of t h e l i f e a s s o c i a t e d with propa-

g a t i n g t h e crack from a l e n g t h of 0.003 inch t o complete f a i l u r e remains i n

t h e e l e v a t e d temperature t e s t . Some i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e f a i l u r e i s c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c of t h e crack propagation a s w e l l as crack i n i t i a t i o n . However, i f

we assume, i n . t h e extreme, t h a t none of t h e crack propagation period i s

reduced as a result of i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking, t h e remaining l i f e i s

s t i l l only 15 percent of thecomputed value f o r t h e sub-creep range.

From t h e above simple example it i s evident t h a t one way of consid-

e r i n g t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking a s s o c i a t e d with t h e

creep range i s t o assume t h a t such i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking r e p l a c e s t h e

process of crack formation by slip-plane p l a s t i c i t y which normally re-

..

q u i r e s a l a r g e number of cycles. Below t h e creep range t h e g r a i n boun-

d a r i e s a c t as impediments t o crack propagation because of t h e need f o r

changing d i r e c t i o n of s l i p planes i n adjacent g r a i n s ( f i g . 1 5 ( a ) ) , b u t i n

t h e creep range t h e g r a i n boundaries c o n t r i b u t e d i r e c t l y t o t h e formation

of cracks. The reason f o r t h i s grain boundary cracking may be a s s o c i a t e d

with t h e high degree of atomic d i s o r i e n t a t i o n and concentration ai? d i s l o -

c a t i o n s i n t h e g r a i n boundary region. S e l f - d i f f u s i o n , a mechanism con-

. t r i b u t i n g t o creep deformation ( r e f . 15) may thus be enhanced i n t h e s e

boundaries. A s a result, t h e imposed s t r a i n tends t o be concentrated i n

t h e g r a i n boundary regions r a t h e r than being more uniformly d i s t r i b u t e d

 28

throughout the bulk of the material, and intercrystalling cracking occurs.

While the foregoing discussion suggests a possible approach to the

study of high-temperature creep, the quantitative application of the ap-

proach must take into account the actual reduction in both the crack ini-

tiation phase and the crack propagation phase. The reductions may differ

from material to material, being dependent on the number of grain boundar-

ies present and their properties, and, of course, they will depend on tem-

perature and strain rate. Data are not yet adequate to undertake an ac-

curate quantitative analysis, but we may use such data as are available

to point to expected trends. To this end we have examined the high temp-

erature fatigue data from various sources (refs. 16 to 19), comparing the

experimental results to predictions that were made according tothemethod

of universal slopes.

Correlation With Experiment

In figure 16 we have plotted as data points the ratios of observed

fatigue life to the predicted lives based on tensile properties at the

same temperature as the fatigue tests. It is evident that the calculated

lives are considerably higher than the actual lives, since the plotted

values fall well below an ordinate value of unity which represents exact

agreement.

Also included in figure 16 are several life prediction curves based

upon different assumptions regarding the crack initiation and propagation

periods. For example, the uppermost curve represents the assumption that

no crack initiation stage is required to produce a crack of about 0.003

inch in depth; but that the complete crack propagation stage is preserved.
 29

A s show- i n f i g u r e 9, t h i s propagation s t a g e i s equal t o 0.443(anl)f

cycles, i n which Nf = (AN)f f o r l i v e s below 730 cycles. Otherwise,

(ANIf i s equal t o 14NOfs6 cycles. It i s seen from t h e uppermost curve,

t h e r e f o r e , t h a t t h e percentage of l i f e which remains a t elevated tempera-

t u r e s i s constant up t o a p r e d i c t e d l i f e of 730 cycles, and progressively

decreases f o r higher computed l i v e s .

I n a s i m i l a r manner curves associated with other assumptions a r e

shown i n f i g u r e 16. The 5 percent-50 percent r u l e , f o r example, implies

a 5 percent r e t e n t i o n of t h e 0.003 crack i n i t i a t i o n phase and a 50 percent

r e t e n t i o n o f t h e p h a s e required t o propagate t h e 0.003 inch crack t o f a i l -

ure. The s o l i d l i n e i s based on the extremely simple assumption t h a t

10 percent of both crack i n i t i a t i o n and propagation phases a r e r e t a i n e d .

I n t h i s case it i s not even necessary t o separate t h e two phases, s i n c e

t h e t o t a l l i f e i s now a l s o only 1 0 percent of t h e p r e d i c t e d value.

It i s c l e a r from f i g u r e 16 t h a t no s i n g l e simple r u l e agrees with

a l l t h e d a t a p o i n t s shown. There does seem t o be a tendency f o r t h e d a t a

p o i n t s t o be lower t h e longer t h e l i f e of t h e specimen, thus implying t h a t

t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n period i s more severely a f f e c t e d than t h e crack propa-

g a t i o n period. This t r e n d i s r e f l e c t e d i n t h e p r e d i c t i o n curves, except

of course, f o r t h e 10 percent r u l e .

Some b e n e f i t might r e s u l t from seeking a rule t h a t i s i n b e s t agree-

ment with t h e experimental data, f o r example t h e 8 percent-25 percent r u l e

shown by t h e s h o r t dash curve. However, more accurate data on many mater-

i a l s w i l l be required before it can be determined whether such a r u l e can

emerge. O f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t , however, i s t h e 1 0 percent r u l e . Its g r e a t

 30

s i m p l i c i t y , not r e q u i r i n g even t h e separation of t h e l i f e i n t o two phases,

makes it i d e a l f o r a p p l i c a t i o n as a first-approximation r u l e of thumb. It

w i l l , t h e r e f o r e , be included i n a l l of t h e d e t a i l e d analyses t o follow.

Figure 1 7 shows the more d e t a i l e d a n a l y s i s of t h e data of Gohn and

E l l i s ( r e f . 2 0 ) f o r l e a d a t room temperature (which i s within i t s creep

range because of i t s low melting p o i n t ) . These i n v e s t i g a t o r s d i d not pub-

l i s h s t a t i c t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s f o r the s e v e r a l types of l e a d studied, s o

t h a t it i s not p o s s i b l e t o make t h e a n a l y t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s of hyp-othet-

i c a l l i f e according t o t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes. Fortunately, how-

ever, t e s t s were conducted a t both the high frequency of 1650 cpm and t h e

low frequency of 1/4 cpm. S i i c e the time a v a i l a b l e f o r creep e f f e c t s i s

much l e s s a t t h e high frequency of s t r a i n i n g than a t t h e low frequency,, we

can r e s o r t t o an a l t e r n a t e approximation. We s h a l l assume t h a t t h e d a t a

f o r t h e high frequency t e s t s represent t h e r e s u l t s t h a t would have been

obtained by computation from t h e t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s , and use t h e s e data

t o compute l i v e s f o r t h e l o w frequency t e s t s by s e v e r a l of t h e r u l e s pre-

viously c i t e d . These high frequency t e s t s a r e shown i n f i g u r e 1 7 by t h e

c i r c l e s and dashed curves. Computations based on t h e 10 percent rule a r e

shown by t h e continuous curves, and t h o s e obtained by t h e 5 percent-50

percent r u l e are shown by t h e dot-dash curves. For t h e pure l e a d as well

as t h e chemical and antimony grades it i s seen t h a t reasonable agreement

e x i s t s between t h e experimental data a t 1/4 cpm and t h e p r e d i c t i o n s of t h e

two rules using the 1650 cpm t e s t s as t h e b a s i s f o r t h e computations.

There i s a d e f i n i t e t r e n d for t h e data t o i n d i c a t e a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e

r e d u c t i o n a t t h e higher l i v e s than a t thelower l i v e s , implying t h a t t h e

 .31

crack i n i t i a t i o n phase i s reduced more by t h e i n t e r g r a n u l a r cracking than

t h e crack propagation phase. T h a t i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking w a s c h a r a c t e r -

i s t i c of t h e s e t e s t s was observed by Gohn and E l l i s .

O f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t a r e t h e t e s t s on calcium l e a d . A t room tempera-

t u r e l i t t l e i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking was observed, t h e computations over-

c o r r e c t , and p r e d i c t considerably lower l i v e s t h a n were a c t u a l l y obtained.

When t h e t e s t temperature was r a i s e d t o 180' F, however, i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e

cracking appeared more notably, and t h e data a r e i n b e t t e r agreement with

the analytical predictions. The corrections appear, t h e r e f o r e , t o be

most important when i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking i s p r e s e n t .

A more complete a n a l y s i s of the Cr-Mo-V s t e e l d a t a a t room tempera-

t u r e and a t 1050' F obtained by Coles and Skinner ( r e f . 1 7 ) i s shown i n

f i g u r e 18. I n f i g u r e 18(a) a r e shown t h e experimental d a t a and t h e ana-

l y t i c a l p r e d i c t i o n s a t room temperature. The dashed curve i n t h i s f i g u r e

r e p r e s e n t s t h e p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e low-cycle f a t i g u e behavior determined

from t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes ( f i g . 3) using t h e s t a t i c t e n s i l e prop-

e r t i e s obtained by Coles and Skinner. Good agreement i s seen t o e x i s t a t

room temperature where creep i s n e g l i g i b l e i n t h i s m a t e r i a l . When t h e

1050' F s t a t i c t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s were used t o p r e d i c t t h e f a t i g u e prop-

e r t i e s , t h e p r e d i c t i o n s a r e again higher than t h e experimental data as

shown i n f i g u r e 1 8 ( b ) by a comparison between t h e dashed curve and t h e

experimental data p o i n t s . The experimental p o i n t s a r e shown f o r a l a r g e

range of frequencies, and it i s apparent t h a t t h e tendency i s toward lower

f a t i g u e l i f e as t h e s t r a i n r a t e i s lowered. However, t h e e f f e c t of frequency

 32

i s not a s l a r g e as might be expected f o r t h e wide range of frequencies

involved. T h i s r e l a t i v e i n s e n s i t i v i t y t o very low frequencies may be due

i n p a r t t o t h e f a c t t h a t they were obtained by introducing hold-periodsat maximum

s t r a i n , which would introduce some r e l a x a t i o n of t h e s t r e s s . The cor-

r e c t e d p r e d i c t i o n s based on t h e 10 percent r u l e and t h e 5 percent-50

percent rule a r e shown by t h e s o l i d and dot-dash curves r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The 10 percent rule apparently overcorrects over t h e e n t i r e l i f e range

w h i l e t h e 5 percent-50 percent r u l e agrees well with t h e d a t a a t t h e

lower c y c l i c l i v e s , and overcorrects only i n t h e higher range of l i v e s

tested. However, t h e only d a t a given i n t h e higher l i f e range a r e f o r

t h e h i g h e s t frequency used i n t h e t e s t s , where t h e creep c o r r e c t i o n s would

be expected t o be t h e l o w e s t . Even where overcorrection occurs, t h e p r e -

d i c t i o n s by both r u l e s r e p r e s e n t reasonable approximations of t h e e x p e r i -

mental d a t a considering t h a t no f a t i g u e t e s t s whatsoever a r e used t o make

the predictions.

The r e s u l t s f o r t h e d a t a by Forrest and Armstrong on Nimonic 90

( r e f . 1 6 ) a r e shown i n f i g u r e 1 9 . Again, t h e room temperature p r e d i c t i o n s

by t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes, based on t h e t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s c i t e d by

t h e authors, a r e shown i n f i g u r e 1 9 ( a ) by t h e dashed curve. Very good

agreement with t h e experimental data e x i s t s . The dashed curves i n f i g -

u r e s 1 8 ( b ) t o ( d ) a r e t h e predictions by t h e method of u n i v e r s a l s l o p e s

a t temperatures r e s p e c t i v e l y of 1380°, 16Oo0, and 1800' F, using t h e

s t a t i c t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s a t t h e s e temperatures t o make t h e p r e d i c t i o n s .

I n a l l cases t h e s e dashed curves overestimate t h e l i v e s a t a l l s t r a i r

 33

l e v e l s compared w i t h those obtained experimentally. Again it may be

noted t h a t i n general, t h e experimental data a t t h e l o w e r frequency of 0 . 1

cpm y i e l d s lower l i f e values a t a given s t r a i n range than t h e higher f r e -

quency 10 cpm tests. The d i f f e r e n c e becomes less pronouned as t h e temper-

a t u r e i s increased, and t h e creep e f f e c t becomes important f o r both f r e -

quencies. Reasonably good agreement i s seen between t h e p r e d i c t i o n s of

b o t h t h e 10 percent r u l e and t h e 5 percent-50 percent r u l e a t 1600' and

1800' F. A t 1380' F: however, considerable overcorrection occurs by both

r u l e s i n t h e higher c y c l i c l i f e range. It would be expected t h a t t h e d i s -

crepaccy would be t h e g r e a t e s t a t t h e lowest temperature where t h e creep

e f f e c t s a r e t h e lowest.

Discussion

Examining the r e s u l t s shown i n f i g u r e s 1 6 t o 1 9 would l e a d t o t h e

conclusion t h a t even i f t h e explanation s p e c u l a t i v e l y offered for t h e high-

temperature e f f e c t i s not rigorously c o r r e c t , t h e procedure f o r estimating

high temperature f a t i g u e l i v e s a r i s i n g out of t h i s explanation produces

reasonably c o r r e c t r e s u l t s , considering t h a t no f a t i g u e tests a t a l l are

r e q u i r e d for obtaining t h e s e estimates. It i s , of course, n o t y e t c l e a r

what t h e r e l a t i v e e f f e c t of i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking i s on t h e i n i t i a t i o n

and propagation periods, and t e s t s designed t o c l a r i f y t h i s p o i n t would be

very valuable. The lG percent r u l e , which a t t r i b u t e s equal l o s s e s t o both

phases, possibly undercorrects t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n phase and overcorrects

t h e crack propagation phase. These opposite e f f e c t s may balance each other,

and produce reasonable results i n a l i m i t e d l i f e range f o r small specimens.

Since t h e i n t e n t of t h e correction i s t o account f o r i n t e r g r a n u l a r

 34

cracking it w i l l obviously r e s u l t i n an overcorrectiol?, when such cracking

does not occur. This was already shown as a p o s s i b i l i t y i n connection

with calcium l e a d ( f i g . 1 7 ( b ) ) . Perhaps of even g r e a t e r i n t e r e s t i s t h e

hypothesis t h a t t h e avoidance of i n t e r c r y s t a l l i n e cracking r e s u l t s i n t h e

achievement of a g r e a t e r f r a c t i o n of t h e f a t i g u e s t r e n g t h p o t e n t i a l of a

m a t e r i a l i n t h e high temperature range--assuming t h a t t h e computations

based on t h e t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s a r e some measure of t h e p o t e n t i a l f a t i g u e

s t r e n g t h of t h e material. This would imply t h a t m a t e r i a l development f o r

a p p l i c a t i o n s involving high temperature f a t i g u e should include t h e search

f o r mechanisms of strengihening, protecting, o r even removing some of t h e

g r a i n boundaries.

CUMULATIVE FATIGUE DAMAGE COKSIDERED A S A PROCESS OF CRACK

INITIATION AND PROPAGATION

A s a f i n a l s u b j e c t we s h a l l now consider t h e question of cumulative

f a t i g u e damage from t h e standpoint of t h e concepts of crack i n i t i a t i o n and

propagation already outlined. It i s w e l l known t h a t t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e

for a spectrum of loading, which indicates t h a t a summation of cycle r a z i o s

i s equal t o unity, i s not completely accurate. By spectrum-type loading

i s mear,t t h e successive a p p l i c a t i o n of l o a d a t d i f f e r e n t s t r e s s l e v e l s .

?he l i n e a r damage rule i s a l s o commonly r e f e r r e d t o as t h e Miner hypothe-

s i s and i s based on work done f i r s t by Palmgren ( r e f . 2 1 ) and l a t e r by

Zanger ( r e f . 22) and by Miner ( r e f . 2 3 ) . It i s almost always used i n de-

s i g n because of i t s s i m p l i c i t y and because it has been found t o be i n

reasonable agreement with experimental d a t a f o r c e r t a i n cases. I f a cew

method i s t o r e p l a c e t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e i n p r a c t i c a l design it i s

 35

important t h a t t h i s method r e t a i n much of t h e s i m p l i c i t y of t h e l i n e a r

damage r u l e .

I n order t o approach t h e question of an alterrlate method w e must

examine first some of t h e reasons f o r t h e shortcomings of t h e l i n e a r dam-

age r u l e . One deficiency i s t h a t it does not t a k e i n t o account t h e e f f e c t

of order of loading. For example, it has been found experimentally t h a t

i n a two-step f a t i g u e t e s t high load followed by low load produces a cycle

summation l e s s than unity, while low l o a d followed by hfgh l o a d produces

a cycle summation g r e a t e r than unity. A second deficiency i s t h a t it does

not properly account f o r t h e e f f e c t o f r e s i d u a l s t r e s s , e s p e c i a l l y during

t h e crack propagation s t a g e . If the p e r i o d o f h i g h load cycling i s ended

a f t e r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of a t e n s i l e s t r e s s , r e s i d u a l compressive s t r e s s e s

remain a t t h e r o o t o f t h e n o t c h ; i n the subsequent a p p l i c a t i o n of lower

l o a d numerous s t r e s s cycles, or perhaps a r e s t p e r i o d ( r e f . 24); may be

r e q u i r e d t o overcome t h i s r e s i d u a l s t r e s s f i e l d before t h e crack w i l l

s t a r t propagating again. Another l i m i t a t i o n i s t h a t it does not t a k e

i n t o account s t r e s s cycles below t h e i n i t i a l f a t i g u e l i m i t of t h e m a t e r i a l

i f such a f a t i g u e l i m i t e x i s t s . Cycle r a t i o s of s t r e s s e s below t h e i n i -

t i a l f a t i g u e l i m i t a r e always zero when t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e i s applied,

whereas i n r e a l i t y t h e e f f e c t of p r i o r loading may reduce t h e f a t i g u e

l i m i t , implying t h a t cycle r a t i o s of stresses below t h e i n i t i a l f a t i g u e

l i m i t should perhaps be accounted f o r ( r e f . 2 5 ) . A further limitation is

t h a t t h e l i n e a r damage r u l e does not t a k e i n t o account "coaxing" e f f e c t s

p r e s e n t i n some s t r a i n - a g i n g materials ( r e f . 26) i n which t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

sequence of l o a d i n g may progressively r a i s e t h e f a t i g u e l i m i t . Other

 36

s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s , whereby s e q u e r t i a l l c d i n g produces r e s u l t s not p r e s -

e n t when t h e i n d i v i d u a l loads a c t alone a r e a l s o neglected i n t h e a p p l i c a -

t i o n of t h e u s u a l l i n e a r damage r u l e .

A cumber of methods have been proposed as a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t h e l i n e a r

damage r u l e . None overcomes a l l of t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s . I n t h e following

discussion we s h a l l consider t h e merit of t r e a t i n g t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n

and propagation phases separately, ard applying a l i n e a r damage r u l e t o

each. !The p r i n c i p a l e f f e c t w i l l be found i n c o r r e c t i n g d e f i c i e n c i e s

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h order of loading; the o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s c i t e d above s t i l l

w i l l not be taken i n t o accouct by t h i s new approach.

The concept of improving cimuiative f a t i g u e damage p r e d i c t i o n s by

s e p a r a t i o n of t h e crack i z i t i a t i o n acd propagation phases was f i r s t sug-

g e s t e d by Grover ( r e f . 2 7 ) , b c t no r a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r t h i s approach vas

i n d i c a t e d , nor were d e f i n i t e expressions prcvided for s e p a r a t i n g out. t h e

two phases. These two a s p e c t s w i l l now be coxsidered i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l .

One of t h e f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of a s t r a i n cycling f a t i g u e t e s t

i s t h e progressive change of load required duricg t h e e a r l y p o r t i o n of t h e

t e s t i n order t o maintain a f i x e d s t r a i n range. Basically t h e hardening

o r s o f t e n i n g a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e early phases of t h e t e s t i s believed t o be

a manifestation of rearracgement of d i s l o c a t i o n s or c e l l s t r u c t u r e w i t h i n

t h e g r a i n s of t h e m a t e r i a l ( r e f . 1, f i g . 8 ) . If, i n s t e a d of maintaining a
s i n g l e s t r a i n l e v e l u n t i l f a i l i i e occurs, changes i n s t r a i n l e v e l are

introduced during t h e course of the t e s t , it i s found t h a t hardening or

s o f t e n i n g t a k e s p l a c e i n such a manner as t o be p r e d i c t a b l e by a l i n e a r

damage r u l e from t h e s t r a i n hardening or s o f t e n i n g curves obtained i n

 37

f a t i g u e t e s t s a t a s i n g l e s t r a i n l e v e l ( e . g . , r e f . 1, f i g . 4 3 ) . Thus,

i f we assume t h a t crack i n i t i a t i o n i s governed t o some e x t e n t by t h e same

m i c r o s t r u c t u r a l changes a s influence t h e hardening and s o f t e n i n g char-

a c t e r i s t i c s , we may have t h e beginnings of a r a t i o n a l e f o r assuming a

l i n e a r damage r u l e for crack i n i t i a t i o n .

A s f o r t h e v a l i d i t y of a l i n e a r damage r u l e i n t h e crack propagation

pbase we r e f e r again t o reference 1 (p. 215) where t h e question of crack

growth was discussed. It was demonstrated ( r e f . 1, f i g . 46) t h a t i f a

s i n g l e curve r e s u l t e d when crack length was p l o t t e d a s a percentage of

f a t i g u e l i f e for twu--:;C more s t r a i n l e v e l s , then a l i n e a r damage r u l e

would be v a l i d . The d i s c u s s r s n there r e l a t e d t o t o t a l l i f e , but t h e con-

cept could e q u a l l y be applied i f l i f e i s measured from t h e p o i n t of i n i -

t i a t i o n of t h e crack, r a t h e r than t o t a l l i f e . That a p l o t of crack l e n g t h

versus f r a c t i o n of crack propagation p e r i o d r e s u l t s i n a s i n g l e r e l a t i o n

for a l l s t r a i n ranges i s implied by equation ( 4 ) , if 2 f and 2, are

asswned t o be constants a s a l r e a d y discussed. Thus we have i n equation ( 4 )

a t e n t a t i v e r a t i o n a l b a s i s f o r t h e assumption of a l i n e a r damage r u l e f o r

t h e crack propagation phase.

Two Cumulative Fatigue Damage Rules

The f i r s t problem i n t h e treatment of cumulative f a t i g u e , t h e r e f o r e ,

i s t o e s t a b l i s h expressions f o r the e f f e c t i v e crack i n i t i a t i o n and crack

propagation phases. A t t h i s e a r l y s t a t e of development of t h e theory t h e r e

i s a c e r t a i n degree of a r b i t r a r i n e s s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e f u n c t i o n a l forms of

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t o be assumed f o r t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n and propagation

stages. However, being guided by the d e s i r e t o maintain a consistency with

 38

t h e form of the equation f o r p l a s t i c s t r a i n i n terms 0-f l i f e a s s o c i a t e d

with t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes, we s h a l l assume t h a t t h e crack propa-

g a t i o n period ( & ' V ) f can be w r i t t e n i n terms of t h e l i f e Nf by t h e equa-

tion

= PNgo6 (9)

where P i s an a d j u s t a b l e constant l a t e r t o be determined s o as t o be

c o n s i s t e n t with a l i m i t e d amount of experimental data a v a i l a b l e . For t h e

p r e s e n t we s h a l l avoid t h e complication of considering the i n c l u s i o n of

tests f o r which PNgo6 > Nf, s o t h a t t h e crack propagation period ex-

pressed by equation ( 9 ) i s always l e s s than t h e t o t a l l i f e . For t h i s

case t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n period i s

No = Nf - PN: (10)

Thus t h e two equations-of t h e double-linear damage r u l e become f o r

f o r i n i t i a t i o n , and

for propagation.

A convenient method f o r determining t h e value f o r P i s t o conduct

a t e s t a t a high load range f o r a p a r t of the l i f e , then continuing t h e

t e s t t o f a i l u r e a t a lower load range. S p e c i f i c a l l y , i f w e conduct a

t e s t using t h e s t r a i n a t which the l i f e would be 1000 c y c l e s as t h e

i n i t i a l l e v e l , and a s t r a i n a t which t h e l i f e would be 500,000 cycles

as t h e l e v e l f o r completion of the t e s t , t h e expected r e s u l t s would be

 39

as shown i n f i g u r e 20. For a value of P = 14 t h e p r e d i c t e d behavior

would be t h e l i n e ABG; i f P were 1 2 t h e l i n e ACG would be t h e behavior,

etc. If a l i n e a r damage r u l e applied f o r t h e t o t a l l i f e values as pre-

d i c t e d by Palmgren-Miner, t h e behavior would be shown by t h e dashed l i n e

AG. Experimental data f o r a maraging s t e e l a r e shown on t h e f i g u r e by

t h e c i r c l e s , implying t h a t a value of P = 1 4 c o r r e l a t e s t h e experimen-

t a l behavior b e t t e r than any of the o t h e r values shownfor t h i s material.

The steepness of t h e p o r t i o n AEl i s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e f a c t t h a t , f o r a

value of P = 1 4 t h e f i r s t 100 cycles of nl are sufficient t o start

t h e crack; once t h e crack i s formedthe remaining l i f e a t t h e s t r a i n l e v e l

f o r which t h e l i f e would have been 500,000 i s g r e a t l y reduced, s i n c e t h e

crack i n i t i a t i o n p e r i o d f o r t h i s s t r a i n range would have been a much

g r e a t e r f r a c t i o n of t h e 500,000 cycle l i f e , and t h i s crack i n i t i a t i o n

p e r i o d i s now bypassed by only a small l i f e - f r a c t i o n r a t i o a t t h e higher

strain level.

It is recognized, of course, t h a t f i g u r e 20 r e p r e s e n t s only v e r y

l i m i t e d d a t a on only one m a t e r i a l for t h e determination of P, and l i m i t e d

evidence as t o whether t h e e n t i r e concept i s indeed c o r r e c t . However, it

i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o proceed on t h e basis that it i s c o r r e c t and t o d e t e r -

mine t h e implications of t h i s assumption by examining o t h e r d a t a t h a t have

been published.

Comparison With Previously Proposed Cumulative Damage Theory

I n 1961we examined some of the d e f i c i e n c i e s of t h e Palmgren-Miner

l i n e a r damage r u l e , and proposed a method f o r c o r r e l a t i n g cumulative

f a t i g u e data ( r e f . 2 8 ) ; t h i s approach w a s extended i n a subsequent paper

 40
.
(ref. 25). It i s i n s t r u c t i v e , therefore, t o re-examine t h e method and

t h e d a t a of t h e s e two papers i n the l i g h t of t h e double l i n e a r damage

hypothesis suggested by equations (11)and ( 1 2 ) .

The b a s i s f o r t h e method proposed i n r e f e r e n c e 28 l a y i n t h e observa-

t i o n of t h e S-N f a t i g u e curves obtained on specimens t h a t were precycled

s h o r t of f a i l u r e a t a d i f f e r e n t stress l e v e l . Schematically, t h e r e s u l t s

obtained were as shown i n f i g u r e 2 1 ( a ) . The l i n e Q,A i s t h e S-N curve of

the o r i g i n a l material. Precycling r e s u l t e d i n S-N curves QB, QC, e t c .

having t h e g e n e r a l appearance o f convergence w i t h QA, a t a common p o i n t Q.

The l a r g e r t h e c y c l e r a t i o of t h e pre-stress t h e more t h e r o t a t i o n of t h e

remaining S-N curve. On t h e b a s i s of t h e Palmgren-Miner l i n e a r damage

r u l e t h e remaining S-N curves would have been a family of l i n e s p a r a l l e l

t o t h e i n i t i a l S-N l i n e QA
,. The difference between t h e convergence and

t h e p a r a l l e l n a t u r e of t h e remaining S - N curves can be used t o e x p l a i n

t h e e f f e c t of order of load a p p l i c a t i o n ( r e f . 2 5 ) . I n a two-step f a t i g u e

t e s t it can be shown that convergence tends t o r e s u l t i n a p r e d i c t e d c y c l e

r a t i o summation g r e a t e r than u n i t y if t h e low s t r e s s precedes t h e high

stress, and a summation less t h a n unity i f t h e high s t r e s s i s a p p l i e d f i r s t .

The corresponding implications of t h e double l i n e a r damage r u l e a r e

schematically shown i n f i g u r e 2 1 ( b ) . Obtaining t h e l i n e s QA, QB, e t c . ,

which r e p r e s e n t t h e remaining S-N curves a f t e r precycling a t an a r b i t r a r y

s t r e s s l e v e l , i s a r e l a t i v e l y simple matter. The value of No is first

determined f o r t h e p r e s t r e s s condition using equation (10)and t h e c o r r e -

sponding value of Nf. The c y c l e r a t i o f o r t h e p r e s t r e s s condition i s

t h e n determined i n r e l a t i o n t o crack i f i i t i a t i o n by d i v i d i n g nl> t h e number

 41

of cycles applied, by No. I f this r a t i o i s l e s s than u n i t y , then t h e

crack i n i t i a t i o n process continues a t t h e second s t r e s s l e v e l , t h e number

of cycles required t o i n i t i a t e t h e crack being determined by equation (11).

Once t h e crack has s t a r t e d , t h e number of cycles a t t h e second s t r e s s

l e v e l r e q u i r e d t o cause f a i l u r e i s given by equation ( 1 2 ) . Thus, t h e

number of cycles t h a t can be sustained a t t h e second s t r e s s l e v e l i s t h e

sum of t h e cycles r e q u i r e d t o continue t h e process t o crack i n i t i a t i o n and those

r e q u i r e d t o propagate t h e crack t o f a i l u r e . Those cases i n which t h e

p r e s t r e s s cycle r a t i o i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o cause crack i n i t i a t i o n a r e

represented by l i n e s such a s QB and QC which have t h e g e n e r a l appearance

of convergence w i t h t h e i n i t i a l S-N l i n e QP. The p o i n t of convergence Q

i s n o t s t r i c t l y a common p o i n t f o r a l l p r e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n s . For t h i s

type of s e q u e n t i a l loading t h e double l i n e a r damage r u l e i s c o n s i s t e n t

with t h e method of r e f e r e n c e 28.

If, however, t h e p r e s t r e s s condition r e s u l t s i n a crack i n i -

t i a t i o n cycle r a t i o , nl/No, g r e a t e r than u n i t y , t h e n t h e implication

i s t h a t t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n process has been completed i n t h e p r e s t r e s s

p o r t i o n , and t h a t some of t h e crack propagation process has a l r e a d y been

s t a r t e d i n t h i s p o r t i o n as w e l l . Equation ( 1 0 ) gives t h e number of c y c l e s

r e q u i r e d t o i n i t i a t e t h e crack, and t h e remaining number of cycles i n t h e

p r e s t r e s s c o n d i t i o n a r e then entered i n t o equation ( 1 2 ) a s a cycle r a t i o

for crack propagation. The number of cycles a t t h e second s t r e s s condi-

t i o n t o complete t h e crack propagation i s then determined by equation ( 1 2 ) .

When a p l o t i s made of t h e number of c y c l e s a t t h e second s t r e s s l e v e l

t h a t can be s u s t a i n e d before f a i l u r e , l i n e s such as RD and SE a r e obtained

 42

p a r a l l e l t o QC when t h e p r e - s t r e s s cycles were s u f f i c i e n t t o a t least s t a r t

t h e crack. The l i n e QC i s t h e locus of p o i n t s a t which t h e p r e - s t r e s s

i s j u s t s u f f i c i e n t t o i n i t i a t e a crack, t h a t i s QC i s obtained from QA

by a p p l i c a t i o n of equation ( 1 0 ) . Thus t h e double l i n e a r damage r u l e

implies that p r e s t r e s s i n g does n o t continue t o r o t a t e t h e remaining S-N

curve i n d e f i n i t e l y as t h e p r e s t r e s s cycle r a t i o i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y increased;

r a t h e r t h e r e i s a l i m i t t o t h e amount of r o t a t i o n t h a t w i l l be imposed,

and beyond t h i s l i m i t f u r t h e r increases of p r e s t r e s s cycle r a t i o simply

d i s p l a c e t h e remaining S-N curve p a r a l l e l t o i t s e l f . This geometrical

implication i s more s a t i s f y i n g than t h e i n d e f i n i t e r o t a t i o n implied by

t h e method of r e f e r e n c e 28. Although n o t of p r a c t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e because

it would r e q u i r e t h e most extreme of conditions, t h e method of reference 28

could r e q u i r e t h e remaining S-N curve t o become v e r t i c a l , and even of

p o s i t i v e slope, which would of course be completely meaningless. The

double-linear damage r u l e p o i n t s t o a way around t h i s h y p o t h e t i c a l d i f f i -

culty.

Correlation With Experiment

A more complete a n a l y s i s o f the d a t a previously obtained i n our

l a b o r a t o r y f o r v e r i f y i n g t h e method of r e f e r e n c e s 2 8 and 25 i s shown i n

f i g u r e 22. I n t h e s e t e s t s s e v e r a l materials were p r e s t r e s s e d i n r o t a t i n g

bending a t one s t r e s s l e v e l f o r a number of cycles which d i d not cause

f a i l u r e , and t h e S-N curve of t h e p r e s t r e s s e d m a t e r i a l was subsequently

o b t a i n e d by conducting ordinary r o t a t i n g bending t e s t s a t a number of

s t r e s s levels. The p a r t i c u l a r t e s t s conducted a r e i d e n t i f i e d i n f i g u r e 22.

The dashed l i n e s i n each case represent t h e p r e d i c t i o n s by t h e double

 43

l i n e a r damage r u l e , using t h e procedure outlined. Reasonably good agree-

ment between the p r e d i c t i o n s and experimental d a t a i s observed. Note

e s p e c i a l l y i n f i g u r e 2 Z ( a ) t h a t t h e data represented by t h e diamond symbols

a r e beginning t o show a p a r a l l e l displacement of t h e S-N curve, as pre-

d i c t e d by the double l i n e a r damage r u l e , r a t h e r than progressive r o t a t i o n .

It i s of i n t e r e s t t o determine the range t h a t might be expected i n

t h e cycle r a t i o summation based on t o t a l l i v e s ( t h e Palmgren-Miner proce-

dure) i f we assume the correctness o f t h e double l i n e a r damage r u l e .

Figure 20 has a l r e a d y shown t h a t t h i s summation can be considerably l e s s

than u n i t y i f t h e p r i o r cycling i s a t t h e higher s t r e s s l e v e l . A t p o i n t B,

f o r example, t h e p r e s t r e s s i s only maintained f o r approximately 10 percent

of t h e l i f e , while t h e number of cycles sustained a t t h e second s t r e s s

l e v e l i s a l s o only 10 percent of i t s l i f e . Thus t h e combined cycle r a t i o

based on t o t a l l i f e i s only approximately 0.2 f o r t h i s case when t h e

high s t r e s s w a s a p p l i e d f i r s t . The d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e p r e d i c t i o n s

of t h e double l i n e a r damage r u l e and t h e Palmgren-Miner hypothesis become

most pronounced as t h e two s t r e s s l e v e l s a r e separated f a r t h e r and farther

from each other ( s o t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e proportions of periods spent i n t h e

crack i n i t i a t i o n and propagation stages a r e as far d i f f e r e n t as possible

between the two s t a g e s ) , and as the number of cycles i n t h e f i r s t s t e p

more c l o s e l y approaches t h e p o i n t of crack i n i t i a t i o n . The deviations

between a Palmgren-Miner l i n e a r damage r u l e and experiment w i l l depend

t h u s on t h e choice of t e s t variables, and e i t h e r a l a r g e discrepancy or

a small one can be arranged i f t h e t e s t conditions are chosen judiciously.

Based on double l i n e a r damage r u l e computations, c y c l e r a t i o summations

 44

between 0.2 and 1 . 8 can be shown t o r e s u l t f o r two-step f a t i g u e t e s t s i f

the steps are a t loadings corresponding t o t o t a l l i v e s of lo3 and lo6

cycles. The low summation a p p l i e s when t h e high s t r e s s i s a p p l i e d first;

t h e high summation a p p l i e s when t h e lower s t r e s s i s a p p l i e d f i r s t . The

m a j o r i t y of experimental d a t a from i n v e s t i g a t i o n s t h a t have been r e p o r t e d

f a l l w i t h i n t h e extremes of c y c l e r a t i o summation.

Discuss i o n

Although t h e double l i n e a r damage hypothesis does appear t o have

p o t e n t i a l , being extremely simple and v a l i d i n t h e l i m i t e d cases examined,

it must be pointed out t h a t i n general it overcomes only one shortcoming

of t h e Palmgren-Miner l i n e a r damage r u l e , namely t h e e f f e c t of t h e order

i n which high and low s t r e s s e s a r e applied. Residual s t r e s s , progressive

changes of f a t i g u e l i m i t , coaxing, and o t h e r s y n e r g i s t i c e f f e c t s a r e no

more accounted f o r by t h i s approach t h a n by t h e simple l i n e a r damage r u l e .

Progressive change i n f a t i g u e l i m i t could be included i n t h i s method,

u s i n g t h e same concepts described i n r e f e r e n c e 28. The o t h e r l i m i t a t i o n s

s t i l l require attention. Also r e q u i r i n g a t t e n t i o n i s t h e case where one

of t h e s t r e s s l e v e l s would have r e s u l t e d i n a l i f e less than 730 cycles

0.6
( o r when Nf - PNf < 0 for other values of P). A method could be

developed using an approach similar t o t h a t described i n connection

w i t h t h e f a t i g u e f a i l u r e of q u a s i - b r i t t l e m a t e r i a l s , e s t a b l i s h i n g a hypothesis
0.6
f o r ihe crack growth f o r t h e low cyclic l i v e s of Nf instead of PNf .
However, because of t h e very l i m i t e d data i n t h i s range of t h e v a r i a b l e s

a v a i l a b l e f o r checking the v a l i d i t y of t h e approach, t h e d e t a i l s w i l l be

omitted here. O f s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t , however, i s t h e f a c t t h a t i n a two-

s t e p t e s t , if both s t e p s a r e i n a l i f e range for which t h e crack i n i t i a t i o n

 45

period i s e s s e n t i a l l y zero, a Palmgren-Miner l i n e a r damage r u l e w i l l

apply. Such t e s t s might a c t as c r i t i c a l t e s t s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e v a l i d i t y

of t h e concept. I n f a c t , a l i m i t e d number of such t e s t s ( f i g s . 43-45,

r e f . 1) do appear t o confirm t h i s conclusion.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

The common t h r e a d i n t h e treatment of t h e t h r e e problems discussed

i n t h i s l e c t u r e i s the value of separating t h e f a t i g u e process i n t o one

of crack i n i t i a t i o n and crack propagation. That such a s e p a r a t i o n i s

d e s i r a b l e i s now becoming more and more recognized i n o t h e r published

investigations. The d i f f i c u l t y i s in d e f i n i n g t h e meaning of a crack

and assigning q u a n t i t a t i v e formulae t o use i n computations involving

t h e s e phases. A f i r s t approach only i s taken i n t h i s r e p o r t toward

this quantitative aspect.

While t h e a p p l i c a t i o n i s intended f o r t h e a n a l y s i s of l a b o r a t o r y

specimens r a t h e r than engineering s t r u c t u r e s , t h e p r i n c i p l e s involved

may perhaps be extended t o p r a c t i c a l geometries. For example, we have

used l o c a l s t r a i n as a measure of crack i n i t i a t i o n , and t h e r e f o r e t h e

r e l a t i o n s e s t a b l i s h e d between s t r a i n range and c y c l e s t o crack i n i t i a t i o n

may continue t o be v a l i d f o r o t h e r geometries as w e l l a s t h e t e s t s p e c i -

men from which t h e r e l a t i o n s are involved. The crack growth process

Would, however, depend on geometry. Perhaps an approach such as t h a t

used i n appendix B , expressing instantaneous crack growth i n terms of

microscopic l o c a l s t r a i n range, would prove more u s e f u l i n the treatment

of g e n e r a l problems, i n s t e a d of attempting t o express t h e crack propaga-

t i o n as a closed-form s o l u t i o n t h a t would be a p p l i c a b l e only t o s p e c i f i c

 46

cases. Likewise the fracture condition for quasi-brittle materials, while

treated specifically for the laboratory specimen, could be extended, accord-

ing to the fast-developing field of fracture mechanics, to other geometries

by the same method of treatment. Similar extensions could perhaps be made

to the subject of cumulative fatigue, using small laboratory specimens to

obtain information on crack initiation and crack growth laws together with

fracture mechanics to obtain the damage rule for the crack propagation

stage. A l s o , in the discussion of high temperature the main emphasis has

been on intercrystalline cracking. But the principles involved may have

more significant generality. A similar approach may have utility in the

treatment of surface imperfections and pernicious environments, that

would also have the effect of cutting short the crack initiation period

more than the propagation period.

In conclusion, it :is important to emphasize again that the discussion

is intended to suggest approaches rather than to present proven methods.

Verification of the methods as presented, or indicated directions for

improved approaches, must await further analyses and experiments.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is grateful to the following of his colleagues for con-

ducting experiments and assisting in the analysis of the various subjects

covered in this lecture: M. H. Hirschberg, for the treatment of notch

effects in quasi-brittle materials; D. A. Spera, for the high-temperature

fatigue studies; and C. R. Ensign and J. C. Freche for the studies of

cumulative damage in fatigue.

 47

APPENDIX A - APPLICATION OF METHOD OF UNIVERSAL SLOPES TO PREDICTION

OF CYCLIC HARDENING OR SOFTENING CHARACTERISTICS

A m a t e r i a l i s said t o experience c y c l i c s t r a i n hardening, n e u t r a l

hardening, or c y c l i c s t r a i n softening i f a p o s i t i v e , zero, or negative

change, r e s p e c t i v e l y , i s observed i n t h e s t r e s s range during a s t r a i n -

cycling t e s t . I n a f a t i g u e t e s t , the e l a s t i c and p l a s t i c components of

t h e s t r a i n range a r e usually recorded a t t h e i r h a l f - l i f e values, when

c y c l i c hardening or softening i s e s s e n t i a l l y complete and " s a t u r a t i o n "

has been achieved. The change i n s t r e s s range during cycling can t h e r e -

f o r e be estimated by comparing t h e a c t u a l "saturation" s t r e s s range

p r e d i c t e d by t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes w i t h a neutral-hardening

s t r e s s range c a l c u l a t e d from t h e s t a t i c s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve. This proce-

dure is shown i n f i g u r e 5 ( a ) . I n t h i s f i g u r e , t h e s o l i d curve shows

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between the stress and s t r a i n ranges as p r e d i c t e d by

t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes and expressed parametrically i n terms of t h e

fatigue l i f e Nf. The dashed curve r e p r e s e n t s a neutral-hardening r e l a t i o n -

ship, expressed parametrically i n terms of t h e u n i a x i a l s t r a i n E. For a

s t r a i n range which i s twice t h e u n i a x i a l s t r a i n , t h e neutral-hardening

s t r e s s range i s twice the corresponding u n i a x i a l s t r e s s . This follows

from t h e f a c t that the s t r e s s - s t r a i n h y s t e r e s i s loop has v e r t i c e s a t

( E , u ) and ( - E , - u ) f o r n e u t r a l hardening. I f t h e estimated s t r e s s range-

s t r a i n range curve l i e s above t h e n e u t r a l hardening curve, t h e m a t e r i a l

experiences c y c l i c s t r a i n hardening; if it l i e s below t h e n e u t r a l harden-

i n g curve, the m a t e r i a l undergoes cyclic s t r a i n softening.

I n s t e a d of considering changes i n the e n t i r e s t r e s s r a n g e - s t r a i n

range r e l a t i o n s h i p , we can choose a s i n g l e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e p o i n t f o r

simplicity. For example, we may s e l e c t t h e p o i n t of i n t e r s e c t i o n of
t h e l i n e s i n f i g u r e 3, p o i n t T, which r e p r e s e n t s equal e l a s t i c and

p l a s t i c components of t h e t o t a l s t r a i n range. The l i f e a t t h i s i n t e r -

s e c t i o n i s designated as the " t r a n s i t i o n l i f e " because it marks t h e

change from p l a s t i c s t r a i n t o e l a s t i c s t r a i n as t h e main component

governing f a t i g u e l i f e . By t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes, t h e value of

t h e t o t a l s t r a i n range a t t h e t r a n s i t i o n l i f e i s c a l c u l a t e d t o be

and t h e s t r e s s range i s

1.25
uuU. ~
4.78 u
~ o T= E(AE ) =
T D0.15E0.25

I n f i g u r e 5( a ) , t h e neutral-hardening s t r e s s range corresponding t o t h e

t r a n s i t i o n s t r a i n range i s designated as a O o , ~ . A c y c l i c hardening

c o e f f i c i e n t may now be defined as

(A31

If t h i s f a c t o r i s g r e a t e r than zero, c y c l i c hardening i s indicated; i f

it i s l e s s than zero, c y c l i c softening is predicted. Figure 5 ( b ) shows

t h e c y c l i c hardening c o e f f i c i e n t f o r 30 m a t e r i a l s . The experimental

behavior f o r each m a t e r i a l i s indicated by t h e type of shading used i n

this figure. If t h e bar i s shaded, t h e m a t e r i a l a c t u a l l y experienced

c y c l i c s t r a i n hardening during cycling. If no shading appears, s o f t e n i n g

was present. It can be seen t h a t a reasonably good agreement was obtained

 49

with the predictions. Values of Ch above z e r o almost always occurred

f o r t h e s t r a i n hardening m a t e r i a l s , while values of ch below zero almost

always occurred f o r t h e s t r a i n softening m a t e r i a l s . Thus, f o r t h i s a p p l i -

c a t i o n a l s o , t h e simple model of f i g u r e 3 f o r r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s t r a i n

cycling behavior i n terms of t h e u n i a x i a l s t a t i c t e n s i l e p r o p e r t i e s

yields reasonably good agreement w i t h experiment.

APPENDIX B - FORM OF FUNCTIONS f ( Acp ) AND ( L Y Y J ) ~

The form of t h e f u n c t i o n f ( A c P ) i n equation (l), while n o t important

t o t h e d e r i v a t i o n of equation ( 4 ) , is n e v e r t h e l e s s of g e n e r a l i n t e r e s t .

Boettner, Laird and McEvily ( r e f . 2 9 ) and Weiss ( r e f . 30) have assumed

f(Acp) t o be p r o p o r t i o n a l t o (AE,)'. I n r e f e r e n c e 1 we have a l s o examined

o t h e r power l a w s of Aep. A reexamination of t h e s e assumptions has l e d

us t o question whether f(Acp) can reasonably be taken as only a s i n g l e

term i n kp and s t i l l c o r r e l a t e a v a i l a b l e crack growth data i n both

t h e high and low l i f e ranges. It would appear t h a t a more s u i t a b l e form

might c o n t a i n two terms, one t h a t would predominate i n t h e low l i f e range,

and t h e other i n t h e high l i f e range. Accordingly, one approach i s t o

assume
f(Lkp) = u +pB ( A E ~2)
S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o equation ( 3 ) we would then g e t

I n order t o o b t a i n a f i r s t approximation f o r t h e form of t h e term

[Nf - NJ we consider how equation (B2) degenerates f o r low values of

Acp, such t h a t A ( h p ) predominates over B(Ac,)'. Thus n e g l e c t i n g t h e

 50

(& P)2 term, equation ( B 2 ) becomes

Equation ( B 3 ) and t h e universal-slope equation of p l a s t i c s t r a i n

=
versus l i f e ( f i g . 3) LIE
P Nf
DOe6 O m 6 can be made t o be c o n s i s t e n t by

assuming t h a t

Nf - No = PNFo6

The value of P w i l l t e n t a t i v e l y be assumed as 1 4 c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

t h e r e s u l t s of t h e cumulative f a t i g u e tests as discussed i n connection

with equation ( 9 ) (recognizing t h a t t h e r e may be some inconsistency i n -

volved i n using r o t a t i n g bending t e s t data f o r a n a l y s i s of a x i a l f a t i g u e

tests). Since t h e value of 14N:'6 i s g r e a t e r than Nf f o r a l l values

of Nf l e s s than approximately 730 c y c l e s , it must be assumed that t h e

crack growth period can only be designated by 1

4N:'6 f o r values of

Nf > 730. Below Nf = 730 cycles, t h e value of Nf - No w i l l be assumed

t o be e q u a l t o Nf. The r e l a t i o n between ( N ) , and Nf, as w e l l as t h e

corresponding value of No versus Nf, are shown i n f i g u r e 8.

Equation ( B 2 ) can now be used t o determine t h e approximate values

of A and B. S u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o equation ( B 2 ) f o r (Nf - NO) from equa-

tion ( ~ 4 )

for Nf < 730 cycles, and

 51

for Nf > 730 c y c l e s .

Since it i s d e s i r a b l e t o make equations (B5) and (B6) as c o n s i s t e n t

as p o s s i b l e with t h e u n i v e r s a l r e l a t i o n AcP = Do*6Nf-o*6for a l l values

of Nf, a simple method of determining A and B is t o select several

values of Nf, determine AE = Doo6Nf-o*6,
and s u b s t i t u t e t h e s e values
P
of Nf and i n t o equation ( E )or (B6), whichever i s p e r t i n e n t for

t h e s e l e c t e d value of Nf. If more than two values of Nf a r e chosen

for a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e procedure a redundant s e t of equations r e s u l t s ,

t h e optimum s o l u t i o n for which can be found by l e a s t squares methods.

Thus, applying t h e procedure t o s e l e c t e d values of Nf i n t h e range of

1 t o 105 cycles and applying a l e a s t squares approximation g i v e s :

0.18
0.065 I n 2f - 0.065 In
20
-
- 1:8X10-5 - -0.60
A =
~0.6 ~0.6 ~0.6

2f
1.150 In -
2 O = 1.150 In 0.18 -
- -10.6
B =
D1.2 1.8X10'5 D1*

The crack growth l a w , equation (Bl), becomes

and equations (B5) and (B6) become r e s p e c t i v e l y

A€
[
Nf 0.065 2 -t 1.150
DOs6
for Nf < 730 c y c l e s , and
 52

A€
[
14Ngg60.065 2 + 1.150
DOo6

for Nf > 730 c y c l e s . T h a t equations (B10) and (B11) r e p r e s e n t e s s e n t i a l l y

t h e p l a s t i c l i n e according t o t h e method of u n i v e r s a l s l o p e s can be seen

i n f i g u r e 2 3 where a p l o t i s shown of A E ~ / D ~ versus

* ~ Nf. The heavy

s o l i d l i n e shows t h e power l a w r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r p l a s t i c s t r a i n according

t o t h e method of u n i v e r s a l slopes. The l i g h t curve and d o t t e d s e c t i o n

show t h e r e l a t i o n according t o equations (B10) and (B11) r e s p e c t i v e l y .

L i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s between the two types of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of

A E ~ / D ~versus
* ~ Nf. Thus it can be seen t h a t t h e crack growth l a w

equation (B9) can l e a d t o t h e same r e p r e s e n t a t i o n of p l a s t i c s t r a i n

a g a i n s t c y c l i c l i f e as does t h e empirically de-termined method of u n i v e r s a l

slopes. While t h e consistency between t h e two forms of r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

has been e s s e n t i a l l y f o r c e d by t h e choice of t h e c o n s t a n t s A and B,

t h e agreement does serve t o show t h a t a power-law r e l a t i o n between

p l a s t i c s t r a i n and l i f e can be derived from crack growth c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

It s t i l l remains t o determine a crack growth equation such as (Bl) from

p h y s i c a l or geometrical considerations.

APPENDIX C - ILLUSTRATIVE CALCJLATION FOR NOTCHED

QUASI-BRI TTLE SPECIMENS

An i l l u s t r a t i v e example w i l l b e shown f o r an a p p l i e d s t r a i n range

of 0.00884 on a notched specimen of t h e material considered i n f i g u r e 13.

For t h i s a p p l i e d s t r a i n and a nominal s t r a i n concentration f a c t o r of 2,

t h e method of r e f e r e n c e 2 i n d i c a t e s an a c t u a l s t r a i n concentration f a c t o r

of 2, t h e method of reference 2 i n d i c a t e s an a c t u a l s t r a i n concentration

 53

f a c t o r of 2.23 f o r t h i s m a t e r i a l . Thus, t h e l o c a l i z e d s t r a i n a t t h e r o o t

of t h e notch i s 0.01968, f o r which Nf = 758 c y c l e s according t o f i g u r e 13.

A t t h i s value of Nf, t h e value of (m)f is 14(758)Oo6 or 748 c y c l e s .

Thus No = Nf - 14Ngo6= 10 c y c l e s . This p o i n t i s p l o t t e d a t A in

figure 1 3 ( b ) . Since t h e period from No t o a crack depth of 0.003 inch

i s 7.8 N
:06 = 415 cycles by f i g u r e 9, a crack depth of 0.003 inch beyond

t h e r o o t of t h e machined notch occurs a t (10 + 415) = 425 c y c l e s . This

point is p l o t t e d a t B i a figure 13(b). A t t h i s depth of crack t h e

procedure i s t o change a b r u p t l y from a crack depth of 0.003 t o 0.013 inch

( i n order t o t a k e i n t o account t h e 0.010 in. machined depth of t h e n o t c h ) ,

and t o change t h e a p p l i e d s t r a i n l e v e l from 0.01968 back t o t h e nominal

s t r a i n range of 0.00884. The s t a r t i n g p o i n t of t h e abrupt change i s

shown a t C i n f i g u r e 1 3 ( b ) . The next s t e p i s t o determine how t h e

crack would progress across the e n t i r e s e c t i o n of t h e specimen i f it were

n o t i n t e r r u p t e d by b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e . According t o f i g u r e 9, t h e p e r i o d
0.6
of crack growth between 0.013 inch and 0.18 inch consumes 4.0 Nf cycles,

where Nf now corresponds t o t h e applied s t r a i n l e v e l of 0.00884. Thus

D i s p l o t t e d a t 425 + 4Ngo6 = 425 + 4(105)G*6= 4425 cycles a t a crack

l e n g t h of 0.18 inch. However, f o r a s t r a i n range of 0.00884 corresponding

t o a s t r e s s amplitude of 129.3 k s i , t h e c r i t i c a l crack l e n g t h f o r b r i t t l e

f a i l u r e i s (KIc/o)2 = (17/129.3)2 = 0.0173 inch, s i n c e K I ~= 1 7 k s i 7 6

f o r t h i s temper of m a t e r i a l . Thus a h o r i z o n t a l l i n e EF may be drawn

i n f i g u r e 13(b) a t 0.0173 inch. The i n t e r s e c t i o n ’ o f t h i s l i n e w i t h the

c r a c k growth l i n e CD is a t F where N = 860 c y c l e s . Thus t h e l i f e

 54

d i c t a t e d by q u a s i - b r i t t l e f r a c t u r e i s 860 c y c l e s , which i s p l o t t e d a t

point F' i n f i g u r e 13(a) a t an applied nominal s t r a i n range of 0,00884.

I n t h i s manner o t h e r p o i n t s on t h e dot-dashed curve of f i g u r e 1 3 ( a ) a r e

determined f o r corresponding values of s e l e c t e d nominal s t r a i n s .

FGFEBENCES

1. Manson, S. S.: Fatigue: A Complex Subject - Some Simple Approxi-

mations. Experimental Mechanics, v o l . 5, no. 7, J u l y 1965, pp. 193-226.

2 . Manson, S. S.; and Hirschberg, M. H.: Crack I n i t i a t i o n and Propagation

i n Notched Fatigue Specimens. Proposed NASA Technical Note.

3. Manson, S. S.: Behavior of Materials Under Conditions of Thermal S t r e s s .

Heat Transfer Symposium, University of Michigan, June 27-28, 1952,

University of Michigan Press, 1953, pp. 9-76. (Also a v a i l a b l e as

Manson, S. S.: Behavior of bkterials Under Conditions of Thermal

Stress. NACA TN-2933, 1953.)

4. Coffin, L. F., Jr. : A Study of t h e E f f e c t s of Cyclic Thermal S t r e s s e s

on a D u c t i l e Metal. Trans. ASME, v o l . 76, Aug. 1954, pp. 931-950.

5. Smith, Robert W,; Hirschberg, Marvin H.; and Magson, S. S.: Fatigue

Behavior of Materials Under S t r a i n Cycling in Low ard Intermediate

L i f e Range. NASA TN D-1574, 1963.

6. T a v e r n e l l i , J. F.; and Coffin, L. F., Jr.: Experimental Support for

Generalized Equation Predicting Low Cycle Fatigue. J. Basic Eng.

vol. 84, no. 4, Dec. 1962, pp. 533-537 (Discussion by S. S. Manson,

pp. 537-541).
 55

7. Manson, S. S.; and Hirschberg, Marvin H.: Fatigue Behavior i n S t r a i n

Cycling i n t h e Low- and Intermediate-Cycle Range. Proceedings of

t h e Tenth Sagamore Army Materials Research Conference, John J . Burke,

Norman L. Reed and Volker Weiss, eds., Syracuse University Press,

1964, pp. 133-178.

8 . Manson, S. S.: Materials Under Thermal S t r e s s and Low Cycle Fatigue.

Chapter 4, M c G r a w - H i l l , t o be published i n 1966.

9. Srawley, John E.; and Brown, W i l l i a m F., Jr.: Fracture Toughness

Testing Methods. Fracture Toughness Testing and Its Application,

Spec. Tech. F’ubl. No. 381, ASTM, 1965, pp. 133-198.

10. Kiafft, J. M.: On P r e d i c t i o n of Fatigue Crack Propagation Rate from

Fracture Toughness and P l a s t i c Flow P r o p e r t i e s . Trans. ASM, vol. 58,

no. 4, Dec. 1965, pp. 691-695.

11. Coffin, L. F., Jr.: Cyclic S t r a i n and Fatigue Behavior of Metals i n

t h e Creep Range. P r e p r i n t DI-9, I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on

Fracture (Sendai, Japan), Sept. 1965. P r e p r i n t vol. no. 3 (chap. C ,

D and E), Organizing Committee of I n t e r n a t i o n a l Conference or. Fracture,

The Unified Research Society f o r Micro- and Macro mechanical Behavior

of Materials, The Japan Society f o r t h e Promotion of Science, 1965.

1 2 . Wood, W. A.; and Nine, H. D.: Differences i n Fatigue Behavior of

Single Copper C r y s t a l s and P o l y c r y s t a l l i n e Copper a t Elevated

Temperatures. Dept. of C i v i l Engineering and Engineering Mechanics,

Columbia University, Feb. 1965. (Available from DDC as AD-612713. )

13. Forsyth, P. J. E.: Fatigue Damage and Crack Growth i n Aluminum Alloys.

Acta Met., vol. 11, no. 7, July 1963, pp. 703-715.

 56

14. Wood, W . A , ; Cousland, S. McK; and Sargant, K. R . : Systematic

Microscructural Changes Peculiar t o Fatigue Deformation. Acta Met.

vol. 11, no. 7, J u l y 1963, pp. 643-652.

15. Dorn, John E.; and Shepard, Lawrence A . : What We Need t o Know About

Creep. Symposium E f f e c t of Cyclic Heating and S t r e s s i n g on Metals

a t Elevated Temperatures, Spec. Tech. Publ. No. 165, ASTM 1954, pp. 3-30.

16. F o r r e s t , P. azd Armst,ror.g, K. B.: The Thermal Fatigue Resistance

of NickeL-Ck-omiun! Alloys. J o i i t I r i t e r n a t i o n a l Conference on Creep.

A u g . 25-29 and Sept. 33-9ct. 4, 1963, I n s t . Mech. Eng. (London),

1963, pp. 3-1 t o 3-7.

17. Coles, A.; and Skinner, J.: AssessmetTt of Thermal-Fatigue Resistance

of High Temperature Alloys. J. Roy. Aeron. SOC., vol. 69, no. 649,

,Jar:. 1965, pp. 53-55.

13. Carden, A. E . : T h e r m 1 Fatigue of a Nickel-Base Alloy. J. Basic

Ecg., v o l . 87, no. 1, Mar. 1965, pp. 237-244.

19. Coffin, L. F., Jr.: Cyclic S t r a i n and Fatigue Study of A 0.1% C-2.0%

Mo S t e e l . Rep. No. 64-RL-3612l4, General E l e c t r i c Company, Mar. 1964.

(Also available as CoffiE., L. F., Jr.: Cyclic S t r a i z and Fatigue

StilQ of A 0.2% C-2.(3% Mo Steel at Elevated Temperatures. AIME Met.

SOC. Tram., vol. 230, EO. 7, Dez. 1964, pp. 1690-1699.

20. Gohn, G. R . ; and E l l i s , W. C . : Fatigue Test as Applied t o Lead Cable

Sheath. Proc. Am. SOC. Testing Mater., v o l . 51, 1951, pp. 721-744.

21. Palmgren, A . : Die Lebensdauer von Kugellagern. ZVDI, vol. 68, no. 14,

Apr. 1924, pp. 339-341.

 57

2 2 . Langer, B. F.: Fatigue F a i l u r e from S t r e s s Cycles of Varying Amplitudes.

J. Appl. Mech., vol. 4, no. 4, Dec. 1937, pp. A160-Al62.

23. Miner, Milton A , : Cumulative Damage i n Fatigue. J. Appl. Mech.,

vol. 12, no. 3, Sept. 1945, pp. A159-Al64.

24. Weibull, Waloddi: Fatigue Testing and Analysis of Results. Pergamon

Press, 1961, p. 1 3 2 .

25. Manson, S. S.; NachtigalL, A. J.; Elzsign, C . R.; and Freche, J. C . :

Further I n v e s t i g a t i o n of a Relation f o r Cumulative Fatigue Damage

i n Bending. J. Eng. Ind., vol. 8 7 , no. 1, Feb. 1965, pp. 25-35.

26. Rally, F. C.; and S i n c l a i r , G. M.: Influence of S t r a i n Aging on t h e

Shape of t h e S-N D i a g r a m . Rep. No. 87, Dept. of T h e o r e t i c a l and

Applied Mechanics, University of I l l i c o i s , June 1955.

27. Grover, Horace J.: An Observation Concerning t h e Cycle Ratio i n

Cumulative Damage. Symposium on Fatigue of A i r c r a f t S t r u c t u r e s .

Spec. Tech. Publ. no. 274, ASTM 1960, pp. 120-124.

28. Manson, S. S.; Nachtigall, A. 5.; and Freche, J. C . : A Proposed New

Relation f o r Cumulative Fatigue Damage i n Bending. Proc. Am. SOC.

Testing Mater., vol. 61, 1961, pp. 679-703.

29. Boettner, R . C.; Laird, C.; and McEvily, A. VT., Jr.: Crack Nucleation
and Growth i n High Strain-Low Cycle Fatigue. Trans. AIME, v01. 233,

no. 2, Feb. 1965, pp. 379-387.

30. Weiss, Volker: Analysis of Crack Propagation i n Strain-Cycling Fatigue.

Proceedings of t h e Tenth Sagamore Army Materials Research Conference,

John J. Burke, Norman L. Reed and Volker Weiss, eds., Syracuse

University Press, 1964, pp. 179-186.

 1
0.75zpT+ _.

I
‘.-0.25 ,
w diam. ‘-0.50 diam.
0.31 1.5 rad.

Figure 1. - Fatigue specimen configuration.

(Dimensions in inches.)

Side view
0.025 in. rad.

m l o p view

Figure 2. -Test section of notched

fatigue specimen.
 0
(r,
cu
M
I
I w

I
1
I I
Cycles to failure, Nf (log scale)
Figure 3. - Method of universal slopes for estimating axial fatigue life.

0 Experimental
- Prediction by method
of universal slopes
.loo

. loo

c .loo
W
Q

$
m
.loo
.-m
L

-m
c
v)

E .loo

.010 70-30 Cu-Ni

(cast)

.oo1
100 102 104 106 loo 102 104 16
Cycles to failure, Nf
Figure 4. - Comparison of predicted and experimental fatigue behavior
for several materials.
 4.780;

/
/ I DO. 15EO. 25
Cyclic hardening coefficient ch - - Aao,T
Aao.T

AEt - 3.5
o
+ DO. 6N-0.6
Nio. l2 f
0
cn
N
m
L
In
YI
al
L
Ao = 3.5 Ou Nio. '*
M 5
AEt = 2E
I
w --- Neutral boo = 2 d ~ )

Total strain range, b e t

(a) Calculation procedure.

A. 350 Stainless, annealed K. 7075-T6 Aluminum h. Lexan plastic

B. 304 Stainless, annealed L. 4130 Steel, extra hard i. 52100 Steel
C. AZ31BF Magnesium M. A286 j. A286, CR
D. 310 Stainless, annealed a. D979 k. Vascomax300, CVM
E. 5456-H311 Aluminum b. Vascojet lo00 I. 4130Stee1, soft
F. lnconel X c. 2O14-T6 Aluminum m. 4340 Steel, annealed
G. 2024-T4 Aluminum d. 350 Stainless, hard n. 4340 Steel, hard
H. 316 Stainless e. 6AI-4V Titanium 0. 1100 Aluminum
1. 304 Stainless, hard f. Silver, high purity p. 4130Stee1, hard
J. QMV Beryllium g. 5AI-2.5Sn Titanium q. 1020 Steel, HR

1b Hardening
0 Softening Observed

bcdef ghi j klmnopq

0

-1 L Observed order of decreased hardening

or increased soflening ---+

(b) Comparison of predicted and observed hardening in various

materials.
Figure 5. - Calculation of cyclic strain hardening.
 S
.-0
9
.-
m
m1
(5
n
ea
Y
V
m
V
L

L
0
S
0
._
c
V
a,
L
.-
0

Figure 6. - Fracture surface of 114 i n c h diameter copper

specimen showing striations. Nf = iu4 cycies.

Figure 7. - Fracture surface of 114 i n c h diameter 52100 (600" F

temper) specimen. Nf = 10,030 cycles.
 /
I 1-

105

0
a
cu
M
I
w
b
l 0 V I I I I
101 102 ld 104 105 16 107 108
Cycles to failure, Nf
Figure 8. - Relation of crack initiation to crack propagation and failure.

For Nf < 730 cycles,

h N ) f Nf

For Nf > 730 cycles,

-
(ANIf 14Nya

r O . 715
(1 I
.8 1.0
AN/(AN)f
Figure 9. - Hypothesized crack growth relation.
 0 410 SS 4OOOTemper
0 410 SS 850° Temper
0 7075T6Aluminum
V 0 4340 Annealed
A 300CVM
U

:
0
c
!=
181

w
0
m
cu
M
I
w

Nf = Life assuming completely ductile behavior

N i = Life for quasi-brittle behavior

--z
-3

102 104 105 106 107

Ni, cycles
Figure 12. -Effect of notch toughness on life of smooth specimens.
 n

1 -
 L-605 A-286
N f I 70 Nf 3 8 400

CS-37030
Figure 14. - Intergranular fatigue cracks at 1200' F.

I Load Load
t

-
Transcrystalline
cracking

General
direction
of crack
Intercrystalline

-
cracking plus
transcrystalline
cracking

General
direction
of crack

No- Nf - 6.2NF6 Assume No << Nf - 6.2NF

At AE for which (Nf) = 1d
For Nf 1 8
9

No = 0 . 8 5 ~ 1 8 Limiting case, No 0 - R.T.

-
AN 0 . 1 5 ~ 1 8 AN = 0 . 1 5 ~ 1 8
-
Total life 1 . 0 ~ 1 8 Total life = 0. 15x104
(a) Below creep range. (b) In creep range.
Figure 15. - Illustration of high temperature crack initiation hypothesis.
 0 Nimonic90
l8OOoF lo cpm}(ref. 16)
0 Nimonic90 18@F 0.1 cpm
0 Cr-Mo-V Steel loso0 F . o i cpm
}(ref. 17)
Cr-Mo-V Steel lo@ F .006 cpm
Hastelloy N 16@ F (ref. 18)

1;:
0 0. lC-2Mo Steel lK@ F (ref. 19)
Q A286,Aged
0 D979
l2Oo0
12500 F
'} NASA data
6 High-purity 7500 F (ref. 12)
copper

.4

.2 N
8"k--o+

NO +
lo%&
0
101 102 104 106
Calculated cycles to failure, Nf
Figure 16. - High-temperature fatigue data and life-prediction curves.
 0 85OF, 1650 cpm
0 8S0F, U4 cpm
-_-% N o t 5 0 k A N
. 1@F, U4 cpm
(where A N - 6.2NF6

c
No Nf - A N )

c
w
a
0)
cn
c
m
L
(b) Calcium lead.
.-cm r
L

-m
VI
L

c
c
0

103 io4 105 106 107

Cycles to failure, Nf
(c) Chemical lead. (d) High purity lead.
Figure 17. - High-temperature fatigue hypothesis applied to lead (data from ref. 201.
 0 lo ---
0 1 -Nf10%(calculated
Nf
life)

a .1
0 .01 --- 5% No + 50%A N
a .ax (where A N = 6.2Ny.6
I
I w .1 \
\
\
\
O
\
o\
b,

.004
1
Cycles to failure, Nf
(a) Room temperature. (b) lo58 F.
Figure 18. - High-temperature hypothesis applied to Cr-Mo-V steel (data from ref. 17).
 0 10 cpm
0
rn 0 .lcpm
03
M
1
-- Nf (calculated life)
w - 10%Nf
.1
--- 5kN0 +5G%AN
(where A N = 6. 2Nf6

.01
c

003
(a) Room temperature. (b) l3@ F.
.l-

'\

101 102 Id 104 Id 101 Id Id 104 Id

Cycles to failure, Nf

(c) l60@ F. (d) 1800' F.

Figure 19. - High-temperature hypothesis applied to Nimonic 90 (data from ref. 16).
 - Predicted, using
A N = PNFa
0 Two-step tests,
individual data
A Original S-N tests

Cycles at prestress, nl
Figure 20. - Determination of crack propagation coefficient of maraging
steel (300CVM) by two-step rotating-bending fatigue tests.

0
W (a) Method of reference 28.

rCrack initiation
r Convergent region

I I I
102 ld 104 105 16 io7
Fatigue life, cycles
(b) Double linear damage hypothesis.
Figure 21. -Two methods of cumulative fatigue analysis.
 7-
140 -
0
0
Original material
Prestressed at 100 ksi
320 r 0
0
Original material
Prestressed at 175 ksi
for 10,MXI cycles for 2300 cycles
A Prestressed at 100 ksi
for 14, OOO cycles
--- Prediction by double
linear damage r u l e
120 - 0 Prestressed at 100 ksi
for 17,000 cycles
--- Prediction by double
linear damage r u l e
100 -

80-

0,

60-
D,

\
40- e

mr
Y
L
I
la) 4130 (Soft1 steel.

U 0 Original material
n
- Prestressed at 160 ksi
for 14,Mx)cycles
A Prestressed at 160ksi
for 1 6 , W cycles

260
--- Prediction by double
linear damage r u l e

200-

180 -

140 -

loo -

60 I I111llIl I I1111111
\
\\"\
~~~
\ @t
102 Id 104 16 106 107 108 102 Id 106 107
Fatigue life, cycles
Icl 52100 Steel. (dl 304 Stainless steel.
Figure 22. - Double linear damage r u l e applied to two-step fatigue data.
f
0
a 1
cu
M
I
w
.4

.1

.n
0 .04
-3-
w
a
.Ol

.004

.all
1
Cyclic life, Nf
Figure 23. - Relation between cyclic life and plastic strain as derived from crack growth considerations and
comparison with method of universal slopes.

NASA-CLEVELAND, OHIO E-3290