A Concise Survey of Music Philosophy

A Concise Survey of Music Philosophy helps music students choose a philosophy that will guide
them throughout their careers. The book is divided into three sections: central issues that any
music philosophy ought to consider (e.g., beauty, emotion, and aesthetics); secondly, significant
philosophical positions, exploring what major thinkers have had to say on the subject; and finally,
opportunities for students to consider the ramifications of these ideas for themselves. Throughout
the book, students are encouraged to make choices that will inform a philosophy of music and
music education with which they are most comfortable to align.
Frequently, music philosophy courses are taught in such a way that the teacher, as well as the
textbook used, promotes a particular viewpoint. A Concise Survey of Music Philosophy presents
the most current, prevalent philosophies for consideration. Students think through different issues
and consider practical applications.
There are numerous musical examples, each with links from the author’s home website to online
video performances. Examples are largely from the Western classical canon, but also jazz, popular,
and world music styles. In the last two chapters, students apply their views to practical situations
and learn the differences between philosophy and advocacy.

Donald A. Hodges was Covington Distinguished Professor and Director of the Music Research
Institute of Music Education at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro, and author of Music
in the Human Experience (Routledge 2011). He has taught university courses in Music for more
than forty-two years.
A Concise Survey of Music Philosophy

Donald A. Hodges
First published 2017
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
and by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Taylor & Francis
The right of Donald A. Hodges to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or
utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now
known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in
any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Hodges, Donald A., author.
Title: A concise survey of music philosophy / Donald A. Hodges.
Description: New York, NY ; Abingdon, Oxon : Routledge, 2016. | “2016 |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016012664 (print) | LCCN 2016013609 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781138954526 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138954519 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781317356479 ()
Subjects: LCSH: Music—Philosophy and aesthetics.
Classification: LCC ML3800. H713 2016 (print) | LCC ML3800 (ebook) |
DDC 780.1—dc23
LC record available at [Link]
ISBN: 978-1-138-95452-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-95451-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-66689-1 (ebk)
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Contents

List of Illustrationsxiii
List of Musical Examplesxv
Prefacexxvii

SECTION I
Beginning the Journey1

1 The Plan and Purpose of This Book 3

What Is Philosophy?  4
Why Do I Need to Have a Philosophy of Music?  5
Section I: Beginning the Journey  7
Section II: A Review of Major Music Philosophies  9
Section III: Making It Your Own  10
Summary and Thought Questions  11
Notes 12

2 Science and Religion 14

Science 14
Examples of Scientific and Philosophical Interactions  14
Music Psychology and Music Philosophy  16
Religion 17
Philosophy of Religion  18
Philosophy, Religion, and Music  19
Summary and Thought Questions  21
Notes 22

3 Knowledge and Education 24

Knowledge 24
Key Ideas in Epistemology  24
Musical Knowledge  26
vi  Contents
Education 29
Educational Philosophy  30
Social Justice and Culturally Responsive Teaching  33
Summary and Thought Questions  34
Notes 35

4 Beauty 39
Questions about Beauty in Art  39
Question 1: What Is Beauty? 39
Question 2: Is Beauty in the Eye (Ear) of the Beholder, or Is It
Inherent in an Art Object (e.g., a Statue, a Musical Composition,
etc.) Independent of Human Perception? 41
Question 3: Does Every Opinion about What Is Beautiful Art Carry Equal
Weight? 41
Question 4: Can You Identify Objective Properties in Beautiful
Art? 42
Question 5: Do Subjective Judgments Play a Role in Determining
Beauty in Art? 42
Question 6: Are There Connections between Beauty in Art and Truth,
Goodness, Morals, or Similar Terms? 42
Question 7: Can Art Considered Ugly by One Standard Be Considered
Beautiful in Another Context? 43
Beauty in Music  46
Research on Beauty in Music  48
Summary and Thought Questions  49
Notes 49

5 Emotion 53
What Is an Emotion?  54
What Have Philosophers Thought about Musical Emotions?  55
Does Psychological Research Support or Contradict Various Philosophical
Views? 56
What Role Will Musical Emotions Play in Your Philosophy?  58
Summary and Thought Questions  59
Notes 60

6 Aesthetics 62
What Is Art? What Is Music?  62
What Does the Word ‘Aesthetic’ Mean?  64
What Is an Aesthetic Experience?  65
What Are Aesthetic Values?  66
What Can We Gain from Art?  67
Who Determines Aesthetic Values?  69
 Contents vii
Experimental Aesthetics  70
The Golden Mean  72
Berlyne’s Arousal Theory  72
Preference for Prototype Theory  72
Chills as an Indicator of Aesthetic Response  73
Juslin’s BRECVEMA Model  74
Neuroaesthetics 74
Summary and Thought Questions  75
Notes 76

7 A Philosophical Framework 81
What Is the Basis for Determining Musical Meaning and Value?  81
What Kind of Music Has Aesthetic Value?  93
Does Popular Music Have Aesthetic Value?  93
A Special Case of ‘School’ Music  95
World Music  98
Summary and Thought Questions  100
Notes 101

SECTION II
A Review of Major Music Philosophies105

8 Contributions to Music Philosophy from the Ancient Greeks 107

Music in Ancient Greece  107
Philosophical Ideas  108
Music as Mathematics  108
Music as an Imitation of Harmonious Balance  109
Music as an Influence on Human Behavior  110
Aristotle’s Contributions  111
Summary and Thought Questions  112
Notes 113

9 From Classical Antiquity to the Renaissance 115

Neoplatonism 115
Music in Ancient Rome  115
Plotinus 116
Music in the Early Church  117
St. Augustine  117
Music Philosophy in the Middle Ages and Renaissance  118
Boethius 118
Thomas Aquinas  119
Martin Luther  120
viii  Contents
Summary and Thought Questions  121
Notes 122

10 Rationalism, Empiricism, and Idealism 125

Rationalism 126
Empiricism 127
Idealism 128
Immanuel Kant  128
Friedrich Schiller  129
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel  130
Arthur Schopenhauer  131
Musical Examples  132
Summary and Thought Questions  133
Notes 135

11 Formalism 138
Eduard Hanslick  138
Edmund Gurney  140
Clive Bell  141
Leonard Meyer  142
An Evaluation of Formalism  144
Musical Examples  145
Music Psychology Research  146
Summary and Thought Questions  147
Notes 148

12 Expressionism 152
Leo Tolstoy  153
Benedetto Croce  154
R. G. Collingwood  154
Deryck Cooke  155
Peter Kivy  156
Stephen Davies  157
Jenefer Robinson  157
Musical Examples  158
Research on Musical Emotions  160
Summary and Thought Questions  163
Notes 165

13 Symbolism 169
Susanne Langer  169
Nelson Goodman  170
 Contents ix
Monroe Beardsley  171
Jean-Jacques Nattiez  172
Music from a Symbolist Perspective  172
Summary and Thought Questions  176
Notes 176

14 Phenomenology 180
Musical Experiences  180
Edmund Husserl  181
Maurice Merleau-Ponty  181
Mikel Dufrenne  182
Thomas Clifton  182
David Burrows  183
Eleanor Stubley  183
Mark Johnson  184
Summary and Thought Questions  184
Notes 185

15 Pragmatism 187
Charles Sanders Peirce  187
William James  188
John Dewey  188
A Utilitarian View  191
Summary and Thought Questions  191
Notes 192

16 Social Philosophy 194

Theodor Adorno  194
Jacques Attali  196
Music in a Social Context  197
Summary and Thought Questions  198
Notes 199

17 Praxialism 201
Phillip Alperson  202
David Elliott  203
Alperson Revisited  205
Thomas Regelski  206
Musical Examples  206
Summary and Thought Questions  207
Notes 207
x  Contents
18 Feminism 210
Women in Music History  210
Hildegard von Bingen  210
Maria Anna Mozart  211
Fanny Mendelssohn Hensl  211
Clara Wieck Schumann  211
Alma Schindler Mahler  212
Nadia Boulanger  212
A Musical Example  214
Feminist Philosophies of Music  217
Heide Göttner-Abendroth  217
Susan McClary  219
Marcia Citron  220
Summary and Thought Questions  221
Notes 222

19 Postmodernism 226
Postmodernism in Music  227
Postmodernism as a Music Philosophy  228
Possible Solution?  231
Summary and Thought Questions  233
Notes 234

SECTION III
Making It Your Own237

20 Articulating a Philosophy of Music 239

Exercises 240
Notes 248

21 Applying Your Philosophy 249

Chapter 8: Contributions to Music Philosophy from the Ancient Greeks  249
Chapter 9: From Classical Antiquity to the Renaissance  249
Chapter 10: Rationalism, Empiricism, and Idealism  250
Chapter 11: Formalism  250
Chapter 12: Expressionism  250
Chapter 13: Symbolism  251
Chapter 14: Phenomenology  251
Chapter 15: Pragmatism  252
Chapter 16: Social Philosophy  252
Chapter 17: Praxialism  252
 Contents xi
Chapter 18: Feminism  253
Chapter 19: Postmodernism  253
Notes 254

22 Advocacy 255
What Is Advocacy?  255
Why Is Advocacy Necessary?  255
What Not to Do  256
Strategies and Resources for Music Advocacy  259
Prevention Not Cure  260
Economic Rationales in Music Advocacy  260
Additional Resources  261
Summary and Thought Questions  261
Final Comments  262
Notes 263

Bibliography265
Index291
Illustrations

Figures

Chapter 4 Beauty
4.1 Michelangelo’s David.  40
4.2 “Beautiful” hands. 43
4.3 “Ugly” hands. 43
4.4 Sculpted face. 44
4.5 Michelangelo’s Bandini Pietà.45

Chapter 6 Aesthetics
6.1 Maximum pleasure is based upon an optional level of arousal potential. 73

Chapter 7 A Philosophical Framework

7.1 Fugue No. 11 in F Major from The Well-Tempered Clavier, BWV 846. 82
7.2 Excerpt from ‘On the Trail,’ from Grand Canyon Suite by Ferde Grofé. 82
7.3 Opening measures of ‘Dies Irae’ (Day of Wrath) from Mozart’s Requiem in d
minor, K. 626. 83
7.4 Schubert’s Octet in F Major, Op. 166 (D. 803), opening of second movement. 84
7.5 Music and musical experiences of any kind. 85
7.6 Formalism: The focus is on the music or musical experience and the meaning
and value come from intellectual appreciation. 86
7.7 ‘Take Five’ by Paul Desmond. 86
7.8 Referentialism: The focus is on what the music refers to outside itself. 87
7.9 Absolute expressionism: Anything external to the music, such as lyrics,
programmatic titles, and so on, are expressed in musical elements.  88
7.10 The love theme from Tchaikovsky’s Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture.  88
7.11 The beginning of the main theme of Fantaisie and Variations on The Carnival
of Venice as arranged by Arban and revised by Goldman; only the solo trumpet
part is shown.  89
7.12 Opening measures of George Gershwin’s An American in Paris; reduced
piano score. 89
xiv  Illustrations
Chapter 11 Formalism
11.1 Opening melody in the second movement of Haydn’s Symphony No. 94.  143

Chapter 13 Symbolism
13.1 The last five measures of Also sprach Zarathustra by Richard Strauss.  174
13.2 The trumpet figure representing ‘The Perennial Question of Existence’ from
Charles Ives’s The Unanswered Question.  175

Chapter 22 Advocacy
22.1 SAT scores among students with more than four years of study in English,
mathematics, foreign language, or art/music.  259

Tables

Chapter 7 A Philosophical Framework

7.1 Dichotomy 1.  81
7.2 Dichotomy 2.  84
7.3 Simplified chart of music philosophies.  84

Chapter 18 Feminism
18.1 Outline of Robert Schumann’s Frauenliebe und ‑leben.  215
Musical Examples

This listing includes specific musical works mentioned in the text. In addition, numerous musical
experiences such as singing in a church choir or playing in a garage band are also discussed. In the
text, musical examples listed below are indicated with the icon. Superscript numbers in this list
indicate the endnote for the example. Here, and in the endnotes at the ends of each chapter, is a
link to a YouTube recording for each example. You may also go to this URL—[Link]
com/a/[Link]/https-sites-google-com-site-concisesurveyofmusphil/home—to click on active links
to the recordings. Because YouTube links change frequently, you may find a broken link; however,
it should be relatively easy to find another recording.

Chapter 2 Science and Religion

48
Duke Ellington: ‘In the Beginning God’ from Sacred Concerts, performed by Duke Ellington:
[Link]
49
Duke Ellington: ‘Something ’bout Believing’ from Sacred Concerts, performed by Duke Elling-
ton: [Link]
50
Duke Ellington: ‘Father Forgive’ from Sacred Concerts, performed by combined choirs con-
ducted by Randall Keith Horton: [Link]
56
Johannes Brahms: Requiem, performed by Herbert Blomstedt conducting the Denmark Radio
Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
57
Ernest Bloch: Schelomo, performed by Mstislav Rostropovich, cellist; Leonard Bern-
stein, conductor; and the Orchestre Nacional de France: [Link]
watch?v=vlUQyEh_q4k.
58
John Coltrane: ‘Dear Lord,’ performed by John Coltrane: [Link]
watch?v=FpoyOwKJ1A0.
61
George Frideric Handel: Messiah, performed by the Academy of Ancient Music and Choir
of King’s College, Cambridge, conducted by Stephen Cleobury: [Link]
watch?v=AZTZRtRFkvk.

Chapter 3 Knowledge and Education

13
Claude Debussy: La Mer, performed by Valery Gergiev and the London Symphony Orchestra:
[Link]
xvi  Musical Examples
Chapter 4 Beauty
20
Wolfgang Mozart: ‘Sull’aria’ from The Marriage of Figaro, sung by Kiri te Kanawa and Mire-
lla Freni: [Link]
21
Leo Delibes: ‘Flower Duet’ from Lakme, duet sung by Anna Nerebko and Elina Garanca:
[Link]
22
Georges Bizet: ‘Au fond du temple saint’ from The Pearl Fishers, sung by Dmitri Hvorostovsky
and Jonas Kaufmann: [Link]
23
Erich Korngold: ‘Marietta’s Lied’ from Die tote Stadt, performed by Leontyne Price: http://
[Link]/watch?v=vh_8Sos4szY.
24
Richard Strauss: ‘Beim schlafengehn’ from Four Last Songs, sung by Kiri te Kanawa: http://
[Link]/watch?v=3XP2chJ6Ujc.
25
Reynaldo Hahn: L’Enamourée, sung by Anna Netrebko: [Link]
v=kUZPljVpWak .
26
Heitor Villa-Lobos: ‘Aria’ (Cantilena) from Bachianas brasileiras No. 5, sung by Anna Moffo:
[Link]
27
María Grever: Júrame, performed by Ramón Vargas, tenor, and Alun Francis conducting the
Orquesta Filharmónca de la UNAM (National Autonomous University of Mexico): https://
[Link]/watch?v=8JbbWpknygM.
28
Felix Mendelssohn: ‘Lift Thine Eyes’ from Elijah, sung by Choristers of Canterbury Cathedral:
[Link]
29
Morton Lauridsen: O Magnum Mysterium, sung by King’s College Choir: [Link]
com/watch?v=Q7ch7uottHU.
30
François Couperin: Les Barricades Mystérieuses, performed by Scott Ross on harpsichord:
[Link]
31
J. S. Bach: ‘Aria’ from Goldberg Variations, performed by Glenn Gould, piano: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=Gv94m_S3QDo.
32
Wolfgang Mozart: Piano Concerto No. 23, 2nd movement, K. 488, played by Vladimir Horow-
itz: [Link]
33
Ludwig van Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 31, in A Flat, Op. 110, 1st movement, played by
Hélène Grimaud: [Link]
34
Frédéric Chopin: Nocturne, Op. 9, No. 1, performed by Arthur Rubinstein: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=WnFs85pLmj4.
35
Johannes Brahms: Intermezzo, Op. 118, No. 2 in A Major, performed by Arthur Rubinstein:
[Link]
36
Clara Schumann: Romance Op. 11 No. 1 in e flat minor, performed by Tomer Lev: https://
[Link]/watch?v=1L3WPzNr-og.
37
Edvard Grieg: ‘Melodie’ from Lyric Pieces, Book II, Op. 38–3, performed by Walter Gieseking:
[Link]
38
Howard Hanson: Fantasy Variations on a Theme of Youth, Op. 40, performed by Carol
Rosenberger, piano, and the New York Chamber Symphony, Gerard Schwarz, conductor:
[Link]
39
John Adams: China Gates, performed by Fraser Graham: [Link]
v=sV0JFg0xlF0.
 Musical Examples xvii
40
J. S. Bach: Double Violin Concerto in d minor, BWV 1043, 2nd movement, performed by Isaac
Stern and Itzhak Perlman, with the New York Philharmonic, conducted by Zubin Mehta:
[Link]
41
Wolfgang Mozart: Clarinet Concerto in A Major, K. 622, 2nd movement, performed by
Karl Leister and the Berlin Philharmonic, conducted by Herbert von Karajan: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=zsvgIW2YMWA.
42
Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 21, 2nd movement, performed by
Bernard Haitink conducting the Royal Concertgebouw Orchestra: [Link]
watch?v=YmNxqMxZoRk.
43
Johannes Brahms: Piano Quartet in c minor, Op. 60, 3rd movement, performed by Sara Oka-
moto, piano; Stefano Succi, violin; Wolfgang Tluck; viola; Ulrich Horn, cello: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=UCIo1LP4G_8.
44
Edward Elgar: ‘Nimrod’ from Enigma Variations, performed by Daniel Barenboim conducting
the Chicago Symphony: [Link]
45
Gustav Mahler: Symphony No. 5, 4th movement (Adagietto), performed by Daniel
Barenboim conducting the Chicago Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
watch?v=VWPACef2_eY.
46
Sergei Rachmaninoff: Piano Concerto No. 2 in c minor, Op. 18, performed by Evgeny Kissin,
pianist, and Andrew Davis conducting the BBC Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
com/watch?v=DgYhcM5TB_c.
47
Percy Grainger: ‘Horkstow Grange’ from Lincolnshire Posy, performed by the United
States Marine Band, conducted by Col. Michael J. Colburn: [Link]
watch?v=G2q8oxHUaMI.
48
Eric Whitacre: ‘October,’ performed by the United States Navy Band, conducted by Russell
Gross: [Link]
49
Michael Kamen: Brass Quintet, performed by The Canadian Brass: [Link]
watch?v=HjBT8ElQ7Pw.
50
Vernon Duke: ‘Autumn in New York,’ performed by Ella Fitzgerald and Louie Armstrong:
[Link]
51
Walter Gross: ‘Tenderly,’ performed by Miles Davis: [Link]
v=ISnrLn4LnZs.
52
Ennio Morricone: ‘Gabriel’s Oboe’ from The Mission, performed by the London Philharmonic
Orchestra conducted by Ennio Morricone: [Link]
Listen also to Yo-Yo Ma’s version of ‘Gabriel’s Oboe,’ with the Roma Sinfoneitta Orchestra,
conducted by Ennio Morricone: [Link]
53
John Barry: Dances with Wolves (theme), performed by the London Symphony conducted by
John Williams: [Link]
54
Anne Murray: ‘Could I Have This Dance’: [Link]
55
Beautiful World (Phil Sawyer): ‘In Existence’: [Link]
56
Goldfrapp: ‘Dreaming’: [Link]
57
Dead Can Dance: ‘Yulunga’: [Link]
58
Daniel Licht: ‘Blood Theme’ from Dexter: [Link]
59
David Arkenstone & Kostia: ‘The Cello’s Song’: [Link]
AH6JkpQ.
xviii  Musical Examples
Chapter 5 Emotion
8
Ludwig van Beethoven: Cello Sonata No. 3 in A Major, Op. 69, performed by Yo-Yo Ma, cello,
and Emmanuel Ax, piano: [Link]
17
J. S. Bach: Well-Tempered Clavier, Book I, BWV 846-893, performed by Maurizio Pollini,
piano: [Link] ; Book II, BWV 870-893, per-
formed by Glenn Gould, piano: [Link]

Chapter 6 Aesthetics
42
Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in d minor, Op. 125, performed by Leonard Bern-
stein conducting the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]
v=3MnGfhJCK_g.
43
Franz Schubert: C Major Quintet, Op. 163, D. 956, performed by Isaac Stern, Alexander
Schenider, Milton Katims, Pable Casals, and Paul Tortilier: [Link]
watch?v=S3tmFhrOgNk.
45
Ludwig van Beethoven: Piano Sonata No. 30 in E Major, Op. 109, performed by Daniel Baren-
boim: [Link]
48
Johannes Brahms: Four Serious Songs, Op. 121, performed by Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau, bari-
tone, and Gerald Moore, piano: [Link]
49
Richard Strauss: Four Last Songs, performed by Renée Fleming, soprano, and the
Lucerne Festival Orchestra conducted by Claudio Abbado: [Link]
watch?v=z5xFL-iFh0Q.
72
Giacomo Puccini: La Bohème, performed by Carlos Kleiber conducting at La Scala, with Luciano
Pavarotti and Ileana Cotrubas: [Link]
73
Franz Haydn: Symphony No. 104 in D Major, H 1/104, performed by Mariss Jansons
conducting the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
zRfGwzHCSSU.
88
Edward Elgar: Pomp and Circumstance, March No. 1, Op. 39, performed by Jiří Bělohlávek
conducting the BBC Symphony Orchestra and Chorus: [Link]
Vvgl_2JRIUs.

Chapter 7 A Philosophical Framework

2
J. S. Bach: Fugue No. 11 from The Well-Tempered Clavier, Book 1, performed by Wanda Land-
owska: [Link]
3
Ferde Grofé: ‘On the Trail’ from The Grand Canyon Suite, performed by Leonard Bernstein
conducting the New York Philharmonic Orchestra, John Corigliano, Sr., violin: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=bVKVB0MImOg.
4
J. S. Bach–Leopold Stokowski: Toccata and Fugue in d minor, BWV 565, arranged by Leo-
pold Stokowski as it appeared in Walt Disney’s Fantasia: [Link]
watch?v=z4MQ7GzE6HY.
6
Richard Strauss: Don Quixote, Op. 35, performed by the NHK Philharmonic, Wolfgang Sawal-
lisch, conductor; Mischa Maisky, cellist: [Link]
7
Dolly Parton: Coat of Many Colors, performed by Dolly Parton: [Link]
watch?v=9zLsAf6SCwY.
 Musical Examples xix
8
Wolfgang Mozart: ‘Dies Irae’ from Requiem in d minor, K. 626, performed by John Eliot Gard-
ner conducting the English Baroque Soloists and Monteverdi Choir: [Link]
com/watch?v=DFq-HHA0k2E.
9
Franz Schubert: Octet in F Major, Op. 166, 2nd movement, D. 803, performed by Janine
Jansen, violin; Julia-Maria Kretz, violin; Maxim Rysanov, viola; Jens Peter Maintz, cello; Sta-
cey Watton, contrabass; Chen Halevi, clarinet; Sergio Azzolini, bassoon; Radovan Vlatkovic,
horn: [Link]
11
Paul Desmond: Take Five, performed by The Dave Brubeck Quartet: [Link]
watch?v=PQLMFNC2Awo.
13
Alan Jackson: ‘Where Were You When the World Stopped Turning?’, performed by Alan Jack-
son: [Link]
15
Pytor Tchaikovsky: Romeo and Juliet Fantasy Overture, performed by Valery Gergiev conduct-
ing the London Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
16
Jean Arban–Edwin Goldman: Fantaisie and Variations on The Carnival of Venice, performed
by Ronald Romm: [Link]
17
George Gershwin: An American in Paris, performed by Lorin Maazel conducting the New
York Philharmonic: [Link]
30
Pyotr Tchaikovsky: 1812 Overture, performed by Eugene Ormandy conducting the Phila-
delphia Orchestra with the Mormon Tabernacle Choir: [Link]
v=r3ZMpv9CnZk.
54
Music from ancient India: [Link]
55
Javanese gamelan music: [Link]
56
Traditional Chinese music: [Link]
57
Music from Korea: [Link]
59
From Zimbabwe, Sarangarike, performed by Frank Mgomba: [Link]
watch?v=Tdw5IoqUOhs.

Chapter 8 Contributions to Music Philosophy from the Ancient Greeks

5
Kithara played by Sean Folsom: [Link]
7
Chelys-lyre played by Paul Butler: [Link]
LZM9yT8vav_IqixwPTzjbW2bKh19au7hb.
10
Aulos played by Sean Folsom: [Link]
19
Monochord played by Sean Folsom: [Link]
23
Music in the Lydian mode composed and performed by Michael Levy: [Link]
com/watch?v=xBZ7Ogb8EJ4.
26
Music in the Dorian mode composed and performed by Michael Levy: [Link]
com/watch?v=JNBfy1tjJXk.

Chapter 9 From Classical Antiquity to the Renaissance

21
Ambrose: Deus, creator omnium, performed by Schola Gregoriana Mediolanensis: http://
[Link]/watch?v=7B2AY3avN8Q.
53
Martin Luther: A Mighty Fortress Is Our God, performed by the Roger Wagner Chorale:
[Link]
xx  Musical Examples
54
J. S. Bach: Ein Feste Burg is Unser Gott, BWV 80, performed by Phillipe Hereweghe con-
ducting La Chapelle Royale and Collegium Vocale: [Link]
v=x0zBmcckFoM.

Chapter 10 Rationalism, Empiricism, and Idealism

31
Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in d minor, Op. 125, 4th movement, performed
by Leonard Bernstein and the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]
watch?v=QDViACDYxnQ.
56
Guillaume Dufay: Nuper rosarum flores, performed by the Hilliard Ensemble. [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=EOWHvIZzXPI.
60
Giovanni Gabrielli: In Ecclesiis, performed by the Choir of King’s College, Cambridge, and the
Philip Jones Brass Ensemble: [Link]

Chapter 11 Formalism
8
J. S. Bach: St. Matthew Passion, BWV 244, performed by Ton Koopman conducting the Amster-
dam Baroque Orchestra: [Link]
10
Ludwig van Beethoven: Missa Solemnis, Mass in D Major, Op. 123, performed by Kurt
Masur conducting the Leipzig Gewandhaus Orchestra: [Link]
v=njCCxCQa9sI.
11
Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in d minor, Op. 125, performed by Leonard Bernstein
conducting the Vienna Philharmonic: [Link]
16
Johannes Brahms: Symphony No. 2 in D Major, Op. 73, performed by Carlos Kleiber conduct-
ing the Vienna Philharmonic: [Link]
19
Richard Strauss: Don Juan, Op. 20, performed by Fritz Reiner conducting the Chicago Sym-
phony Orchestra: [Link]
22
Anton Bruckner: Symphony No. 8 in c minor, performed by Herbert van Karajan conducting
the Vienna Philharmonic: [Link]
24
Richard Wagner: Tristan and Isolde (end of Act 3, Liebestod), performed by Daniel Barenboim,
conductor, with Siegfried Jerusalem and Waltraud Meier at Bayreuth: [Link]
com/watch?v=OAEkTK6aKUM.
25
Richard Wagner: Tannhäuser, performed by Sir Colin Davis, conductor, at Bayreuth: http://
[Link]/watch?v=8du71AE0h6o.
26
Richard Wagner: Lohengrin, performed by Andris Nelsons, conductor, at Bayreuth: http://
[Link]/watch?v=VXwSV0sjYzg.
29
Richard Wagner: Overture to Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg, performed by Christian Thiele-
mann conducting the Vienna Philharmonic: [Link]
35
Richard Wagner: Parsifal, performed by Herbert von Karajan conducting the Berlin Philhar-
monic: [Link]
55
Isaac Watts (text) and Lowell Mason (music, arr. of Handel): Joy to the World, performed by
Faith Hill: [Link]
57
Franz Haydn: Second movement of Symphony No. 94 in G Major, Surprise, Hob.1.94, per-
formed by Leslie Jones conducting the Little Orchestra of London: [Link]
watch?v=mNwMXj0Y1_Y.
 Musical Examples xxi
58
Bedrich Smetana: Die Moldau (or Vltava), performed by Nikolaus Harnencourt conducting
the Chamber Orchestra of Europe: [Link]
65
John Cage: 4’33”, performed by William Marx: [Link]
v=JTEFKFiXSx4.
69
Richard Strauss: ‘Dance of the Seven Veils’ from Salome, performed by Karita Mattila, with
James Conlon conducting the l’Orchestra de l’Opéra National Paris: [Link]
com/watch?v=owdJmtuMSIw.
70
Richard Strauss: ‘Dance of the Seven Veils’ from Salome, performed by Erich Leinsdorf con-
ducting the London Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
71
Arcangelo Corelli: Violin Sonata No. 12 in d minor, La Folia, performed by Henryk Szeryng,
violin, and Huguette Dreyfus, harpsichord: [Link]
72
J. S. Bach: Goldberg Variations, BWV 988, performed by Glenn Gould, piano: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=Ah392lnFHxM.
73
Ludwig van Beethoven: Diabelli Variations, Op. 120, performed by Rudolf Serkin, piano:
[Link]
74
Johannes Brahms: Variations on a Theme by Haydn, Op. 56, performed by Ricardo Muti
conducting the Philadelphia Orchestra: [Link]
75
Sergei Rachmaninoff: Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini, performed by Daniil Trifonov,
piano, and Zubin Mehta conducting the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]
com/watch?v=AAu6BRWL8p8.
76
Charles Ives: Variations on America, performed by Timothy Foley conducting the United States
Marine Band: [Link]
77
Arnold Schoenberg: Theme and Variations for Wind Band, Op. 43a, performed by
Gunther Schuller conducting the United States Marine Band: [Link]
watch?v=JEVZwr8GP1s.
78
Thelonious Monk: ‘’Round Midnight,’ performed by Thelonious Monk, Dizzy Gillespie, and
the Giants of Jazz: [Link]

Chapter 12 Expressionism
3
Henry Purcell: ‘Dido’s Lament’ from Dido and Aeneas, performed by Janet Baker, with
Charles Mackerras and the Glyndebourne Opera: [Link]
50zj7J50U.
11
Frédéric Chopin: Nocturne in E Flat Major, Op. 9, No. 2, performed by Arthur Rubinstein:
[Link]
14
Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 in d minor, Op. 125, performed by Leonard Bern-
stein conducting the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]
v=3MnGfhJCK_g.
43
Ludwig van Beethoven: Missa Solemnis in D Major, Op. 123, performed by Leonard Bernstein
conducting the Hilversum Radio Chorus and the Vienna Philharmonic: [Link]
com/watch?v=06PPhF2tX1g.
62
Franz Schubert: Wanderer Fantasy, D.760, performed by Alfred Brendel: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=7WIVTKXb8RI.
64
Johannes Brahms: Intermezzo, Op. 117, No. 2, performed by Vladimir Horowitz: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=RooR3nsYWzw.
xxii  Musical Examples
72
Giacomo Puccini: ‘Un bel di’ from Madama Butterfly, performed by Renata Tebaldi: http://
[Link]/watch?v=1woH96ROG-c.
73
Giacomo Puccini: ‘Con onor muore’ from Madama Butterfly, performed by Renata Scotto:
[Link]
74
Felix Mendelssohn: ‘It Is Enough’ from Elijah, performed by Dietrich Fischer-Diskau, bari-
tone, with Rafael Frühbeck de Burgos conducting the New Philharmonia Orchestra: http://
[Link]/watch?v=tEkClendR3s.
75
Elton John and Bernie Taupin: ‘Candle in the Wind,’ performed by Elton John: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=A8gO0Z818j4.
77
Pussy Riot: ‘Punk Prayer,’ performed by Pussy Riot: [Link]
v=ALS92big4TY.
79
Modest Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition, performed by Evgeny Kissin: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=g8ei1NF0oic.
80
Modest Mussorgsky: Pictures at an Exhibition, orchestrated by Maurice Ravel, performed
by Georg Solti conducting the Chicago Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
watch?v=DXy50exHjes.
81
Ludwig van Beethoven: Rondo alla ingharese quasi un capriccio in G Major, Rage Over a
Lost Penny, Op. 129, performed by Alexander Brailowsky, piano: [Link]
watch?v=_6k_CrWBqBA.
83
Arnold Schoenberg: Theme and Variations for Wind Band, Op. 43a, performed by
Gunther Schuller conducting the United States Marine Band: [Link]
watch?v=JEVZwr8GP1s.
87
Claude Debussy: ‘Reflections in the Water’ from Images, Book I, performed by Arturo Michel-
angeli: [Link]
88
Felix Mendelssohn: Scherzo from Midsummer Night’s Dream, Op. 21, performed by
Valery Gergiev conducting the Mariinsky Theatre Orchestra: [Link]
watch?v=hHTV3GFyHfM.
89
Franz Liszt–Ferruccio Busoni arrangement of Niccolò Paganini: Etude No. 2 in E Flat Major,
performed by Vladimir Horowitz: [Link]
90
Pyotr Tchaikovsky: Symphony No. 6 in b minor, Pathetique, performed by Herbert von Kara-
jan conducting the Vienna Philharmonic: [Link]
91
Richard Wagner: Prelude to Act III from Lohengrin, performed by Mariss Jansons conducting
the Berlin Philharmonic: [Link]
99
Frédéric Chopin: Prelude, Op., No. 4, performed by Martha Argerich: [Link]
com/watch?v=Tovh6JjaQ1A.
114
Ernst Bloch: ‘Prayer’ from From Jewish Life, No. 1, performed by Amit Peled, cello, and Ste-
fan Petrov, piano: [Link]

Chapter 13 Symbolism
25
J. S. Bach: French Suites, BWV 812–817, performed by Andras Schiff, piano: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=0sDleZkIK-w.
29
Ludwig van Beethoven: Piano Sonata in A Major, Op. 101, performed by Daniel Barenboim:
[Link]
 Musical Examples xxiii
31
Ludwig van Beethoven: Symphony No. 5 in c minor, Op. 67, performed by Christian Thielemann,
conducting the Vienna Philharmonic: [Link]
42
Bruce Springsteen: ‘Born in the USA,’ performed by Bruce Springsteen: [Link]
com/watch?v=lZD4ezDbbu4.
43
Guiseppe Verdi: ‘Dies Irae’ from Messa da Requiem, performed by Robert Shaw conducting the
Atlanta Symphony Orchestra and Chorus: [Link]
44
Lewis Allan: ‘Strange Fruit,’ performed by Billie Holiday: [Link]
watch?v=h4ZyuULy9zs.
46
James Sanderson, music; Albert Gamse, text (based on words from Sir Walter Scott’s The Lady
of the Lake): Hail to the Chief, performed by the United States Army Herald Trumpets: http://
[Link]/watch?v=JW8AJds1CzI.
47
‘Taps,’ performed by buglers from the United States Army Band. [Link]
watch?v=Bfe4TxvUOiw.
48
Camille Saint-Saëns: Carnival of the Animals, performed by Andrea Licata, conducting the
Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, with pianists Vivian Troon and Roderick Elms: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=5LOFhsksAYw.
49
Hector Berlioz: Symphony Fantastique, Op. 14, performed by Rafael Frühbeck de Bur-
gos conducting the Denmark Radio Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
watch?v=W9CYLAuKdtU.
50
Hector Berlioz: idée fixe as it first appears in the Symphonie Fantastique as explained
by Leonard Bernstein, conductor, and Julius Baker, flautist: [Link]
watch?v=Mvh1gpdxCv0.
50
John Williams: ‘Raiders March’ from Raiders of the Lost Ark, performed by John Wil-
liams conducting the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]
watch?v=oKdhEWM6n_o.
52
Gioachino Rossini: William Tell Overture, performed by Leonard Slatkin conducting the
Detroit Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
53
Paul Dukas: ‘The Sorcerer’s Apprentice,’ performed by Leopold Stowkoski conducting the
Philadelphia Orchestra in the Walt Disney movie Fantasia: [Link]
watch?v=Gkj2QeogAsU.
54
Richard Strauss: Don Juan, Op. 20, performed by Fritz Reiner conducting the Chicago Sym-
phony Orchestra: [Link]
55
Richard Strauss: Death and Transfiguration, Op. 24, performed by George Szell conducting
the Cleveland Orchestra: [Link]
56
Richard Strauss: Till Eulenspiegel’s Merry Pranks, Op. 28, performed by Georg Solti conduct-
ing the Chicago Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
57
Richard Strauss: Also sprach Zarathustra, Op. 30, performed by Gustavo Dudamel conduct-
ing the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]
58
Richard Strauss: Don Quixote, Op. 34, performed by Daniel Barenboim conducting the Chi-
cago Symphony Orchestra: [Link]
59
Richard Strauss: Ein Heldenleben, Op. 40, performed by Richard Strauss conducting the
Bavarian State Orchestra: [Link]
60
Richard Strauss: Sinfonia Domestica, Op. 53, performed by Rudolf Kempe conducting the
Staatskapelle Dresden: [Link]
xxiv  Musical Examples
61
Richard Strauss: An Alpine Symphony, Op. 64, performed by Bernard Kaitink conducting the
Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]
67
Charles Ives: The Unanswered Question, performed by Leonard Bernstein conducting the New
York Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]

Chapter 16 Social Philosophy

2
Béla Bartók: Mikrokosmos, performed by Béla Bartók: [Link]
ZX4YAcFKI.
4
Igor Stravinksy: Pulcinella Suite, performed by the Netherlands Radio Chamber Orchestra con-
ducted by Jaap van Zweden: [Link]
5
Igor Stravinsky: Symphony of Psalms, performed by Lukas Foss conducting the Milwaukee
Symphony and the Wisconsin Conservatory Symphony Chorus: [Link]
watch?v=LUGyAtcEFy8.
16
‘We Shall Overcome,’ sung by Mahalia Jackson: [Link]
YvfIGng.
18
Dmitri Shostakovich: Symphony No. 10, performed by Gustavo Dudamel conducting an El
Sistema Orchestra from Venezuela: [Link]
30
Jan Sibelius: Finlandia, performed by Vasily Petrenko conducting the Royal Liverpool Orches-
tra: [Link]

Chapter 17 Praxialism
11
Frank Ticheli: An American Elegy, performed by Eugene Corporan conducting the North
Texas Wind Symphony: [Link]

Chapter 18 Feminism
5
Hildegard von Bingen: 11000 Virgins, Chants for St. Ursula, performed by Anonymous 4:
[Link]
13
Fanny Mendelssohn: ‘Italien’ from Twelve Songs, Op. 8, No. 3, performed by Akiko Ogawa,
alto, and Hiroaki Yamada, piano: [Link]
17
Clara Schumann: Piano Trio in g minor, Op. 17, performed by the Galos Piano Trio: https://
[Link]/watch?v=C5dBOpy0_zg.
22
Alma Mahler: Lieder, performed by Hiroaki Yamada (alto) and Hiroaki Yamada, piano: http://
[Link]/watch?v=M9CYlOU_SJU.
23
Nadia Boulanger: Trois pieces, performed by Dora Kuzmin, cello, and Petra Gilming, piano:
[Link]
27
Igor Stravinsky: Dumbarton Oaks Concerto, performed by Igor Stravinsky conducting
the Orchestra della Radiotelevisione della Svizzera Italiana: [Link]
watch?v=C-8fr2QRFGI.
39
Joan Tower: Fanfares for the Uncommon Woman, performed by Octavio Mas-Arocas
conducting the Interlochen Arts Academy Orchestra: [Link]
v=hm8EZj5skY8.
 Musical Examples xxv
40
Pauline Oliveros: ‘Bottoms Up 1’ from Reverberations: Tape and Electronic Music: http://
[Link]/watch?v=UbKMdszoY_Y.
41
Tania León: Inura, performed by Tania León, conducting Son Sonora Voices, Son Sonora
Ensemble, and DanceBrazil Percussion: [Link]
43
Robert Schumann: Frauenliebe und ‑Leben, Op. 42, performed by Jessye Norman, soprano,
and Irwin Gage, piano: [Link]
46
Robert Schumann: Myrthen, Op. 25, performed by Mitsuko Shirai, soprano, and Harmut
Höll, piano: [Link]
62
Sergei Rachmaninov: Vocalise, Op. 34, No. 14, performed by Kiri Te Kanawa, soprano, at
the Royal Opera House in Covent Garden, Stephen Barlow conducting: [Link]
com/watch?v=fW630zFA93Y.
85
Wolfgang Mozart: ‘Porgi amor’ from The Marriage of Figaro, performed by Renee Fleming at
the Metropolitan Opera: [Link]
86
Wolfgang Mozart: ‘Dove sono’ from The Marriage of Figaro, performed by Leontyne Price at
the Metropolican Opera: [Link]
87
Wolfgang Mozart: ‘Madamina, il catalogo è questo’ from Don Giovanni, performed by
Ferrucio Furlanetto at the Metropolitan Opera, conducted by James Levine: [Link]
[Link]/watch?v=INF9r5jju0A.
90
Georges Bizet: ‘Habañera’ from Carmen, performed by Grace Bumbry in a movie version
directed by Herbert von Karajan: [Link]
92
Wolfgang Mozart: Piano Concerto in G Major, K. 453, 2nd movement, performed by Leonard
Bernstein, pianist and conductor with the Vienna Philharmonic: [Link]
watch?v=itiY352hgjM.
101
Cécile Chaminade: Piano Sonata in c minor, Op. 21, performed by Peter Basil Murdock-Saint:
[Link]

Chapter 19 Postmodernism
11
John Cage: 4’33”, performed by William Marx: [Link]
FKFiXSx4.
13
John Cage: 0’00”, performed by Haco: [Link]
17
John Cage: Organ2/ASLSP, performed by Christoph Bossert, organ: [Link]
com/watch?v=ZYnEWbL6yao.
29
Ludwig van Beethoven: An die Ferne Geliebte, Op. 98, performed by Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau,
voice, and Gerald Moore, piano: [Link]
30
Britney Spears: ‘I’m a Slave 4 U,’ performed by Britney Spears: [Link]
31
Britney Spears: ‘Baby One More Time,’ performed by Britney Spears: [Link]
WLJ9Yk4.
40
Gustav Mahler: Symphony No. 8, performed by Leonard Bernstein conducting the Vienna
Philharmonic Orchestra: [Link]
43
Sergei Prokofiev: Sonata No. 7 in B Flat Major, Op. 33, performed by Sviatoslav Richter:
[Link]
44
Wolfgang Mozart: The Magic Flute, performed by Riccardo Muti conducting the Vienna Phil-
harmonic at the 2006 Salzburg Festival: [Link]
xxvi  Musical Examples
45
Felix Mendelssohn: Elijah, performed by Ann Howard Jones, conductor, and the Boston Uni-
versity Chorus and Orchestra: [Link]
46
‘Ride On King Jesus,’ performed by the In HIS Presence Gospel Choir: [Link]
etGrFu6dyAE.

Chapter 20 Articulating a Philosophy of Music

2
Dolly Parton: ‘Two Doors Down,’ performed by Dolly Parton: [Link]
YFohCM.
3
Richard Strauss: ‘Im Abendrot’ (At Sunset) from Vier Letzte Liederi (Four Last Songs), per-
formed by Kiri Te Kanawa, soprano, and Georg Solti conducting the BBC Philharmonic
Orchestra: [Link]

Chapter 22 Advocacy
13
Wolfgang Mozart: Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major, K. 448, performed by Murray Perahia
and Radu Lupu: [Link]
Preface

For the past 42 years, music philosophy has been part of my teaching assignment, in both complete
courses and units in courses for undergraduate and graduate students. Sometimes these courses (or
units) have been comprised of music education students, but more often they have included music
majors of all types, and occasionally non-music majors. Throughout these experiences of teaching
music philosophy, I have used a variety of textbooks. While these were admirable books for many
reasons, I gradually became convinced that I would like a book that had certain features. Find-
ing none that matched exactly what I was looking for, I decided to write one myself. This project
has taken many years, and along the way I have used drafts—initially of selected chapters and
eventually of the entire book—as the textbook in my classes at the University of North Carolina
at Greensboro. My colleague and friend, Peter Webster, has also used a draft version in several
of his classes at the University of Southern California. Students in these classes provided invalu-
able feedback that led to numerous adjustments. The features that distinguish this book include
breadth, conciseness, clarity, musical examples, insights from research, student empowerment, and
applications to musical careers.

Breadth
An important feature of this book is that it presents a broad range of philosophical views and
approaches. Numerous philosophers have written books to explain and promote their own beliefs
about music and one aim of the book is to present readers with a comprehensive overview of this
body of literature.
Books written to promote a singular view are often powerfully persuasive. Students who are
given only one book with a singular philosophical view as a textbook may be overwhelmed. They
may lack the background and experience to read such a book critically and, in fact, may feel that
it is their primary task to echo important ideas as if they represented their own beliefs. This situ-
ation can be exacerbated when the teacher has also adopted this view and uses the textbook as
a means of inculcating this music philosophy among the students. Imagine, for example, that in
two different music education classes, one teacher uses Bennett Reimer’s A Philosophy of Music
Education and another uses David Elliott’s Music Matters. Suppose, too, that each teacher is a
strong advocate of the position represented in the book he or she chose. Students in these two
classes would get very different orientations, and may even be unaware that there are many other
possibilities as well.
xxviii  Preface
My approach in this book is to present students with the opportunity to learn about a wide vari-
ety of philosophical viewpoints. This is a different approach than presentation of a single view, not
necessarily a better one. The goal is to help students think through important issues and consider
practical applications. I encourage them to ask the question, “If I believe X, what will be the effect
on my own musical life (i.e., as a listener, performer, teacher, composer, etc.)?” In the short-term,
considering multiple viewpoints may lead to some confusion and uncertainty, but in the long-term
it more often than not leads to a stronger, more confidently-held set of beliefs about the nature,
meaning, and value of music.

Conciseness
The music philosophy literature is voluminous and it is unreasonable to expect that students would
be able to read even a moderate sampling of it. In addition to providing a broad overview, another
feature of this book is its conciseness. It is not a simple matter to reduce the writings of a major
philosopher into a manageable size, but I constantly strove to consider just how much a middle
school band director or prospective university music theory teacher needed to know about, say,
Hegel’s or Schopenhauer’s thoughts on music. Of course, the danger is in leaving out important
concepts or lacking clarity because of missing details. However, I have quoted more liberally in
this book than I normally do, so that students would have the opportunity to read core statements
in the authors’ own words. Also, students are encouraged to read original sources whenever they
come across ideas that spark their curiosity or that introduce them to critical concepts about which
they wish to know more.

Clarity
Some philosophical writings are notoriously difficult to understand and students often struggle to
make sense of certain passages. My aim has been to explain complex ideas in clear language or to
provide illustrations without ‘dumbing down’ important concepts. Of course, in so doing, it is pos-
sible that I have altered or even misconstrued the original. However, my intent has been to stay as
true as possible to the original ideas.

Musical Examples
I always encourage students to utilize specific musical examples as they discuss various philosophi-
cal issues. These examples are not limited to ‘works’ per se, but can and should include musical
experiences, such as teaching a private lesson, performing in a community band, improvising alone
in a practice room, singing in a church choir, and so on. Accordingly, I have included numer-
ous examples sprinkled throughout the book. Regarding specific musical works, 199 of them are
identified in the text with the superscript icon. The endnote for each composition so marked
contains a YouTube link to a recording. A master list of musical works is provided in the front mat-
ter. Also, by going to this URL—[Link]
concisesurveyofmusphil/home—the reader can click on a link to each recording. Because YouTube
links change frequently, this is an imperfect system. However, it may provide encouragement for
students to listen to works that are unfamiliar. Even when a link is broken, the student can readily
find another recording of the same work.
 Preface xxix
Musical examples, supplemented by many musical engagements discussed in the text, cover a
wide variety of genres, including:

• Jazz artists: Louis Armstrong, Dave Brubeck, John Coltrane, Miles Davis, Duke Ellington, Ella
Fitzgerald, Dizzy Gillespie, Billie Holiday, and Thelonius Monk.
• Female composers: Hildegard von Bingen, Nadia Boulanger, Cécile Chaminade, Maria Grever,
Tania León, Alma Mahler, Fanny Mendelssohn, Pauline Oliveros, Clara Schumann, and Joan
Tower.
• World music: from China, India, Java, Korea, and Zimbabwe.
• Wind band literature: Percy Grainger, Arnold Schoenberg, Frank Ticheli, and Eric Whitacre;
movie music: John Barry, Ennio Morricone, and John Williams; country music: Alan Jackson,
Anne Murray, and Dolly Parton; gospel music: In HIS Presence Gospel Choir and Mahalia
Jackson; and contemporary styles: David Arkenstone & Kostia, Dead Can Dance, Goldfrapp,
Elton John, Daniel Licht, Pussy Riot, Britney Spears, Bruce Springsteen, and Beautiful World
(Phil Sawyer).
• In Chapter 7: A Philosophical Framework, there are discussions about popular music, ‘school’
music (especially literature for the wind band), and world music. In Chapter 19: Postmodern-
ism, there is a discussion of Robert Walker’s comparison of Beethoven (To the Distant Beloved)
with Britney Spears (‘I’m a Slave 4 U’ and ‘Baby One More Time’). And so on.

Even with this variety, the bulk of the examples are comprised of Western classical music, ranging
from Guillaume Dufay to John Cage. The reason for this imbalance is that, generally speaking, it
was not until the second half of the 20th century that philosophers considered and wrote about
styles other than Western classical art music. At every point, however, students are encouraged to
identify their own examples, again to include musical experiences in addition to specific works.

Insights from Research

Whenever applicable, music research findings are presented to inform students’ thinking about
various topics. As indicated in the extended discussion of science and philosophy in Chapter 2,
there are a variety of opinions about the role of science in philosophical thinking. Simplistically,
one can choose to incorporate or disregard research findings when developing a philosophy. The
discussion of research on conceptions of beauty in Chapter 4 provides a good example. Several
philosophers are quoted as saying that beauty is no longer an important concept in aesthetics. Yet,
several research studies indicate that beauty is still uppermost in the minds of many music listeners.
To which one philosopher might say “never mind what people say, philosophically beauty is not a
core component of the aesthetic experience,” while another might use research findings to bolster
her philosophical view that beauty is a core concept of musical aesthetics. No attempt is made to
lead readers in one direction or another; rather, students are guided to think through these issues
and resolve them according to their own views.

Student Empowerment
For me, the most important feature of the book and of my teaching approach is encouraging
students to find their own voice. As I explain, for younger, less experienced students, the best
xxx  Preface
approach may be to identify a viewpoint, among the many presented, that most resonates with
their own ideas. In this case, the students’ language in expressing their philosophies may be highly
imitative of the original. Students with more experience may choose to base their philosophical
statement on the ideas of a published philosopher, but may decide to alter some of the language
or modify some of the ideas to fit their own conceptions more closely. Finally, some—ideally
those with more extensive experience in philosophy, such as some doctoral students—may want
to strike out on their own, creating a personalized philosophy that represents their deepest held
beliefs about the nature, value, and meaning of music. No matter where a student falls on a con-
tinuum from novice to emerging expert, an adopted philosophy should be true to his or her own
conception of music. Encouraging student ownership of a music philosophy is a primary goal of
this book.

Applications to Musical Careers

In this book I make a distinction between a philosophy of music and a philosophy of music educa-
tion or any other application. The approach is to have students make determinations about the
nature, value, and meaning of music and then apply it to specific circumstances, such as teaching
music in a school, teaching private studio lessons, working with music therapy clients, and so on.
In that case, there may be some distinctions between a philosophy of music and a philosophy of
music education (or other), but they should be highly consistent and related to one another. Hav-
ing a well-articulated philosophy will be of minimal value if it does not influence one’s musical life
and career. No matter whether one is teaching, performing, composing, listening, working with
therapy clients, or examining music from a theoretical-analytic approach, one’s choices, decisions,
attitudes, and actions should be a reflection of a distinctive philosophical view.
Actually, the process is not a one-way street. That is, one does not have to express a philosophy
and then begin to apply it. Rather, often it is helpful for the students to think deeply about how
they listen, teach, perform, and so on, and also to draw insights from their daily engagements with
music, moving back and forth from a philosophy to the application of it. Students are encouraged
not to leave their philosophy sitting ‘on the shelf,’ but to put it into regular practice.
These, then, are the features I endeavored to incorporate into my book. A final comment con-
cerns my decision to leave my own views out. One reviewer called me to task on this, saying that it
was ‘odd’ to ask students to commit to a philosophical statement when I was not willing to do so.
I understand this concern, but I have also seen, repeatedly, how some students will automatically
adjust their own views in light of a professor’s or author’s stance. Some, of course, are not affected,
but there are always those who see something in print as the ‘correct’ view. Occasionally, a student
will even veer toward an oppositional view, just to proclaim autonomy. Either way, an authoritar-
ian view can inhibit student growth in independent thinking.
Of course, a professor—or in this case author—has an important role to play in guiding students.
However, rather than tell students their emerging philosophical views are right or wrong, I have
found it more effective to help them clarify their thinking and their use of language, identifying
faulty logic or contradictions, pointing out gaps (i.e., missing ideas and concepts), and encouraging
them to provide musical illustrations and make appropriate applications.
Articulating a well-reasoned philosophy of music is not an easy thing. It takes a great deal of
practice in writing and speaking. I encourage students to do this in three ways: a formal writ-
ten statement, a formal verbal presentation, and an informal discussion of philosophical views
 Preface xxxi
in which there is give and take. It is a process, and ideally one that continues throughout one’s
career. It is my hope that this book will be helpful as the student moves along this important
journey.
I would like to thank the dozens of students who have provided important feedback on draft ver-
sions. Their suggestions ranged from identifying a missing comma to recognition that a particular
passage was lacking in clarity. I incorporated many of their ideas. As mentioned, Peter Webster has
been a sounding board, providing much cogent advice. I am appreciative of all his help. Finally,
I would like to dedicate this book to my wife, Diana Allan. She has given me a great deal of helpful
editorial advice, but more importantly, she has been a source of constant and steady love and sup-
port. I am very grateful for her unfailing encouragement.
Section I

Beginning the Journey

1 The Plan and Purpose of This Book

Musicians are used to doing. We enjoy such things as rehearsing, performing, improvising, com-
posing, conducting, and teaching. We may pause now and then to think about what we are doing
or how we are doing it, but far less often do we slow down or stop to think about why we do what
we do. I became more keenly aware of this stereotypical description of musical life during an oral
exam of a graduate student. This student was already a member of a major symphony orchestra.
His degree recital was masterful, and in both his written and oral examinations he answered ques-
tions about repertoire and pedagogy with ease and at a very high level. Yet, when I asked him near
the end of the exam why all of this was important, what meaning did it have, he did not have an
answer and moreover thought the question slightly ridiculous.
Of course, not every musician is this way. Many have considered why a career in music has
meaning and what contributions they can make to society through their music. Even for a signifi-
cant number of these, perhaps, a notion of the nature, meaning, and value of music—a philosophy
of music, if you will—remains implicit rather than explicit. That is, many musicians may have
ambiguous, generalized thoughts somewhere in the back of their minds and could mumble some
reasonable sounding phrases if called upon to justify their musical existence. However, some have
not committed to the struggle of stating in clear and unambiguous language, in both written and
verbal forms, exactly what it is they believe about music. Even those who have fashioned a formal
statement of musical beliefs can always revise and extend their thinking, because to be of real value,
a philosophy needs to grow and change along with the person.
There are two primary purposes of this book. The first is to provide a broad but concise over-
view of what some of the greatest minds in history have had to say about the nature, meaning, and
value of music. The second primary purpose of this book is to help you articulate a philosophy of
music that will serve as a guiding star throughout your career. In some cases, especially for those
who have had limited exposure to music philosophy, you may wish to align yourself closely with
a philosopher with whose ideas you are most in agreement. In other cases, you may wish to make
slight amendments to a given philosophical position to make it conform more closely to your par-
ticular circumstances. Finally, among those who have had considerable exposure to philosophy in
general and to music philosophy specifically, you may wish to create your own philosophy; this
may be based upon others’ ideas but be more reflective of your own personality and experiences.
Although, as stated previously, your philosophy is likely to change over time, especially if you
continue to read and think, it is important to come as close as you can to a statement that reflects
your current set of beliefs.
4  Beginning the Journey
The process by which we will achieve the two primary purposes of this book is threefold: first,
we will investigate some central issues that any music philosopher ought to consider; next, we will
review significant philosophical positions to find out what major thinkers have had to say on the
subject; and finally, we will consider the ramifications of these ideas for your particular circum-
stances. The three sections of the book represent these three aspects, and at the end of this chapter
we will provide more details. In the meantime, let us start more broadly.

What Is Philosophy?
According to A. R. Lacey, to ask “what is philosophy?” is to ask a philosophical question.1 In other
words, there is no agreed-upon definition. The word philosophy in the original Greek means ‘love
of wisdom,’ but it has come “to stand for knowl-
edge in general about man and the universe.”2
“Rightly defined philosophy is simply While admitting that any definition of philosophy is
the love of wisdom.” controversial, Lord Quinton said that the shortest,
(Cicero) most acceptable definition might be that it is “think-
ing about thinking.”3 This thinking, however, is of
a particular kind. Mere opinion about something
does not constitute a philosophy. Rather, philosophy involves systematic, logical thought that com-
monly seeks answers to questions in one or more of the following areas:

Metaphysics, or theory of existence, is concerned with the nature of the universe. What is ulti-
mate reality? What is time? Can things exist outside of space-time?
Epistemology deals with the theory of knowledge, determining truths of reason versus truths of
fact, and distinguishing what is acquired directly from what is acquired by inference. What is
knowledge? What is truth? How can we determine what is true?
Ethics, sometimes called moral philosophy, is concerned with the conduct of life. What does it
mean to live a moral life? Is there any advantage to living a moral life? What is the ‘good life’?
Political Philosophy is an extension of ethics into the social realm. What is good government? Is
an individual under an obligation to follow a governmental rule or decree if he disagrees with
it? Does government exist for its own sake?
Aesthetics, although sometimes called the study of beauty, is more fully concerned with the
nature, value, and meaning of art. What is art (music)? What is great art (music)? What is the
meaning of art (music)? Can art (music) reveal truth or help us to lead a moral life?

Other conceptions of philosophy include Ontology, the nature of being, and Logic, which estab-
lishes the principles of valid reasoning.4 However, the structure of philosophy is another area of
disagreement, as some would include ontology under the umbrella of metaphysics and logic as
a subdivision of epistemology.5 Although the bulk of our deliberations about music philosophy
in this book would fit most clearly under aesthetics, they are not constrained to this branch of
philosophy. For example, a discussion of Plato’s notion that music can influence a person’s moral
character represents an overlap of aesthetics and ethics, and Theodor Adorno’s ideas about the role
of music in social progress come at the juncture of aesthetics and political philosophy.
Many, including philosophers themselves, see philosophy as a complex and complicated disci-
pline, even “ ‘brain-breakingly’ difficult.”6 British philosopher C.E.M. Joad said, “Philosophy is an
 The Plan and Purpose of This Book 5
exceedingly difficult subject and cannot
with the best will in the world be made “Making itself intelligible is suicide for philosophy.”
into an easy one.”7 Why, then, should we (Martin Heidegger)
spend so much time on something that
can be so perplexing and even frustrating?
What is the value of philosophy, after all?
In response, we might say simply, as Will Durant did, “only philosophy can give us wisdom.”8 If we
wish to search for truth, if we wish, more particularly, to be as clear-minded and certain as possible
about the meaning of music and of our purpose as musicians, we must turn to philosophy. Only by
struggling with the big and important questions of art will we ever arrive at a settled assurance of
just how significant, vital, and even imperative creating, performing, and teaching music is for us.
Only by articulating a philosophy of music will your career and your passion stand on a firm foun-
dation. Buffeting winds in the form of self-doubt, criticism, failure, and uncertainty will assail us all
from time-to-time, but those who have a clearly stated philosophy will be standing on solid rock.

Why Do I Need to Have a Philosophy of Music?

To continue the previous discussion, some musicians may wonder why they need a philosophy of
music at all. To begin with, a philosophy serves as a professional career guide. Return for a moment
to the vignette presented in the opening paragraph. The symphony student knew what to do and
how to do it; he did not know why he did it. Perhaps he performed music because he felt compelled
or driven to; perhaps he did it simply because he loved to do it. Perhaps he did it because he felt he
had no alternatives, that is, that he had no other marketable skills.
A philosophy of music cannot tell you how to perform or compose or conduct or teach, but it
can help you understand why it is important for you to do so. Imagine three college students having
a conversation over a cup of coffee. One is a premedical student. She speaks passionately about her
studies and is enthusiastic about some day being able to heal people. Another is a hydrology major.
He has a strong desire to live and work in a third world country, helping local citizens develop and
maintain adequate sources of clean water. The third student is a bassoon major. She looks forward
to her hours in the practice room as they prepare her for a career as a performer and teacher. One
would hardly need to ask the premedical or hydrology major why their career choices are impor-
tant. One can well imagine, however, that some would be curious about the decision to spend a
lifetime playing and teaching the bassoon. Why is that important? What does this contribute to
society?
Suppose we revisit these three students 40 years after graduation and suppose that all three real-
ized their aspirations. The physician can look back at a lifetime of helping patients deal with illness
and pain. The hydrologist can reminisce about his years of helping people improve the quality of
their lives by having access to disease-free water. And the bassoonist? The point is not to suggest
that the bassoonist’s life is inferior to the others in any way. In fact, the bassoonist could point out
that if the issue is quality of life, the creation of beauty is a significant contribution. Merely living a
healthy life may not be enough if it is lived in ugliness. After all, when we speak of ‘quality of life,’
to what are we referring? This is where we arrive at philosophy.
The purpose of having a philosophy of music is not only so that you can convince others that
what you are doing is important; primarily it is to convince yourself. That seems odd, does it not,
that you would have to convince yourself that what you spend hours doing every day is important?
6  Beginning the Journey
If you are one of the lucky few who has not doubted yourself, consider yourself fortunate. Most of
us have moments or even phases of our lives when we imagine that everything we are, everything
we do, everything we think and feel, is a charade. We long to believe that our lives have meaning
and purpose. To the extent that there is much more to life than a career, our philosophy of life
must be all encompassing and involve much more than music. I once heard a cello professor at a
prestigious conservatory say that there is more to music than playing the cello and there is more
to life than music. However, for many of us, our identities are wrapped up in our musicianship.
Music is not just a career; it is who we are. If we lose our musical identity through a failed jury,
audition, or interview, or an injury that compromises performance, we feel bereft and may face an
identity crisis.
Another primary reason for articulating a philosophy of music is that it helps us make choices.
Having a firm and clear philosophical view guides our actions. We will have much more to say on
this matter in Section III, but for the moment consider three university piano faculty members (or
three middle school band directors, three opera
singers, etc.). One piano professor is committed to
“One’s philosophy is not best philosophy X, another to philosophy Y, and the
expressed in words; it is expressed third to no philosophical view in particular. Further,
suppose philosophies X and Y are diametrically
in the choices one makes . . . and the
opposed to each other, and that the adherents of
choices we make are ultimately our
philosophies X and Y make musical choices and
responsibility.” decisions based on their respective beliefs. First,
(Eleanor Roosevelt) note that the antithetical views of X and Y do not
indicate that either or both are flawed.9 Both could
represent reasonable positions. Then, consider that
regardless of whether you agree with position X or Y, at least you know that the proponents are
making decisions from a particular viewpoint. The third teacher is not making repertoire and peda-
gogical choices, along with other important decisions, in light of a particular viewpoint. He or she
may be making choices on a rather haphazard or arbitrary basis.
A final reason for having a firm grasp of philosophical issues has to do with how we influence
others. Although the term music education is often construed in the limited sense of teaching music
in K–12 settings, let us use it in the broadest sense. Whenever any of us as conductors, performers,
teachers, or therapists influences others through music, we will consider that to be music education.
In that spirit, consider this quote from Bennett Reimer, a music education philosopher:

Until our concerns pervade all dimensions of music education, . . . philosophy will be regarded
as being largely irrelevant to the realities of teaching and learning music, as it tends to be
regarded now by many if not most music teachers.10

This statement should influence not only what we do when conducting middle school bands and
high school choirs, but also when we direct an opera production, teach private clarinet lessons,
use music in a therapy session with a child who has autism, speak to the symphony board, or do
anything related to our professional craft as musicians. Your philosophy needs to permeate every
aspect of your musical life. It should make a difference.
One goal I have in writing this book is to promote and criticize each viewpoint presented in
such a way that by the end of the book you have no idea which philosophical view is my own. By
 The Plan and Purpose of This Book 7
analogy, think of a television sports announcer, whose job is to call the game impartially. He should
critique each team’s performance equally and fairly. Even though he may have a favorite team, his
bias should not be apparent. To further explain this approach, let us examine the three major sec-
tions of the book.

Section I: Beginning the Journey

Following this introduction, Chapters 2 through 7 present selected topics that have engaged philoso-
phers for centuries. Science, religion, knowledge, and education are topics that occupy prominent
places in philosophy in general. Beauty, emotion, and aesthetics are topics that have a special relevance
for music philosophy. Each of these chapters is intended to provide an introduction and to prepare
you to consider these issues more deeply as they reoccur periodically in Section II, when the particular
views of various philosophers are discussed. At this juncture, you are encouraged to begin thinking
deeply about your own perspective while retaining an open mind. If you begin Section II with some
ideas about each of these issues without being rigidly entrenched, you may clarify, modify, or com-
pletely alter your thinking as you read the particular views of great thinkers. Thus, when you arrive at
the time to develop an explicit statement of your philosophy in Section III, you will have engaged in
thoughtful reflection on the key ideas that should be considered in any philosophy of music.
Chapter 2 includes a discussion of science and religion. First, we will investigate the special
relationship that philosophy and science have with each other. This is a pertinent topic for our
purposes because there is a body of scientific literature, nominally grouped under the heading of
music psychology, that informs our understanding of the musical experience. As you solidify your
own philosophical thinking, you may wish to incorporate these findings or intentionally exclude
them—one could make a good argument for either approach.
Next, we consider religion, another topic with a long-standing connection to philosophy and of
particular relevance for music philosophy. Your music philosophy could have a strong foundation
based in faith or not. One issue to note, which we will discuss in this chapter, is that those who
teach or work in a public setting such as a state university or public school will need to find an
appropriate way of presenting a faith-based philosophy. In short, while it is inappropriate to make
open declarations of faith in a public school classroom, for example, this does not preclude an
individual from having a philosophy grounded in religion.
We will cover knowledge and education in Chapter 3. Knowledge is central to the considera-
tion of music’s meaning because some philosophers have contended that music is a special kind of
knowledge. If you decide that music does represent a unique way of knowing—a proposition with
which many philosophers would disagree—you must then decide what kind of knowledge music
provides. What can one know through music? One notion frequently put forward, for example,
is that music provides insights into the human condition. You will want to consider the extent to
which music is a form of knowledge and if so, what information or understanding it provides.
All cultures and societies are concerned with education. While informal learning is critically
important, formal education, or schooling, is perhaps more strongly connected to philosophy.
Adopting differing philosophical views has consequences for what is taught, how, and why. In
music, we can consider both music education in the sense of K–12 schools and a host of music
teaching learning experiences outside schools (e.g., private lessons, university studio teaching, and
so on). Thus, while developing an educational philosophy may be more critical for some, it likely
has a bearing for all.
8  Beginning the Journey
Many philosophers have thought deeply about the concept of beauty. In Chapter 4, we will
consider a number of important questions. What is beauty? Is beauty inherent in the music itself
or does it reside in our perceptions of it? Can ugliness be considered beautiful in certain circum-
stances? How prominently does beauty come into play when you think about music you know
well or are in the process of learning or performing? It will be important for you to determine how
central the concept of beauty is to your philosophy of music.
Chapter 5 deals with emotion, a topic that seemingly lies at the core of the human musical expe-
rience. However, when it comes to philosophy, nothing is ever as easy or as evident as it seems.
Great thinkers have struggled mightily with the notion of emotions in music. Since the music itself
is emotionless—a non-living entity cannot feel—is it the case that we perceive an emotion expressed
in the music without undergoing it, or do we actually experience a specific emotion? Alternatively,
perhaps music represents emotions in the sense that they show us symbolically how emotions go.
The role emotions play in your philosophy of music is one of critical importance.
Chapter 6 deals with aesthetics. This is a confusing term to many who have not spent much time
learning or thinking about it. The first definition for ‘aesthetic’ given in the Merriam-Webster Dic-
tionary is “of, or relating to, or dealing with aesthet-
ics or the beautiful.”11 This definition may suffice for
“What is the use of aesthetics if they most people; however, for philosophers the matter is
can neither teach how to produce not quite so simple. Regardless of how you end up
beauty nor how to appreciate it in good conceiving of the term aesthetics, it is something you
taste? . . . Even if aesthetics are not the will need to ponder as you develop your own phi-
mathematics of beauty, they are the losophy. The word aesthetic does not have to appear
proof of the calculation.” in your formal statement, but if omitted, it should be
(Franz Grillparzer) left out intentionally, not from neglect.
Section I concludes with Chapter 7: A Philosoph-
ical Framework. Here, we will review a general
structure that will help you organize the many competing theories that follow in Section II. To
simplify matters, most, but certainly not all, music philosophies can be divided into two categories,
Absolutism and Referentialism. Absolutists believe that the primary value of music comes from
the music itself, while referentialists believe that it comes from external things to which the music
refers. A further schism exists between Formalists, who hold that the meaning of music is primar-
ily intellectual, and Expressionists, who find meaning in the expressiveness of music. As indicated,
there are many whose ideas do not fit within this framework. Phenomenologists, for example, find
value in the bodily experience of music.
The second section of Chapter 7 concerns the different styles and genres of music. Because this
book focuses mainly on Western philosophies, the music discussed is primarily Western. Not only
that, the focus for many philosophers, whether stated or implied, is on art music. With few excep-
tions, it is not until the 20th century that philosophers widened their horizons to include other
genres such as folk or popular music or non-Western styles generally referred to as World Music.
The purpose of this chapter is to help you think through relevant issues to make choices about
how exclusive or inclusive your music philosophy will be. In general, the intent of Chapter 7 is to
present the smörgåsbord of choices that will come in Section II in order to help you put a mental
structure in place.
Overall, Section I represents what David Ausubel called an advance organizer.12 That is, you
will encounter many of the critical ideas and central concepts that form important aspects of
 The Plan and Purpose of This Book 9
recognized music philosophies in preparation for a more detailed examination in Section II. Ide-
ally, these introductory chapters will stimulate your thinking and you are encouraged to pursue a
middle course at this point. If you are rigid in your thinking, too certain of what you believe—in
short, close-minded—you will be immune to the thoughts of some of the greatest thinkers in world
history. On the other hand, if you do not begin to ponder your own position on these topics, you
may be swayed too easily by the ideas of these imposing figures.

Section II: A Review of Major Music Philosophies

Browse the philosophy section in any library or bookstore and you will see numerous volumes
dedicated to the works of such famous names as Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Kant, Hegel, Hume,
Schiller, Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, Langer, and on and on. You will also find philosophical com-
pendia that are more than a thousand pages long. Face it, philosophy has a massive literature. The
first restriction in this book is that it makes no claim to be comprehensive. That would be impracti-
cal, if not impossible, and is probably unnecessary
anyway. A second restriction is that, generally speak-
ing, the presentation of various philosophers’ ideas
“Music produces a kind of pleasure
is focused on those topics that inform an under-
which human nature cannot do
standing of the nature, meaning, and value of music.
Most philosophers wrote on a great number of without.”
topics that provide few insights into the musical (Confucius)
experience. You will not be reading too much about
those ideas in this book.
A third restriction is that discussions of particular philosophies are concise summaries. Readers
are encouraged to consult sources indicated for further details. Finally, the coverage in this book
is restricted primarily to Western philosophers and Western music. This should not be taken as an
indication that there is less value in non-Western sources. Obviously, philosophers such as Lao-
Tzu or Confucius made significant contributions and some of them wrote about music. However,
for the particular purposes of this book, the focus is on Western thought. Furthermore, I took a
cue from others. If, for example, experts such as Monroe Beardsley, in his review of aesthetics,13
and Bertrand Russell, in his survey of philosophy,14 restricted their coverage to Western scholars,
it seemed advisable that I should do the same. Those whose philosophy is more focused on World
Music may wish to consult additional sources.15
In Chapter 7, you will read an overview of the various philosophers presented in Section II,
Chapters 8–19. Here, I simply list the various topics, along with associated philosophers:

• Chapter 8: Contributions to Music Philosophy from the Ancient Greeks—Pythagoras, Plato,

Aristotle.
• Chapter 9: From Classical Antiquity to the Renaissance—Plotinus, St. Augustine, Boethius,
Thomas Aquinas, Martin Luther.
• Chapter 10: Rationalism, Empiricism, and Idealism. Rationalism—Descartes, Spinoza, Leib-
niz; Empiricism—Hobbes, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, Rousseau; Idealism—Kant, Schiller, Hegel,
Schopenhauer.
• Chapter 11: Formalism—Hanslick, Gurney, Bell, Meyer.
• Chapter 12: Expressionism—Tolstoy, Croce, Collingwood, Cooke, Kivy, Davies, Robinson.
10  Beginning the Journey
• Chapter 13: Symbolism—Langer, Goodman, Beardsley, Nattiez.
• Chapter 14: Phenomenology—Husserl, Merleau-Ponty, Dufrenne, Clifton, Burrows, Stubley,
Johnson.
• Chapter 15: Pragmatism—Peirce, James, Dewey.
• Chapter 16: Social Philosophy—Adorno, Attali.
• Chapter 17: Praxialism—Freire, Sparshott, Small, Alperson, Elliott, Regelski.
• Chapter 18: Feminism—Göttner-Abendroth, Cusick, McClary, Citron.
• Chapter 19: Postmodernism—Nietzsche, Derrida, Lyotard, Rorty.

Although this list may seem daunting at this juncture, it really will be informative for you to have
at least a basic introduction to and understanding of the ideas of some of the greatest thinkers in
Western history. As you can tell simply by the various chapter titles, there is considerable discrep-
ancy. In fact, even within a particular philosophical label (e.g., idealism) there are significant dif-
ferences among various philosophers. As important as it is for you to have this basic background,
even more important is for you to arrive at a settled position in your own mind about what you
believe. As an educated musician, it is important for you to know what Plato and others thought
and wrote about the value of music. However, simply parroting someone else’s ideas without think-
ing through the numerous relevant issues will lead you to a weak position. Conversely, making up
your own philosophy in the absence of any sense of what the giants of intellectual thought wrote
about music hardly seems like a good way to proceed.

Section III: Making It Your Own

In Section III we will take the general descriptions from Section I and the more focused discussions
in Section II and help you craft your own statement. We will do this in three steps. Step one is
taken in Chapter 20: Articulating a Philosophy of Music. As you read the first two sections of the
book you will likely begin to formulate your own ideas in agreement, disagreement, or some modi-
fication of the positions presented. In Chapter 20, we will walk through a number of exercises
that will help you refine and clarify your thoughts. It will be important for you to develop your
philosophy in both written and spoken form. Each mode of presentation has certain advantages
and by working back and forth from writing to speaking, each can inform the other.
One thing we have not mentioned that will be a critically important part of the process is to
include musical examples. Throughout Section II, I have attempted to place each of the various
philosophical views into a musical context by means of numerous examples. I encourage you to
think of specific musical examples throughout your reading of this book. These ought to include
compositions that are part of your personal repertoire; for example, singers should think of arias,
lieder, and other vocal/choral repertoire with which they are familiar. Oboists and hornists should
identify sonatas, concertos, and orchestral excerpts from their own repertoire, and so on. You will
also want to identify and consider repertoire outside your personal sphere of performance or study.
Pianists may want to include opera, string quartets, or wind band music, for example. Depend-
ing on your position, you may wish to include music or activities from genres other than Western
art music, such as popular music, jazz, or even non-Western music. Some philosophers are more
disposed toward the creation and performance of music than on the contemplation of works of art
per se. Thus, musical examples also can and should include scenarios such as a jam session, a high
school choir rehearsal, or a music therapy session.
 The Plan and Purpose of This Book 11
Another thing you may wish to do, and in fact are encouraged to do, is to read beyond what is
contained in this book. As indicated previously, the philosophical literature is voluminous. One
suggestion to narrow the possibilities is to try reading some of the original work of one or more
philosophers whose ideas you find attractive. Original sources are provided in the footnotes to each
chapter, along with many commentaries on philosophy, aesthetics, music philosophy, and other
topics of interest.
Once you have a good draft of your philosophy well under way, step two is to think about the
implications of your philosophy. A philosophy will do you no good if it does not influence the prac-
tice of your craft. At this point, you can begin moving back and forth from the philosophy state-
ment itself to the application. Each will inform the other and help you to clarify specific thoughts
and issues. Throughout this process, keep musical examples—either specific compositions or spe-
cific activities or experiences (e.g., performing on a recital or rehearsing in a practice room)—at the
forefront of your reflections. Chapter 21: Applying Your Philosophy provides some brief vignettes
that are intended to serve as examples. Each time you read one of the chapters in Section II (Chap-
ters 8–19), you may want to flip back to Chapter 21 to read the example. Then you can begin to
modify this example to fit your own circumstances.
Once you have a music philosophy clearly articulated and have begun to apply it in your daily
profession, step three is to think about how you would lobby on behalf of music if called upon to
do so. Chapter 22: Advocacy concerns a practical issue that you may face on more than one occa-
sion throughout your career. For example, suppose civic leaders have asked you to speak to them
about why the community should support a symphony orchestra or an opera company. Or, imagine
that the school board is facing a budget crisis and is considering the elimination of music programs.
How would you respond? As we will see, a philosophy and an advocacy position can, and probably
should, be related, but they are not the same thing.

Summary and Thought Questions

In summary, the purposes of this book are to introduce you to major ideas in the history of music
philosophy and to help you develop your philosophy of music, whether that is a restatement of
an existing philosophy, an amended version of someone else’s ideas, or a unique view. In Sec-
tion I, we will investigate a number of core issues that you will want to consider in preparation
for articulating your philosophy. The intent is to help you to begin thinking deeply about these
topics without becoming entrenched in a mindset. In Section II, we will consider what some of
the greatest philosophers have to say about the nature, meaning, and value of music. Even if you
have ideas of your own already or are prone to dismiss unusual or unfamiliar ideas precipitously,
I encourage you to read each discussion with an open mind and to consider each idea carefully
before you decide to agree or disagree with it. In Section III, you will write a formal statement
of your philosophy, apply it to particular aspects of your chosen career path, and learn about
distinctions between philosophy and advocacy. Here are some thoughts and questions to help
you get started:

1. As you ponder what the value of having a philosophy might be, consider the words of C. S.
Lewis who said, “Friendship is unnecessary, like philosophy, like art. . . . It has no survival
value; rather it is one of those things that give value to survival.”16 What do you think he meant
by this? Do you agree that a music philosophy or that music itself has no survival value? In
12  Beginning the Journey
what ways do you think having a music philosophy might help you survive? You might also
wish to consider how art in general and music specifically help us survive.
2. Several strong statements spoke to the difficulty of developing a philosophy. If you are tempted
along the way to quit, you may wish to print out this statement of Jacob Riis and read it every
day. In thinking about his efforts to lead a city to make important societal changes, he said,

When it didn’t seem to help, I would go and look at a stone-cutter hammering away at his
rock perhaps a hundred times without as much as a crack showing in it. Yet at the hundred
and first blow it would split in two, and I knew it was not that blow that did it, but all that
had gone before together.17

Does the idea of creating an explicit philosophical statement, in both written and oral form,
sound exciting or daunting? Are you eager to get started or dreading the prospect?
3. Plato quotes Socrates as saying, “The unexam-
ined life is not worth living.”18 Think about this
statement in two regards. First, in what ways
“I think we ought always to entertain
have you benefitted from examining your own
our opinions with some measure
life? Second, what difference do you think it
of doubt. I shouldn’t wish people would make whether you did or did not exam-
dogmatically to believe any philosophy, ine the role that music plays in your life?
not even mine.” 4. In a previous sidebar quote, Eleanor Roosevelt
(Bertrand Russell) spoke about making choices. What kinds of
musical choices do you think you can or should
make under the guidance of an explicit philosophy?
5. Finally, let us consider Bertrand Russell’s answer to the question, “Has the study of philosophy
any value?” When he compared science with philosophy, he found that science arrives at defi-
nite answers while philosophical inquiry leads only to uncertainty. However, it is that uncer-
tainty that forms the most important value of philosophy. First, although philosophy does not
lead to a certain answer, it does lead to “many possibilities which enlarge our thoughts and
free them from the tyranny of custom.”19 Second, philosophy leads us to contemplate great and
important questions and as we do so, “the mind also is rendered great, and becomes capable of
that union with the universe which constitutes its highest goal.”20 In other words, we develop
a broadened perspective rather than a parochial, overly personalized view. How would you
articulate the role philosophy has had in your life so far? Can you speculate how a well-defined
philosophy of music might impact your musical life and career?

In closing this section, let Russell’s words be encouraging. When you find yourself uncertain
about your philosophy in general, specific aspects of it, or how it will apply to your musical career,
take heart. That uncertainty is a sign that you are on the right track. When you step outside your-
self and examine this enterprise we call music with a wide lens, when you consider your place in
this musical universe, you will be engaging in something of infinite value. Be patient and trust that
the process is worth it.

Notes
1 A. Lacey, A Dictionary of Philosophy (London: Routledge, 1986).
2 Ibid., 176.
 The Plan and Purpose of This Book 13
3 Anthony Quinton, “Philosophy,” in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed. Ted Honderich (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1995), 666.
4 George Davidson, Introduction to Philosophy: The World’s Great Thinkers, ed. Philip Stokes (London:
Arcturus Publishing, 2011).
5 William Sahakian and Mabel Sahakian, Ideas of the Great Philosophers (New York: Fall River Press,
2005).
6 Davidson, Introduction, 5.
7 Cyril Joad, Guide to Philosophy (Toronto: General Publishing Co., 1936/1957), 10.
8 Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1953), 3.
9 L. Jonathan Cohen, “Philosophy and Science,” in The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, ed. Ted Hon-
derich (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), 674–78.
10 Bennett Reimer, “Once More with Feeling: Reconciling Discrepant Accounts of Musical Affect,” Philoso-
phy of Music Education Review 12, no. 1 (2004): 15.
11 Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2015. [Link]
12 David Ausubel, “The Use of Advance Organizers in the Learning and Retention of Meaningful Verbal
Material,” Journal of Educational Psychology 51, no. 1 (1960): 267–72.
13 Monroe Beardsley, Aesthetics from Classical Greece to the Present (Tuscaloosa, AL: The University of
Alabama Press, 1966).
14 Bertrand Russell, Wisdom of the West (London: Rathbone Books, 1959).
15 Deborah Bradley, “Good for What, Good for Whom? Decolonizing Music Education Philosophies,” in
The Oxford Handbook of Philosophy in Music Education, ed. Wayne Bowman and Anna Lucía Frega
(New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 409–33. Peter Manuel and Stephen Blum, “Classical Aes-
thetic Traditions of India, China, and the Middle East,” in The Routledge Companion to Philosophy and
Music, ed. Theodore Gracyk and Andrew Kania (New York: Routledge, 2011), 245–56.
16 C.  S. Lewis, The Four Loves (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1960), 71.
17 Jacob Riis, The Making of an American. The Project Gutenberg EBook #6125, 1901/2004, 130–31.
[Link]
18 Plato, Apology, trans. Benjamin Jowett. The Project Gutenberg Ebook #1656, p. 90. [Link]
[Link]/ebooks/1656.
19 Bertrand Russell, The Problems of Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1912), 157.
20 Ibid., 161.
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