Subject Cataloguing - Problems

UNIT 14 SUBJECT CATALOGUING - PROBLEMS

Structure
14.0 Objectives
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Subject Cataloguing
14.2.1 Meaning and Purpose
14.2.2 Objectives of Subject Cataloguing
14.3 Subject Approaches
14.3.1 Alphabetical Subject Approach
14.3.2 Display of Subject Relationships
14.4 Alphabetical Indexing Languages
14.4.1 Natural Indexing Language
14.4.2 Free Indexing Language
14.4.3 Controlled Indexing Language
14.5 Indexing Systems
14.5.1 Definition of an Indexing System
14.5.2 Pre-Coordinate Indexing Systems
14.5.3 Post-Coordinate Indexing Systems
14.6 Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC)
14.6.1 MARC and the Subject Approach
14.6.2 Subject Access to OPAC
14.6.3 Aids to Searching
14.7 Summary
14.8 Answers to Self Check Exercises
14.9 Key Words
14.10 References and Further Reading

14.0 OBJECTIVES
As we are already aware, one of the approach by which users access a catalogue or
search for information is by subject. In this context subject cataloguing assumes a
great importance. In this unit, we discuss various aspects of subject cataloguing.
After reading this Unit, you will be able to:
• explain the concept of subject cataloguing;
• distinguish it from author/title cataloguing;
• analyse various problems associated with subject cataloguing and arrive at
appropriate solutions;
• describe different methods (approaches) of subject cataloguing;
• and suggest appropriate method of subject cataloguing for your library.

14.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary function of any library is to make available the information it possesses
(documentary as well as other types), to the/users on their request.
To fulfil this objective, each library maintains a properly organised catalogue. The
catalogue is to be constructed on sound principles. By studying Units 1-4 of Course
BLIS 04, namely `Purpose
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Subjects Indexing, Vocabulary
Control and Recent
and Types of Library Catalogue', you are in a position to construct a suitable catalogue
Developments in Cataloguing to meet the needs of your library.
For a person in need of information on a specific topic (i.e. specific subject), the library
catalogue has to provide the facility of subject approach to library contents. If this
facility is provided in the catalogue, the library user, on his own, will be able to find the
items which are available in the library on a given subject as well as items related to the
subject of his interest.
During the process of cataloguing, the cataloguer must take into account the dual
manifestation of the items added to the, library collection. That is to say, that these
items are both intellectual as well as physical entities. In descriptive cataloguing, the
physical description pertains to the physical entity (document), while subject catalogue
provides access to the intellectual content of the entity. In practical terms, subject
catalogue is designed to provide subject access to the library contents.
Inquirers, who need information on a certain subject will approach the catalogue with
some questions formulated with their own terminology. These terms must be translated
into the pre-determined access categories of the cataloguing. Certainly, such
communication between the inquirer and the catalogue usually takes place with the
assistance of the librarian.
There are different ways of providing subject approach to library materials. One of the
methods involves the arrangement of library materials using a classification scheme.
This results in a systematic arrangement of materials according to their subject content.
The second, and the most commonly used method, is indexing the library materials
through the use of a list of subject-headings or controlled vocabulary. This method also
provides access to the intellectual content of a library. Classification provides a logical
or methodical approach to the arrangement of documentary materials, whereas subject
cataloguing provides mainly the alphabetic approach to the concepts discussed in these
materials. These two methods offer two alternative modes of access to a library
collection. The concept of subject cataloguing, the ways and means by which it differs
from other aspects of cataloguing and the techniques available for this purpose as well
as the problems confronted in subject cataloguing are discussed in this unit.
14.2 SUBJECT CATALOGUING
You will recall from your study of Block l of this course, that a library catalogue
constitutes a complete record of the library's collection of documents. Also, you have
learnt that the essential functions of a catalogue and the principles upon which it is
constructed are not affected by the physical form. Even so, the card catalogue has
become by far the most popular form of a library catalogue.
In the card catalogue, it is possible for a document to have a number of representations,
though practical considerations limit this number. Each document representation
(substitute) is in the form of a catalogue card, known as an entry. Each entry indicates
some characteristics of the document, such as authorship or subject content. In other
words, multiple access points are provided for a document in a catalogue. The entries
that indicate the inclusion of documents in classes defined by subject content are
known as `subject entries'. The process of preparing subject entries for documents and
organising them for subsequent retrieval is known as Subject Cataloguing.
14.2.1 Meaning and Purpose
Since an entry in the catalogue serves as a document substitute, it is necessary to
provide relevant information for individualising it so that the document can be retrieved
or located from amongst the others belonging to the same subject category. This job is
usually accomplished with the help of a call number assigned to the document. In
addition to entries for individual documents, the catalogue also contains directions
which refer the searcher from one heading to another heading under which potentially
relevant information in the form of document entries can be found. Such entries in the
catalogue are known as references. These references also help the searcher in locating
information about the related subjects to the subjects of his interest.
"The assigning of headings and references, with retrieval of documents through the
medium of a catalogue, in response to request for information on specific subjects is
generally defined as subject cataloguing". Subject cataloguing forms an integral part of
the total process. Therefore, there is little need to emphasise on the important role of
6 subject cataloguing in libraries. The potential use of library materials cannot be
exploited without it, especially in large libraries.
Also, the vast increase in the number of documents in every sphere of human Subject Cataloguing - Problems
activity, clubbed with the increased complexity of the pattern of knowledge, calls for
a foolproof method of access to records on any subject. Thus, subject cataloguing is
concerned with subject description of documents.

14.2.2 Objectives of Subject Cataloguing

All forms of subject catalogues have a two-fold objective: first to enable an enquirer
to identify documents on a given subject and second, to make known the presence of
material on allied or related subjects. Shera and Egan (1956) summarise the
objectives of subject cataloguing as follows:

• To provide access by subject to all relevant material;

• To provide subject access to materials through all suitable principles of subject

organisation such as matter and applications;

• To bring together references to materials, which treat substantially the same

subject regardless of differences among groups of subject specialists, and/or from
the changing nature of the concepts with the discipline itself,

• To show such affiliations among subject fields, which may depend upon use or
application of knowledge;

• To provide entry through any vocabulary common to a considerable group of

users, specialists or laymen;

• To provide formal description of the subject content of any bibliographic unit in

the most precise, or specific terms possible: whether the description is in the form
of a class, number or symbol; and

• To provide means to the users to make a selection from among all terms in any
particular category, according to any chosen set of criteria such as, most
thorough, most recent, etc.

With the above objectives, the techniques developed and designed to meet the
requirements of subject cataloguing are discussed in the following sections of this
Unit.

Self Check Exercises

1) Explain briefly (in not more than 10 lines) the concept of subject cataloguing.

Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.

ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.

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Subjects Indexing, Vocabulary
Control and Recent 14.3 SUBJECT APPROACHES
Developments in Cataloguing Most of the users approach information sources not with names of who might have been
responsible for their creation, but with a question that requires an answer on a or a topic
for study. Users seek documents or information on a particular subject. In order to make
provision for this common approach, it is necessary to arrange documents on the shelf
and entries in catalogues in such a way that items on a specific subject can be retrieved.
In other words, it may be said that subject approach is very important in the access to
and exploitation of documents in a library. Before we actually discuss the methods
developed by librarians and information workers to meet this requirement, let us
consider the question "What is a subject?" While talking about a subject we normally
refer to a given area of knowledge, or the contents of a document of a given scope. A
subject may be defined by:
a) an area of interest,
b) an area in which an individual researcher or professional works,
c) an area in which an individual writes, and
d) an area of knowledge being studied:
Let us consider a well-known area such as Physics. To understand this subject, let us
first ask a student studying this subject, as to what constitutes this subject. Also, let us
find out the definition of physics from a few dictionaries and encyclopaedias. We may
come across different definitions and different boundaries for this subject area alone. We
may also find that different users and separate pieces of literature hold different
perspectives on one subject. The points of divergence in perspective can be categorised
into two types:
a) different labels (names) that are used for a subject, and
b) different concepts about scope and associations with other subjects that are evident.
Essentially, these factors form the basis of problems in identifying a satisfactory subject
approach and the need to have a vast array of tools to explain the subject approach to
knowledge. It is possible and convenient to select a particular view point on the scope,
associations and labels for subjects which coincides with the way in which subjects are
handled in the literature. In libraries, most devices for the organisation of knowledge
concern themselves primarily with organising documents, based on literary warrant.
This approach is known as pragmatic approach. The main limitation of the approach is
the time and collection dependency of the resulting tool. There is an alternative method
for the designf subject retrieval devices, and that is to build schemes, which depend
upon theoretical views about the nature and structure of knowledge. This theoretical
approach is important in determining the nature of subject devices required for the
organisation of knowledge. A subject device normally seeks to fulfil two functions
a) To show what a library or information centre has on a particular subject; and
b) To show what a library or information centre has on related subjects.
Different devices for the organisation of knowledge place different emphasis based on
the relative importance of these two functions. However, the two functions are inter-
dependent and neither can be excluded without impairing the effectiveness of the other.
A user who starts a search with a specific subject in mind may, in fact, be seeking a
specific subject which does not quite match his requirements. For example, a user might
start looking for "growing of tomatoes". A document on `vegetable gardening' may
contain equally valuable information on `growing tomatoes' but
generally he will not try to notice it because he believes that the more specific subject -`
growing tomatoes,' will not be covered in the document `vegetable growing'. Later, on
examining the document, he may discover that the information, he is looking for, is
available in the document on `vegetable growing'. Thus, broader subjects may help the
user even with a specific search.
Classification schemes as well as alphabetical indexing systems attempt to fulfil both the
basic functions mentioned earlier. The distinction arises from different emphasis.
Classification schemes specialise in showing network of subjects and displaying
relationships between subjects while alphabetical indexing systems specialise in
establishing specific labels for subjects and providing direct access to individual
subjects. Also, it may be stated here that author and title catalogues enable the user to
locate documents of which the user knows either the name of the author or title of the
8 documents, while subject catalogues enable him to find out documents of his interest
even without knowing any of these items of information.
The subject approach may be totally alphabetical or it might be classified supported by Subject Cataloguing - Problems
alphabetical indexes.
Self Check Exercises
2) Explain briefly (in 5 to 6 lines) what constitutes a subject.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
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14.3.1 Alphabetical Subject Approach
There are different means of providing alphabetical subject approach to documents
and information. But, all these methods are confronted with some common problems.
These problems are mainly concerned with the label (name) that is given to a subject
in an alphabetical subject catalogue. Therefore, the basic problem pertains to the
naming of a subject. It is generally agreed that a user-oriented approach should be
followed in subject catalogues in naming the subjects. In order to achieve this
objective, the various approaches of different users must be taken into consideration.
If a subject has more than one name, a library catalogue must bring all material on that
subject together (within the limitations of the scope of the collection) under those
names. Specific problems encountered in this connection are :
a) synonyms, b) homographs, c) singular and plural forms, d) multiword concepts, and
e) complex subjects.
It is rather important to understand as to how the above mentioned aspects present
problems to the subject cataloguer. First of all, let us briefly discuss about them.
a) Synonyms are terms with the same or similar meanings. Such terms are present in
every subject. Near synonyms are most common. True synonyms which mean
exactly the same thing and which are used precisely in the same context, are
rather- unusual. However, even near synonyms are regarded as equivalent for
some purposes. Some situations in which synonyms arise are :
i) In case of some subjects which have one stem and several derivatives. For
example: steriliser, sterilising, sterilised, or computing, computed,
computation. Sometimes, it is acceptable to treat such words as equivalent to
one another, and at other times it is important to differentiate between them.
ii) Some of the subjects might have both common and technical names, and these
must be recognised for the purpose of subject cataloguing so that depending
upon the clientele for whom the catalogue is meant, these are reflected in the
catalogue. Examples are `Sodium Chloride' and `Salt', `radish' and `raphanus
sativus', etc.
iii) Use patterns of terms also present problems to the cataloguer. The cataloguer
should try to keep pace with changes in normal usage.
iv) Some concepts are defined differently in different versions of one language.
American and English are examples of such differences in usage for example,
lift and elevator. In all such cases, the user should be guided from the heading
that is not chosen to the one that is chosen (preferred) in the catalogue.
The merging of synonyms carries implications for the effectiveness of a library
catalogue as a retrieval tool.
c) Homographs means words which have the same spelling but different
meanings. In normal language usage, the meaning of such homonyms is
established by the context in which the \ term is, used. But, in a catalogue the
term is used as heading and therefore, it will be difficult to establish the 9
interpretation to be placed on the homograph. In such cases,
Subjects Indexing, Vocabulary
Control and Recent
qualifying terms must be used to provide proper connotation to the homonyms in
Developments in Cataloguing the catalogue. Once this is resorted to, then there might not be any ambiguity.
Examples: 1) Pitch (Cricket), Pitch (Music), 2) Tank (Military vehicle), Tank
(Water tank), etc.
c) Use of Plural and Singular forms: Generally, the plural and singular forms of the
same noun are regarded as an equivalent, but there are some situations, when it is
necessary to treat them distinct. In case, only one form of heading is permitted in
the catalogue, then it is common practice to adopt the plural form. However
specific rules are provided for the usage of singular or plural form.
d) Multi-word Concept: Some subjects cannot adequately be described by one
word, and require two or more words to specify them fully. Examples are:
Information Retrieval, Country Walks, Underwater Colour Photography, etc: In
such cases, no matter which word (in the term) is used as the main approach
point in the catalogue, the user might choose to seek the subject under the second
or third word (in the multiterm) first. Therefore, it is advantageous to provide
access via all significant words in a multi-word concept. In a multi-word concept,
sometimes the terms are presented in direct order; at other times, the inversion of
terms is also resorted to, for example, Military Hospitals can find a direct entry in
a catalogue which treats Military Hospitals as a unitary concept or it may be
found in the inverted form as Hospitals, Military. Sometimes inversion may lead
to grouping of like subjects. For example, inversion to Hospitals, Military will
cause this heading to be filed along other headings starting with the word
Hospitals. The primary disadvantage of inversion method is that the user of the
catalogue might not be in a position to predict the terms of a multi-word concept
that may be inverted. Also, the word order in a multi-word concept may also
create some problems of uncertainty to the users.
e) Complex Subjects: Complex subject contains more than one unit concept in them
and a number of terms may be used to fully describe these concepts. -Each of
these concepts might form a potential search key in a catalogue. With complex
subjects, citation order becomes important. By citation `History of Science' is not
the same as `Science of History'. The same- two terms `History' and Science'
serve to describe two subjects and it is only the order in which they are cited that
determines the meaning; in the natural language, the connecting word `is/are'
distinguishes statements of the two subjects. The occurrence of a variety of
concepts in the statement of one subject area is referred to as syntactic
relationship. The syntactic relationships and the ways they can be handled are the
distinguishing features between pre-coordinate and post-coordinate indexing
systems.
Self Check Exercises
3) List the problems encountered in alphabetical subject approach.
4) Explain with an example how a complex subject is handled in alphabetical
subject approach.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
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14.3.2 Display of Subject Relationships Subject Cataloguing - Problems
The vital problem concerned with the alphabetical, subject approach is the naming
(labeling) of subjects. However, any tool such as the library catalogue used for the
organisation of knowledge, must also take into account the different relationships
existing between the subjects. There are two main categories of relationships between
subjects. These are known as the syntactic relationships and semantic relationships.
For example, in a topic such as `Sugar and Health', the concept `Sugar' and `Health'
are drawn-together in a specific context. Obviously any of these concepts may also
be present in other context, where the existence of relationships defined for the
purpose may be irrelevant. On the other hand, semantic relationships show aspects of
genus-species relationships and are expected to reflect widely accepted subject
relations. Entries should be made in the catalogue for linking such related subjects.
This is normally achieved by means of references and other devices such as,
alternative entries. These are some of the significant issues which cause problems in
subject cataloguing and the cataloguer must take these into account and try to provide
suitable solutions by which these problems might be minimised, if not totally
eliminated.
14.4 ALPHABETICAL INDEXING LANGUAGES
In this section let us look at the concept of indexing language, its categories and
functional use. Let us begin with the meaning of `indexing language'. It is the
language used to describe a s0ject or other aspects of information in an index or in a
library catalogue. The generally accepted difference between a library catalogue and
an index is that an index entry merely locates a subject or a concept, whereas a
catalogue entry includes some descriptive specification of a document containing the
subject. But the line of demarcation is not, in practice, hard and fast. The indexing
language can be an alphabetical language or may be a classification scheme. But, our
emphasis would be on alphabetical indexing languages. There are three main
categories of indexing, languages. They are: a) natural indexing languages; b) free
indexing languages; and c) controlled indexing languages.
14.4.1 Natural Indexing Language
One of the greatest hurdles in discussing natural indexing language is that it is not
easy to identify or know as to what exactly constitutes a natural indexing language.
We do not generally come across lists of natural indexing languages. Obviously, a
natural indexing language is the language of the documents that are indexed or
catalogued for a library. Hence, it could be static as long as the document collection
remains static. As soon as a new batch of documents is added to the library, the terms
of the indexing language are changed to accommodate the new terms contained in the
new set of documents. Each system will have a different indexing language even if
the documents cover the same subject area. Also, since the indexing language is
derived from the documents, added to the library or input into the system of different
records, even if they represent the same documents, they generate a different
indexing language. These variations affect the consistency associated with the library
catalogue and so, present many problems. Most of the natural indexing languages are
based upon the language of title, abstract and other text of documents.
There is a debate going on as to the effective use of natural languages for indexing
and subject cataloguing purposes. One school of thought believes that full
exploitation of the opportunities offered by computer systems could only be done
taking recourse to natural indexing language, whereas the other school holds the view
that controlled indexing language is the only proper way to index documents.
However, it may be mentioned that controlled indexing language is extremely time
consuming, costly and uneconomic. One of the applications of natural language
indexing is the production of indexes based on words in titles of documents such as,
Key Word In Context (KWIC) indexes.
14.4.2 Free Indexing Language
It is the nature of free indexing that any word or term-that suits the subject may be
assigned as a subject heading in catalogue or as an indexing term. The terms may be
human assigned or computer assigned although free language indexing is -commonly
used in the computer produced subject catalogues or indexes. The computer
generates the list, by indexing under every word which is provided, unless if is 11
instructed not to do so.
Subjects Indexing, Vocabulary
Control and Recent
14.4.3 Controlled Indexing Language
Developments in Cataloguing In the foregoing paragraphs we have discussed the concept of an indexing language
as also, the categories into which it falls. In the process, we have learnt the meaning
of natural indexing and free indexing languages. Let us now learn some facts
regarding controlled indexing languages and their use in subject cataloguing and
indexing.
Control is necessary in respect of terms used as subject identifiers in a catalogue or
index, because of the variety of natural languages. Such control may involve barring
of certain terms from use as headings or access points in a library catalogue or an
index. The term which are to be used are specified and the synonyms recognised and
as far as possible are eliminated. Preferred word forms are noted. The list of terms,
thus, prepared constitutes what is called controlled indexing language. One of the
methods by which such a language is formed, is to list or store the acceptable terms
in a vocabulary. Such lists contain specific decisions relating to the preferred words,
and also decisions regarding the form of words to be used; for example, singular or
plural, nouns or adjectives. There are mainly two types of controlled indexing
languages in verbal plane. They are: subject heading lists and thesauri. These two
types of controlled indexing languages have the following functions:
i) to control the terminology used in subject catalogues and indexes; and
ii) to control the display of relationships in catalogues and indexes.
Subject heading lists are lists of index terms normally arranged in alphabetical order,
which can be used to determine the terms to be used in a catalogue for describing
subjects (i.e., as subject headings) by cataloguers: These lists attempt to solve some
of the problems concerning alphabetical subject approach. They serve as guides to
the cataloguer and aid him in the task of subject cataloguing. The basic functions of a
subject headings list may be stated in the following terms:
i) The list records terms which shall be used in a catalogue or database, and also
indicates the form in which they shall be shown. It acts as an authority list for
index terms and their form.
ii) The list makes recommendations about the use of references for the display of
relationships in a catalogue in order to guide the users to distinguish associated
terms.
'Sear's List of Subject Headings and `Library of Congress List of Subject Headings'
are examples of popular list of subject headings. These two lists have been the basis
for discussion in respect of alphabetical subject catalogues or in other words, for the
theory and practice of subject cataloguing. We shall be learning more about these two
lists in Unit 15 of this course.
It was mentioned earlier that controlled indexing languages are of two types. In the
foregoing paragraphs we have discussed one of these two types namely `Subject
Headings'. Let us now try to understand the second type namely `Thesauri'.
Thesauri
The dictionary meaning of the word `thesaurus' is "a collection of words put in
groups together according to likenesses in their meaning rather than an alphabetical
list." However, in library and information science parlance the word thesaurus means
an authoritative list showing terms which may and sometimes may not be used in a
catalogue or index to describe concepts. Technically, a `thesaurus' could be defined
as "a compilation of words and phrases showing synonymous, hierarchical, and other
relationships and dependencies, the function of which is to provide a standard
vocabulary for information storage and retrieval systems" In a thesaurus, each term is
usually given together with terms; which are related to it in a number of ways. The
primary purpose of thesaurus is to exert terminology control in choosing proper
headings in subject cataloguing and indexing. This concept is being extensively used
since the 1950s in, many information retrieval systems and a variety of
bibliographical tools. A number of standards have come into existence to provide
guidance in the construction of thesauri. `Root Thesaurus' published by the British
Standards Institution is one of the best models. Apart from this, there are a number of
thesauri such as TEST (Thesaurus of Engineering, Scientific and Technical Terms),
and others concerned with INIS, INSPEC, AGRIS, etc., which are being used in
information storage and retrieval systems. We shall be learning more about the
12 `thesaurus' in Unit 15.
Self Check Exercises Subject Cataloguing - Problems

5) What you understand by an ‘Indexing Language’?

6) Mention the different categories of Indexing Languages indicating the
situations when they could be used with advantage. Give your answer in
about fifteen lines.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
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14.5 INDEXING SYSTEMS

The preparation of a series of entries for inclusion in a subject catalogue or in a
printed index is known as indexing. An entry is a basic unit of a subject catalogue or
an index. It consists of (a) a means of identifying an item in, or a concept derived
from the collection (i.e. the documents of a particular library), and (b) a means of
locating the item or material relating to the concept. Indexing is a technique for
providing service operation and an index or a subject catalogue is a tool. It is a means
to an end, never an end in itself. In other words, it is a communication link between a
collection (of a library) and those who intend to obtain some information from it.
The process of indexing calls for sensitivity to users’ approaches, intuition to select
appropriate terms and skill to identify the terms and their relationship, on the part of
the indexer. The indexing process also requires the creation and recognition of
pattern and rule conscientious and adherence to them, as also accuracy and precision.
In other words, the process involves the application of a model indexing system.
14.5.1 Definition of an Indexing System
Let us now look at some of the definitions available in the literature of Library and
Information Science. One such definition states that "an indexing system is a set of
prescribed procedures for organising the contents of records of knowledge or
documents for the purposes of retrieval and dissemination.", Another definition reads
that "an indexing system is the means whereby an indexing language can be applied
to make an index." It appears that both these definitions have common roots. The
only difference is that the first definition is somewhat broader in scope. It may be
stated that the need for an indexing system stems out of the work of devising index
headings. These index headings mainly relate to documents dealing with compound
or multi subjects although, elementary one-concept subjects are not excluded from
the purview of an indexing system. For convenience, indexing systems could be
divided into two basic groups: the pre-coordinate systems and post-coordinate
systems. On the basis of experience, it may be stated that not every index necessarily
exhibits all the features of either of these two types of indexing - systems, both types
of indexing systems. However, this division is useful in understanding these two 13
categories of indexing systems. A brief description of the pre-coordinate as well as
post-coordinate indexing systems is provided in the following sections.
Subjects Indexing, Vocabulary
Control and Recent
14.5.2 Pre-Coordinate Indexing Systems
Developments in Cataloguing Pre-coordinate indexing systems are conventional systems mostly found in printed
indexes. In this type of system, a document is represented in the index by a heading or
headings comprising of a chain or string of terms. These terms taken together are
expected to define the subject content of the document. The leading term determines the
position of the entry in the catalogue or index, while the other (qualifying) terms are
subordinated to it. Let us consider the title of a document "Use of Computers in Library
and Information Activities". It might be represented by headings such as:
LIBRARY ACTIVITIES : Use of Computers
COMPUTERS : Use in Library Activities
Since the coordination of terms in the index description is decided before any particular
request is made, the index is known as pre-coordinate index. One of the characteristics
associated with a pre-coordinate index is that the headings in the index are relatively
specific compared to one-concept headings such as LIBRARIES or COMPUTERS. Pre-
coordinate indexes are mostly prevalent as printed-indexes. For example, the indexes to
abstracting and indexing journals, national bibliographies and subject indexes to library
catalogues apply principles of pre-coordinate indexing in varying measures. Such
indexes are compiled both manually as well as with the help of a computer.
Two aspects are of great significance in relation to pre-coordinate indexes. The first
aspect concerns the consistent description of subjects. In case of subject headings
describing many concepts, consistency should be introduced into the terms used to
represent individual concepts that constitute the multiple-concept heading. Also, the
order in which the individual 'terms representing the unit concepts of a multiple-concept
stated must be consistent. Some basic principles have to be evolved and followed
regarding an acceptable citation order of the terms. There must be a theoretical basis by
which consistent citation orders could be achieved. Use of such theoretical principles
may result in the derivation of a structured system of headings with consistent citation
order between similar, yet distinct subjects. The citation order is less likely to be over
looked if some rationale determines such citation order which is to be followed.
The second significant aspect that requires the attention of subject cataloguers or
indexers, is the need to provide access for those users who approach the subject under
consideration from one of the secondary concepts. Since only one term can appear in the
primary position in the prescribed citation order, the preferred citation order should be
the one, which caters to a majority of users. In this context, it may be stated that the
same citation order, however well founded it is, will not prove suitable to every
searcher. To obviate this problem, references or added entries should be provided in the
catalogue or index. At least, one added entry is usually provided for each of the
secondary concepts contained in the preferred citation order. Generally, there is some
pattern by which such references could be generated to an acceptable level:
Both these aspects arise because of the fact that pre-coordinate indexing systems are
basically one-place-systems. That is to say, that these systems normally provide one
main entry for each document and are mostly suitable for catalogues and bibliographies.
These are very helpful to the searcher since a number of searches can be conducted
simultaneously by-tracing entries under similar headings. Pre-coordinate systems find
their application in printed indexes and library catalogues.
In summary, it may be stated that in all pre-coordinate indexes, the subject description is
composed of a set of terms, which constitutes a summarisation of the subject. Also, the
assumption is that subject description reflects the most likely way in which the
information concerned will be asked for. Thus, when a user asks for information on a
particular compound (multi-concept) subject, the combination of the concepts involved
will be easily matched in the index against an entry for the same combination. Because
this method of indexing coordinates the elements of compound subjects before any
particular request is placed for information on that particular compound subject, it is
known as pre-coordinate indexing.
14.5.3 Post-Coordinate Indexing Systems
These systems arc also called coordinate indexing systems. As in the pre-coordinate
systems, the starting point, here too, is the identification of multi-concept subjects and
their compound concepts from the documents to be indexed. Once the multi-concept
subject is analysed into its elementary compound concepts, entries are prepared under
14 terms, which represent elementary concepts. In
other words, by this method only simple subject concepts are indexed. These concepts are not Subject Cataloguing - Problems
coordinated at the time of preparation of catalogue or index. Since the coordination of concepts
does not take place till such time a request is made by user for information about a particular
compound subject, this method of indexing is called post-coordinate or sometimes simply,
coordinate indexing. In its early stages, post-coordinate indexing employed subject concepts as
they were expressed in the document for index description of the document. Although, indexing
can thus be done in `natural language' (i.e., by using significant words taken directly from. the
document) but in many cases, post-coordinate indexing language employees terms which
mostly represent isolate concepts and are not in the form of compound subject headings. For
example, if we have a document dealing with the compound subject "Computer Cataloguing in
Libraries", the subject analysis of the document may consist of three simple concepts namely,
COMPUTERS
CATALOGUING
LIBRARIES
The document is indexed under each of these simple concepts and index entries are prepared.
Thus, the compound subject of the document receives an index description consisting of their
concepts entered individually in the index. If a user is interested only in documents dealing with
the compound subject then he has to coordinate all these terms at the search stage and retrieve
the documents dealing with the compound subject. This is accomplished by retrieving
documents containing common document numbers under individual component concepts. Let
us, consider another document representing the subject `Torsion in the Reinforced Concrete in
Service Cores in Tall Buildings'. This multi-concept subject may be analysed into the following
unit or elementary concepts :
Torsion
Reinforced Concrete
Service Cores
Tall Buildings
If it is intended to prepare post-coordinate index for this example, we may have to prepare
entries under the following index headings:
Buildings, Tall
Concrete, Reinforced
Service Cores
Torsion
Self Check Exercises
7) Explain in about fifteen lines what you understand by ‘Indexing System’.
8) Bring out in about 15 to 20 lines the essential differences between Pre and Post-
Coordinate Indexing Systems.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
14.6 ONLINE PUBLIC ACCESS CATALOGUE (OPAC)
By late 1970s, libraries began to use computers for cataloguing purpose and the idea of making
the catalogue of a library available to its users online began to be accepted and has been
implemented in a number of libraries. This computerised online catalogue, which can he
searched by the users directly for the retrieval of records without the assistance of a trained
intermediary is commonly known as Online Public Access Catalgoue ((PAC).
14.6.1 MARC and the Subject Approach
The concept of MARC (Machine Readable Catalogue) has brought in a new era in the field of
library and information services. MARC stimulated the development of library automation and
information networks.
Planning for MARC – I begun in 1966 and concluded in 1968. For forms of materials other
than books, Library of Congress (LC) published formats for serials and maps in 1970, films in 15
1971 and manuscripts in 1973. Designing of MARC – II was based on the experiences gained
during
Subjects Indexing, Vocabulary
Control and Recent
the evaluation of MARC - I format. The idea behind MARC - II was to develop one
Developments in Cataloguing common format structure capable of containing bibliographic information for all
forms of documents. Not all the information in the MARC record is relevant to the
subject of a document, but certain fields are likely to be more productive than others
in providing a range of subject descriptions. Some fields are related specifically to
notation/class number derived from different schemes of library classification, such
as those of LCC, UDC, DDC and NLM; and others are related to alphabetical subject
headings, such as those drawn from LCSH, PRECIS, and other alphabetical systems.
14.6.2 Subject Access to OPAC
The typical OPAC interaction process requires the matching or crude translation of
user vocabulary to system vocabulary. It became apparent that the amount of subject
information included in standard MARC records is not adequate to meet the users'
subject approach to the OPAC. Online capabilities offer many possibilities for
improved subject access. Two important search devices used in OPACs are discussed
below:
Boolean Search
Boolean search is the process of searching where the search terms are combined
through Boolean Operators (AND, OR, NOT)
a) Logical Product AND' Here two or more terms are combined by logical "AND"
in order to formulate the search statement. If we formulate the search statement
as A and B, we require that matching for both A and B in the index record to
take place. Thus, a search for `Electronic Scanner' seeks to formulate the search
statement as `Electronic AND Scanner'.
b) Logical Sum `OR': Here two or more terms are combined by logical `OR'.
Thus, a search for `Electronic Scanner' or `Electronic Searcher' seeks to
formulate the search statement as `Electronic AND (Scanner OR Searcher)'.
c) Logical Difference `NOT': Here, terms are combined by logical `NOT'. If we
formulate the search statement as A NOT B, we require that, for matching, A
must be present in the index, record but B must be absent. Thus a search
statement `(Automation AND Library) NOT Circulation' will retrieve all index
records concerning `Library automation' except `Circulation'.
In this connection, it is to be noted that different OPACs have their own symbols
used to indicate the Boolean operators (AND, OR, NOT) while formulating the
search statement. The Boolean search method is also explained is BLIS - 06 and
BLIS - 07 courses.
Truncation
It is not necessary to specify complete words. The system may allow for `term
truncation', where a fragment can be specified and the computer will pick up any
term containing that fragment. This device is also known as `Word fragment search'.
Fragments may be truncated at either or both ends or at the middle. As for example:
Type of Truncation Term Words captured by term
Right truncation LIBR * Library, Librarians, etc.
Left truncation *OLOGY Zoology, Geology, etc.
Infix truncation P*DIATRICS Pediatrics, Paediatrics
Right-left truncation *Electric * Electricity,Electric conductivity,
Hydroelectricity, etc.
The sign `*' is used to indicate truncation. The sign may vary from one system to
another system.
14.6.3 Aids to Searching
Subject searching in OPAC creates certain problems for the users. Several OPACs
have been developed to ease vocabulary selection and aid in searching. When the
user is having trouble in finding the correct controlled vocabulary term to use for
searching, a in resulting display of records with the message that the retrieved records
have the subject words in their titles and their headings' will be useful in the search.
Subject headings on the records help to find controlled vocabulary for the desired
16 topic. Thus, OPACs offer the opportunity in guiding the users from natural language
terms in titles to the controlled vocabulary used in subject headings.
Self Check Exercises Subject Cataloguing - Problems
9) Explain what you understand by OPAC?
10) Formulate the search statements using Boolean Operators for the following
subjects:
i) Bibliography on Library Automation excluding circulation
ii) Use of Multimedia in Teaching
iii) Classification and Indexing of Film Materials
iv) Standards for Indexing, classification, and abstracting
11) Formulate an expression to retrieve all index records containing any of the
words `excess', `excessive', or `excessively' in titles or descriptors.
Note: i) Write your answers in the space given below.
ii) Check your answers with the answers given at the end of this Unit.
14.7 SUMMARY
In this Unit, we have explained the concept of subject cataloguing, its purpose and
functions. Subject approach to library materials which is necessary for the effective
exploitation of library resources is discussed.
The meaning of indexing languages, their categories and the important role they play
in the effective implementation of subject cataloguing have also been discussed. The
process of indexing, and how it helps subject cataloguing has been explained. The
major types of indexing systems namely pre-coordinate and post-coordinate have
been considered in the context of subject cataloguing. The unit also mentions some of
the problems confronted by subject cataloguers and the ways and means of
overcoming them. The essential features of OPAL along with its search devices are
briefly explained in this Unit.
14.8 ANSWERS TO SELF CHECK EXERCISES
1) Library catalogue constitutes an important record of collection of documents in
any library. Each entry in the catalogue indicates some characteristics of
documents such as authorship or subject content. The entries that indicate
inclusion of documents in class, defined by subject contents, are known as
subject entries. The process of preparing subject entries' for documents and
organising them for subsequent retrieval is known as subject cataloguing. This
task is accomplished by assigning subject headings and references, which
facilitate retrieval of documents through the medium of a catalogue, in response
to requests by users in a specific subject. Subject cataloguing is very important
for the optimum exploitation of library materials.
2) While discussing about a subject„ we generally refer to a given area of
knowledge, or the contents of a source of information of a given scope. A subject
might be defined by:
• an area of interest,
• an area in which individual researcher or professional works, and
• an area of knowledge which is studied.
3) The problems encountered in alphabetical subject approach are those that relate
to the handling of:
a) synonyms
b) homographs
c) plural and singular forms;
d) multiworded concepts
e) complex subjects.
4) Complex subjects are those that have more than one concept to describe their
subject contents. A citation order is necessary to be prescribed to fix the order of
the unit concepts, which would indicate their contextual meanings. For example:
`Teaching techniques in Chemistry', the unit concepts are `Teaching techniques'
and `Chemistry', indicating that teaching methods are discussed in the context of
Teaching Chemistry. The citation order in this example is `Teaching Techniques, 17
Chemistry', in the subject of Education.
Subjects Indexing, Vocabulary
Control and Recent
5) An indexing language is a set of teems (vocabulary) and devices for handling the
Developments in Cataloguing relationships between subjects or terms in a system for providing index descriptions.
Indexing languages are also known as retrieval languages. The basic functions
associated with indexing languages are:
i) To control the terminology used in indexes and catalogues.
ii) To control the display of relationships between the concepts in indexes.
There are two types of indexing languages, namely subject headings list and thesauri.
Both these types perform the basic functions mentioned above.
6) Indexing languages may be grouped into three categories. They are:
i) Controlled indexing language
ii) Free indexing language
iii) Natural indexing language
Controlled indexing languages are subject headings lists such as Sear's List of
Subject Headings, Library of Congress List of Subject Headings and thesauri such as,
TEST, INIS Thesaurus and INSPEC Thesaunus.
Free indexing language cannot as easily be delineated as a controlled indexing
language. It is in the nature of a free indexing language that any word or term that
suits the subject may be assigned as an indexing term. The terms may be computer or
human assigned although free indexing language is commonly used in computer-
based systems. All the above mentioned types of indexing languages are possibilities
for index construction. While subject heading lists are commonly used in library
catalogues, thesaurus and other type of languages are preferred in computer-based
information retrieval systems.
7) The creation of a series of entries for inclusion in a catalogue or index is an indexing
process. This process involves the use of a system known as indexing system. An
indexing system is a set of prescribed procedure for organising the contents of
records of knowledge or documents for the purpose of retrieval and dissemination. It
is a means whereby a specially designed (indexing) language is applied for the
compilation of a index. Most of the work on indexing systems stems out of the need
to devise index headings which aid in the retrieval of compound or multi-concept
subjects. Indexing systems can be divided into two groups namely a) pre-coordinate
indexing systems, and b) post-coordinate indexing systems. The main purpose of
indexing systems is to make information retrieval an easier operation.
8) Indexing systems are broadly categorised into two groups. They are `Pre-coordinate
indexing systems' and `Post-coordinate indexing systems. In pre-coordinate indexing
system, a document is represented in the index by a heading or headings consisting of
a number of terms. The leading term determines the position of the entry and
qualifying terms are subordinated to it in the arrangement. Since the coordination of
index terms in the index description is decided by the indexer at the input stage,
before any particular request is made, the index is termed a pre-coordinate index. The
two important factors that distinguish pre-coordinate indexes are: a) a pre-determined
citation to express the terms, and b) provision of additional entries for approaches
besides the leading term.
Post-coordinate indexing systems also start from the identification of muftis concern
subjects and analysis of such subjects into their component single concepts. But the
indexing is confined to single concepts. In other words, these concepts are not
.Coordinated to form a compound subject until the search stage. In fact, the
coordination of single concepts to form a compound subject takes place only at the
stage of output from the system. As the combination of terms are done only at the
search stage, this system is known as post-coordinate indexing system. Because the
coordination of single concepts to form a multi-concept subject does not take place
until a request is made by the user for Information about a particular compound
subject, this indexing method is called posts-coordinate indexing.
9) Most library catalogue research in 1970s was directed towards the development of
online catalogues, as they are now commonly, called OPACs (Online Public Access
Catalogues). When a library's users can retrieve catalogue records directly from
computer database, the library is said to have an OPAC, An OPAC is based on
MARC records and is accessible by means of access points or search keys from users
workplace in an interactive mode through a computer terminal. Another form of
18 OPAC is CD-ROM catalogue, accessed
 through stand-alone microcomputers. The amount of subject information included Subject Cataloguing - Problems
in the MARC records may not become adequate to satisfy the users' subject
approach. Online capabilities offer many possibilities for improved access:
Keyword searching, selective search combinations through Boolean operators
(AND, OR, NOT), truncation, and guiding users form natural language terms in
titles, to the controlled vocabulary terms used in subject headings.
10) i) (Bibliography AND Library Automation) NOT Circulation
ii) Multimedia AND Teaching
iii) (Classification OR Indexing) AND Films
iv) (Classification OR Indexing OR Abstracting) AND Standard.
11) excess*
14.9 KEY WORDS
Alphabetical Subject Approach : There are different methods of providing
subject approach to information contained in
documents. One of them is known as
alphabetical subject approach. As per this
approach, items of information are first
grouped under their specific subjects and then
arranged according to alphabetical order so
that specific subjects can be retrieved easily.
Boolean Search : A process of searching the machine-readable
collection of bibliographic data by applying
the Boolean operators `AND', `OR', `NOT'.
Index : A tool that exhibits the analyzed contents of a
bibliographic entity or group of such entries,
arranged in a systematic way, so that retrieval
of specific items of information could be
done easily.
Indexing : Indexing is the process whereby indexes and
associated tools for the organization of
knowledge are generated. Indexing can be
done both manually as well as with the help
of a computer. Subject indexing comprises
three stages: familiarisation with subject,
analysis and assigning of terms to represent
concepts using an indexing language.
Indexing Language : It is a set of items (vocabulary) and devices
for handling the relationships between them
in a system for providing index descriptions.
Indexing language is also referred to as a
retrieval language.
MARC : A system in which cataloguing records are
(Machine-Readable prepared in a format that enables the
Cataloguing) computer to recognize the data elements and
manipulate them for various purposes.
OPAC (Online Public Access : An online catalogue based on MARC records
accessible in an interactive mode.
Catalogue
Post-coordinate Indexing System : An indexing system, in which the grouping of
a large number of entries is done under
simple concepts in such a way that the user
can combine them to locate material on
compound subjects in which he is interested.
Pre-coordinate Indexing System : An indexing system, in which a combination
of subject terms is accomplished at the time
of preparing the index itself for use in the
retrieval of information pertaining to
complex concepts.
Semantic Relationship : Semantic generally means the study of
meanings of words. But the context of subject 19
indexing, semantic
Subjects Indexing, Vocabulary
Control and Recent
relationships are relationships between the
Developments in Cataloguing subjects, which are stable, and reflect the
consensus -of opinion concerning the
connections/relations between the subjects.
For example, the component of the building
is roof and not vice versa. Physics is a branch
of science, etc. and not the reverse.
Subject Approach : Users often approach information sources
with a question that requires an answer or a
topic for study. In other words, they seek
documents or information concerned with a
particular subject. This method of seeking
information by users, is known as subject
approach to information. In order to make
provision for this common approach, it is
necessary to arrange documents and
document surrogates, in library catalogues,
indexes, etc. in such way that items of
specific subjects can be retrieved.
Surrogate : Generally the word means a substitute or
representation. A document surrogate means
a representation of the document such as
author, subject, etc. The term is used in the
context of information retrieval.
Syntactic Relationship : Syntactic relationships arise from the context
of subjects in specific documents. They are
less permanent compared to semantic
relationships. For an indexer, it is necessary
to distinguish between these two types of
relationships and to provide suitable
mechanism in indexes to take care of them.
Thesaurus : It is a compilation of words and phrases
showing synonyms, hierarchical and other
relationships and dependencies, the function
of which is to provide a standard vocabulary
for information storage and retrieval systems.
The object of the thesaurus is to exert
terminology control in indexing and to aid in
searching by alerting the searcher to the
index terms that have been applied.
Truncation : A device for searching through a fragment of
the search term so that it can match related
terms starting with the same terms.
14.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Brown, A.G. (1982). Introduction to Subject Indexing. 2nd ed. London: Clive Bingley.
Chan, Lois Mai (1986). Library of Congress Subject Headings. 7th ed. Colorado:
Libraries Unlimited.
Coates, E.J. (1988). Subject Catalogues. London: Library Association.
Foskett, A.C. (1996). The Subject Approach of Information. 5th ed. London: Clive
Bingley.
Piggott, Mary (1988). A Topography of Cataloguing. London: Library Association.
Rowley, J.E. (1987). Organising Knowledge. Aldershot: Gower.
Shera, J.H. and Egan M.E. (1950), The Classified Catalogue. Chicago: ALA.p 10.
Wynar, B.S. (1986). Introduction to Cataloguing and Classification. 7th ed. Colorado:
Libraries Unlimited.
Hidreth, Charles R. (ed.) (19891 The On1ine Catalogue: Developments and
Directions. London: Library Association.

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