COMMUNICATION

SKILLS

S. K. Jha, Meena Malik

 COMMUNICATION SKILLS

S. K. Jha
Dairy Extension Division
NDRI, Karnal

Meena Malik
Research, Coordination and Management Unit
NDRI, Karnal
 Index
Module 1: Communication Process
Lesson 1 Concept, nature and significance of communication 5-9
Process
Lesson 2 Types of communication 10-14
Lesson 3 Models of communication 15-18
Lesson 4 Verbal and non-verbal communication 19-22
Lesson 5 Barriers to communication 23-24
Module 2: Basic Communication Skills
Lesson 6 Introduction to communication skills: Oral presentation 25-27
Lesson 7 Reading, listening and note-taking skills 28-32
Lesson 8 Writing skills: Field diary and laboratory record 33-36
Module 3: Technical Skills for Effective Communication
Lesson 9 Technical and scientific writing/reporting 37-42
Lesson 10 Forms of scientific and technical writing 43-46
Lesson 11 Features and style of technical writing 47-51
Lesson 12 Mechanics of style: Abbreviations; Footnotes; Indexing 52-58
and Bibliographic procedures
Lesson 13 Précis writing /Abstracting/Summarizing 59-62
Lesson 14 Curriculum Vitaé/Resumé writing 63-70
Module 4: Oral Communication and Organizational Skills
Lesson 15 Impromptu presentation and extempore 71-78
Lesson 16 Individual/group presentations; Group discussion 79-89
Lesson 17 Organizing seminar and conferences 90-112
Lesson 18 Public speaking 113-117
Module 5: Structural and Functional Grammar
Lesson 19 Sentence structure 118-123
Lesson 20 Modifiers, connecting words and verbals; Phrases and 124-130
clauses
Lesson 21 Case: Subjective case; Possessive case; Objective case 131-136
Lesson 22 Correct usage of Nouns 137-141
Lesson 23 Correct usage of Pronouns and Antecedents 142-145
Lesson 24 Correct usage of Adjectives 146-151
Lesson 25 Correct usage of Adverbs 152-154
Lesson 26 Correct usage of Articles 155-160
Lesson 27 Agreement of Verb with the subject: Tense, Mood, Voice 161-171
Lesson 28 Effective Sentences 172-177
Lesson 29 Basic Sentence Faults 178-180
Reference 181
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Module 1. Communication process

Lesson 1
BASICS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

1.1 Introduction

Communication is a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, opinions, facts, feelings
or expressions in a way that each gain a common understanding of the message being
communicated. In fact, we cannot imagine life without communication; since it is an in-built
function helping us in our day-to-day activities. In this chapter, various aspects of communication
have been dealt with, the details of which are given as below:
Communication process is a continuous and life-long process. It is a dynamic, constantly moving,
ever-changing and on-going process.

Basic purpose of communication= Creation of MEANING

1.2 Meaning

Meaning exists in the mind of the PEOPLE, but not in the WORDS! In fact, communication
vehicles (viz. words, symbols signs) don’t have meaning in/of themselves, but people have
meaning for them!! Moreover, MEANINGS aren’t TRANSMITTABLE in nature!!

1.2.1 Types of meaning

· DENOTATIVE
• STRUCTURAL
• CONTEXTUAL
• CONNOTATIVE

1.2.1.1 Denotative meaning

= Word-Object relationship

= Sign-Object relationship (e.g. +,-,×, , /, ( ), etc.)

DICTIONARY/DESCRIPTIVE MEANING (exception: Exact meaning of the

word
APPLE / MANGO cannot be understood in totality, when English-to-English dictionary
will be consulted, unless it’s accompanied by the picture!)

1.2.1.2 Structural meaning

(SIGN-SIGN Relationship)

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1.2.1.3 Contextual meaning

· e.g. MENTAL ABILITY TEST(S) of BANKS(s).

X Y Z = Mango is fruit.
I E Y = I eat Mango.
Y = Mango

* Different MEANING in different CONTEXT

e.g. (Sanction; Lie; Right; Cook; Labour;

Address ; General ; Bear; Dear; Left; Light; Bat; Pen; Well, etc.)
1.2.1.4 Connotative meaning

· WORDS may have VALUE or Extremely PERSONAL meaning (s), in this case.

· PERSON-oriented in nature (e.g. WORDS like GOOD, BEAUTIFUL, PLEASANT, etc.)

e.g. she is a Beautiful Women! (It’s a JUDGEMENT. Judgments are sentences emphasizing
this meaning. )

· CONNOTATION is more PERSONAL, and it varies more among PEOPLE!!

e. g. The term “MY MOTHER” has the CONNOTATIVE MEANING based on SUM
TOTAL of all of our PREVIOUS EXPERIENCES (with):-

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(A) Our OWN mothers

(B) Other PEOPLE’S mothers, and

(C) All of the situations in which we have used or heard the word MOTHER.

It is, however, impossible for people to agree completely & unanimously on the CONNOTATIVE
MEANING of any word/ term!

1.3 Purpose(S) of Communication

· To inform (an appeal to MIND); viz. EDUCATION

· To Persuade (an appeal to SOUL/ Emotions); viz. PROPAGANDA
• To Entertain; viz. Entertainment programmes.

We are constantly trying to understand ourselves & other people (plus, things) around us through
communication! Hence, one can realize that how important it is to try to understand as much as
possible about the communication process in which one is totally involved now (presently) & will
be for the rest of (one’s) life!!
1.4 Significance of Communication

1.5 Ingredients of Communication

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1.6 Dimensions of communication

1.7 Nature of communication

It’s a process.
Dynamic; on-going; ever-changing; continuous act.
(No beginning, end, or fixed sequence of events.)
One can’t really “freeze” COMMUNICATION at any point of time!

It employs many means

It takes place by many means, at many levels, with many people, in many ways, for many reasons.

It involves interdependence
It’s a two way process, where constant reversal of role(s) is there. (Level of interdependence varies
from situation to situation.)

This process comprises of a no. of distinguishable parts

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It takes place ‘within’ participants

Individuals’ capabilities of organization and converting raw sensory data into functionally
consumable or processable units of information.
It takes place at many Levels

(Intrapersonal- Communication takes place within an individual;

Interpersonal- Between or among persons;
Intra-organization- Communication takes place within an organization; and
Inter- organization- Communication takes place between or among organizations).
Communication FIDELITY varies from one communication situation to another
Fidelity is the faithful performance of all the element of communication process. Perfect
communication is very rare and effectiveness of communication varies with situation.

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Module 1. Communication process

Lesson 2
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

2.1 Introduction

Aim of communication is to bring commonality of understanding of meaning between source and

receiver. There may be different types and methods of communication to achieve this aim. After going
through this chapter, the learners should be able to find out the importance and relevance of different
types of communication, as discussed here.

Basically, there happen to be following types of communication taking place in day-to-day life
situations:

• Mass Communication

• Inter personal Communication

• Group Communication

• Organizational Communication

2.2 Mass Communication

Mass Communication is directed towards a relatively large, heterogeneous and anonymous audience. The
specific features of this are:

· The message is addressed “TO WHOM IT MAY CONCERN” (from Communicator’s point of
view);

· RAPID in Nature: Since the messages are meant to reach a large audience within a relatively short
time, or even simultaneously. It is often timed to reach most audience-members, at the same time;

· TRANSIENT in Nature (an OLD CONCEPT), especially vis-à-vis

LIVE RECORDINGS/COVERAGES: Since messages are usually intended to be consumed
immediately; exception(s):- Cassettes Film/Radio Recording, Photographs, etc. (However, the
RECORDED VERSIONS of the concerned messages may be utilized, as and when required!)

· The individual member of the audience generally remains personally unknown to the
communicator; moreover, the target-audience may even be physically separated in terms of space;

· Lack of “Direct Interaction” between the source and receiver;

· Only one Source, at one point of time, is disseminating the message;

· Lack of instant feedback from the audience;

· More Coverage of Area is possible ;

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· More (perceived) CREDIBILITY in the eyes of the audience.

2.2.1 Mass Contact Methods

2.2.1.1 Campaigns

CAMPAIGN is an intensive teaching activity undertaken at an appropriate time, for a brief period,
focusing attention in a concentrated manner on a particular problem, so as to stimulate the widest possible
interest in the community. However, it cannot be organized for all kinds of improved practices. To be
successful:-

· It must be directed towards the solution of a problem being perceived by majority of the people.

· The problem, under focus, must be important to a large numbers of people; and, it should offer the
solution that they can and will accept.

· EMPHASIS on a SINGLE idea, at a time.

2.2.1.2 Exhibitions

A systematic display of models, specimens, charts, posters, etc. in a sequence, so as to convey some
significant information or idea in an easily understandable way to the onlookers.

2.2.1.3 Circular Letters

Specially prepared intimate letters, using a personal approach for a specific message, which are mailed to
a large number of farmers either periodically or on special occasions.

2.2.1.4 Extension Publications

PAMPHLET (may contain information on a numbers of related topics)

· Farm Radio Programmes/ Broadcasts

· T.V.

· Documentary Film Shows

· Farmers’ Fairs/ Kisan Mela

2.3 Interpersonal Communication

In this type of communication, each individual (involved) functions both as a SOURCE as well as
RECEIVER of message(s). It may be:

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· Between 2 persons

· Between several persons

· Between Persons to Group Communication (i.e. the PUBLIC SPEAKING)

2.3.1 Types of Interpersonal Communication

2.3.1.1 Personal Localite Sources/ Channels (e.g. family members, relatives, neighbours, local
progressive farmers and Interpersonal ommunicationother farmers within the same social setting/ locality)

2.3.1.2 Personal Cosmopolite Sources/ Channels (e.g. Subject Matter Specialists (SMS) working in
KVK, University Scientists, Local School teachers, Officials/ Personnel associated with Banks, Co-
operative societies, State Agricultural/ Animal Husbandry/ Dairy departments, Non-Governmental
Organization (NGO), etc.

2.3.2 Individual Contact Methods

· Farm & Home Visits (i.e. door-to-door type of visit)

· Personal Letters/E-mail/Facsimile(FAX)/Telegram

· Farmers’ (individual) call being attended by Ext. worker.

· Telephone: Landline & Mobile

· Advisory/ Consultancy Letters/Services

2.4 Group Communication

It possesses at least 3 characteristics common to Interpersonal Communication, viz:

· Face-to-face in nature.

· Communication is “discontinuous” discourse; i.e. people speak alternately, which means that all the
members of the group are both source as well as receiver.

· Probability of “Influence” of one person upon another.

In Group Communication, it is possible for an individual member to determine the needs of the other
members of the group and to adapt to them to that effect, more easily!

2.4.1 Group Contact Methods

· Lectures

· Group Discussions / Group Meetings

· Conduct Farm / Field Tours

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· Method Demonstrations

· Result Demonstrations

· Quizzes

· Questionnaire

· Seminar / Symposium / Conference, etc.

· RRA ( Rapid Rural Appraisal: A technique to assess the situations prevailing at the field level,
wherein a group of Subject Matter Specialists visits the farmers in their field conditions at their
village itself for a very brief period of time, in order to get their feedback regarding problems/
constraints existing at the ground level.)

· PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal: A technique to assess the situations prevailing at the field
level, wherein a group of Subject Matter Specialists visits the farmers in their field conditions at
their village itself, in order to get their feedback regarding problems/ constraints existing at the
ground level, while involving the villagers as stakeholders vis-à-vis finding appropriate solutions
in a participatory mode. This method usually takes a longer period of time to accomplish the
assigned task. )

· Brain storming ( A creative technique, wherein every participant is free to give the wildest of the
idea or thought or solution regarding the topic being discussed.)

· Delphi-technique ( A flexible forecasting and/ or decision-making technique, wherein the help &
co-operation of a group of experienced people is sought out to arrive at any appropriate/
reasonable decision.)

2.5 Organisationl Communication

· Communication is the “life and blood” of any organization, and it occupies a strategic place in
development / administration.

· Performance of any Organization (Administration) can be adjudged on the basis of effectiveness

and efficiency of its COMMUNICATION system.

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Classification of Organization / Administrative Communication (on the basis of FUNCTION; as given by
THAYER, 1961):-

A) INFORMATIVE COMMUNICATION (e.g. Circular)

B) INSTRUCTIVE COMMUNICATION (e.g. Memo)

C) EVALUATIVE COMMUNICATION (e.g. Confidential Report)

D) PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION (e.g. Explanation)

2.5.1 Communication Behaviour (in organization)

· A well-established communication network in any organization is not a guarantee of effective

communication! For instance ,merely organizing frequent conferences and meetings, or sending out
so many circulars, reports can’t help the people-------rather, their knowledge, attitude and
willingness alone can make the communication process ‘failed’ or ‘successful’!!

· People in any organization attach meaning according to their taste & liking in the communicated
messages!

And, always remember that a good communicator is a good listener too!

· Informal communication can be a great source for maintaining the health of the administration! e.g.
Get-together, Picnic, Social calls, Tea-clubs, etc.

· For effective communication, the common frame of reference between the communicator and the
receiver in any organization is an essential condition, viz. In order to communicate with the students,
the teachers must bring themselves down to the level of knowledge, understanding and
comprehension of the students.(i.e. sine qua non)

· A better communicator is one who has respect for the facts, and is willing to share them with people
who can make good use of those facts! That means,

(i) No communication without CONTENT / FACTS / IDEAS.

(ii) FACTS / CONTENT alone can’t neutralize one’s lack of communication skills.

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Module 1. Communication process

Lesson 3
MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

3.1 Introduction

• Models may be used to show the size, shape or relationship of various parts or components of an
object or process. A model useful in explaining the working of a system.

• Models are often a useful way to examine the working of a phenomenon, such as: communication,
because they minimize, simplify, highlight major facts of a theory!  

• MODELS are symbolic representations of structures, object or operations.

• Models are useful “Theoretical Constructs” that are frequently used in social sciences for explanatory
purpose.

3.2 Model given by Aristotle (385-322 B.C.)

Mention about the importance of COMMUNICATION (SPOKEN WORDS) in the OLD TESTAMENT (of
Bible).

COURT-ROOM SPEAKING (i.e. legal public speaking) in GREECE. (Greek citizens also had to be their
own lawyers!)

3.3 MODEL given by LASSWELL (1948)

“WHO says WHAT to WHOM in WHAT CHANNEL with WHAT EFFECT?”

3.4 Model given by SHANNON AND WEAVER (1949)

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According to them, “Nature  of  the  Communication  Process: Communication will be used, here, in a very
broad sense to include all the procedures by which one mind may affect another’s. This, of course, involves
not only written and oral speech, but also MUSIC, the PICTORIAL ARTS, the THEATRE, the BALLET,
and in fact all Human Behaviour”.

3.4.1 NOISE

The label for any distortion that interferes with the transmission of a signal from the source to the
destination.

e.g. a) Sound / Static on a RADIO / TELEPHONE

b) Image / Picture distortion on T.V.

c) Rain-soaked pages of a newspaper

The Receiver is a sort of inverse transmitter, changing the transmitted signal back into message, and handing
this message on to the destination.

e.g. When I talk to YOU; my brain is the information source, your brain is the destination; my VOCAL
system is the transmitter, and your EAR is receiver. Transmitter changes this message into the signal,
which is actually sent over the Communication channel from the Transmitter to the Receiver.

3.5 MODEL given by Schramm (1954)

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SOURCE = An individual (speaking / writing/ Drawing/ Gesturing)

= Communication organization (Radio station / T.V. station / Publishing

house)

DESTINATION= An individual (Listing / Watching /Reading)

= A GROUP ( or audience /football crowd)

3.6 Berlo’s Model (1960)

Basic elements of this model are source, message, channel and receiver. According to this model, sources
encode messages and send it through channel and then receiver decodes the message. Thus commonality is
achieved between source and receiver.

3.7 LEAGAN’S Model (1963)

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Module 1. Communication process

Lesson 4
VERBAL & NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

4.1 Introduction

The process of communication has got two dimensions : verbal as well as non-verbal. If we really
think and have an introspection, seriously vis-a-vis our day-to-day communication, then we are
bound to find that more than three-fourth of our time is consumed in non-verbal commnication
only. In this section , both these aspects of communication have been discussed.

4.2 Verbal Communication

For knowing the details about verbal communication, the students are advised to refer to Chapter 6
(section 6.1) as well as Chapter 15 (sections 15.1, 15.2 & 15.3).

4.3 Non-verbal Communication

Non-verbal communication refers to:

· GESTURES,

· POSTURES,

· FACIAL EXPRESSIONS,

· SYMBOLIC CLOTHING, and Similar Other Phenomena, like:

4.3.1 Types of Non-verbal Communication

(a) Facial Expressions (including EMOTIONS, Viz. Happiness, Fear, Sadness, Anger,
Contempt and Surprise)

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(b) Eye behaviour

(c) Kinesics (study of body movement)

4.3.1.1 Classes of Specified body expressions

(a) Emblems

(e.g. Putting/Pointing an Index Finger to One’s Lips)

(b) Illustrations

(e.g. Pointing to someone, while shouting his/her name; Describing the

Height/Thickness/Dimensions of Something with the help of Hands, etc.)

(c) Regulators

(viz. GAZES, NODS, RAISED EYE-BROWS, etc.)

(d) Affect displays

(“Body-Changes” that convey our Internal Emotional States; e.g. Angry states, Wide- eyed
Fear, Trembling Hands, Knocking knees, etc.)

(e) Body manipulators

(e.g. Scratching an Itch; Rubbing the eyes, etc.

(e) Personal appearance

(f) Clothing

(h) Touching

(i) Proxemics

(Study of spatial factors, viz. How we react to the SPACE around Us; How we react to the
SPACE; and How our use of SPACE; etc. Communicates Certain
Information.)

(i) Spatial ZONES of Interpersonal Communication

(a) Intimate Distance (From Actual Contact to 18”)

(b) Personal Distance (

(c) Social Distance (

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(d) Public Distance (

(ii) Territoriality

The need to call SPACE “OUR SPACE”! (e.g. To put a “Handkerchief” on a seat in order to
state out one’s SPACE in a Bus/Train.)

(iii) Seating arrangements

(j) Paralanguage (variations in the voice)

· It’s a LANGUAGE alongside of LANGUAGE.

· It includes VOCAL CHARACTERISTICS, such as, PITCH, RANGE,

TEMPO, RESONANCE & QUALITY and various VOCAL SOUNDS, such
as, GRUNTS, GROANS & CLEARING OF THE THROAT.

(k) Smell & taste

(l) Environmental factors

(viz. Architecture; Objects; Colours; Time; Music; etc.)

Note :

For a more EXHAUSTIVE CLASSIFICATION of NON-VERBAL SIGNS, four broad

Categories can be used:

4.3.1.2 Performance codes

Wherein NON-VERBAL SIGNS emanate from BODILY ACTIONS, viz.

· Facial Expressions

· Eye-Movement

· Gestures

· Body Posture

· Tactile (the Sense of Touch/Contact)

· Olfaction (the sense of SMELL)

A special Sub-Category of PERFORMANCE CODES encompasses PARA-

LINGUISTIC Phenomena, such as:

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· Voice quality

· Sighs

· Yawns

· Laughter

· Grunts, etc.

4.3.1.3 Artifactual codes (Artifact=Artefact)

ARTIFACT is a thing made by people, especially a tool or a weapon of historical interest.

· Manipulation of Dress

· Cosmetics

· Furnishings

· Art objects

· Status symbols

· Architecture, etc.

4.3.1.4 Mediational codes

Where NON-VERBAL SIGNS arise from Selections, Arrangements and Inventions within the
MEDIA; e.g.

· An Editor can crop a photograph in various ways(viz. He can select a photo or a drawing;
He can choose Black and White or Colored Photograph; etc.)

· A FILM-MAKER can select close-up or Long shot; He can add music or sound effects; He
can Re-arrange his shots into a new syntax.

4.3.1.5 Contextual codes

Where NON-VERBAL SIGNS arise in the use of TIME and SPACE COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS, and in the arrangements of COMMUNICATORS and their ARTEFACTS.

Temporal= Relating to the affairs of the world e.g. Politics of this Life; Not spiritual

= Of or relating to TIME

= Of the Temple(s) of the Head e.g. Rang De Basanti (Picture)

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Module 1. Communication process

Lesson5
BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION

5.1 Introduction

Anything that prevents understanding of the message is a barrier to communication. Many

physical and psychological barriers exist, e.g. culture, background, bias, noise, perception,
message, environment, and stress etc. Sender sends the message, which goes through the channel,
but it is exposed to above barriers and is then received by the receiver. These barriers muffle the
message and it can be overcome through active listening and feedback.

5.2 Concerned with Communicator

· Ineffective Environment, viz. Physical facilities; respect & appreciation of others’ views;
Rapport-building with audience; etc.

· Disorganised efforts to communicate, ( “Planning done” is half-work done!)

· Hotch-potch at the eleventh hour! (e.g. Some specific Norms/values or set of

rules/regulations or organized way of communication should exist.)

· Standard of social responsibilities, i.e. one must assume the responsibility for the effect of
one’s communication on the respondent (as well as the society).

· Knowledge about Social organisation & its Cultural Values, i.e. possessing the attribute of
EMPATHY (It is the ability of an individual to put himself in the other peoples’
condition).

· Wrong Concept of COMMUNICATION Process, i.e. one’s Notion/timing about

COMMUNICATION will affect the overall quality.

5.3 Concerned with Transmission of Message

· Wrong handling of the COMMUNICATION Channels(s).

· Wrong selection of the COMMUNICATION Channel(s).

· Physical Distraction or NOISE.

· Use of improper Combination of COMMUNICATION Channels.

5.4 Concerned with Receiver

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· Attention of the Listeners/Audience (towards message)

· Knowledge about the subject-matter or the topic being discussed

· Lack of Co-operation, Participation & Involvement.

· Homogeneity- Heterogeneity

· Lack of comprehension

· “Too large” audience

· Attitude towards Communicator (i.e. Perceived CREDIBILITY)

· Standard of correctness, (selection of appropriate MESSAGE) i.e; use of correct language,

appropriate words/symbols/content/facts etc.

5.5 According to Types of Problems

· TECHNICAL (especially during the process of transmission of message from the Source
to Receiver; Noise)

· SEMANTIC (i.e. Discrepancy in the interpretation of meaning—between Sender &

Receiver)

· INFLUENTIAL (Concerned with effectiveness of the message—particularly in terms of

Response received from the receiver.)

5.6 According to Nature of Problems

· PHYSICAL viz. Speech & voice defects, faulty body language(s) (i.e. Gestures &
Postures).

· PSYCHOLOGICAL viz. Nervousness, stage- brightness, Perception conceptual problem

(about the topic being discussed), attitudinal differences, etc.

· CULTURAL viz. differences between the culture/ religion/ caste & other background of
speaker(s) and the audience; etiquettes & manners;
Norms/values/beliefs/Customs/Taboo/Mores

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Module 2. Basic communication skills

Lesson 6
ORAL PRESENTATION SKILLS

6.1 Introduction

An individual has to interact with other members of the society throughout the life; and, herein
lies the importance of possession of communication skills. These communication skills may range
from oral to listening; writing to reading and note-taking. The details of oral presentation skills
have been discussed in this lesson.

6.2 Oral Presentation Skills

Oral presentation is one of the instructional methods of teaching. Effective speaking demands a
high level of skill in oral presentation of material and fullest compression on the part of instructor.
Presentation is the practice of showing and explaining the content of a topic to an audience or
learner. Presentations come in nearly as many forms as there are life situations. In the business
world, there are sales presentations, informational and motivational presentations, first encounters,
interviews, briefings, status reports, image-building, and of course, the inevitable training
sessions.

6.2.1 There are some effective tips for oral presentation:

6.2.1.1 Make your speech purposive

Any speech you make must have some purpose to entertain, amuse, instruct, interact, sell an idea
or product, or ask for some action.

6.2.1.2 Give brief introduction

In case audiences are strange, then introduce yourself, but avoid unnecessary information.

6.2.1.3 Know the audience

Make your presentation to audience's level of knowledge about the subject of your presentation,
what they need to know, and their interest. There are far more types of audiences because
audiences have innumerable flavors. They may ask you as an individual to address a room full of
factory operations, managers who have no choice but to attend their talk, you then may go before
a congressional committee looking into various environmental issues. When an individual stands
up to deliver a presentation before an audience, it’s essential that the audience know who the
presenter is, why they are there, what specifically they expect to get from your presentation, and
how they will react to your message.

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6.2.1.4 Be prepared

Develop good command over language as well as the subject. Practice your presentation until you
feel comfortable. Make sure you can present your information within limited time frame.
Anticipate questions you may be asked and prepare answers to these.

6.2.1.5 Don't read your presentation

Talk to your audience. Use your notes as prompts as needed. Reading a speech is never preferred.
It is better not to speech at all than to read a speech, regardless of how useful, well prepared and
eloquent it may be.

6.2.1.6 Don’t make excuses

Many-a-times, we may notice, a speaker making a beginning by saying, “I am sorry, I have not
come prepared to speak on the topic, because……” . Really, you are not prepared, no need to
announce it in public speaking, because audience never notices it.

6.2.1.7 Arouse the interest of the audience

Always speak in terms of what the audience wants and what you want. Opening should be
effective for making your presentation a success.

6.2.1.8 Maintain eye-contact

Shift your eye-contact around the room, so that everyone feels that you are talking to them.

6.2.1.9 Use of proper gesture, posture and body movement

Nonverbal communication plays a vital role in transfer of message. So, for effective presentation
your gesture, posture and body movement should match with your verbal communication.

6.2.1.10 Be fluent

Fluency is one of the most important parameter for effective communication. Without a smooth
flow of speech, you are handicapped as a speaker.

6.2.1.11 Be positive

Make it clear that you are knowledgeable and enthusiastic about your subject.

6.2.1.12 Provide Examples

Try to make your presentation as concrete and "down to earth" as possible. Add appropriate
examples and humor for effective understanding.

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6.2.1.13 Use visual aids

Supplement what you say with visual aids such as handouts, charts, transparencies, and slides.
Make sure that everyone can easily see the visual aids. Don't use visual aids that are so complex
that the audience will spend its time trying to read them instead of listening to you. Visual aids are
supplements to what you say, not replacements for what you say. Skillful use of properly selected
visuals makes your presentation easier and more effective.

6.2.1.14 Actively involve your audience

People can only listen so long without their attention wandering. Making your presentation
interesting will help you to capture and keep your audience's attention for a while, but you must
do more. Build in some simple and quick activities for your audience so that they are actively
involved in your presentation. Ask questions that you are confident your audience will be able to
answer.

6.2.1.15 Use repetitions, pauses and variation in voice

Vary the tone of your voice and be careful not to talk too quickly. Repetition pauses and variations
in voice for emphasis are desirable in oral presentation.

6.2.1.16 Stop before your audience wants you to stop

You must come to an early and appropriately end after reaching the climax. Make it a point to stop
at a time, when audience feels you should stop.

6.2.1.17 Have a smooth ending

Do not end your speech suddenly and abruptly. At the end, conclude your talking.

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Module 2. Basic communication skills

Lesson 7
LISTENING AND NOTE-TAKING

7.1 Introduction

In this lesson, the students would be provided some kind of orientation vis-à-vis Listening and Note- taking,
wherein the students of this course will be getting some basic ideas and approaches pertaining to these two
afore-said skills which happen to be the integral components of Basic Communication Skills.

7.2 The Hearing-Listening Distinction

Hearing, which is only one part of the listening process, refers to the physical act of receiving sounds. It is a
passive process that occurs when we are in sleep. Listening on the other hand is work. It means not only
hearing but also paying attention and understanding.

7.3 Types of Listening

· ACTIVE Listening

· PASSIVE Listening

· APPRECIATIVE Listening (e.g. Musical/Cultural Programmes)

· CONVERSATIONAL Listening (It implies a constant exchange in the roles of SPEAKER &
LISTENER)

· COURTEOUS Listening

· CRITICAL Listening (In the term of analysis and evaluation w.r.t. LOGIC, TRUTH, etc.)

· DISCRIMINATIVE Listening( e.g. Students taking NOTES in a class)

7.4 Stages of Listening Process

There are six stages of listening given as below:

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7.4.1 Hearing

It refers to the response caused by sound waves stimulating the sensory receptors of the ear. Therefore, the
reception of sound waves, which we know as hearing, does not mean that there is any conscious perception
of what is being heard.

7.4.2 Attention

Our senses are constantly bombarded by countless stimuli from the world around us. However, your brain
screens these stimuli and permits only a few to come into focus. This selective perception is known as
attention.

7.4.3 Understanding

Hearing and perceiving a sound are not enough to enable meaningful messages to be received. The next step
understands the symbols we have seen and heard. To do this, we must analyze the meaning of the stimuli we
have perceived.

7.4.4 Remembering

Remembering is important to the listening process because it means that an individual has also added it to
the mind’s storage bank.

7.4.5 Evaluating

It is at this point that the active listener weighs evidence, sort fact from opinion, and determines the presence
or absence of bias or prejudice in a message.

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7.4.6 Responding

This stage of the process requires that the receiver complete the process through verbal and/or nonverbal
feedback.

7.5 (A) Factors Affecting Listening

· Environmental Setting

· The Message Source (vis-à-vis Speaker’s Image/Reputation/Credibility, etc.)

· The Message

· Channel

· The Listener: (a) Listener’s Attitude (b) Listener’s Needs (c) Listening Habits

7.6 (A) Tips for Effective Listening

· Look for Benefits/Opportunity from your point of view

· Judge the content(not the appearance or delivery-style of speaker)

· Avoid making a judgement until the message is complete

· Listen for Central Themes or Ideas

· Take fewer notes

· Work hard to Listen

· Resist Distractions

· Seek out difficult material rather than avoid it

· Keep an open mind when incorporating an emotional word with which you are comfortable

· Listen “between the lines” (by remembering that THOUGHT is FASTER than SPEECH!)

7 (B) NOTE-TAKING

Note-taking is the practice of recording information captured from a transient source, such as an oral
discussion at a meeting, or a lecture. Notes of a meeting are usually called minutes. The format of the initial
record may often be informal and/or unstructured. One common format for such notes is shorthand, which
can allow large amounts of information to be put on paper very quickly. Note-taking is an important skill for
students, especially at the college level. Many different formats are used to structure information and make
it easier to find and to understand, later. There are a number of different ways to take notes, and it is
desirable that you use the method you feel most at ease with.

7.1 (B) General Guidelines

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· Use white space to separate major ideas.

· Try to limit your notes to one concept or section per page.

· Use abbreviations and/or symbols wherever possible to avoid long sentences.

· Write down the information in your own words.

7.2 (B) Methods of Note-Taking

The Cornell Method: The Cornell Method is based on two columns: one containing the keyword or
concept, and the other containing the description or notes associated with the keyword or concept. This
method can be used while listening to the lecturer. In the right hand column, you can list the main ideas or
write a paragraph and then on the left hand side note the keyword or concept that relates to your section of
notes. At the bottom of the page you should write paragraphs summarizing the information contained in the
notes.

The Outlining Method: This method involves writing a series of topics and sub-topics, and identifying
them by indenting the text, numbering the lines, or using a dash or bullet point.

Mind Mapping: A mind map is a diagram in which ideas, concepts and images are linked together around a
central concept, keyword or idea. The sub-concepts may be organized into sub-groups or branches with
more important concepts closer to the central core.

Charting Method: Charting is effectively a table of rows and columns. The top row normally classifies the
concept with descriptions or keywords listed in the row below. This method enables you to quickly identify
facts and their relationships with other information.

The Sentence Method: With this method, you simply write every new concept or topic on separate line.
You can also number the information if you wish. It is recommended that you use some form of visual aid
to group related points together.

7.3 (B) Note-Taking Tips for Students:

Taking notes in class is one of the most effective ways to understand the material being presented in class.
Unless you have a photographic mind, you'll need to learn this important skill. Follow these general
guidelines mentioned as below:

Come to class prepared: Always bring enough paper and a writing instrument of your choice to class.

Start a new page for each new class: Put the date on the top of the first page. This way, you will know
where the notes for each class begin, which will help you keep the material organized. Consider keeping
your notes organized in their own binder.

Don’t try to write down every word your teacher says: You will not be able to, even if you can write
very fast. More importantly, in trying to do so, you will miss the overall point your teacher is trying to make.

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Write down the big ideas: Listen for facts, connections, and main ideas. This may take a while to get used
to, because you will need to divide your attention between listening to the teacher (or other students) and
writing your notes. Don’t get frustrated. In time, this will become easier.

Use abbreviations for commonly occurring names and words: You can develop your own abbreviations,
so long as you don’t forget what they stand for.

Leave lots of room on the page: When writing, leave ample space between ideas. This is like pausing before you begin a new
sentence. Your notes will much easier to read, and you’ll have space to add information later on, if needed. Don’t try to cram everything
onto one piece of paper.

Use diagrams and pictures wherever necessary: Sometimes it is helpful to draw pictures that illustrate the
connections between ideas, sequences, or events. Don’t be afraid to draw pictures that will help you
understand the material.

Write down corresponding page numbers from your textbook: Teachers often use the textbook to refer
to ideas you’re learning in class. Recording the page number of corresponding ideas and homework
assignments can come in handy later on.

Review your notes for accuracy: It’s a good idea to look over your notes sometime after class for accuracy
and completeness. Consider doing this just before doing your homework to get yourself back in the mindset
of the material.

Obtain notes for missed classes: Sometimes it’s unavoidable to miss class, but that shouldn’t stop you
from getting notes for it. Consider forming a partnership with another student at the beginning of class on
whom you can rely (and, who can rely on you too !) for notes when a class is missed. Your teacher may also
be willing to share his or her notes with you.

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Module 2. Basic communication skills

Lesson 8
WRITING SKILLS

8.1 Introduction

For effective communication among various factors communication skills of both source and
receiver are important. Communication skills encompass verbal and non-verbal communication
skill. Writing skills are of prime importance in written communication.

8.2 Characteristics of Good Writing

· Appropriate and Need-based from intended audience’s view-point.

· Use of simple language.

· Use of shorter sentences.

· Use of comprehensible words, phrase etc.

· Accuracy/Correctness.

· Clarity & Brevity.

· Use of relevant/appropriate EXAMPLES for making things clear.

8.3 Writing of Field-Diary and Laboratory Records

8.3.1 Field-Diary

The study of plants and animals in their natural environment requires observations at all levels of
organization from an individual organism to the ecosystem, and includes behaviour, life history,
traits, distribution, abundance, habitat, landscape and all kinds of interrelationships. The field
diary is the naturalist/ecologist's record of all of these matters as they present themselves to the
observer.

A field-diary is a permanent record of observations and, if it is to fulfill its purpose, it should be

useful and comprehensible to others, perhaps long after the author is dead. The field-diary is also
a workbook in which your observational skills are repeatedly and continuously tested and
sharpened.

8.3.1.1 A standard field-diary

The standard field- diary consists of three components:

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a) Diary

The field-diary is the nucleus of your field-records. It is a precise daily account of your
many observations, and it should be given high priority, even when you are short of time
or exhausted. A narrative diary of daily observations, including locality information,
weather and conditions and species lists.

b) Species accounts

“Species accounts” are organized, so that:

i) All references to, and notes about, a particular species appear in one place, and

ii) There are not long accounts and details of species scattered & virtually inaccessible,
in the journal.

· If you want to know everything you noted about a particular species you don't have to
wade through pages of daily journal to find the reference; each species will have a page to
itself.

Catalogue

A systematic and sequential list of all captures and collections, including reference numbers. The
standard field-diary is written up directly, without transcribing field notes, but this requires a
discipline and a life-style which is not reasonable to expect on a trip like ours. You should,
therefore, take rough notes during the day in a FIELD NOTEBOOK, and organize and transcribe
those notes in the evening.

8.3.1.2 Equipment

The field - diary and species accounts should be written in black, water-proof, fade-proof pigment
ink on one side of good quality paper. An ideal size is about 8.5" x 5.5" (8.6 x 14 cm), or about half the
size of a regular letter sheet, but you may use a slightly larger format if you prefer. The paper
should be ruled with horizontal blue lines about 7 mm apart. You will need a left margin, but it is
better to rule this yourself. Loose leaf sheets have the advantage that can be sorted and
appropriately ordered in a binder (and you can easily discard your mistakes), but if you use a
bound notebook the sheets won't get lost or blown away. The journal pages are consecutive, and
each page must be numbered.

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8.3.2 Laboratory Records

Laboratory-records & notebooks, if used properly, can serve as the basis of conception of ideas.
They can also serve to help in patent prosecution by enabling the scientists to swear behind a cited
reference.

8.4 General Guidelines for Keeping Lab-records & Notebooks

• Do use a bound notebook.

• Do explain acronyms, trademarks, code or unfamiliar jargon.

• Do attach to your lab notebook loose notes, e-mails, letters, graphs, figures and charts
containing any part of conception of an idea or result of an experiment.

• Do title, sign and date each attachment, as well as each laboratory notebook page.

• Do record the objective of an experiment as well as the results obtained in as much detail as
possible.

• Do record thoughts, conversations, lab meeting discussions, oral reports and discussions, as
well as wild speculations and future plans.

• Record all the original data in the bound laboratory notebook and NOT on scratch paper. Be
sure to include what is being measured as well as the correct units. Any data that appears to
be useless or wrong, draw a single line through so it is still readable. After careful analysis,
you may find that the measurement is valuable.

• Anything that is calculated should be documented along with the method of calculation and
the formula used to obtain the answer. Make sure that you pay close attention to significant
figures.

• Do write in the active voice.

• Do report completed experiments in the past tense.

• Do give cross references to previous experiments and/or projects.

• Do use a table of contents to provide cross references.

• Do keep your lab notebook under lock and key when you are not in the lab.

• Do track and save completed lab notebooks.

• Do not use binders, loose leaf or spiral notebooks.

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• Do not blot out or erase mistakes.

• Do not modify the data.

• Do not rip pages out.

• Do not skip pages.

• Do not leave a page blank.

• Do not use words such as "obvious" or "abandoned" as they have tremendous legal
significance.

8.5 Some Tips for Electronic Notebooks

· Do clearly define what you/your laboratory mean by electronic notebooks. To some, data
generated on a computer and affixed to a paper notebook is an electronic notebook. To
others, saving data on the desktop or hard drive of their computer is an electronic
laboratory notebook.

· Do adopt an official procedure for electronic record keeping. Who will be the custodian of
the electronically stored data? Is there a back-up?

· Do back-up and write-protect all electronic data.

· Do retain all electronic copies for the duration of the appropriate document retention
period.

· Do store your electronic notebook contents on unchangeable mediums, e.g.,CD-R, or in

an electronic archive that cannot be modified.

· Do restrict access to the electronic notebook using key and screen locks, and/or
passwords.

· Do associate the identity of each author and/or witness with each record automatically.

· Do not create and store records randomly on disks, desktops, or hard drives.

· Do not store records on media that have limited shelf-life.

· Do not allow access to the electronic records by unauthorized personnel.

· Do not rely on methods of dating your entries that can be altered.

· Do not alter any portion of an electronic document.

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Module 3. Technical skills for effective communication

Lesson 9
TECHNICAL WRITING

9.1 Introduction

Technical Writing/Reporting is a specialized branch of the field of communication.

Technical Writing is used in all fields of science, technology, agriculture,
engineering and social sciences. Any branch of knowledge requiring a systematic
study involves the use of scientific and technical writing for the purpose of
recording and reporting information. It is an art of recording information on
specialized fields accurately and effectively and passing it on to those who have to
use and process it. Technical writing uses structure, rather than the physical
presence of the writer, to achieve clarity. It has to be clear, simple and well ordered
communication to transmit the facts and findings.

9.2 Importance and Scope of Technical Reporting

9.2.1 Students

The typical undergraduate students regard the writing of reports as a dull and
superfluous chore. Consequently, they have little desire for instruction in technical
writing. One of the main reasons for this state of affairs is that the undergraduates-
particularly in their earlier years-seem to have very little to say. As they progress
through college and to graduate school or industry, they develop a body of
knowledge. At some time in their career, they acquire some information or some
idea that they want to pass on to others. This is when they need to acquire skills in
technical reporting.

9.2.2 Big organizations

The complexity of an organization increases exponentially with its size and soon
there is the need for written records and communications. Only through a full
exchange of information can the various divisions of large organization co-ordinate
their efforts effectively.

9.2.3 Small organizations

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But even a small organization has a vital need for accurate technical reporting. How
was a special part fabricated last year? How was a test performed? What are the
precautions to be observed with seldom used instrument? Written records furnish
authoritative answers to many questions as these, and increase the efficiency of
organization that maintains vigorous reporting procedure.

9.2.4 Scientific organizations

In many of the scientific organizations, particularly those doing experimental work

or research, the young employee’s chief communication with his superiors is
through his written (or oral) reports. Often the superior has no other criterion by
which to judge an employee’s work. Moreover, these scientific organizations do
nothing but investigation, testing, experimentation, or research. Their only tangible
product is the report. If they are to have anything to show for their efforts, they must
do thorough job of reporting.
Many industrial and research organizations nowadays place so much value on high
quality reports that they maintain separate editorial departments to write technical
report or to edit and polish them. Reports have achieved a recognized position of
importance in our technological world.

9.3 Functions of Technical Writing

Technical Reporting is different from creative writing because it deals with

scientific facts and does not present an imaginary view of reality. Scientific and
Technical Writing is objective in content and systematic in form. It is always
precise, exact, and to the point so that it may have the desired effect on the reader
and lead to the required action.

9.3.1 Education and research

Journals publish technical material on specialized fields and are circulated amongst
the scientists and scholars. All these writings must conform to the rules of scientific
and technical reporting so that they are properly understood and appreciated. All
types of articles such as Technical Articles; Semi-technical Articles; Popular
Articles; Research Papers and Dissertations ,Theses and Technical Bulletins are
covered under the ambit of Technical Writing.

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9.3.2 Industry/Service sector

The written word is very important at every stage of Industrial development.

Industrial reports are must for spread of latest advances in the vast field of Industry.
They provide guidance to Industrial concerns and keep us abreast of the Information
about the products coming out of the Industrial unit. Service manuals and guidance
manuals are efficient tools to provide specifications to the users. Technical Reports
include all kinds of reports such as Form Reports on a given proforma; Article
Reports, Formal Reports such as Annual Reports, Quarterly Reports; Manuals and
Formal Correspondence such as letters, memoranda etc

9.4 Format and Structure of Technical Reporting

The nature of the subject, the purpose of the scientific report and the reader for
whom the report is written determine the form and structure of the report. Every
written communication has a specific purpose and a specific audience. It should be
carefully planned and constructed to fit both.
Every scientific and technical communication has one certain clear purpose: to
convey information and ideas accurately and efficiently. The objective requires that
the communication be: (1) as clear as possible; (2) as brief as possible; and (3) as
easy to understood as possible.
Any communication, if it is to be effective and efficient, must be designed for the
needs and the understanding of a specific reader or group of readers. One must,
therefore, have adequate knowledge of the educational and professional background
of the readers. The language and style of the report depends, to a great extent, on the
academic and professional background of its readers. We need to have an idea of
what the reader expects from the report and his level of understanding. A reader
who is unfamiliar with the subject may find the level of the reporting too high. On
the other hand, attempting to explain every basic concept and obvious technical
terms to the reader who is already familiar with subject will make the report
unnecessarily tedious and boring. Writing should be aimed at the average reader, but
should also cater to those at either extreme of the range. It should interest the more
knowledgeable reader and be intelligible to the reader who is less familiar with the
subject.

9.4.1 The contents

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The subject of the report primarily determines the nature of the contents. Report
writing is meaningless when the writer is not clear about the subject of his report.
However, the detailed aspects of the contents are determined by the purpose for
which the report is written. Basic questions (5 Ws i. e. What, Why, Who, Where,
When, and How) need to be answered satisfactorily before one sets out to write the
report. The answers depend on the usefulness of the information to the reader and
his interest in the subject, the details of the work carried out, and the
recommendations and suggestions one intends making and their implications.

9.4.2 A framework for the parts

Any form of scientific writing always begins with the general statement about its
nature and scope. It should give background information, define the nature and
extent of the problem, explain the objectives and highlight the need for present
investigation.

9.4.3 Emphasis of the significant

The most common fault found in most of the scientific reports is the burial of the
really important and significant ideas under a mass of details. One must make a
conscious, planned effort to keep one’s key ideas uncovered.

9.4.4 Prominent position

Perhaps the most fundamental way of making an idea stand out is to put it in a
prominent position. The most prominent position in any report or paper is the very
beginning. Even though one has not yet led up it logically; one can often put across
one’s major thesis most effectively by stating it right at the start and later supplying
support for it. A secondary prominent position is the end, particularly in a short
communication.

9.4.5 Elimination of detail

One sure way to stress important information is to remove unessential material. On

the other hand, you may need to include a lot of details for record purposes. If you
do, you can usually put them into an appendix leaving your main discourse
uncluttered.

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9.4.6 Liberal use of subheads

Subheads make the structure of the exposition apparent. They help to supply the
reader with the frame work on which to fasten the parts. Subheads serve as
convenient and efficient signposts. They let the reader know that he has reached the
end of one subject and is about to begin a new one. When one is studying a long or
complicated exposition, the reader may have to go back and reread in order to
refresh his memory. He can find the material he is looking for very much more
easily if he is supplied with subheads.

9.4.7 Repetition

Psychologists tell us that children learn by repeated experience. The same process
works on even the sophisticated and highly educated scientists. If you want to be
sure that an idea does not fade into the background, repeat it. Say it over and over. If
you can say it in a different way each time, the repetition will be subtle and
therefore, palatable; but don’t shy away from the even bald, frank repetition, if your
point is important enough to warrant it.

9.4.8 Visual aids and tables

Visual aids-graphs, curves, drawings, diagrams, photographs often present

information in a striking and efficient manner. They can be used to reinforce and
emphasize key ideas.

9.4.9 Typography

Capital letters, larger type size, boldface and italics are all effective means of
emphasis, if not overused.

9.4.10 Specific Mention

It is all right to be explicit and say “This is a particularly important point,” or “This
is an important part of the report”. Such statements may be made along with the
material they refer to, or they may be made separately in a letter of transmittal or
preface.

9.5 Organisation of Scientific Reporting and Writing

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There is no precise formula for the organization of scientific reports. The material in
any report should be presented in an order that leads logically towards a conclusion
or conclusions. The various sections of the report are organized so that each of them
has its logical conclusions.
Almost every scientific communication should have three functional elements. This
does not mean that it should be divided by boundaries into three distinct parts. But
functionally it should have a beginning, middle and an end.
The beginning orients the reader and supplies him with background material, so that
he will see how the subject of the paper fits into the general scheme of things. It
prepares the reader for the main presentation of information-the middle. The
beginning is often called Introduction, which states the purpose of the investigation
and describes the basic scheme of the procedure or methods used. It orients the
reader by supplying as much historical background as necessary and then describing
the present problem. It may define the scope of the study, discussing limitations or
qualifications.
The middle is usually the longest part of the report. It can be organized in many
different ways:
– It tells what you did. (Description)
– It tells what you found out. (Results)
– It analyzes, interprets and discusses these results. (Discussion)
The end is sometimes labeled conclusions. It brings together the various subjects
that have been discussed and shows their relationships with each other and with
broader fields. It leaves the reader with some thoughts about one phase of it. This
end section makes the exposition come to a logical and an obvious termination.
It is commonly believed that in order to be objective, the scientific report must
present only facts, never opinion. However, engineers and scientists are employed
not only to discover facts but also to draw inferences from those facts and to make
decisions based on them. Therefore, the scientific report must often present the
judgment and opinions of its writer or his organization. But the opinion should be
impartial and based as soundly as possible on demonstrated facts.

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Module 3. Technical skills for effective communication

Lesson 10
FORMS OF SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNICAL WRITING

10.1 Introduction

Any branch of knowledge requiring a systematic study involves the use of scientific
and technical writing for the purpose of recording and reporting information.
Technical writing is used in all fields of science, technology, agriculture,
engineering, social sciences, and even the humanities. Therefore, many forms of
written communications fall within its range.
Scientific and technical writing may take the form of reports, articles, papers,
dissertations and theses, manuals, and correspondence. Mechanics of style and
techniques of technical writing are applied in all types of scientific and technical
writing. Several forms of scientific and technical writing are as follows:

10.2 Reports

A scientific and technical report may follow a pattern according to its purpose and
scope. The most important types of scientific and technical reports are form reports,
article reports, and formal reports such as research papers, dissertations and theses.
Form reports are made on given proformas designed especially by an organization
according to its specific requirements. The report writer has to fill in the columns
and give the required facts under different heads. It is a true statement of facts,
figure, or data, which form the basis for the evaluation of work in an institution or
organization. Such reports are quite common in the fields of technical education,
industry, and scientific research.
Article reports take the shape of technical articles. The use of headings and sub-
headings, tables and figures, charts and graphs, etc. is made for effective
communication of facts and findings. Related information may also be given in
appendices, if it cannot be integrated into the text of the report.
Formal reports involve big institutions, scientific organizations, and technical
establishments. Annual reports of institutions, formal reports of committees,
commissions, public and private enterprises fall under this category. A formal report

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takes the shape of a book and is divided into many chapter and sections. The writing
of this report requires a sound selection of facts and careful organization of subject
matter.

10.3 Articles

Scientific and technical writing often takes the shape of articles of varying length
and specific format. Such articles may communicate knowledge on a particular
subject for preservation and dissemination of ideas. These articles may be sub-
divided into three categories-technical, semi-technical, and popular.
Technical articles contain highly specialized information and involve the use of
technical vocabulary and scientific abbreviations, which are understood by experts
belonging to a particular discipline. These are published in specialized journals.
The scope of semi-technical articles is much broader as they can also be understood
and used by people working in similar disciplines. The use of technical vocabulary
and abbreviations is, therefore, reduced to the minimum. These articles are also
published in scientific journals but they have wider readership.
Popular articles on scientific and technological subjects are meant for the educated
people who are not specialists. The use of technical vocabulary and abbreviations is,
therefore, avoided. The emphasis is on easy and interesting communication of
information and not on complicated details. These articles are published in
periodicals and journals of common interest and are widely read.

10.4 Scientific/Research Papers

Scientific/Research papers are written and published reports describing original

research results. A scientific experiment, no matter how spectacular the result, is not
complete, until the results are published. In fact, the cornerstone of the philosophy
of science is based on fundamental assumption that original research must be
published. Only this way, new scientific knowledge be authenticated and then added
to the existing data base that we call science. Research papers are instrumental in
cross-fertilization of ideas in the fields of science, agriculture, and technology.
These papers are published separately or included in journals of research brought
out by universities and other educational institutions. The techniques of scientific
and technical writing are strictly observed in research papers.

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A scientific paper is primarily an exercise in organization. A scientific paper is, or

should be, highly stylized, with distinctive and clearly evident components parts.
Each scientific paper should have, in proper order, its Introduction, Materials and
Methods, Results and Discussion. “Good organization is the key to good writing”.
However, there have been several somewhat different systems of organization that
is preferred by some journals and some editors. The tendency towards uniformity is
increasing nowadays; the same order is being followed.

10.5 Dissertations and Theses

Dissertations are like research papers, but they are wider in scope and longer in size.
A dissertation is based on a student’s research on a particular subject. Like research
paper, it must conform to specific format requirement and should strictly follow the
rules of scientific and technical writing. A thesis is also based on the research work
of a student or a scholar. It often refers to the outstanding research work done by
scientists in various disciplines. While the term “dissertation” is modest in
connotation, the term “thesis” is high sounding; the former should, therefore, be
preferred while referring to the research work done by a student at the master’s or
doctoral level.

10.6 Manuals

It is a functional form of scientific and technical writing, which aims at attracting

the user’s attention and providing him with easy and accurate information and
guidance about methodology, experiments, a machine or a product. Information
brochures, instruction books, guidance manuals and style manuals contain useful
information for the users. All these publications require skill in scientific and
technical writing. Manuals should, therefore, be written with great care to have the
desired effect. The success of these manuals, to a great extent, depends on the
effectiveness of the information provided in these booklets. Many industrial
establishments engage experts to do this job.

10.7 Scientific Correspondence

Scientific communication may be in the form of correspondence between two

different organizations or within the same organization for vertical and horizontal
flow of scientific information. Both letters and memoranda are the two useful tools

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for scientific and technical communication. They help in recording technical

information, making and seeking recommendations on scientific and technical
matters, providing clarifications, co-ordinating projects, initiating action, and
meeting many other requirements of different institutions. All these forms of
scientific and technical writing are used by students, scientists, scholars,
administrators, and industrialists according to their specific needs.

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Module 3. Technical skills for effective communication

Lesson 11
FEATURES AND STYLE OF TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC WRITING

11.1 Introduction

Successful communication depends upon the correct use of language and a good
style of writing. One may learn the correct use of language, but has to cultivate a
good style of writing. The former concerns grammar, usage, spelling, capitalizations
and punctuation, the latter concerns the organization of ideas through proper
choice of words, arrangement of words into sentences, grouping of sentences into
paragraphs, sections and chapters. The use of abbreviations, approach to the reader,
idiom, use of visual aids, the format and layout of the report are all aspects of style.

11.2 Brevity, Clarity and Objectivity

Scientific and technical writing is different from literary writing in a number of

ways. Primarily, the aim of technical writing is to inform rather than to entertain.
Hence, the style of writing adopted is generally simple and concise. The primary
objective of Technical Writing is to transmit information briefly, clearly and
efficiently. Hence, Scientific and technical writing is objective in content and
systematic in form. It is always precise, exact, and to the point so that it may have
the desired effect on the reader and lead to the required action. Every written
communication has a specific purpose and a specific audience. It should be carefully
planned and constructed to fit both.

11.3 Use of Simple Language

The primary objective of Technical Writing is to transmit information briefly,

clearly and efficiently. This can be achieved only through simple, direct and
unadorned style. The first step towards a simple and clear style is to use simple
language. One must choose a short word rather than a long word, a plain and
familiar word rather than a fancy or unusual word and a concrete word rather than
an abstract word.

11.4 Choice of words

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The first and foremost objective of the technical report is to enable the readers grasp
its meaning quickly and accurately. This is possible only through proper choice of
words, which can enhance the readability and clarity of the message. To achieve this
objective, use of simple, plain and short words is recommended in technical writing.

a) The agreement was effected.

The agreement was made.

b) We expect to commence work on this project immediately.

We expect to start work on this project immediately.

11.4.1 The plain word or familiar word

• Everybody working near these tubes should be cognizant of the danger of

explosion.

• Everybody working near these tubes should be aware of the danger of

explosion.

11.4.2 The Concrete word

Concrete nouns name objects or things that can be perceived by the senses. Abstract
nouns name qualities, ideas or conditions that are conceptions of mind. Abstract
nouns tend to be general and vague. As a result, expressions that contain abstract
nouns are less forceful, less direct, less exact than their concrete counterparts.

• There is adequate access to the job for men and materials.

Men and materials can reach the job easily.

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• Production engineers have found direct control of this operation to be a

necessity.

Production engineers have found that this operation must be directly

controlled.

11.5 Avoid Verbosity (Wordiness)

For simple, clear style, eliminate from your writing every word that does not
contribute to the meaning or clarity of your message. Long-winded phrases should
be avoided. Don’t use words that add nothing. Don’t write “because of the fact
that”, if simple “because” will suffice. On the other hand, don’t eliminate so many
words that your writing reads like a telegram. If a word adds anything worthwhile to
your sentence in terms of meaning, grace rhythm, emphasis - let it remain. Remove
it if you don’t miss any of these.

· It is very correct that there are three unfilled vacancies in the directorate of
the company. (Omit)
· The work schedule in regard to the plant was drafted two months ago. (for)
· The wages vary in relation to the age and experience of the employee. (with)
· Owing to the fact that the wages were low, highly skilled workers left the
country. (Because)
· It should be noted that the factory will be closed on 31st May. (Omit)
· It is considered that the entire exercise appears to be a waste of time. (Omit)

11.6 Discreet Use of Jargons

Jargon encompasses all technical terms. Such terminology is useful and often
necessary in technical communication restricted to people working on the same or
similar subjects. Technical terms become jargon only when carelessly used for
wider audience. Jargon is a special language of a particular field or profession. We
can’t expect lawyers to say habeas corpus in English just because the rest of us
don’t understand. The Jargon of any given field is often the most efficient means of

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communication within that field. It becomes offensive when handy English

equivalents are available or people outside the field are expected to understand,
what is said.

11.7 Avoid Colloquial Diction

Colloquial diction is a language that reads like spoken English. In some contexts,
colloquial diction is perfectly appropriate. This is mostly used in fiction as
conversational lines for the characters and is considered as a private style. In Public
style or scientific reporting - Colloquial diction is not desirable. e.g. The president
was apparently unaware of his appointment with this real important guy in Moscow.

11.8 Avoid Cliché

A cliché is a trite (stale or stereotyped), overused expression or combination of

words. It is usually a tricky phrase that was fresh and vigorous when it was first
coined because it involved a certain surprise element. But when such a phrase is
used over and over again, it becomes so familiar that it loses all impact. Like an
overplayed phonograph, it is hardly even heard.
e.g. I was stopped dead in my tracks.
The ship of state is in troubled waters.
Education is what we’re all about.
Quality says it all.

11.9 Use of the Passive Voice

In the passive voice, the subject is the receiver of an action rather than the doer of it.
Passive voice is employed by writers when they want to evade or conceal the
responsibility for someone’s behaviour.
e.g. I regret to inform you that your application has been rejected.
As the passive voice is sometimes vague and less economical than the active voice,
good writers tend to avoid it except when it is genuinely useful. The passive voice
may be preferable, for example, when the real doer of an action is either unknown
or, in the context of a discussion, relatively important.

11.10 Use of Subordination

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A common failing of technical writers is the expression of ideas of unequal

importance in constructions that seem to give equal weight. Meaning can be grasped
more quickly and more easily if subordinate ideas are indicated and put in
subordinating constructions. A sentence should express the main thought in a
principal clause. Less important thoughts should be expressed in subordinate
clauses.
This machine has been imported from Japan and it is easy to operate.

ü This machine, which has been imported from Japan, is easy to operate.

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Module 3. Technical skills for effective communication

Lesson 12
MECHANICS OF STYLE; FOOTNOTES; BIBLIOGRAPHIC
PROCEDURES

12.1 Introduction

‘Mechanics of Style” includes use of abbreviations, capitalization, punctuation and

symbols is generally known as. “Mechanics of Style” is equally important and has a
bearing on the clarity of the writing. Besides the lesson contains some of the key
points related to Footnotes, Bibliographic Procedures and Précis writing.

12.2 Abbreviations and Symbols

Abbreviations and symbols used in scientific writing generally contribute to

economy of words and clarity. Abbreviations are curtailed versions of words.
Symbols need not always bear a direct relationship to the words (phrases) that they
present.
Symbols may be used to represent quantities, units of measurement, mathematical
operations, and objects and their components. Symbols of units are generally
standardized within each system of measurement. The International System of Units
(SI), has as standard set of units and symbols, which are used by and large in all the
countries that have adopted the metric system of measurement.
There are no absolute rules about abbreviations. However, there are certain
guidelines that you may follow in abbreviating names and technical terms.
In British English, the general rule about abbreviating words is that an abbreviation
should be suggestive of the source word.
A period is not used at the end of the abbreviated form of the word if the
abbreviation includes the last letter of the word; a period is used if the abbreviation
does not contain the last letter. e.g.
· Chem. for Chemistry or Chemical
· Memo. For Memorandum
· Mx for Middlesex
· dept. for department
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Exceptions: log (for logarithm) Mr. (for Mister)

12.2.1 Acronyms

In names consisting of several words, the abbreviation is generally formed with the
first letter of the key words, each followed by a period. The capital letters in the
name to be abbreviated are retained in the abbreviation. In certain abbreviations like
SAARC, which can be pronounced like a single word, the periods may be omitted.
Such abbreviations are called acronyms. Some of them, after prolonged use, are
treated like common words, as Unesco etc.

12.2.2 Technical Acronyms

They may be written in all capital letters (DDT, DNA) or in lower case (laser, radar)
while some may have only the initial letter in capital (Fortran, Cobol).
· Some names consisting of several words are abbreviated by selecting more
than one letter from each key word, and the first letter of prepositions and
articles, where necessary.
· Such abbreviations can generally be pronounced like a single word e.g.
Comintern (for Communist International)
Benelux (for Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg)
· In abbreviating units of measurement consisting of more than one word, the
standard practice is to retain the period after each word unless the name refers
to the product or combination of the units represented by the individual
words. e.g. e. m. f. (electromotive force), r. m. s. (root mean square), sp. gr.
(specific gravity)
· Don’t use abbreviations in your sentences unless the whole word or phrase is
repeated several times within a short passage or you see a definite advantage
in using the abbreviation.
· If your reader is not likely to be familiar with an abbreviation, define it the
first time it occurs in your writing.
· If you are using numerals in your writing, the names of the accompanying
units should properly be abbreviated; if the numbers are expressed in words,
don’t abbreviate the names of the units. e.g. 15 A fuse; fifteen ampere fuse
· Abbreviated names of units are preferred in all tabulated information and
numerical data accompanying illustrations.
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· Abbreviations are mostly used, in preference to the full form, in footnotes,

tables and bibliographies.
· These are used in text only in exceptional cases.
· Abbreviations for words are written without intervening space, and the
general tendency is now to eliminate the full stop not only between the letters
forming an abbreviation, but also at the end.
· The abbreviations, except for those desired from proper names, are written in
lower case, in roman with no end, or middle full stops.
· And except for the units of currencies, they are always placed at the end of
the figures.
· The standard abbreviations for the common metric units are as follows:
Table 12.1 Technical acronym

Units Symbols Units Symbols

milimetre mm miligram mg
centimetre cm gram g
metre m kilogram kg
kilometre km quintal q
2
Square metre m hour h
3
Cubic metre m minute min
second s hour h

12.3 Footnotes

Footnotes have a pronounced effect on style, general tone and clarity. Every
footnote is a digression from the main stream of thought. It interrupts the reader. If
he reads it, his eyes must make an excursion to the bottom of the page; and when he
is through, he must find the place where he departed from it. Lengthy footnotes can
cause the reader to lose the thread of your message, to miss what you are trying to
tell him.

12.3.1 Reference footnotes

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When we borrow the words or ideas of somebody else, we must give credit for
them. Reference footnotes are convenient to fulfill this obligation.

12.3.2 Explanatory footnotes

Explanatory Footnotes can practically never be justified on the grounds of necessity.

Explanatory Footnotes should be evaluated carefully. Explanatory Footnotes should
either be integrated into the main text or put in parenthesis, if they are of secondary
importance. Some of the information, if really of some use for record purposes, can
be given in the appendix. As far as possible, explanatory footnotes should be
avoided.

12.4 Indexing and Bibliographic Procedures

We keep a list of books, articles, and other sources that seem promising for our
paper. Such a record is called a working bibliography. Our preliminary reading
will probably provide the first titles for this list. Other titles will emerge when we
consult the library catalog, as well as indexes, bibliography, and other reference
works. We discover additional important sources also through the bibliography and
notes of each book and article consulted by us.

The working bibliography will frequently change as new titles are added and those
that do not prove useful are eliminated. The working bibliography will eventually
evolve into the list of works cited that appears at the end of the research paper.

· Many instructors recommend that students use index cards to compile the
working bibliography.
· Writing each source on a separate index card allows greater flexibility than
does listing sources on a sheet of paper.
· These cards can be arranged and rearranged as per the need. (e.g. in
alphabetical order, in chronological order by date of publication, in order of
relevance to your topic)
· Index cards also allow us to divide sources into groups (e.g. those already
consulted and those not yet consulted, those most useful and those less so).
· Similar results can be achieved with a personal computer.

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· A computer file is created for the working bibliography, and titles are entered
as we proceed with the research. The file can be revised by additions or
deletions as per the requirements and then saved for the future use.
· As with index cards, we are able to arrange, rearrange, and group sources. At
any point, the file can be printed to review it or to use it for research.
· When we add sources to the working bibliography, we have to be sure that
we have all the publication information needed for the works cited list. The
information to be recorded depends on the kind of sources used. It could be :
– Books
– Articles in a Scholarly Journal
– Newspaper or Magazine Article

12.5 Format for Citing a Reference Book

1. Author’s full name (last name first)

2. Full title (including any subtitle)
3. Editor or translator (if there is one)
4. Edition (if the book is a second or later edition)
5. Number of the volume and the total number of volumes (if the book is a
multi volume work)
6. Series name (if the book is part of a series)
7. City of publication (note only the first city if several are listed)
8. Publisher
9. Year of publication
Example: Budden, Julian.The Operas of Verdi. Trans. Thomas Colchie. Rev. ed. 3
vols. Oxford: Clarendon, 1992.

Chaucer, Geoffery. The Works of Geoffery Chaucer. Ed. F. W. Robinson. 2nd ed.
Twayne’s World Authors Ser. 679. Boston: Twayne, 1957.

12.6 Format for Citing a Reference Article in a Scholarly Journal

1. Author’s name
2. Title of the article
3. Title of the journal
4. Volume number (and issue number, if needed)

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5. Year of publication
6. 6. Inclusive page numbers of the article ( i.e. the number of the page on
which the article begins, a hyphen, and the number of the page on which
the article ends)
Example: Vartanov, Anri. “Television as Spectacle and Myth.” Journal of
Communication 41.2 (1991):162-71.

12.7 Format for Citing a Reference Newspaper or Magazine Article

1. Author’s name
2. Title of the article
3. Title of the periodical
4. Date of publication
5. Inclusive page numbers of the article or the initial page number followed
by a plus sign, as appropriate.
Example: Shea, Christopher. “The Limits of Free Speech.” Chronicle of Higher
Education, 1 Dec. 1993: A37-38.
Feder, Barnaby J. “For Job Seekers, a Toll –Free Gift of Expert Advice.” New York
Times, 30 Dec. 1993, late ed.: D1+.
· For a book, check the author’s name, title, subtitle (if any), edition (if
relevant), editor or translator (if there is one), volume number and number
of volumes, series name (if the book is part of a series), city of
publications, publisher, and year of publication. (This information
normally appears on the title and copyright pages of the book).
· For an article in a periodical, check the author’s name, title of the article,
title of the periodical, date of publication, and, as appropriate, inclusive
page numbers or initial page number. If the periodical is a scholarly
journal, check the volume number (and, if needed, issue number) as well,
(Volume numbers and dates of publication normally appear on the title
page of journals).
· Eventually, you will transform your working bibliography into a works
cited list.

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· The working bibliography functions as an efficient tool for finding and

acquiring information and ideas and, on the other, provides all the data we
need for the list of works cited.

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Module 3. Technical skills for effective communication

Lesson 13
PRÉCIS WRITING /ABSTRACTING/SUMMARIZING

13.1 Introduction

Précis Writing /Abstracting/Summarizing is the one of the most useful skills for
both the student and the professional for reporting purpose. It is the art of shortening
a document to extract the maximum amount of information, then conveying this
information to a reader in the minimum number of words. But, it is necessary at the
same time to be very careful not to lose or distort the original meaning. The goal is
to preserve the core essence of the original report in a manner which is both clear
and concise.

13.2 Précis Writing

Précis is a French word and concerned with the English word precise. A précis is a
summary and précis writing means summarizing. This is an exercise in
compression. It is the gist or main theme of a passage expressed in as few words as
possible. It should be lucid, succinct and full (including all the essential points so
that anyone, on reading it, may be able to grasp the main points and general effect of
the passage summarized.

· It is not paraphrasing. A paraphrase should reproduce not only the substance

of a passage, but also all its details. It will, therefore, be at least as long as,
and probably longer than, the original.
· A Précis should not contain more than a third of the number of words in the
original passage.
· It is an exercise to grasp the gist of the passage and to read the material with
full concentration. So summarizing is an excellent training in concentration
of attention. It teaches us to read with the mind, as well as with the eye, on
the page.
· It’s a good exercise in writing a composition.
· It teaches us to express our thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively.
· It corrects our common tendency to be vague, disorderly and diffused in our
thinking and written expressions.

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· It is an exercise to choose our words carefully and to construct our sentences

with an eye to fullness combined with brevity and to put our matter in a
strictly logical order.
· In other words, it is an ability to grasp quickly and accurately what is read,
or heard and to reproduce it clearly and concisely.

13.1.1 Method or procedure

· Reading carefully for comprehending clearly its main theme or general

meaning.
· Think of some word, phrase or short sentence that will sum up briefly the
main subject of the passage. Sometimes this is supplied by what we call key
sentence.
· Key sentence may be found at the beginning or the end of the passage.
· We are required to supply a title for the précis.
· Sift the essential from the inessentials. Leave out superfluous details. Omit
repetitions, illustrations and examples. Important ideas should find place in
the précis.
· Jot down brief notes, title and the essential details.

13.1.2 Final draft

· The précis should be all in your own words.

· It must be a connected whole. The ideas must be joined together in such a
way to read continuously.
· The précis must be complete and self-contained.
· It must convey its message fully and clearly without requiring any reference
to the original to complete its meaning.
· The language should be simple and it should be grammatically correct.
· A suitable title should be provided to the passage.

13.3 Abstract Writing

An abstract is a very important portion of an article. Abstract is best placed before

the text of the manuscript so that the reader might comprehend the essence of the
report. The formulation of an abstract into a short paragraph forces the author to
express precisely the most important information of the technical report.
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· The abstract should be informative, give a succinct condensation of the

article, and complete in itself and intelligible without reference to the text,
figures or tables. It generally appears at the beginning and written in the past
tense.
· Always begin the abstract with rationale and objective statements; never
jump directly into the materials and methods. It should include:
Ø Principal objectives and scope of investigation.
Ø Methodology/technique(s) employed/but not mega emphasis on
techniques but on results.
Ø The main and important findings of the experiment.
Ø The contribution of this particular piece of work towards new knowledge
· The abstract is not needed in a short report though it is required in a long
report. The busy technocrat or an over busy executive may read only the
abstract and refer to the relevant parts of the report only if it is absolutely
necessary.
· The abstract is placed on the separate page or immediately after the title.

13.4 Abstract and Summary

· Abstract is generally restricted to 250 words or even less, but a summary may
be somewhat longer.
· If a summary is the précis of a report, an abstract is a précis of the summary.
· Long reports, sometimes has a summary as well as an abstract; in short
reports the abstract tends to coincide with the summary.
· A synopsis is a summary with some particulars, especially of the results,
given in greater detail than in a summary.

13.5 Extract, Summary

· Extract is one or more portion of a document selected to represent the whole

(an excerpt).
· Summary is a brief restatement within the document (usually at the end) of
its salient findings and conclusions and is intended to complete the orientation
of a reader who has studied the preceding text.

13.6 Synoptic

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· A Synoptic is a concise first publication in a directly usable form of key

results selected, from an available but previously unpublished paper. It
differs from an abstract (which it contains) in that it is often a combination of
text, tables, and figures, and may contain the equivalent of 2000 words.

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Module 3. Technical skills for effective communication

Lesson 14
CURRICULUM VITAE/RESUME WRITING

14.1 Introduction

Curriculum Vitae (CV) is a written summary of one’s educational and professional

experience. It is a thorough list of all of one’s academic achievements and its
content can vary from discipline to discipline. It is usually used for applications for
academic or research positions; departmental or tenure reviews; leadership positions
for professional associations; publishing; editorial review boards; consulting; grant
proposals and fellowships. CV contains the summary of postdoctoral experience,
research and teaching experience, publications, academic service, grants, etc. In the
world of academia, a strong CV may open the door towards a tenured position.
Resume is generally used outside the academia and research-oriented positions. It is
typically one to two pages in length and targeted to the specific position, employer,
and/or industry. Webster’s defines resume as a summary or a set of
accomplishments. The résumé is a marketing piece, an advertisement for one’s
unique set of skills, abilities and experience. This is a “ticket” to an interview and is
different for the college graduate versus someone with years of experience.
Research shows in India that only one interview is granted for every 200
(applications) resumes received by the average employer. It is equally true that the
resume is quickly scanned, rather than read. The prospective employer doesn’t
spend more than 10-20 seconds to find some merit in getting to the details of the
resume. What this means is that the decision to interview a candidate is usually
based on an overall first impression of the resume.

14.2 Writing an Effective Resume

Having a well written, effective resume at one’s disposal is an excellent tool in

today’s ever changing job market. A strong resume may be the sole difference in
getting a call for an interview or simply having your resume tossed into the
proposed employer’s waste paper pile. Simply put, an effective resume may win you
a job interview. At the same time, it enables you to assess your strengths, skills,
abilities and experience - thereby preparing you for the interview process. It also
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acts as a reminder of you to the employer/interviewer after you're done interviewing

and is a basis for the interviewer to justify your hiring.
As the resume is a living, breathing document, it should adjust to the position for
which it is used. No one standard resume could be used to apply to unrelated
positions. It entails targeting the text through proper selection and description of
experiences.

14.3 Sections to Include

While no two resumes will look the same, there are certain commonalties in all good
resumes. Almost every resume should include the following headings or sections:
objective, education, work experience, skills summary and additional/ optional
information on accomplishments/achievements; affiliations/memberships; activities
and honors etc.
· Contact Information
· Objective
· Education
· Experience
· Skills Summary
· Additional/ Optional Categories

14.3.1 Objective

An objective is like the thesis statement of your resume. Everything you include
after it should support it. It tells the reader why you are sending the resume, i.e.,
what position or type of position you are seeking. It should be very brief, to the
point, ideally stated in one sentence.
· Use the objective to tell what you can do for the company, NOT what you
want the company to do for you… no statements like: to gain valuable
experience, etc.
· Don’t use fluffy phrases that don’t mean anything such as “Allowing the
ability to enhance potential and utilize experience in new challenges”.

14.3.1.1 Powerful objective

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Be sure the objective is to the point. As someone with an extensive background in

pharmaceutical sales, my objective is to obtain a sales management position which
would allow me to share my sales experiences and train the next generation of top
pharmaceutical salesmen.
Please note that the objective is to be ideally stated in one sentence. In short, try to
catch the employer’s attention in one sentence in the objective section. If you need
an additional sentence, then feel free to use one; but remember, you are trying to
grab an employer’s attention with a short, crisply written message.

14.3.2 Education/work experience

For college students just entering the job world, one must list the “Education”
section directly after stating the objective. Stress your high marks here, if you have
them. Also, be sure to include your extra-curricular involvement in clubs, sports
teams, and such similar campus organizations. Make certain you include your part-
time and summer employment you had during your college years. It will impress the
employers if you worked to pay your way through college.
If you have been out in the job world for some time, include your “Work
Experience” section immediately after the objective. At this point, your job
experiences are usually much more important to an employer than what your college
grades were. You can list your “Education” background thereafter.
Make use of your “Reference” section. In the “Reference” section, many job
seekers put, “references available upon request”. It’s preferable to list the names of
two or three people here. Listing references shows that you have nothing to hide.
However, make certain that you inform your references that job employers may be
contacting them. If not, your prospective employer will not be impressed when he
contacts your references and it takes two minutes before your reference is able to
understand what the telephone call is about.
14.4 Organization

You can organize your resume in many different ways, but the following order is the
most common.
· Objective – state what kind of job or internship you are looking for.
· Experience – describe your job history.

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· Education – just list your high school unless you have taken college
courses on the side.
· Other Skills/Information – this is where you lost your computer or
language skills and any associations or memberships to which you have
belonged.
(Note: Knowledge of computers will most likely be a requirement for just about any
job. List any and all experience you have with naming the actual program names
you are familiar with (Word, Excel, Power point, Photoshop etc. Likewise, Other
languages: The world is getting smaller and smaller, especially in the job market.
Knowing a second or third language can put you at an advantage in qualifying
for a job and will certainly separate you from other candidates. )
Differences in formatting (bullets, border lines headings etc), fonts, font styles
and sizes will catch the eye and draw attention to most important information.

14.5 General Template of Curriculum Vitae/Resume Writing

Focus on Relevant Information

A lot of students think a generalized resume describing everything they have ever
done is great way to get any kind of job or internship. Not true. The first rule of
thumb for resume writing is to only include information that is useful to the job
you are applying for.
What is a Resume Template?
Example
Your Full Name
Street Address
City State and Zip code
Phone Number and Email Address
Career objective
What you want to do that will add value to your employer.
Work experience
Job title and Company Name
Duration of employment
Achievements during this period
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Educational qualifications
Course and Name of Institution last attended
City and Year of Completion
Achievements during this period
Activities/Interests
Community service, hobbies, interests etc. For example: Travel
Other skills
Mention languages known, computer proficiency or other special useful
skills.
References Mention only if required by employer.

14.6 Do’s and Don’ts of Resumes

· Do tailor the resume to the given position.

· Do choose language that reflects the industry.
· Do treat your resume as a sales brochure.
· Don’t list false information.
· Don’t write in paragraph form. Use bullets.
· Don’t list irrelevant information.

14.7 Some Tips

14.7.1 Action words

Be sure to describe your roles and accomplishments with strong action words and
terms that will pop out at employers, usually ones that signify leadership and team
you’ve had. These include words such as: team work/player, multi-tasking
executed, organized, performed, maintained, supervised, managed, developed, and
implemented.

14.7.2 Writing style

The wording of your resume is just as important as the look. You may have to write
several rough drafts to come up with one that will really shine. Here are a few
writing style rules to keep in mind:
– Use matching verb tenses.
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– Keep all descriptions short. Descriptions should generally take up no more

than one to four lines on the page.
– Full sentences are not necessary, but be consistent with punctuation.

14.8 Words to Avoid in Your Resume

14.8.1 Abbreviations and acronyms

AFPCA, CHIGFEET, FIPL, MRSRM, ZWE: Looks like a fresh game of Scrabble.
Too many abbreviations and acronyms in a resume make it unreadable.
As a rule, avoid using abbreviations and acronyms unless they are commonly
recognized. If you work in an acronym-heavy industry, such as technology, use
acronyms sparingly.

14.8.2 Personal pronouns

It seems odd to avoid personal pronouns (I, me, my) in your resume – a document
that is all about you Since your resume is all about you, the addition of “I” or “me”
is redundant. Since a resume should contain no unnecessary words, there is no place
for the personal pronoun. Your resume, after all, is not a memoir but a concise
summary of your skills and experience.

14.8.3 Negative words

These words spell death for a resume.

Words like “arrested,” “boring,” “fired,” “hate” and “sexist” catch a recruiter’s eye
like to a two-ton magnet catches a paper clip.
If there are difficult issues you want to raise, save them for the interview.

14.9 Keep These Words to a Minimum

· Abused words: a, also, an , because, the, very

· Any word you can’t define: you may think using these words make you
sound smart, but if you use them incorrectly they could kill your chances of
landing the job.
· Words that can be embarrassing if spelled wrong: assess, skills.

14.10 Words That Weaken Your Resume

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· A strong resume gives potential employers a concise, clear picture of your

skills and experience. And it’s the crucial first step in securing an interview
and hopefully a job offer.
· For maximum impact, keep your resume as concise as you can. You need to
include all your achievements in only one to two pages, so do not waste space
on meaningless words. Plus, an employer does not want to spend time trying
to understand vague phrases or decipher confusing jargon.

14.10.1 ‘Assist’, ‘Contribute’ and 'Support’

An employer would not know what you did if the wording on your resume is too
vague. Words like “assist,” “contribute” and “support” all say (or don’t say) the
same thing. They say you helped, but they don’t say how. They beg the question:
Exactly how did you assist, contribute or support a person or project?
Use these words sparingly and always follow them with a description of your role
and responsibilities. Let an employer know the part you played and how you
affected the outcome.

14.10.2 ‘Successfully’

Of course you want to show that you have accomplished on your resume. But your
achievements will be more impressive if you give concrete examples of what you
have done and how you have been successful. You don’t need to use words like
“successfully” or effectively” to show an employer that you are a good worker, your
experience should speak for itself.

Instead of explicitly saying that a project was successful, state your achievements
clearly and factuality. Then give examples of how or why the project was a success.

14.10.3 ‘Responsible for’

The phrase “responsible for” can make your resume feel like a laundry list. Instead
of just listing your responsibilities, try to stress your accomplishments.
Your resume will also have more of an impact if you quantify your
accomplishments. Use figures to show how you affected growth, reduced costs or
streamlined a process. Provide the number of people you managed, the amount of
the budget you oversaw or the revenue you saved the company.
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14.10.4 ‘Interface’ and other buzzwords

Don’t flower your resume with fancy words. By trying to sound intelligent or
qualified, you may end up annoying or confusing your reader. You don’t want an
employer to need a dictionary to discover what you really did at your last job.
Avoid buzzwords that have become cliché and words that are unnecessarily
sophisticated. “Synergy” and “Liaise” are examples of buzzwords that have been
overused and abused.
Say what you mean plainly and simply. For example, instead of “interface”, say
“work”. Instead of “impact,” say “affect,” instead of “utilize,” say “use.”

14.10.5 Keywords

Recruiters use keywords to search for resumes. So choose some of the basic,
important keywords in your field and pepper them throughout your resume.

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Module 4. Oral communication and organizational skills

Lesson 15
IMPROMPTU PRESENTATION AND EXTEMPORE

15.1 Introduction

Though oral communication happens to be a part of basic communication skills (which has been
already discussed in lesson-6; section 6.1), yet oral communication per se needs elaborate
discussion. Hence in this lesson, various dimensions of oral communication viz. impromptu,
extempore, public speaking, group discussion, etc. have been discussed at length. Further, skills
involved in organization of events like seminars, conference, etc have also been dealt with, in this
lesson.

15.2 Impromptu presentation

A speech and/or event that involves an eight-minute speech (with up to three of these eight
minutes available for use as preparation time) is known as impromptu speaking. The preparation
time is known as prep time, or simply preps.

This event varies depending upon the situation; and, the time allowed also varies
at different levels:

· The speaker at the college level is granted 7 minutes to divide, as he or she sees fit.

· Another variation exists in which the speaker must speak for five minutes and half of a minute
is given for preparation time. The speaker is given a slip of paper, which provides three
choices for his speech. The topics can be abstract or concrete nouns, people, political events,
quotations or proverbs.

· There is another variation where the speaker is given an envelope with slips in it, each with a
quotation. They have to draw 3 slips of paper, choose one, and then put two back. They are
then given 5 minutes to prepare a 5 minutes’ speech on the subject.

Even though the format seems to be simple, it takes time to construct a speech in that time and talk
on your feet. It is difficult to have mastery in this event, but many enjoy it, because one does not
have to prepare for the event beforehand. Impromptu speeches need not be factual and are indeed
encouraged to be humorous. There is a "triad" prompt in some impromptu rounds, where the
participant is given three key words to talk about and connect during the speech.

15.2.1 Types of Impromptu

15.2.1.1 OHSSL impromptu (Ohio Impromptu)

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In this type, the speaker is provided with seven minutes of time to divide at his own discretion
between prepping and speaking. All topics are quotations and generally random, but occasionally
may be random. It is also more factual and less humor-based, resembling extempore. Other
structures can also be used. Double analysis is normally used by experienced impromptu
speakers. The ratio usually being used by experienced speakers to divide the preparatory and
speaking time is 1:6.

15.2.1.2 Editorial Impromptu

It is an attempt to return “impromptu” to impromptu speaking. The students are given a short
editorial (ideally 3 to 5 paragraphs) to which they will develop a response. The students are
allowed nine minutes to divide between preparation and speech time. At least five minutes must
be used for speaking. Limited notes, prepared in the round, are permitted. The speech should
involve the development of an argument in response to the idea generated or opinion shared in a
given editorial.

15.2.1.3 High School Competition

In high school speech and debate competitions, thirty seconds are given to the competitor to select
a topic from a set of topics (usually three). During those 30 seconds, the competitor must also
compose a speech of five minutes with a 30 second grace period.

15.3 Structure of the Speech

An impromptu speech is simply a mini-speech and therefore it has: an Opening, a Body and a
Conclusion.

15.3.1 Opening

· Open by addressing the Chairman or Master of Ceremonies, e.g. Mister/Madam Chairman

· Brief introduction/opening sentence – attention getting

15.3.2 Body

· Cover the main points (Try to find one or two central themes )

· Use clearly worded simple sentences and try to link the themes

15.3.3 Conclusion

· Be brief and look for an elegant closing that links back to the opening

· End by acknowledging the Chairman or Master of Ceremonies

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A general outline for impromptu speeches is as follows:

1. Introduction/Roadmap(1 minute)

2. First section(1 minute)

3. Second section(1 minute)

4. Third section(1 minute)

5. Conclusion(1 minute)

The introduction should begin with a catchy beginning, the statement of the topic and an outline of
the speech. The conclusion is usually like the introduction except backwards, ending with a
profound statement. There are many kinds of formats that can be used for the three body points.
For example, if the topic is a quote, a competitor may go over how the quote is true, how the quote
is false, and why they believe what they believe. Some other examples are: past, present, future;
local, national, international. More advanced speakers use formats that look deeper into a subject
such as: physical, moral, and intellectual; books, video, digital (media.) However, many speakers
choose not to follow a format at all. Most beginners who fail to follow a solid format often find
themselves lost in a jumble of ideas.

15.3.4 Benefits of effective impromptu speaking skills:-

· Improves oral expression of thought

· Develop confidence in public speaking

· Think quickly on your feet

· Develop leadership and communication skills

15.3.5 Techniques to Deliver a Better Impromptu Speech

15.3.5.1 Give yourself time to prepare

· Take deep breaths

· Rise slowly from your chair and walk slowly to the lectern (or stand behind and away
from your chair)

· Use this time to collect your thoughts and decide on the purpose and plan of your speech

· Think about the opening sentence.

· Always remember that never start the speech immediately.

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15.3.5.2 Feel confident

· Look around at audience and smile. Stand tall.

· Don't slump, don't fidget, don't grasp the lectern, don't put hands in your pockets

· Speak and act in a confident manner

15.3.5.3 Slow delivery

· Gives you time to think ahead

· The audience has time to absorb and react to what you are saying

· Helps you reduce umms and ahhs

15.3.5.4 Focus

· Keep the focus on the subject while talking

· Don't think of any negatives (eg being unprepared)

· Talk directly to the audience and adapt to their feedback

· Maintain good eye contact with the audience

· Be brief and to the point

· Don't ramble or say too much on the subject

· Speak at the audience's level

15.3.5.5 Sources of Content

· Personalize: This is the subject you know most about. Audience can relate more easily to
personal topics - they probably have similar experiences.

· Your opinion

· Humour: Breaks the ice with the audience and relaxes you

· Other: Current events, something you have read or seen (newspaper, book, TV),
knowledge of pertinent facts

15.4 Methods to Determine Content

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The following methods are for guidance only. You don’t have to use them however they may help
you to think quickly on your feet. You may develop other techniques that suit your style of
speaking better.

· PREP Method (When asked to express an opinion - to inform, persuade or inspire)

· Point: Make your point (Opening)

· Reason: State your reason for making the point (Body)

· Example: Give an example to justify your previous remarks (Body)

· Point: Drive home the point again. Links the conclusion back to the opening.

· Past, Present, Future Method (Body)

When asked for your comment on a particular topic:

· Point: Make your point (Opening). Be brief.

· Past : What happened in the past? Reflect on a past issue. (Body)

· Present: What is happening today? (Body)

· Future: What will/could happen in the future? (Body)

· Point: Drive home your opening point. Reminds audience what the point of your speech
was all about. (Conclusion) Be brief.

Be Prepared

There is a good chance that you will be unexpectedly called upon to give an impromptu speech at
a Toastmasters (Table Topics) or others (business, club or P&F etc) meeting. Try and pre-empt
possible topics that may arise, such as those from current events or contentious issues. Have an
emergency speech available.

Speech Time

· In Toastmasters: Club level (Table Topics) : 90 secs

· Competition level: 2 minutes

· Speechcraft : 60 secs

· Elsewhere: 3 to 5 mins (whatever seems appropriate to occasion)

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15.5 Summary

· Deliberately rise from your chair very slowly and pause for a moment. Use this time to
decide on the purpose and plan of your speech

· Keep the focus on the subject while talking, and don't think about any negatives such as
being unprepared or that you will look or sound foolish. Rather, think about the subject.
Look for opportunities to bring in humor.

· Talk directly to the audience and adapt to audience feedback.

· Be brief and to the point. Guard against rambling and the temptation to say too much
about the subject.

· Remember, this is a mini speech so try to have an opening, a body and a conclusion. The
conclusion should reflect back to the comments in the opening.

· Always try to speak and act in a confident manner.

· Don’t rush.

· Address the Chairman before and after the speech.

15.6 EXTEMPORE

The extempore speech, as used by certain MBA institutes during their selection procedure is when
a candidate is given a topic and asked to speak about it for a minute or two. He is not allowed to
‘prepare’ for this topic, but has to speak on the spot. Thus, he cannot prepare the content and
decide what to say beforehand.

Extempore" or "ex tempore" refers to a stage or theatre performance, that is carried out without
preparation or forethought. Most often, the term is used in the context of speech, singing and stage
acting. Synonyms are "impromptu", "extemporaneous", or "improvised".

15.6.1 Procedure followed:-

1. The candidate waits for his turn outside the room as happens for interviews.

2. He is then called in to the room and may be asked to sit down.

3. He is then given a topic for his extempore speech. In FMS, this happens just before the
interview-i.e. the interview commences after the extempore round.

4. The topic could be anything. It could be based on the candidate’s academic background,
his hobbies/ interests, any current or general affairs topic etc

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5. The candidate is given a few seconds to think about what he wants to say and then is
expected to start his speech.

6. He is expected to speak for around a couple of minutes on the topic

7. The candidate may complete the speech himself, or the panel, may let him know when to
stop.

15.6.2 Extempore helps in testing:-

Firstly, your ability to think on the spot and your spontaneity. It has often been seen that
candidates come with prepared answers for the interview, which they have mugged up. Thus these
answers do not really reflect their thoughts or the kind of people they are. Hence, an extempore
may be used, as you cannot prepare a speech beforehand in this case.

1. Your ability to express your thoughts: In an extempore, you have to think for a very
short while and then express yourself. You will be judged on how well you are able to do
so.

2. Fluency in the language: Your comfort level with English as a language can also be
assessed.

3. Body language/ Confidence: Your body language and Confidence levels maybe judged.
Many candidates feel very nervous about this round, as mentioned before. Does your
nervousness manifest itself in your gestures and expressions? Or do you appear calm and
collected despite everything? Can you express yourself confidently and clearly?

15.6.3 Do’s in Extempore

1. Firstly, do not get nervous! It has been observed that many candidates get freaked out and
are very sacred about the extempore round, as you cannot prepare beforehand and have no
idea as to which topic you may get. However, remember that you have to only speak on
the topic for a minute or two-you are not expected to get into a high level of detail,or show
some astounding knowledge about the topic given to you.

2. Do not start off speaking as soon as the topic is given to you. You have a few seconds to
think use them! It has also been observed that those who start off immediately, run out of
ideas and don’t know what to say. Thus they end up finishing their speech in hardly 20-
25seconds, or even less, in some cases.

3. Most importantly, structure your speech. Try and give it an introduction, a body and a
conclusion. It would be highly impressive if you can structure your talk well, even though
you were given only a few seconds to think about it.

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4. You must buttress your points/ arguments with logic and examples. This is crucial and will
help you stand out from the other candidates.

5. Try and either begin or end with a quote. If you can remember an appropriate quote and
use it in the relevant context, it will be absolutely great. Once again, the ability to do such
a thing at such short notice, will enable you to stand out from the other candidates.

15.6.4 Preparation for an Extempore

1. Make sure that you can speak for at least a minute on the following:-

· Important current affairs topics

· Important topics or issues pertaining to your academic background. For example, an

engineer may be asked to speak on ‘electromagnetic induction’ as his extempore topic.
Similarly, an Economics or Commerce graduate may be asked to speak on ‘The Fiscal
Deficit’, ‘Gross Domestic Product (GDP)’ or some related topic.

· Your hobbies and interests

· A person you admire

· Your favorite sports person or actor/ actress

2. Practice for an extempore adequately, by speaking aloud, either in front of a mirror or

even without one. The idea is that you should be able to speak, with a fair degree of
fluency, for about a minute on any topic you get. Practicing speaking aloud with ensure
that you are able to control your nervousness etc.

3. Watch your body language while you practice. It should not give away your nervousness.
Practice speaking both while sitting and standing, so that you are ready for both
eventualities.

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Module 4. Oral communication and organizational skills

Lesson 16
INDIVIDUAL & GROUP PRESENTATIONS

16.1 Introduction

The practice of showing and explaining the content of a topic to an audience or learner is known
as presentation. There are as many forms as the life situations. A presentation is a process of
offering for consideration or display. It can be a social introduction, as of a person at court, or a
demonstration, lecture, or welcoming speech, or a manner or style of speaking, instructing, or
putting oneself forward. The manner of presenting, especially the organization of visual details to
create an overall impression is a presentation. It may be the formal introduction of a person, as
into society or at court. In the business world, there are sales presentations, informational and
motivational presentations, first encounters, interviews, briefings, status reports, image-building,
and the inevitable training sessions. Presentations can also be categorized as vocational and non-
vocational. In addition, they are expository or persuasive. They can also be impromptu,
extemporaneous, written, or memorizes. But it's more important to focus on their purpose. There
are three basic purposes for giving oral presentations:

1. To Inform

2. To Persuade

3. To Build Goodwill

Now-a-days, it has become increasingly common for individuals especially for the employers to
request job applicants who are successfully shortlisted to deliver one or more presentations at their
interview, debut, or other important event that needs to be highlighted in a more official way. The
purpose of the presentation in this setting may be to either demonstrate candidates' skills and
abilities in presenting, or to highlight their knowledge of a given subject. It is common for the
presenter to be notified of the request for them to deliver a presentation along with their invitation
to attend the event. Usually presenters are only given a title for their presentation and a time limit
which the presentation should not exceed. Be sure to hone up on current presentation etiquette
before preparing slide presentations. How you use this visual aid can make or break the
presentation.

16.2 Types

16.2.1 Informative Presentations

Include talks, seminars, proposals, workshops, conferences, and meetings where the presenter or
presenters share their expertise and information is exchanged.

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16.2.2 Persuasive Presentations

Sometimes called transactional, are often motivational. Persuasive Presentations are designed and
delivered to come out with a specific goal in mind.

16.2.3 Goodwill Presentations

Goodwill presentations, which often take the form of after dinner speeches, are often designed to
be entertaining-for example by sharing video highlights of a football season or anecdotes based on
some past experiences.

16.2.4 Multipurpose Presentations

Presentations usually have more than one purpose. A presentation to employees may be
announced as an informative session on new regulations but in reality may also be an all-out effort
to persuade workers to buy into the new rules.

16.2.5 Sales

Sales techniques are complex and require two essential items for success in sales presentations
which are knowing and understanding your audience, and building rapport.

16.2.6 Political

Presentations in the political arena are primarily grouped in the persuasive category. To be
effective they must include lots of information and also build goodwill.

16.2.7 Motivational Presentations

Motivation is another form of persuasion, but one that somehow takes on a more fervent, highly
charged tone.

16.2.8 Interviews

A “Job Interview” is yet another presentation form, one where the presenter should make an effort
to identify his or her immediate audience, but also take great pains to know as much as possible
about the larger audience.

Audiences can be classified into four basic categories:

1. Captives

2. Pragmatists

3. Socially Motivated

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4. Committed

When an individual stands up to deliver a presentation before an audience, it’s essential that the
audience know who the presenter is, why they are there, what specifically they expect to get from
your presentation, and how they will react to your message. You should try to gather as much
background information as possible before your presentation. There will be times, especially with
presentations that are open to the public, when you will only be able to guess.

It has been found that audiences believe presenters who use visuals are more professional and
credible than presenters who merely speak. Some research indicates that meetings and
presentations reinforced with visuals help participants reach decisions and consensus in less time.

A presentation program, such as Microsoft PowerPoint, is often used to generate the presentation
content. The development of information technology has made the use of these solutions possible,
but ‘Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)’ Projectors as well as overhead transparencies are still used
widely for the purpose of presentations.

Helpful Presentation Tips

· Easy Format

· Organize Your Thoughts

· Know Your Material

· Prep Time

· Outline Your Presentation

16.3 Three Ingredients of Group Presentations

16.3.1 Clarity

Clarity means clearness of purpose, thought or style. Developing clarity within your group will
help you develop a clear message for your audience.

16.3.1.1 Clarity of purpose

Just as your presentation will have a clear purpose, your group should create a Charter
Statement that explicitly captures the group’s desired outcome. This Charter Statement becomes
the test of everything that will go into the presentation and help guide the efforts of the team. For
example, if your group agrees that your general purpose is to sell your product, and, more
specifically, you know that the key decision maker in the audience is doubtful about cutting
checks to companies like yours, build that into your Charter Statement. The purpose of our
presentation is to sell our Product to ABC Company by overcoming the objections of the

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company’s Purchasing Officer through clear examples of how our Product provides a fast return
on investment. The Charter Statement will come in handy when you have a team member who
may want to go “off track” to tell personal anecdotes that don’t pass the test of the group’s charter.

16.3.1.2 Clarity of roles

Personalities come into play when groups meet to develop presentations. The struggles for
position and ego can quickly deplete the group’s momentum, resulting in hurt feelings and,
potentially, a weaker presentation. Providing clarity to group roles helps to establish expectations
and keep the entire group moving towards a common objective, leading thus to a great group
presentation. Identify the roles your group needs during message development. For example, to
ensure that team members are meeting assignments, select a Project Manager. This person isn’t
the “boss of the presentation”, but rather will focus on schedule and assignments. Other roles
could include a Gap Analyst who is responsible for identifying “gaps” in content and support
materials (handouts, graphics, etc.), which in turn could work closely with other roles within the
group like the Chief Researcher. Capitalize on the unique personalities within your group to
develop roles that work well for all, but be sure to discuss the roles openly so they are clear to
everyone.

16.3.1.3 Clarity of message

Instead of writing “speeches” for each individual speaker, try creating one master presentation, a
unified narrative, and then decide who speaks to which points, and when. This is a shift from the
traditional segmented method of group presentations where often group members are directed to
“give five minutes of talking” and then are left to develop content independently. In a master
presentation, each speaker may weave in and out at various points during the presentation. When
done well, this fluid dynamic can hold an audience’s attention better by offering a regular change
in speakers’ voices and presence.

Moreover,by using a master presentation, your group will ensure that each of the presenters will
stay “on script” and use cohesive language, smooth transitions, and (when using visuals)
consistent graphics.

16.3.2 Control

Group presentations face unique logistical challenges beyond just developing presentation content.

16.3.2.1 Control in introduction

The way of introducing a group is noticed by the audience, so plan those introductions with your
presentation. Your presentation may be part of a larger event that includes an master of
ceremonies who will introduce the team. If so, be sure that you provide pertinent information to
the emcee that will allow her/him to generate interest in your presentation even before you begin

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speaking. If your group is responsible for making its own introductions, however, you will need to
decide if you will introduce your group members in the beginning, or when they first speak. Your
group also will need to decide if each member introduces her/himself, or if one member will
introduce everyone. There is no one right way to do introductions, but your group must decide
how to do them before the day of the presentation.

16.3.2.2 Control in transitions

Decide how you are going to “hand off” from one speaker to the next. In the “master presentation”
approach, you may want to consider simply have speakers pick up a narrative right where the
previous speaker left off. If you use the more traditional segmented approach, each speaker may
cue the subsequent speakers by identifying them and their subject matter. For example: “…and
speaking of quality control, no one is more qualified as Mr. X, who is going to tell us about how
this team will deliver a quality project for you.”

Another option is to assign a group emcee who will handle transitions between presentation
sections. Your group will need to determine which option makes the most sense based on your
presentation style and audience expectations.

16.3.2.3 Control vis-à-vis time and space

Multiple speakers translate to occupying more physical space, and the potential to gobble up more
time with introductions and transitions. If you will be presenting in a small room, consider where
each speaker needs to be positioned to quickly reach the speaking area, and whether they will sit
or stand when not speaking. Your presentation must fit within your allotted time, so you will need
to time your group’s presentation, including equipment set up, introductions, and transitions.

16.3.3 Commitment

Commitment from each group member is going to give your presentation the best content and flair
that will impress your audience.

16.3.3.1 Commit to a schedule

Once you know the date of your presentation, create a schedule that includes specific milestones,
such as “presentation draft due” and “final rehearsal”. Having a specific schedule allows members
either to agree to the group’s expectations or to offer dates that better fit their personal schedules.
One can also assign specific responsibilities to the scheduled milestones; for example, who is
responsible for bringing the handouts, projector, and laptop to the presentation?

16.3.3.2 Commit to rehearsing

“If you find group members who lack the commitment to rehearse, consider finding group
members who will commit.” Rehearsing is one of the most important steps for presentation

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success. Have your team members agree from day one that they will make themselves available to
practice with the group. If you find group members who lack the commitment to rehearse,
consider finding group members who will commit. Practice makes perfect, and no rehearsal means
your group doesn’t know what will happen to the content, timing, or quality of the presentation.
Do those sound like things your group would like to leave to chance?

16.3.3.3 Commit to answering your audience’s questions

Always be ready to pepper your group with questions after your formal presentation is over. Your
presentation is not over yet. Handling those questions is as important as the presentation itself. A
well-done presentation means nothing if presenters fumble questions so badly that they appear
incompetent. Have each member develop a list of potential questions and then, as a group, review
the list. Discuss who will be responsible for handling which types of questions. By incorporating
these three ingredients into your next group presentation process, you will find that you not only
develop a presentation that your audience loves, but your group will transform from a rag-tag
group of speakers into a dynamic presenting team.

16.4 Suggestions for an Effective Group Presentation

First, appoint one of the speakers to be in charge. If this is not done and something unexpected
occurs, no one has the responsibility for the group which may lose credibility because of
uncertainty in how to respond. In addition, when a question is asked, the speaker-in-charge
immediately refers it to the person with the appropriate expertise; thus there is no uncertain pause
because no one knows who will answer the question.

Second, each speaker should know what the other speakers are going to say. This knowledge will
help them avoid duplication of material and they can make appropriate references to another
speaker’s content if it applies. This knowledge helps insure continuity among the different
speakers.

Third, the last words of each speaker should synchronize with what the next speaker will cover.
This adds unity to the entire presentation and gives the new speaker a smooth opening to his or her
material. An example might be, "Now Susan will cover the financial aspects of our proposal and
help you understand the benefits this will give you."

Fourth, if possible the strongest speaker should end the group presentation. The ending is the most
important part of the presentation; people remember best what you say last. You want to have an
ending speaker who can show passion and enthusiasm for the topic.

Finally, a dress rehearsal is essential. The group members need to get a feel of the complete
message to see how they can best contribute. In addition, with several people speaking it is hard to
gauge the time the speakers will take. This dress rehearsal allows the group to time the
presentation and to make adjustments in each portion in order to be under the time limit; the more

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people involved the more unpredictable the total time. With everyone hearing the other speeches,
each speaker can give feedback to the others that will improve the quality of the whole
presentation. Extraneous and redundant material can be eliminated as well.

16.5 Group discussion

Group Discussion is a modern method of assessing the students’ personality. It is both a technique
and an art and a comprehensive tool to judge the worthiness of the student and his appropriateness
for the job. The term suggests a discussion among a group of 8& 12 members who will express
their views freely, frankly in a friendly manner, on a topic of current issue. The abilities of the
members of the group are measured within a time limit of 20 to 30 minutes.

Group Discussion is a very important round in any selection process, be it for an MBA course,
campus recruitment or for any graduate/post graduate degree. The selection committee conducts
GD to gauge whether the candidate has certain personality traits and/or skills that it desires in its
members, say for example: ability to work in a team, communication skills, leadership skills,
reasoning ability, imitativeness, assertiveness, creative, flexibility, ability to think and act
independently.

Normally groups of 8-10 candidates are formed into a leaderless group, and are given a specific
situation to analyze and discuss within a given time limit. The group may be given a Case Study
and asked to come out with a solution for a problem. The group may be given a topic and asked to
discuss on the same. A panel will observe the proceedings and evaluate the members of the group.

16.5.1 Prerequisites of a Group Discussion

• Topics given by panelists

• Planning and preparation

• Knowledge with self-confidence

• Communication skills/ power of speech

• Presentation

• Body Language and personal appearance

• Being calm and cool

• Extensive knowledge base related to state, country and globe

• Areas are politics, sports, science &trade commerce, Industry and Technology, MNC, etc

• Analyze the social, economical issues logistically

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• Listening skills

• Co-operation

16.5.2 Salient features of Group Discussion

• Topic may be given to judge your public speaking talent.

• Discussion revolves around a specific subject.

• The examiner does not interfere once he announced the topic.

• Maintain cordiality and free expression of thought and opinion.

16.5.3 Main objectives of the participants in a Group Discussion

1) The first thing is that the panel should notice you. Merely making a meaningful contribution
and helping the group arrive at a consensus is not enough? Ensure that the group hears you. If
the group hears you, so will the evaluator. You need to be assertive. It depends on you how
you steer the group in the right direction, once it gets stuck to something. This gives you the
chance to showcase your leadership skills. Most importantly, you have to make your chances.
Many group discussion participants often complain that they did not get a chance to speak.
The fact is that in no group discussion will you get a chance to speak. There is nothing more
unacceptable in a GD than keeping one's mouth shut or just murmuring things which are
inaudible.

2) The second most essential thing is that your contribution to the group should be meaningful.
For that you need to have a good knowledge base. You should be able to think logically and
hence put forth you ideas cohesively. The quality of what you said is more valuable than the
quantity. It doesn’t help if you shout at the top of your voice and speak at great length, what
matters most is what you speak and how it creates an impact on the group as well as the
evaluators.

3) The last most important thing is that you must be clearly seen to be attempting to build a
consensus. This shows your ability to work in a team, your ability to adjust yourself in new
surroundings and help others in your team to reach a definite conclusion amidst difference of
opinions. After all this is what all Group Discussions aim at: To be able to discuss and arrive
at a consensus.

16.5.4 Do’s in Group Discussion

• Make original points & support them by substantial reasoning.

• Listen to the other participants actively &carefully.

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• Whatever you say must be with a logical flow, and validate it with an example as far as
possible.

• Make only accurate statements.

• Modulate the volume, pitch and tone.

• Be considerate to the feelings of the others.

• Try to get your turn.

• Be an active and dynamic participant by listening.

• Talk with confidence and self-assurance.

16.5.5 Don’ts during Group Discussion

• Being shy/nervous/keeping isolated from Group Discussion

• Interrupting another participant before his arguments are over

• Speak in favour; e.g., establish your position and stand by it stubbornly

• Changed opinions

• Don’t make fun of any participant even if his arguments are funny.

• Don’t engage yourself in sub-group conversation.

• Don’t repeat and use irrelevant materials.

• Addressing you to the examiner.

• Worrying about making some grammatical mistakes, for your interest the matter you put
across are important.

16.5.6 Important points in Group Discussion

· Be Yourself. Be as natural as possible and don’t try to be someone you are not.

· Take time to organize your thoughts. Don’t suddenly jump to any conclusion. Think
before you speak so that you don’t speak anything irrelevant to the topic being discussed.

· Don’t make the mistake of looking at the panel while you are speaking. You are in
a Group Discussion and you are expected to discuss among group members, so always
look at your group members while you are speaking.

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· Seek clarifications if you have any doubts regarding the subject, before the discussion
commences.

· Your body language says a lot about you - your gestures and mannerisms are more likely
to reflect your attitude than what you say.

· Never try to show your dominance. Be assertive, speak yourself and let others speak as
well.

· Don’t lose your cool if anyone says anything you object to. The key is to stay objective:
Don't take the discussion personally.

· Show your leadership skills. Motivate the other members of the team to speak. Be
receptive to others' opinions and do not be abrasive or aggressive.

· Remember, opening the discussion is not the only way of gaining attention and
recognition. If you do not give valuable insights during the discussion, all your efforts of
initiating the discussion will be in vain.

· Be assertive: An assertive person is directing, honest careful about not hurting others
‘self-respect’.

· A patient listener: listening to another person is one way of showing appreciation.

· Right language: Words can make friends & right words at the right time make the best
results.

· Be analytical and fact-oriented: It is necessary to make relevant points which can be

supported with facts and analyzed logically.

· Accept criticism: If any member of the group criticizes or disapproves a point, it is

unwise to get upset or react sharply. In case the criticism is flimsy, the same can be pointed
out politely.

· Maximize participation; one must try to contribute fully, vigorously & steadily throughout
the discussion.

· Show leadership ability: A group discussion also evaluates your leadership qualities.

· Accept someone's point of view

· Praise the argument

· Accept the contradictory view

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· Express your argument with few facts, cases,data, newspapers, publications etc.

· Express without hurting others feelings.

· Never try to bluff.

· Practice group discussion with friends on different subjects.

· Don’t be disheartened if you did not do well in your First Group Discussion. Instead try to
learn from your past mistakes.

16.5.7 Benefits in Group Discussion

· Stimulation of thinking in a new way.

· Expansion of knowledge

· Understanding of your strength and weakness.

· Your true personality is revealed and qualities of leadership crystallize

· Provides chance of exposure

· Language skills

· Academic knowledge

· Leadership skills

· People-handling skills

· Team work

· General knowledge

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Module 4. Oral communication and organizational skills

Lesson 17
ORGANIZING SEMINARS& CONFERENCES

17.1 Introduction

The popularity of conferences and seminars results from the distinct benefits they offer. Attendees
pre-qualify themselves as prospects; if they weren't interested in the issue being discussed, they
wouldn't come. You get to talk with them face-to-face, both formally during presentations and
informally during breaks, meals, and receptions. As a speaker, you are automatically classified as
an expert. Outside speakers can add credibility and drawing power. Because seminars can run
from a few hours to several days, they can be adapted to a wide array of subject matter and
contexts. In combination with outbound telemarketing, the offer of a quality seminar is an
effective tool for multiplying the number of qualified prospects for your products and services.

17.2 Benefits of Seminar/Conference

It is better to address the benefits of a seminar/conference before going through the first steps of
conference organization. A conference is the broadest of the three kinds of meetings (Seminar,
Workshop, and Conference) can provide, among others, the opportunity to:

• Meet students, researchers, professors etc. from other linguistics departments of your own
or other countries

• Become aware of other cultures and ideas related to linguistics

• Familiarize yourself with other research work, projects etc.

• Promote your association, university / department within the field

• Attract new and active students in your association, university / department

• Build connections and create a network of co-workers and institutions

• Travel and get to know the hosting country (geographically, culture, religion etc.)

• Promote your own research and get feedback

• Gain and train management skills

• Trained interpersonal skills

• Learn how things are behind the scenes

• Become an active member of the academic community

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17.2.1 Seminars can be of the following types

• A half-day seminar on your products and services.

• A one-day or two-day conference, featuring multiple tracks and noted speakers, run by a
professional conference organizer on highly technical issues, attracting participants from
across the country.

• A series of half-day or one-day seminars offered at several locations across the country to
teach the fundamentals of a specific application to those just beginning to work in that area.

Each of these programs will result in new business for the sponsor or for the speakers. Unlike
most forms of marketing, you can sometimes charge for seminars, covering your marketing costs
and even making a profit. However, with these benefits come associated risks and costs,
especially if you plan a large conference for which you will charge a fee. If it is a one-time event,
a conference is a high-fixed-cost, low variable cost enterprise. The time speakers must invest to
prepare remains constant regardless of audience size. Marketing costs are also usually fixed,
consisting of a large mailing. This leaves the duplication of handouts as the major variable cost.
A two-day conference can cost you a bundle if too few participants attend to defray the hotel
charges. By forecasting your costs, you can easily run a breakeven analysis to calculate how
many participants you need at a given price to recoup your costs. The fee from every additional
attendee is almost all profit.

A small seminar, over a breakfast or at the end of the day, can be set up and run by one person if
time is available over an extended period, but it is a method that lends itself more to an
organization. A large conference requires many hours of preparation from many people. This
differs from many of the other marketing techniques that can be done by a single individual.

17.2.2 Optimizing the seminar’s success

The subject for a business conference must:

17.2.2.1 Be educational

People come to conferences to learn. Entertainment is a plus, but promotion of your business is
acceptable only if it is heavily disguised. There has to be something worth learning.

17.2.2.2 Be urgent

There must be a need to know now. A conference on "New Genomic Tools" is not likely to draw
as many people as one entitled “Speeding Your Drugs to Market”. The term "urgent" here means
that there is value to learning something now rather than later.

17.2.2.3 Provide solutions

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The conference must offer attendees solutions or progress toward solutions, because people
attend conferences in order to solve problems better.

You should test seminar content against these criteria. A brainstorming session with your staff
can usually provide you with a good assortment of subjects to pick from that will ensure good
attendance.

17.2.3 Length

Next you must decide on the conference's length. You can determine length by asking yourself
the following questions:

a) How much time and support do I have to set it up? A two-day conference requires
much more work than a half day seminar. You must adjust the length to the level of effort
you can put into setting it up.

b) How much content do I have to offer? There is simply not enough material for a
lengthy conference on some subjects.

c) Is my audience willing to pay? A two-day conference gets expensive, and most firms
expect to be paid for them. The audience, in turn, is faced with not just a fee but a
substantial opportunity cost in time invested away from other duties. A longer conference
must therefore deal with a particularly weighty, urgent, or complicated subject. Generally
you must also have a longer mailing list to find people with budgets and schedules that will
allow them to attend.

d) How many speakers can I attract? Many conferences use only one speaker, but the
speaker had better be good. Using three or four speakers a day diversifies your risk. Some
of the time the audience will be listening to some exceptional speakers, even if not all are
of equal quality.

e) How geographically scattered is my market? Few people will drive more than an hour to
attend a half day seminar. Assuming that very few of the intended clientele respond to your
invitations (an optimistic target, unless outbound telemarketing is utilized), you will need to
invite two hundred prospective buyers of your services to attract a twenty-person audience.
Identifying so many prospects within a one hour travel time is easy in some businesses but
impossible in others, even when more than one person is invited from the same
organization. The wider the geographic area you need to draw people from, the longer your
conference will have to be to justify longer travel times. Alternatively, you need to repeat
your half day seminar in several locations to meet the travel time criterion.

17.2.4 Timing

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Timing will also affect attendance. Most are scheduled to avoid summer vacations and end-of-the-
year holidays. Longer conferences tend to be scheduled for either the beginning or end of the
week, allowing participants to travel on the weekend and perhaps enjoy a short vacation at the city
where the conference is being held. In the suburbs, short seminars should run in the late afternoon,
allowing attendees to leave work a little early and avoid rush-hour traffic. Center-city seminars
often fare better over breakfast or lunch, allowing attendees to leave before rush-hour. If charging
a fee, don’t schedule late in the year, as most travel budgets are already used up.

17.2.5 Location

Possible locations for your seminar or conference include your own offices, a hotel, a corporate or
privately operated conference center, or space borrowed or leased from another organization. If
your office has adequate meeting space and is close to the market you are trying to reach, holding
the conference there provides you the opportunity to show the place off and introduce other
members of the firm. The location serves as a subtle advertisement for your firm.

Hotels and conference centers offer logistical support unavailable at many offices for conferences
of a day or more, including full audio visual support, eating space separate from meeting space,
and almost enough telephones for everyone to use during breaks. Most hotels will provide meeting
spaces free if you guarantee a minimum number of room rentals. Room rates are negotiable if you
expect a large number of participants. More importantly, you will want to negotiate the cost of
meals and break-time refreshments. This is because participants pay for rooms themselves, while
you pay for meals and refreshments either out of conference fees or out of your own budget. Talk
to several hotels, see the space they plan to give you, look at rooms, taste the food, check out
logistical support such as photocopying and audio visual equipment, request rates, and ask for
references from others who have held meetings there. You will then be in a position to negotiate
with several hotels to get the mix of service and cost that suits your needs.

17.2.6 Seminar marketing

Most seminars are marketed by direct mail. The longer the seminar and the more you plan to
charge for it, the longer the list will have to be to identify an adequate number of candidates. A
breakfast or evening seminar can get by with a much shorter list.

Seminar attendance can be increased dramatically through effective telemarketing. Scripts and
training are the key, and only qualified professionals that can represent you effectively should be
used. Telemarketing should be coordinated with mail drops, timed so the prospect has the
invitation on their desk no more than a week. Outbound scripts should include topic and product
interest and referral questions. Interviewees can also be asked if they would post invitations on
bulletin boards, or e-mail the announcement to their colleagues. An e-mail version should be
available to facilitate this.

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You should also consider having the seminar announcement and registration form on your
website. We don’t recommend advertising in journals, due to the high cost and relatively low
coverage.

17.2.7 The invitation

Because the quality of your invitation or flyer greatly influences attendance, it deserves
special attention. For a one- or two-day conference, the flyer should include seven things:

• The conference theme - The reader should be able to determine almost instantaneously
what the conference is about. The wording should be as compelling as possible.

• A concise description stressing benefits - Don't leave it to the readers to figure out what
they will get out of attending. If you tone down your flyer, be sure you don't obscure the
benefits in the process.

• A description of who should attend - This inclusive list indicates who the conference is
designed for and allows the reader to say, "This is meant for me!"

• A review of the schedule and content - In this portion, list what will occur: From the
morning through the afternoon of each day, noting speakers and subjects followed by two
or three bullets stressing the benefits of each.

• A concise speaker description. Include credentials, background and experience.

• Logistics of time, place, fee, payment, registration, and accommodations. This should
include directions to the site, if not included with confirmation letters.

• A sign-up sheet. This can be a tear sheet or a response card to fax or mail in. Make sure
to ask qualifying questions, including seminar topic interest, and product interest and
timing.

17.2.8 The speakers

People who organize seminars for the first time often see themselves or others in their firm as
primary speakers. You can often do better by including outsiders and sometimes by using them
exclusively. Doing this will make the seminar seem less self-serving, which frequently results
in higher attendance. Prospective customers will shun a seminar if they sense they may be
submitted to an hour-long advertisement. When selecting a speaker or speakers for a seminar,
one should consider the following points:

1. Drawing power- Some names attract more attendees than others. A client with stature
in his industry will often attract his competitors, who are probably good prospective
clients for you.

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2. Availability- One of the most onerous tasks in organizing a conference or seminar is
lining up speakers. This needs to be done early in the process, because everything else
hinges on it.

3. Knowledge- The speaker must know the subject matter. Firms that use only their own
employees as speakers often can do so because they are presenting highly technical
material that is little understood by outsiders.

4. Speaking ability- The quality of the speaking will determine the success of the seminar.
Don't subject your audience to the expert bore. Rehearse the speakers.

5. Balance - If you have several speakers, make sure they present different points of view.
Otherwise you will get a me-too presentation.

6. Price- Most firms want to avoid paying speakers, other than for travel expenses.

If you do decide to speak yourself or to use others in your firm as speakers exclusively, you must
stress the content and benefits in your flyer. The more people understand about what they will
learn, the less they are likely to fear an advertisement. Remember that people attend a seminar
to learn, not to be sold!

17.2.9 Chance to talk

People attend seminars and conferences not only to hear the speakers but also to talk to their peers
at other companies. They want to compare notes, empathize, look for jobs, and relax with others
who understand their problems. These periods of informal interaction also offer you the best
opportunities for building relationships and generating leads. Arrangements for this activity
deserve careful attention. You need to block appropriate time for it-before a breakfast or dinner
seminar, after an afternoon seminar, and at several convenient times during a conference. You will
need space that encourages interaction. That means open space out of traffic flow where people
can stand and talk to each other without interruption. Comfortable sitting space in small clusters
helps too. During this time you and others from your firm should play host, circulating to make
sure you meet everyone, making introductions, and absorbing those at the fringes of the
conversations into the center. Above all, you should get others to talk. They have had a chance to
hear you during the presentation. Now it is your turn to listen and learn. Learn names, learn
personal interests, and learn business responsibilities and concerns. This information will allow
you to follow up later with a personal note to each individual.

Have a few stock questions to get others talking, like, "What is your specific interest in coming to
this conference?" or "What do you think of the seminar so far?" Also, have questions that will
draw out the silent individuals in a group. If one individual dominates the discussion with his
reason for attending, wait for a pause and say, "That's interesting." Turn to someone else and say,
"Did you come for the same reasons or different ones?" Using your networking skills, you should

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be listening for ways you can help those you talk with. An obligation to call a participant with
information he is looking for creates a means of keeping the relationship alive later. Create a list
of these obligations for use after the conference. The opportunity to establish a relationship with
your audience is one of the primary benefits of running a seminar or conference. The chance to do
so is largely restricted to informal interaction periods. Work hard during these periods and you
greatly increase your chances of obtaining business later.

17.2.10 Money

Few firms charge for seminars running less than a full day. A multi-track or two-day conference,
however, can cost hundreds of thousands of dollars to put on. Because of the substantial
educational benefits they provide, attendees are willing to pay for them, and most, though not all,
firms charge a fee. You should consider doing so.

The more your conference looks like one run by a trade association or other third-party
conference operator, the more you can charge attendees. This usually means several presenters
from a variety of organizations, high quality audiovisual materials, a binder full of training
materials, and good quality conferencing space. Individuals with unusually strong credentials
as experts and trainers do present alone for two days and charge, but they are in the minority.
For prevailing fee structures, review fliers for conferences that you receive by mail. Charging a fee
can enhance the credibility of your seminar. It shows that people will pay to hear what you say and is an
indicator that you intend to educate, not advertise.

17.2.11 Something to take home

For-profit conferences universally provide participants with printed material summarizing what
they have learned. If your event is free, you must decide whether to do so. Materials you can use
for this purpose include copies of exhibits used by speakers, white papers or reprints of articles on
the subject, and speaker bios.

A high quality package of materials adds to the professional appearance of a seminar and gives
those who attend something they can save with your name on it.

17.2.12 Post-Seminar Follow -up

Within a week of a conference's completion you should follow up with letters to everyone you
have met, thanking them for attending. If you have promised someone information, you can put it
in the letter, or, if appropriate, call. As in all forms of marketing, follow-up has a major impact on
lead generation and separates the serious marketer from the casual one.

Attendees should be contacted after the seminar by a centralized telemarketing effort or one
closely managed with Field Sales. Immediate prospects for your services are quickly forwarded

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to Field Sales, and Field Sales should receive a list of those with longer term buying plans. There
should be managed follow-up of prospects who express product interest every six months.

17.3 Guidelines for Writing/Formulating a Proposal for Organizing International

Conferences/Workshops/Seminars for Approval by the Higher Authority

1. Title of the Seminar/Conference/Workshop/Forum

2. Purpose: The purpose of the proposal is to seek the consideration and approval of the
Higher Authority to organize the International Conference

3. Background: Background of the Seminar/Conference/Workshop.

4. Organizing Committee

5. Objective of the Seminar/Conference/Workshop

6. Basis For Consideration: Justification of the need to hold the conference.

7. Details of the Seminar/Conference/Workshop:

-Date, Time and Venue

-Participants:- Specify total number of local and participants and list out their names. State
and list the countries that will be expected to participate in the conference.

-Paper presentation: State the working papers for presentation. State and list the paper
presenters and their countries of origin

-Programme (Brochure): Please attach conference brochure

8. Financial Implications:

Specify source of income and expected expenditure

Specify whether this involves budget allocation from the government or any central agency

9. Security Implications:

Specify whether the seminars/conferences, workshops/forum held have implications on

security and national policies

10. Recommendations:

The approving authorities are kindly requested to consider and approve the proposal to
organize the International Conference on “Towards Better (Trust) Management &
Development”
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11. Report on the implementation of the Seminar/Conference/Workshop/Forum

Report of the conference should be forwarded to the concerned higher authority as soon as
possible, through proper channel.

17.3.1 The idea

The idea of organizing a conference without any specific details is usually generated by one
person and that person needs to spread his idea within his department and see who is willing to
help. Once he has a team with at least two-three members he can start preparing.

17.3.2 Pre-preparation

A group of two-three persons will not be enough for the organization of a conference, so there is a
need to recruit more students in the group. The department should be informed about the idea and
the goals and should give their approval before inviting more people to help.

17.3.3 Call for volunteers

Usually postgraduate student conference organizing committees are created by Post-graduate

students who volunteer to help and thus are small in number. If it is a small team (2-3 persons),
then call for volunteers so as to expand your team. A “call for volunteers” should outline the
purpose of the team (now be called a committee) and provide a general description of what the
new members will do. Also give a ‘response deadline’ for those who would like to volunteer.
Conduct an interview before admitting anyone in the committee.

17.3.4 The interview

Allocate a time and place for the interview. Before having the interview make sure you have a list
of all the questions you and your colleagues would like to ask as well as what it is that you are
looking for from the new members. What you are looking for should be determined by the list of
duties in the sections 3 and 4 below. The most important restriction for a person to become a
member of the committee should be to be available during the conference preparation period.

Have in mind that a conference organizing team will surely need among others a:

• Head of the conference/team, who will be responsible for keeping the agenda and organizing
all other members;

• Head of finance: the person, who will know exactly how much money you have and what
you spent the rest of the money on;

• Head of the programme: To know what the programme would be like, getting in touch with
lectures, students, etc.

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• Head of accommodation: the person who will organize all the accommodation facilities and
offers provided for the conference, as well as inform the participants or attendees about all the
tourist information needed

• Head of technical support & webmaster: the person(s) who will know how to handle audio-
visual equipment as well as support the organization and maintenance of the webpage.
Therefore the students admitted in the committee should abide with the above requirements.

17.3.5 Specifying the Nature of the Conference:

Once having a team you need to specify the actual nature of the conference. Try to provide
answers to the following questions in order to determine the nature of the conference:

• To whom the conference is going to address?

• Who are the people most likely to attend it?

• Which area of importance will be covered?

• Will it have a specific theme within the area?

• Is it going to be a Local, Regional, National or International Conference?

• Where will it be held?

• How long should it last?

• What is the scope of the conference?

In order to be able to answer these afore-stated questions, you should draw some information from
previous conferences of the same nature. Learn as much as possible about other conferences,
seminars and workshops, so as to be acquainted with many hints and procedures.

17.3.6 Preparation / Time-table

When having a team and the approval of your department as well as being able to answer the
questions above then you can continue with administering to each member of the committee what
they are suppose to do. Firstly, you should plan the timetable for preparation, execution and
follow-up. The timetable should be divided into three sections with respect to the remaining
months until the conference is held. The first step should involve preparations made for 5-6
months before the event, the second for the preparations made for 3-4 months before the
conference; and lastly, 1-2 months before the conference.

17.3.6.1 First Step: 5-6 months before the event

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When planning the timetable you should consider that you should provide at least 5-6 months for
preparation. This is vital for both you as organizers and the presenters.

a) Secure a day

In order to be able to secure a day for the conference you should search at some linguistics pages
and find all conferences held during the academic year you are interested in organizing your
conference. Make sure that you choose a day that it is at least 5-6 months away and there is no
other conference on that day in the same area as the one where you are thinking of having the
conference.

b) Room-bookings

Once you decide on the day you need to allocate room bookings (committee-style or lecture style).
When making room bookings you should think about how many parallel or net sessions you are
going to have. The more parallel sessions the more rooms you will need. Also consider the fact
that depending on the length of the conference the attendance will vary. Therefore, you need more
rooms that you may use at the end which are good sized rooms where your participants will not
seem to be too few or too many. Also consider that the rooms you book have the appropriate
requirements; for example audiovisual (AV) equipment. In a conference you always serve coffee
and sometimes lunch or dinner depending on the nature of the conference. This is something that
should also be considered since you need the lecture rooms to be close to a coffee room where the
coffee will be served; either by a university catering or any other catering service which is
approved.

c) Catering

If you are organizing the conference in your university then you should ask for the approval by the
university catering services available in your area. That is, universities tend to have some
approved services which can be given to students so as to follow among others safety regulations.
Once having the list you can start contacting the catering services and choose the one which suites
your requirements. Consider that when being asked to give the catering service the program of the
conference you should tell them to bring everything 10-15 minutes earlier so as to avoid any
delays and be able to have a backup plan in case that something goes wrong; with respect to
catering services.

d) Funding

In order to be able to pay for all your expenses you will need a sponsor. First you should address
your department to see whether they could fund your conference. You could also apply to other
organizations, which may be scientific, financial/banking,donor/sponsoring in nature.

e) Plenary Speakers

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All conferences tend to have two or three plenary speakers who are reputed ones (in their area of
specialization) from all over the world. As a conference organizer, you should have decided
whether the conference you are organizing will be of a specific subject or not. If the conference
covers a specific area of linguistics then you should choose the leading linguists in that field and
invite them to become the plenary speakers. However, if the conference you are organizing is a
general one, without having a focus on any specific area/field, then you should be cautious when
choosing who to invite as plenary speakers..

f) Advertising the Event

When confirming your plenary speakers then you can advertise the event. Initially the event
should be advertised to your audience, depending on the nature of the conference; whether it is a
regional, International, etc.

g) Call for Abstracts

The ‘call for abstracts’ should include information such as:

• Time and place of the conference

• Names of the plenary speakers

• Which departments / associations support the event

• Deadline for abstract submission

• Description of the abstract format required; named, word count etc.

You should make sure that you have a reasonable deadline for abstract submission and that you
sent at least three invitations to your prospective audience with a short interval in between. Be
prepared when setting the deadline that you may have to extend the deadline, since for
uncountable reasons you may not have enough abstracts to complete the slots you want

h) Registration Form

The form should include among others:

• Name and affiliation details

• Information about registration packs/fees

• Information regarding dietary requirements or any other individual needs

• A check-list to indicate whether they are presenting or just attending the conference

• Information about accommodation packs

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Advise all presenters to register, since information about dietary and accommodation requirements
is not obtained through an abstract submission.

i) Webpage Design

You should try to either form a webpage through your department’s server or through one of your
own; this depends on the status of your conference and whether it is approved by your department.
The actual webpage should include:

• Information about the nature of the event

• Information about the place and the surrounding area of where the event is taking place

• Travel information / time tables redarding bus, trains, Metro etc.

• Hotel lists

• Contact details of all committee members

• Information about the committee members

• Abstract guidelines

• Fares for registration/ packs available for students

• Mode(s) of payment

• Registration form

17.3.6.2 Second Step: 3-4 months before the event

(a) Receiving the Abstracts

Once receiving the abstracts you should make sure that they follow the format you requested.
Those that abide to the guidelines can be categorized depending on their field.

(b) Reviewing the Abstracts

You should decide on whether you would like postgraduate students or teaching staff to review
the abstracts submitted. Once you decide on this then you can distribute a call for reviewers.

(c) Call for Reviewers

The ‘call for reviewers’ should include information about possible areas of linguistics which will
be addressed by the abstracts as well as a deadline for notification of interest. This should also
include a deadline for when the abstract reviewing is due. You should also include a note as to
which area the volunteered reviewers would feel more positive to review. This, you should have in
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mind when distributing the abstracts received. When sending the abstracts to reviewers you should
give the reviewers an anonymous copy of the abstract so as to avoid any biased answers. You
should also provide the reviewers with reviewing guidelines, in order to obtain clear comments
and avoid more subjective recommendations.

(d) Acceptance/ Rejection of Abstracts

When receiving reviewers’ comments and their suggestion for accepting or declining the abstract
you should inform the presenters. Before that you should try to crosscheck reviewers’ comments
so as to make sure that you also agree with their comments. The abstracts that were rejected could
be accepted as a poster presentation or nothing at all.

e) Conference Programme

When creating the program there are several factors you should consider, such as:

• Enough time for registration in the morning

• Include a 15 minute slot in the first session for the opening of the conference which should
be made by a member of your sponsoring organization and the chair of your committee

• Adequate breaks between sessions

• Tea/Coffee breaks should last for at least 17 minutes

• Lunch breaks should last for at least 1 hour

• Have enough time for poster presentations

• Allow for a five-minute break between presentations, so that attendees can choose to leave or
change the lecture room

• Try to have presentations in each session and same lecture room that cover the same or
similar area of linguistics. That is, have syntax presentations on one session and morphology
on another

• Have both the name of the presentation and the presenter on the program. You may also want
to include affiliation details

• Also, try to have two-three last minute backup presentations (if you can) in case that there is
a last minute cancellation

f) Advertising about the Conference Programme

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Once you have created the program you should send it to all departments and your audience.
When sending the program also include in the email a second/third call for attendees along with
all information needed; do not forget the registration form..

17.3.6.3 Third Step: 2-1 month(s) before the event

• Arrange facilities for collection and banking, cancellation and upload them on the webpage.

• Ask the presenters whether they would require any special equipment

• Book AV equipment etc., finalizing room allocation.

• Create an abstract booklet for both oral and poster presentation (or even workshops) and sent
it to the printing services.

• Create conference posters and use them to advertise your conference around your
Department and University.

a) One week before the event

Make the conference packs for the event. This should include the following:

• Abstract booklet

• Conference time-table

• Information about local events and the area, which you can get from the tourism office from
your town/city

• Any advertising leaflets given by your department or any other funding body

• Taxis’ telephone numbers, Train, metro, bus time-tables, etc.

• Name-Tags (make sure that committee’s name-tags differ in color or layout to the ones given
to presenters and attendees)

• Food-vouchers (if any)

• Area- maps

• Delegate-lists

• Feedback- form

• Make preparations in case that the event has to be cancelled. That is, you may need to have a
cancellation notice ready which you could distribute to everyone who was registered as well as
to any mailing lists.
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• Ask your plenary speakers, attendees and presenters whether they would require any extra
help with their arrival at the place of the event.

• You should printout some extra taxi numbers and bus, train, metro timetables, area maps for
the registration desk.

• Briefing session with helpers.

• Check & re-check the room- bookings, speakers, refreshment/catering arrangements, room
layout and AV provision.

b) One day before the event

• Make sure there are enough signs for speakers and attendees to find the room where the
event will take place. If not create some yourself.

• Re-confirm: room bookings, catering.

• Arrange room layout for both poster and oral presentations.

• Make sure the whole committee is on call in case that something goes wrong.

• Confirm that the folders etc are ready.

• Confirm you have a printout of the lists of presenters and attendees.

• Confirm you have a list of any economic arrangements that need to be settled on the day.

• Have a list of all the telephone numbers for all possible services needed. That is, catering,
safety services as well as hospital telephone numbers.

• Check that you have done the name tag and food vouchers etc.

• Make sure you have a money box for the day of the event.

• Arrange which members of the committee are going to be at the registration desk, who is
going to welcome guests and who is going to assist presenters test their presentation on your
AV equipment.

• Make sure you have at least two extra laptops for the day of the event, in case that a
computer or the AV equipment in any of the rooms is not working properly.

• Have an announcement advising attendees to enter/leave the lecture room if they are late by
the emergency exits not the front doors so as not to interrupt the presenter.

c) On the day

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• Arrive early

• Prepare the registration desk and make sure that everybody is on their position

• Check on room layout, provision for speakers (AV, water in the lecture rooms)

• Advise the presenters as soon as they register to check their presentation with the person who
has been allocated for this job.

• Before the beginning of the first presentation thank everyone for coming and also make sure
you acquaint them with safety and room evacuation procedures. When organizing a
conference or any other event you are responsible for guiding people in case of an emergency
event. Therefore, make sure that you have been informed about all the safety procedures and
that at least one member of the committee knows first aid in case that you might need to act
accordingly.

d) Afterwards

• Record who actually attends

• ‘Thank You’ letters to speakers

• General report to all delegates

• Settle the account

17.3.7 Conference& seminar organizer's outline

17.3.7.1 Outline of the specific tasks you must complete to run a conference

I. Determine Goals & Target Audience

a. Select general subject(s)

b. Determine length (half day, one day, two days, multiple tracks)

c. Brainstorm regarding alternative venues & topics

d. Review for feasibility

1. Is it educational?

2. Is it important?

3. Will it provide solutions?

4. Do we have the resources/knowledge to handle it?

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II. Determine Seminar Marketing Plan

A. Mailing List/Logistics

B. Advertising

C. Website

D. Outbound telemarketing

1. Pre-mailing qualification & referral

2. Post-mailing qualification, referral & registration

E. Registration options

III. Establish schedule

1. Set date(s)

2. Set completion dates for key tasks

3. Monitor and revise periodically

IV. Select speakers

A. Brainstorm alternatives

1. Internal

2. External

3. Current users

4. Other experts

B. Review for suitability

1. Knowledge

2. Drawing power of name

3. Speaking ability

C. Invite speakers

1. Invite and confirm availability

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2. Invite fallback speakers, as needed

V. Select site

A. Review alternatives

1. Internal

2. Hotel

3. Conference center

B. Inspect site alternatives

1. Meeting space

2. Breakout space

3. Socializing space

4. Sleeping accommodations

5. Food service

6. Logistical support

7. Photocopying

8. Audiovisual equipment

9. Telephones

10. Message service

11. Rest rooms

12. Financial terms

13. Larger space for overcapacity

C. Negotiate terms and reserve space

VI. Mail invitations

A. Create invitation list

1. Brainstorm alternatives with planning team

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a) Internal

b) Purchased

c)Provided by speakers

2. Set targets, filter & combine databases

B. Determine registration sources

1. mail

2. fax

3. web

4. inbound phone center

5. outbound telemarketing center

C. Produce invitations

1. Draft copy

a) Describe theme

b) Describe benefits

c) Note who should attend

d) Describe schedule and content

e) Describe speakers

f) Describe logistics

(1) Time

(2) Place

(3) Fee and payment

(4) Registration/response form, including qualification questions

(5) Accommodations

(6) Directions

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Design, print and mail invitations and confirmation packages

g) Staged mail drops (as needed)

h) Fax and e-mail versions for follow-up

VII. Registration & confirmation

A. Monitor incoming registration

1. Ask qualification questions on all incoming telephone calls

2. Provide lists of registrants to sales reps weekly

3. Monitor registration for room capacity

B. Conduct outbound telemarketing

1. Ask qualification questions

2. Ask for referrals

3. Invitation ready to Fax or e-mail to referrals or if misplaced

C. Send Confirmation Packages

1. Include schedule, speakers bios, directions, mass transit, parking info

2. Sending options (mail, fax, e-mail)

D. Conduct outbound reminder calls

1. 24 to 48 hours prior to the event

2. Voicemail messages are OK

VIII. Order refreshments/meals

A. Select caterer/provider

B. Select menu

C. Place order

IX. Rehearse speakers

A. Schedule rehearsal

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B. Coach speakers

C. Determine need and arrange for audiovisual equipment

X. Prepare materials

A. Collect copies of speakers' exhibits

B. Collect speakers' bios

C. Collect white papers/article reprints

D. Prepare title page and table of contents

E. Duplicate and bind

F. Prepare seminar evaluation form, including qualification questions

XI. Arrange and check seminar logistics

A. Reception

B. Registration

C. Name tags

D. Coat room

E. Speaker introductions

F. Writing materials for attendees

G. Materials delivery

H. Seating arrangement

I. Water for speakers

J. Podium and lighting for speakers

K. Audiovisual equipment

L. Heating and air conditioning

M. Hosts and helpers from firm

XII. Conduct event

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A. Set up “Welcome Centre” to speed up registration & seating

B. Offer reward for turning in completed evaluation and qualification form

XIII. Post-event follow-up

A. ‘Thank You’ letters to attendees

B. ‘Thank You’ letters to speakers

C. Post-seminar telemarketing

D. Follow-up to harvest immediate prospects.

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Module 4. Oral communication and organizational skills

Lesson 18
PUBLIC SPEAKING

18.1 Introduction

The process of speaking to a group of people in a structured, deliberate manner intended to

inform, influence, or entertain the listeners is known as public speaking. It is closely allied to
"presenting", although the latter has more of a commercial connotation. In public speaking, there
are five basic elements, often expressed as "who is saying what to whom using what medium with
what effects?" The purpose of public speaking ranges from simply transmitting information, to
motivating people to act, to simply telling a story. Good orators should be able to change the
emotions of their listeners, not just inform them. Interpersonal communication and public
speaking have several components that embrace such things as motivational speaking,
leadership/personal development, business, customer service, large group communication, and
mass communication. Public speaking can be a powerful tool to use for purposes such as
motivation, influence, persuasion, informing, translation, or simply entertaining. A confident
speaker is more likely to use this as excitement and create effective speech, thus increasing their
overall ethos. Professional public speakers often engage in on-going training and education to
refine their craft. This may include seeking guidance to improve their speaking skills—such as
learning better story-telling techniques, for example, or learning how to effectively use humor as a
communication tool—as well as continuous research in their topic area of focus.

18.2 Importance of Good Public Speaking

Good public speaking skills also works at the time of the interview. It is compulsory to face an
interview before getting a new job. Interviewer will not only judge your personality but also your
communication and fluency in general. In this technology- savvy world, your presentation skills
and public speaking skills are also counted along with your basic qualification.

It is not that we only require public speaking skills to speak in front of audience or to give
lectures. Public speaking skills are an asset that is worth millions. These skills are counted not
only in our professional life but are also useful when a person is college go-getter. For example, a
student possessing good presentation skills and public speaking skills can do wonders in his
grading criteria. It is important to have clarity of delivery element, which is the base of any public
speaking skills because unclear speech and words will do any good in general speaking in front of
audiences. It is common sense that on whatever topic you are speaking, clarity is a must because
no one would be able to convey your message or whatever you are trying to speak. Unclear words
will only show that you have not prepared the subject or you are scared of speaking. Those who
cannot convey their ideas into words cannot transform their skills in professional life. Some
scholars just pass away with their ideas still left with them just because of the inability to

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transform ideas. It is true that these scholars were intelligent and conveyed their message through
writing. But the written scripts cannot convey the messages effectively compared to speaking.
They simply were not able to put their messages in front of the people of what they actually think.
They were unable to speak in front of the public. So, do not let go the importance of public
speaking skills.

People also think that public speaking skills and communication skills are not inter-related. But
they should know that they are inter-related to a certain degree of extent. However public speaking
is a broader term compared to communication skills, because people with good public speaking
skills have good communication skills. However, the vice-versa may not be correct. There are
many reasons behind why people with good communication cannot speak in public. The reason
behind why people are unable to speak in front of pubic is fear. Most of the people are scared and
have fear while speaking in front of the public. They get nervous and their heartbeat gets fast
resulting into unclear words and stammering. The common fear of public speaking is called gloss
phobia (or, informally, "stage fright").

There are numerous ways to enhance public speaking skills. No doubt, apart from the practice you
should have a great storage bank of vocabulary in your mind. You can practice public speaking
skills by speaking in front of your family members, friends and colleagues. Gradually, your
fluency will increase along with your vocabulary. Once you are able to come out of your fear, you
can be a good public speaker. Do not forget that possessing good public speaking skills is a big
asset.

18.3 Tips for Public Speaking

· Know the needs of your audience and match your contents to their needs.

· Know your material thoroughly.

· Put what you have to say in a logical sequence.

· Ensure your speech will be captivating to your audience as well as worth their time and
attention.

· Practice and rehearse your speech at home or where you can be at ease and comfortable,
in front of a mirror, your family, friends or colleagues.

· Use a tape-recorder and listen to yourself. Videotape your presentation and analyze it.

· Know what your strong and weak points are. Emphasize your strong points during your
presentation.

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· When you are presenting in front of an audience, you are performing as an actor is on
stage. How you are being perceived is very important. Dress appropriately for the
occasion.

· Be solemn if your topic is serious. Present the desired image to your audience.

· Look pleasant, enthusiastic, confident, proud, but not arrogant.

· Remain calm. Appear relaxed, even if you feel nervous.

· Speak slowly, enunciate clearly, and show appropriate emotion and feeling relating to
your topic.

· Establish rapport with your audience.

· Speak to the person farthest away from you to ensure your voice is loud enough to project
to the back of the room. Vary the tone of your voice and dramatize if necessary. If a
microphone is available, adjust and adapt your voice accordingly.

· Body language is important. Standing, walking or moving about with appropriate hand
gesture or facial expression is preferred to sitting down or standing still with head down
and reading from a prepared speech. Use audio-visual aids or props for enhancement if
appropriate and necessary.

· Master the use of presentation software such as PowerPoint well before your presentation.
Do not over-dazzle your audience with excessive use of animation, sound clips, or gaudy
colors which are inappropriate for your topic. Do not torture your audience by putting a
lengthy document in tiny print on an overhead and reading it out to them.

· Speak with conviction as if you really believe in what you are saying. Persuade your
audience effectively.

· The material you present orally should have the same ingredients as that which are
required for a written research paper, i.e. a logical progression from INTRODUCTION
to BODY (strong supporting arguments, accurate and up-to-date information)
to CONCLUSION.

· Do not read from notes for any extended length of time although it is quite acceptable to
glance at your notes infrequently. Speak loudly and clearly. Sound confident.

· Do not mumble. If you made an error, correct it, and continue. No need to make excuses
or apologize profusely.

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· Maintain sincere eye-contact with your audience. Use the 3-second method, e.g. look
straight into the eyes of a person in the audience for 3 seconds at a time. Have direct eye
contact with a number of people in the audience, and every now and then glance at the
whole audience while speaking. Use your eye-contact to make everyone in your audience
feel involved.

· Speak to your audience, listen to their questions, respond to their

reactions, adjust and adapt.

· If what you have prepared is obviously not getting across to your audience, change your
strategy mid-stream if you are well prepared to do so. Remember that communication is
the key to a successful presentation.

· If you are short of time, know what can be safely left out. If you have extra time, know
what could be effectively added. Always be prepared for the unexpected.

· Pause. Allow yourself and your audience a little time to reflect and think. Don't race
through your presentation and leave your audience, as well as yourself, feeling out of
breath.

· Add humor whenever appropriate and possible. Keep audience interested throughout your
entire presentation. Remember that an interesting speech makes time fly, but a boring
speech is always too long to endure even if the presentation time is the same.

· When using audio-visual aids to enhance your presentation, be sure all necessary
equipment is set up and in good working order prior to the presentation. If possible, have
an emergency backup system readily available. Check out the location ahead of time to
ensure seating arrangements for audience, whiteboard, blackboard, lighting, location of
projection screen, sound system, etc. are suitable for your presentation.

· Have handouts ready and give them out at the appropriate time. Tell audience ahead of
time that you will be giving out an outline of your presentation so that they will not waste
time taking unnecessary notes during your presentation.

· Know when to STOP talking. Use a timer or the microwave oven clock to time your
presentation when preparing it at home. Just as you don't use unnecessary words in your
written paper, you don't bore your audience with repetitious or unnecessary words in your
oral presentation. To end your presentation, summarize your main points in the same way
as you normally do in the CONCLUSION of a written paper.

· Remember, however, that there is a difference between spoken words appropriate for the
ear and formally written words intended for reading. Terminate your presentation with an
interesting remark or an appropriate punch line. Leave your listeners with a positive

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impression and a sense of completion. Do not belabor your closing remarks. Thank your
audience and sit down.

· Have the written portion of your assignment or report ready for your instructor if required.

The objectives of a public speaker's presentation can range from simply transmitting information,
to motivating people to act, to simply telling a story. People who speak publicly in a professional
capacity are paid a ‘speaking fee’. Professional public speakers may include ex-politicians, sports
stars and other public figures. In the case of high profile personalities, the sum can be
extraordinary.

Public speaking and oration are sometimes considered some of the most importantly valued skills
that an individual can possess. This skill can be used for almost anything. Most great speakers
have a natural ability to display the skills and effectiveness that can help to engage and move an
audience for whatever purpose. Language and rhetoric use are among two of the most important
aspects of public speaking and interpersonal communication. Having knowledge and
understanding of the use and purpose of communication can help to make a more effective
speaker communicate their message in an effective way. The speeches of politicians are often
widely analyzed by both their supporters and detractors.

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 19
SENTENCE STRUCTURE

19.1 Introduction

One of the keys to good writing is to understand the countless ways in which basic
sentence structures can be combined and arranged. A sentence consists of words
correctly arranged to form a complete statement or idea. There are many different
ways of organizing words into sentences. As we work to improve our writing, it is
important to understand what these basic structures are and how to use them
effectively. Different parts of speech have specific tasks to perform when they are
put together in a sentence.

19.2 Basic Units of Writing

Even at the advanced level of learning, it is useful to recapitulate one’s previous

knowledge and form a clear idea of these units. The basic units of writing are
· Words
· Phrases
· Sentences
· Clauses

19.2.1 Word

· A word is a combination of speech sounds for conveying the desired

meaning.
· Sounds are denoted by different letters of alphabet.
· A word may be divided into several speaking units.
· The minimum speaking unit in a word is called a syllable.
· Mono-syllabic words: A word may have only one syllable, e.g., come, sit,
love, speak etc.
· Multi-syllabic words: A word may also have two or more syllables, e.g.,
lovely, speaker, quality, democracy, responsibility etc.

19.2.2 Phrase

· A Phrase is a group of words conveying some sense.

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· It does not contain a complete verb though it may have a participle or an

infinitive.
· Ordinary phrases e.g., in the room, on the table, a bunch of flowers’
reading a book.
· Some phrases are idiomatic phrases, e.g. at the eleventh hour. A red-letter
day.

19.2.3 Sentence

· A Sentence is a group of words making a complete sense.

19.2.4 Clause

· A clause is a sentence within a sentence dependent on the main clause.

19.3 Parts of Speech

Words are divided into different kinds or classes, called Parts of Speech, according
to their use; that is, according to the work they do in a sentence. The parts of
Speech are eight in number:
Table 1.1 Parts of speech
1. Noun 2. Adjective

3. Pronoun 4. Verb

5. Adverb 6. Preposition

7. Conjunction 8. Interjection

· A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or thing; as

Ram is my elder brother.
Delhi is the capital of India.
The rose smells sweet.
The sun shines bright.
Mohan was carried away by her beauty.
Note: The word things includes (i) all objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch, or
smell and (ii) something that we can think of, but cannot perceive by the senses.

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· An Adjective is a word used to add something to the meaning of a noun;

as
She is a beautiful girl.
There are fifty boys in this class.
· A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as,
The principal is absent, because he is ill.
She went to Mumbai to make presentation of her work.
· A Verb is a word used to say something about some person, place, or thing;
as,
The girl wrote a letter to her brother.
They are playing in the garden.
There are many students in the class.
· An Adverb is a word used to add something to the meaning of a verb, an
adjective, or another adverb; as,
He solved the problem quickly.
He walks slowly.
· A Preposition is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show how the
person or thing denoted by the noun or pronoun stands in relation to
something else; as,
There is a peacock in the garden.
The girl is fond of dancing.
The group consists of twenty boys.
· A Conjunction is a word used to join words or sentences; as,
Rama and Shama are sisters.
Two and two make four.
We tried our best, but lost the match.
· An Interjection is a word which expresses some sudden feeling; as,
Hurrah! We have won the lottery.
Alas! She has lost the game.

19.4 Word Order

In the English language there are no different forms for subjects and objects. To
keep subject and object apart, however, we have to stick to the word order.
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In English, Grammatical meaning is largely determined by word order.

Blue sky and sky blue mean different things.
In the first, blue describes the sky
In the second sky describes the blue.
Tile floor and Floor tile
In the first one, tile describes the floor whereas in the second one floor describes the
tile.
· Our new neighbors bought an old house.
· Our old neighbors bought a new house.

19.5 Function Words

Function words, sometimes called grammatical words, are words such as the, and,
but, in, to, because, while, ought, and must. The main use of function words is to
express relationships among other words. Compare the following
· The cook prepared a rich feast.
· The cook prepared the rich a feast.

19.6 Inflections

Inflections are changes in the form of words that indicate differences in

grammatical relationship.
· Stop bothering me.
· Stops bother me.
We should be able to control these grammatical devices –word order, functional
words, and inflections. All this is essential to writing clearly.

19.7 Sentence Structure Analysis

A sentence is a group of words making complete sense. It may be a single sentence

with a complete verb or may comprise two or more clauses. In imperatives, even a
verb can make a complete sense and thus, may be considered a sentence. A clear
understanding of the various kinds of sentences is necessary for effective writing.

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19.7.1 Kinds of sentence (Classification by function)

Assertive sentences
These sentences contain statements and are used for conveying information, e.g.
He is a good player.
She has gone to Germany for a week.
Pattern: Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)

Interrogative sentences
These sentences contain questions which may begin with a helping verb or an
interrogative word like What, When, Which, How, Who, Whose, Whom or Where,
e.g.,
How did you go there?
Do they want to see the movie?
-Pattern: Verb + Subject + Object (VSO)
Imperative sentences
These sentences contain commands, requests, advice, suggestions, orders etc.
Don’t make a noise.
Let us go for a walk.
Pattern: Verb + Object (VO)
Exclamatory sentences
These sentences contain emotional outbursts and describe feelings of joy, sorrow,
or wonder, e.g.
Aha! How lovely this frock is!
What a beautiful piece of art!

19.7.2 Kinds of Sentence (Classification by structure)

Simple sentences
A simple sentence is a sentence with one finite or complete verb, e.g.,
I go to school.
Hard work is the key to success in life.

Compound sentences

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A compound sentence is made of two or more simple sentences combined with co-
ordinating conjunctions like and, but, or, for, either…or, neither…nor, both…
and, not only…but also, etc. The clauses in a compound sentence are called co-
ordinate clauses. e.g.
I go to college and learn Physics.
He tried his best to win the race but failed.

Complex sentences
A complex sentence is made of an independent clause known as the main or the
principal clause and one or more dependent clauses known as subordinate clauses.
Subordinating conjunctions like when, where, while, so that, if, unless, although,
until, that etc., are used to join the subordinate clause with the principal clause
which does not require any conjunction for itself. e.g.
I go to college so that I may learn Physics.
If the rain continues, the crop will be damaged.
Wait here until I come.
We hope that we shall be able to complete the task.

Multiple sentences
A multiple sentence, also known as a compound-complex sentence, involves the
use of both the compound and the complex sentences. It contains one or more
principal clauses, one or more subordinate clauses, and one or more co-ordinate
clauses, e.g.,
If it continues to rain, we shall not go to office and work at home.

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 20
MODIFIERS, CONNECTING WORDS AND VERBALS; PHRASES AND
CLAUSES

20.1 Introduction

All sentences in English are not limited to the basic patterns. The variety and
complexity of our sentences is created by the addition of modifying words and by
the use of several different kinds of word groups that can themselves serve as nouns
and modifiers.

20.2 Modifying Words: Adjectives and Adverbs

Modifiers are words or word groups that limit, qualify, and make more exact the
other words or word groups to which they are attached. Adjectives and adverbs are
the principal single-word modifiers in English.
Adjectives and Adverbs are modifying words; that is, they are words that limit or
qualify the meaning of other words. Adjectives modify nouns, and they are usually
placed either immediately before or immediately after the word they modify.
Adverbs normally modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They may
sometimes modify whole sentences. When they modify adjectives or other adverbs,
they are adjacent to the words they modify. When they modify verbs, they are
frequently, but not always, adjacent to the verbs.
Adverbs qualify the meaning of the words they modify by indicating such
things as when, where, how, why, in what order, or how often.
The office closed yesterday. [Yesterday indicates when.]

Deliver all mail here. [Here indicates where.]

She replied quickly and angrily. [Quickly and angrily describe how she
replied.]

Consequently, I left. [Consequently describes why.]

He seldom did any work. [Seldom indicates how often.]

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20.3 Connecting Words: Prepositions and Conjunctions

Connecting words enable us to link one word or word group with another and to
combine them in way that allow us not only to express our ideas more concisely, but
also to express the relationships between those ideas more clearly.
We don’t need to say: We had tea. We had toast.
Rather, we can say: We had tea and toast
Or
We had tea with toast.
We don’t need to say: We talked. We played games. We went home.
Rather, we can say: After we talked and played games, we went home
Or
After talking and playing games, we went home.
The kinds of words that enable us to make these connections and combinations are
prepositions and conjunctions.
A Preposition links a noun or pronoun (called its object) with some other word in
the sentence and shows the relationship between the object and the other word. The
preposition, together with its object, almost always modifies the other word to
which it is linked.
The dog walks on the grass. [On links grass to the verb walks; on grass modifies
walks.]
A preposition usually comes before its object; in a few constructions it can
follow its object.
For which company do you work?
Which company do you work for?
Table 20.1 The most common prepositions are listed below

about below into through

above beside near to
across by next toward
after down of under
among during off until
around except on up

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as for out upon

at from over with
before in past within
behind inside since without

Some prepositions combine with other words to form phrasal prepositions, such as
at the point of, by means of, down from, from above, in addition to, with regard to.
Note that some words, such as below, down, in, out, and up, occur both as
prepositions and as adverbs. Used as adverbs, they never have objects.
(Note too that after, as, before, since, and until also function as subordinating
conjunctions.
A Conjunction joins words, phrases, or clauses. Conjunctions show the relationship
between the sentence elements that they connect.
Coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, not, for, so, yet) join words, phrases, or
clauses of equal grammatical rank.
WORDS JOINED We ate bread and butter.
PHRASES JOINED Look in the almirah or under the table.
CLAUSES JOINED We wanted to play, but we were too busy.
Correlative conjunctions are coordinating words that work in pairs to join words,
phrases, clauses, or whole sentences. The most common correlative pairs are
both……and, either…..or, neither……nor, not…..but, and not only…….but also.
both honest and candid
either before you go or after you get back
not only as a father but also as a teacher
Subordinating Conjunctions join clauses that are not equal in rank. A clause
introduced by a subordinating conjunction is called a dependent or subordinate
clauses and cannot stand by itself as a sentences; it must be joined to a main, or
independent, clause.
We left the office early because we were tired.
If the weather is bad, we will have to call off the match.
Whether you like it or not, you will have to take the medicine.
Table 20.2 The following are the most common subordinating conjunctions:
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after even though than where

although even if that wherever
as if though whether
as if in order that unless while
as though since until
because rather than when
before so that whenever

20.4 Verbals

Verbals are special verb forms that have some of the characteristics and abilities of
verbs but cannot function as verbs by themselves. Verbs make an assertion. Verbals
do not; they function as nouns and modifiers. They are three kinds of verbals:
infinitives, participles, and gerunds.
Infinitives are usually marked by a to before the actual verb (to eat, to describe).
They are used as noun, adjectives, or adverbs.
To see is to believe. [Both used as nouns]
It was time to play. [Used as adjective]
I was ready to leave. [Used as adverb]
Participles may be either present or past. The present form ends in –ing (eating,
running, describing). The past form usually ends in –ed (described). But note that
some end in –en (eaten), and as few make an internal change (begun, flown).
Participles are always used as adjectives.
Crying, the child left the room in a huff. [Present participle]
Divided, the members adjourned the proceedings of the house. [Past
participle]
Gerunds have the same –ing from as the present participle. The distinctive name
gerund is given to -ing forms only when they function as nouns.
Running a marathon requires stamina. [Subject of requires]
You should try singing. [Object of try]

20.5 Recognizing Phrases

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A phrase is a group of related words that has no subject or predicate and is used as
a single part of speech. Typical phrases are a preposition and its object (I fell on the
floor), or a verbal and its object (I wanted to take a cup of coffee).
Phrases are usually classified as prepositional, infinitive, participial, or gerund
phrases.

20.5.1 Prepositional phrases

Preposition phrases consist of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of the
object (under the ground, without thinking, in the blue car). Prepositional phrases
function as adjective or adverbs and occasionally as nouns
He is a man of principles [Adjective modifying man]
The train arrived on time. [Adverb modifying arrived]
We will be ready in an hour. [Adverb modifying ready]
She came early before sunset. [Adverb modifying early]

20.5.2 Infinitive phrases

Infinitive phrases consist of an infinitive, its modifiers, and/or its object (to play the
game, to dance swiftly, to earn profit quickly). Infinitive phrases function as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs.
I wish to sing a song. [Noun, object of verb]
It is time to go to bed. [Adverb modifying time]
We were hungry to eat the food. [Adverb modifying hungry]

20.5.3 Participial phrases

Participial phrases consist of a present or past participle, its modifiers, and/or its
object (lying on the bed, seen in the theatre, running a race). Participial phrases
always function as adjectives.
The man running in the street is my brother.
Covered with snow, the path was slippery.
Harassed by the principal, Mohan quit the job.

20.5.4 Gerund phrases

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Gerund phrases consist of a gerund, its modifiers, and/or its object (working
overtime, knowing the rules, acting swiftly). Gerund phrases always function as
nouns.
Teaching English is my pastime. [Subject]
They got success by working hard. [Objective of preposition]
He hated smoking alone. [Object of verb]
Note that since both the gerund and the present participle end in –ing, they
can be distinguished only by their separate functions as noun or adjectives.

20.6 Recognizing Clauses

A clause is a group of words which forms part of a sentence, and contains a subject
and a predicate. There are two kinds of clauses: (1) main, or independent, clause and
(2) subordinate, or dependent, clause.

20.6.1 Main clause

A main clause has both subject and verb. But it is not introduced by a subordinating
word. A main clause makes an independent statement. The main clause can stand on
its own.

20.6.2 Subordinate clause

Subordinate clauses are usually introduced by a subordinate conjunction (as, such

because, etc.) or by a relative pronoun (who, which, that). Subordinate clauses
function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. They express ideas that are less important
than the idea expressed in the main clause. The exact relationship between the two
ideas is indicated by the subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun that joins the
subordinate and the main clause. The subordinate clause cannot stand on its own.
a) An Adjective Clause modifies a noun or pronoun.
This is the athlete that broke the world record. [The subordinate clause modifies
the noun athlete]
b) An Adverb Clause modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb.
The thief escaped when the police arrived. [The subordinate clause modifies the
verb escaped]

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I am sorry he is not well. [The subordinate clause modifies the adjectives sorry,
with the subordinate conjunction that understood]
He does the job more quickly than you do. [The subordinate clause modifies the
adverb quickly]
c) A Noun Clause functions as a noun. It may serve as subject, predicate
noun, object as a verb, or object as a preposition.
What Ram wants is a better position. [The subordinate clause is the subject of the
verb is.]
This is what we are looking for. [The subordinate clause is a predicate noun.]
Please inform them I will be late for the meeting. [The subordinate clause is the
object of the verb inform.]
He has no interest in what he is doing. [The subordinate clause is the object of the
preposition in.]

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 21
CASE: SUBJECTIVE CASE; POSSESSIVE CASE; OBJECTIVE CASE

21.1 Introduction

Nouns and pronouns in English are said to display case according to their function
in the sentence. They can be subjective or nominative (which means they act as the
subject of independent or dependent clauses), possessive (which means they show
possession of something else), or objective (which means they function as the
recipient of action or are the object of a preposition).
The Case shows the function of nouns and pronouns in a sentence.
e.g. He gave me a month’s vacation.
The subjective case form he indicates that the pronoun is being used as the
subject;
The objective case form me shows that the pronoun is an object;
The possessive case form month’s indicates that the noun is possessive.
Table 21.1 Personal pronouns

SUBJECTIVE POSSESSIVE OBJECTIVE

Singular
FIRST PERSON I my, mine me
SECOND you your, yours you
PERSON
THIRD PERSON he, she, it his, her, hers, its him, her, it
Plural
FIRST PERSON we our, ours us
SECOND you your, yours you
PERSON
THIRD PERSON they their, theirs them
RELATIVE OR INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN
Singular who whose Whom
Plural who whose whom

21.2 Subjective Case

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Subjective case of pronoun for the subjects of all verbs and for all pronouns after all
forms of the verb be such as is, are, were, or have been. We cannot say: “Us are
happy” or “Him is going away”.
Use the subjective pronoun form in all parts of a compound subject.
He and she wanted to go to the film.
Ram and she went to the film, but Mohan and I worked.
1. After the conjunction than and as, use the subjective form of the pronoun if
it is the subject of an understood verb.
She finishes her job faster than I.
We are as good as they [are].
2. Use the subjective form of a pronoun in an appositive describing a subject
or a subject complement.
An appositive is a word or phrase set beside a noun or pronoun that identifies or
explains it by renaming it.
We three, Ram, Mary and I, studied together. [Ram, Mary and I is an appositive
describing the subject We three.]
We students had studied together for four years. [Not Us students, Students is an
appositive defining the pronoun we.]
3. Use the subjective forms of the relative pronoun who and whoever when they
serve as subjects of a clause.
The man who came to dinner stayed a month. [Who is the subject of came in the
clause who came to dinner.]
Whoever sees the opera will enjoy it. [Whoever is the subject of the verb sees in
the clause whoever sees the opera.]
4. The form of the pronoun is always determined by its function in its clause. If
it serves as subject of its clause, be sure to use the subjective form even
though the whole clause may be the object of a verb or preposition.
No one can guess who will be selected. [Who is the subject of will be selected.
The clause who will be appointed is the object of the verb predict.]
The company offered a reward to whoever finished the target. [The entire clause
is the object of the preposition to. Whoever is the subject of the clause.]

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5. The form of the pronoun used as subject will not be changed when such
expressions as I think and he says come between the subject and its verb.
We invited only the people who he said were his friends. [Who is the subject of
were.]
Shakuntla is a woman who I think deserves promotion. [Who is the subject of
deserves.]
Who do you think will buy Mohan’s car? [who is the subject of will buy.]
6. In writing, use the subjective case of the personal pronoun after forms of the
verb be, except in dialogue.
It’s me, using the objective form of the pronoun, is generally used by speakers in all
but the most formal situations, and it’s him, her, us, them are increasingly common.
In writing, these simple conversational constructions seldom occur except in
dialogue. When they do, choose between the formal It’s I and the conversational
It’s me depending upon the character whose speech you are quoting.
Except in dialogue, standard written English requires the subjective case of
pronouns after the form of be.
It was he who took the major decisions, not they, the other family members.
It was they, however, who carried out all the tasks.
7. In writing, use the subjective case for a pronoun following the infinitive to be
when the infinitive has no expressed subject.
Spoken English commonly uses the objective case of the pronoun in this
construction.
WRITTTEN- I would not want to be he. [The infinitive to be has no expressed
subject.]
SPOKEN- I would not want to be Him.

21.3 Possessive case

1. Use the s-possessive (boy’s, Veena’s) with nouns naming living things. With
nouns naming inanimate things, the of-phrase is sometimes preferred, but
the s-form occurs very often.
ANIMATE-Veena’s hair; an outsider’s view; Director’s approval

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INANIMATE-the point of the pen; the wheel of the car; the name of the book;
the magazine’s tone
The s-possessive is commonly used in expressions that indicate time (moment’s
notice, year’s labor) and in many familiar phrases (life’s blood, heart’s content).
Which possessive form to use may also depend on sound or rhythm: The s-
possessive is terser than the longer, more sonorous of-phrase (the President’s
signature, the signature of the President).

2. In formal English, use the possessive case for a noun or pronoun preceding
a gerund. In informal English, however, the objective case rather than the
possessive case is often found before a gerund.
FORMAL-What was the excuse for his being late?
INFORMAL-What was the excuse for him being late?
FORMAL-He complained of Sharma’s keeping the money.
INFORMAL-He complained of Sharma keeping the money.
Even in formal English the objective case is frequently used with plural nouns.
The police prohibited children playing in the street.

The choice of case sometimes depends on the meaning the writer intends to
convey.
Imagine his playing the guitar. [The act of playing the guitar is emphasized.]
Imagine him playing the guitar. [The emphasis is on him. Playing is here used
as a participle modifying him.]
And note the difference in the meaning of the following sentences.
I hate that woman riding a bicycle.
I hate that woman’s riding a bicycle.
Revise such sentences to ensure clarity.
I hate that woman who is riding a bicycle.
I hate the way that woman rides a bicycle.
3. Use which to refer to impersonal antecedents. However, substitute whose
where the phrase of which would be awkward.

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We saw a house whose roof was falling in. [Compare: We saw a house the
roof of which was falling in.]
This is the car whose steering wheel broke off when the driver was going
seventy miles an hour. [Compare: This is the car the steering wheel of which
broke off when the driver was going seventy miles an hour.]

21.4 Objective Case

Objective pronoun forms are used for the objects of all verbs, verbals, and
prepositions.

OBJECT OF VERB The police sent him home.

Our daughter visited us
OBJECT OF VERBAL Visiting them was pleasant. [Object of
gerund visiting]
I wanted to send him away. [Object of
infinitive to send]
OBJECT OF PREPOSITION Send the information to me.
You must choose between us.

1. Use the objective pronoun forms in all parts of a compound object.

He found Ram and me at home. [Not Ram and I, Me is a part of a compound
object of the verb found.]
They must choose between you and me. [Not between you and I, Me is a part
of a compound object of the preposition between.]

2. After the conjunction than and as, use the objective pronoun if it is the
object of an understood verb.
She likes him more than [she likes] me.
I noticed him as well as [I noticed] her.
3. Use the objective form of a pronoun in an appositive describing an object.
The president invited them-Geeta and her. [Geeta and her is an appositive
describing them.]
4. Standard written English requires whom for all objects.
Whom are you discussing? [Whom is the object of the verb are discussing.]

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Whom are you looking for? [Whom is the object of the preposition for.]
5. In subordinate clauses, use whom and whomever for all objects. Remember
that the case of the relative pronoun in a subordinate clause depends upon
its function in the clause and not upon the function of the whole clause.
The guests whom we had expected did not come. [Whom is the object of the
verb had expected. The clause whom we had expected modifies guests.]
Whomever we asked wanted more funds than we could think of. [Whomever
is the object of the verb asked in the clause whomever we asked. The entire
clause is the subject of the sentence. ]
6. When the infinitive to be has an expressed subject, both the subject and the
object of the infinitive are in the objective case.
He took him to be me. [Him is the subject of the infinitive; me is the object.]

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 22
CORRECT USAGE OF NOUNS

22.1 Introduction

Function is an important aspect of grammar, for the same word can function in
more than one way.
Recognizing nouns: A Noun is a word used as the name of a person, place or
thing; as
Ram is my elder brother.
Delhi is the capital of India.
The rose smells sweet.
The sun shines bright.
Mohan was carried away by her beauty.

Note The word things includes

(i) All objects that we can see, hear, taste, touch, or smell and
(ii) Something that we can think of, but cannot perceive by the senses.

22.2 Kinds of Noun

Common Nouns – dog, man, table (Names general groups, places, people, or
things)
Proper Nouns – India, France, Sita (Names specific people, places or things-First
letter is always capitalized)
Collective Nouns – crowd, group, team, flock (Name groups)
Concrete Nouns– landscape, bread, lightening (Names things that can be seen,
touched, heard, smelled and tasted)
Abstract Nouns – beauty, charity, friendship, freedom, happiness (Names things
that can’t be perceived through five senses)
Mass Nouns – water, time (Name uncountable things)

22.3 Plurals

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a) Collective nouns, crew, family, team etc. can take a singular or plural verb;
singular if we consider the word to mean a single group or unit:
Our team is the best.
(or plural if we take it to mean a number of individuals):
Our team are wearing their new jerseys.
b) Certain words are always plural and take a plural verb
Clothes, police
Garments consisting of two parts:
Pants, pyjamas, trousers
And tools and instruments consisting of two parts:
Binoculars pliers scissors
Glasses soles spectacles
Also certain other word including:
Arms (weapons), premises
Damage (compensation), riches
Earnings, savings
Goods, sprits (alcohol)
Stairs, Outskirts, surroundings
Pains (efforts), valuables
c) A number of words ending in ics
Acoustics, athletics, ethics, hysterics, which are plural in form, normally take a
plural verb:
The acoustics of this room are very bad.
But names of sciences such as mathematics, physics, some of the following
plural forms such as mechanics, news, innings are considered singular:
Mathematics is an exact science.
No news is good news.
India won by an innings and three runs.
d) Words plural in form but singular in meaning include news
The news is good.
Certain diseases:
Mumps, rickets
And some games
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Billiards, draughts
e) Some words which retain their original Greek or Latin forms make their
plural according to the rules of Greek and Latin
Crisis, crises phenomenon, phenomena
Memorandum, memoranda radius, radii
Oasis, oases terminus, termini
But some follow English
rules:
Dogma, dogmas formula, formulas (formulae is used by
scientists)
Sometimes there are two plural forms with different meanings:
Appendix, appendixes or appendices (medical term)
Appendix, appendices (addition/s to a book)
Index, indexes (in books), indices (in mathematics)
f) Compound Nouns
Normally, the last word is made plural:
Boy-friends, break-ins
But where man and woman is prefixed, both parts are made plural:
Men drivers, women drivers
The first word is made plural with compounds formed of verb + er. Noun +
adverbs
Runners-up, lookers on

22.4 Uncountable Nouns

a) Uncountable nouns include names of substances considered generally

Bread soap cloth sand dust glass
They also include abstract nouns:
Advice courage knowledge
Beauty fear information
b) Uncountable nouns are always singular and are not used with a/an:
I don’t want (any) advice or help. I want (some) information.

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These nouns are often preceded by some, any, no, a little etc. or by nouns such
as bit, piece, slice etc.
a bit of news a piece of advice a grain of sand
a drop of water a pane of glass
c) Many of the nouns in the above group can be used in a particular sense and
are then countable and can take a/an in the singular. Below are some such
words:
Experience meaning ‘something which happened to someone’ is countable
He had an exciting experience
d) Some abstract nouns can be used in a particular sense with a/an, but in the
singular only:
My father is a great help to me. a love of music
It was a relief to sit down. a hatred of violence
It’s a shame he was insulted.

22.5 The Form of the Possessive Case

a) ’s is used with singular nouns and plural nouns not ending in s:

a man’s job women’s club
a child’s voice the people’s choice
the children’s room
b) A simple apostrophe (’) is used with plural nouns ending in s:
a girls’ school the eagles’ nest
the students’ hostel the people’s choice
c) Classical names ending in s usually, add only the apostrophe:
Pythagoras’ theorem Archimedes’ Law
d) Other names ending in s can take (’s) or the apostrophe alone:
Mr. Jones’s (or Mr. Jones’) house
Keats’s (or Keats’) poems
e) With compound nouns, the last word takes the (’s):
My brother-in-law’s company

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22.6 Uses of the Possessive Case

a) In time expressions:
a week’s holiday ten minutes’ break
today’s paper two hour’s delay
tomorrow’s weather a ten minute’s break
a two hour delay a ten minute break
are also possible.
b) With for + noun + sake:
for heaven’s sake for goodness’ sake
c) Sometimes certain nouns can be used in the possessive case without the
second noun:
at/the chemist’s/florist’s
can mean at the chemist’s/florist’s shop
You can buy it at the chemist’s.
He is going to the dentist’s.
Names of people can sometimes be used similarly to mean “….’s”
We met at Patel’s

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 23
CORRECT USAGE OF PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENTS

23.1 Introduction

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as,

The principal is absent, because he is ill.

Our writing would be dull if we repeated nouns. Consequently, we use a pronoun

(‘pro’ meaning ‘for’) instead of repeating a noun.

23.2 Number, Person and Gender

Possessive, relative and demonstrative pronouns must be of same number,

person and gender as the nouns e. g.
One should not waste his energy over trifles. (Wrong)
One should not waste one’s energy over trifles. (Right)

a) The pronoun is singular when two singular nouns joined by and are
preceded by each or every.
Every day and every night brings its own duty. (Right)
b) The pronoun is singular when two or more singular nouns are joined by or,
either or, or neither nor. Thus:
The manager or the assistant should put his time in investigating the details.
Either Ram or Jagmohan forgot to take his pen.
Neither Sita nor Rekha did her job sincerely.
c) When a plural noun and a singular noun are joined by or or nor, the
pronoun agrees with the noun nearest to it.
Either the manager or the assistants failed in their duty.
Either the assistants or the manager failed in his duty.
Neither he nor they have done their duty.
23.3 Reflexive Pronoun

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When such verbs as avail, absent, acquit, enjoy are used reflexively, never omit the
reflexive pronoun:
I shall avail of your kind advice. (Wrong)
I shall avail myself of your kind advice. (Correct)
He absented from college. (Wrong)
He absented himself from college. (Right)

23.4 Relative Pronoun

a) After such, use the relative pronoun as and not who or which e. g.
His performance was such as I had expected him to give.
b) A relative pronoun should agree with its antecedent in person and number,
e. g. ;
This is one of the most interesting stories that has appeared this year.
(Wrong).
This is one of the most interesting stories that have appeared this year.
(Correct)
This is the only one of his books that are worth reading. (Wrong).
This is the only one of his books that is worth reading. (Correct)
(Change are to is, for here the antecedent of that is one).
c) A relative pronoun or relative adverb should be placed as close to its
antecedent as possible e. g.
I have read Plato’s writings, who was a disciple of Socrates. (Wrong)
I have read the writings of Plato who was a disciple of Socrates. (Correct)
d) Each other should be used in speaking of two persons or things, ‘one
another’ in speaking of more than two:
When we two friends parted, they wished luck to each other.
We should respect one another.
e) Either should be used in reference to two. When the reference is to more
than two, we should use any one:
Either of these two medicines will do you good.
She is more beautiful than any of her four friends. (not either)

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f) Which when used as a relative pronoun, must relate to some noun or

pronoun, i.e. its antecedent previously mentioned. Using which without an
antecedent is wrong:
He won the gold medal in race, which pleased his parents. (Wrong)
His winning of the gold medal in race in race pleased his parents. (Right)
No one objected to his suggestion, which was disappointing. (Wrong: Because the
sentence fails to clarify what was disappointing, the suggestion, or the fact that no
one objected).

23.5 Case Forms of Pronouns: ‘He/Him’ , ‘They/Them’

a) A pronoun following any part of the verb be (am, is, are, was, were, been,
be) and referring to the subject is in the nominative case:
The managers of the firm are Rahul, Vikas and I.
It was she who fell ill last night.
Do you think it could have been she who acted in film?
b) The object of a verb or a preposition is in the objective case:
Me, you, her, it, him, us, them
c) Both members of a compound subject must be in the same case:
The doctor sent Geeta and me to hospital.
(Geeta and me are objects of the verb sent)
Between Anil and him there has always been a good rapport.
(Anil and him are objects of the preposition between)
d) In case of an elliptical clause beginning with than or as, if you supply the
missing word or words, you should have little trouble deciding the correct
case of the pronoun.
My friend is taller than I. (I am)
Mr. Verma is as good a person as she. (She is)
Nobody loves you more than he. (than he does)
e) The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. The infinitive is a verb
that usually has to in front of it:
She asked me to wait for her.

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The boss asked me to go to the head office.

f) The object of an infinitive, Gerund or participle is in the objective case:
The teacher wants to see us. (us is the object of infinitive to see)
Finding you here is a pleasant surprise. (You is the object of the gerund
finding)
Having seen him instantly, I ran for safety. (him is the object of the participle
having seen).
g) The possessive case of a noun or pronoun should be used before a gerund:
I do not approve of his playing the prank. (Playing is the gerund. It is the
object of the preposition of)
Her cooking could be improved. (Cooking is the gerund)

23.6 Who/Whom, Whom/Whomever

a) The following sentences illustrate proper use of who and whoever

nominative forms serving as subjects of the verbs in the dependent classes:
I demand the opportunity for whoever wishes it.
(‘whoever’ is the subject of the verb ‘wishes’; the whole clause is the object
of the preposition ‘for’).
The question of who can seize the opportunity must be answered.
(who is the subject of can seize; the whole clause is the object of the
preposition of).
b) The following sentences illustrate proper use of whom and whomever,
objective forms serving as objects in the dependent clause.
This is the boy whom I met in the wedding. (direct object of met).
Bring whomever you like. (direct object of ‘like’; dependent clause of bring).

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Module5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 24
CORRECT USAGE OF ADJECTIVES

24.1 Introduction

Adjectives modify--describe or limit – nouns, pronouns, and word groups

functioning as nouns.
She is a beautiful girl.
There are fifty boys in this class.
The flowering trees were beautiful.

24.2 Kinds of Adjectives

The main kinds of adjectives are:

a) Demonstrative – this, that, these, those
b) Distributive – each, every, either, neither
c) Quantitative – some, any, no, little/few, many, much
d) Relative– which, what, whose, whatever, whichever, whosoever
e) Interrogative – which, what, whose
f) Possessive – my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their
g) Adjectives of Quality – clever, dry, fat, golden

24.2.1 Participles used as adjectives

Both present participles (ing) and past participles (ed) can be used as adjectives.
Present participle adjectives amusing, boring, tiring etc are active and mean ‘having
this effect”.
Past participle adjectives amused, bored, tired are passive and mean ‘affected in this
way”.
an infuriating woman (She made us furious)
an infuriated woman (Something had made her furious)

24.3 Position of Adjectives

a) Adjective of quality usually comes before their nouns:

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a rich man a happy girl

b) In certain phrases, the Adjective of quality comes after the nouns:
Heir apparent time immemorial notary public
God Almighty viceroy elect
c) After linking verbs such as – be, become, seem
Jagdish became rich. His mother seems happy.
d) After verb such as – appear, feel, get/grow, keep, look, make, smell,
sound, taste, turn. Verbs used in this way are called Link verbs.
Mohan felt cold. He made her happy.
He grew impatient. The idea sounds interesting.
Adjectives in this position are called Predicative Adjectives.
e) A Problem with verbs as in (d) above is that they can also be modified by
adverbs. This confuses the student, who tries to use adverb instead of
adjectives after link verbs. Following examples with adjectives and adverbs
help to show the different uses:
He looked calm. (adj.) = (He had a calm expression)
He looked calmly (adv.) at the angry crowd. = (looked here is a deliberate
action)
The drink tasted horrible. (adj.) = (It had a horrible taste)
He tasted the drink suspiciously. (adv.) = (tasted here is a deliberate action)

24.4 Comparison of Adjectives

a) There are three degrees of comparison:

Positive Comparative Superlative
dark darker darkest
useful more useful most useful
b) One-syllable adjectives form their comparative and superlative degrees by
adding er and est to the positive form:
bright brighter brightest
Adjectives ending in e add r and st:
brave braver bravest

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c) Adjectives of three or more syllables form their comparative and

superlative degrees by putting more and most before the positive:
Interested more interested most interested
frightening more frightening most frightening
d) Adjectives of two syllables follow one or other of the above rules. Those
ending in ful or re usually take more and most:
Doubtful more doubtful most doubtful
Obscure more obscure most obscure
Those ending in er, y, or ly usually add er, est:
clever cleverer cleverest
pretty rettier prettiest
silly sillier silliest

24.5 Constructions with Comparisons

a) With the positive form of the adjective, we use as…as in the affirmative and
not as/not so…as in the negative
A boy of sixteen is often as tall as his father.
Coffee is not as/so good as my mother makes it.
b) With comparative, we use than
He makes fewer mistakes than you (do).
It was more expensive than I thought.

Do’s and Don’ts of the use of Adjectives

a) Do not use an adjective in the comparative degree when no comparison

expressed or implied is made.
He is a more intelligent student in the class. (Wrong)
He is a very intelligent student. (Right)
OR
He is the most intelligent student in the class. (Right)
b) Following are not compared, nor can most be used with them.

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Perfect, unique, full, infinite, chief, perceptual, extreme, ideal, entire, complete,
universal, empty, impossible, preferable, unanimous, square, round, golden etc.
He is more perfect than his brother.
(Wrong- Perfect expresses the quality to the utmost extent.)
He is perfect.
c) The comparative adjectives, superior, inferior, senior, junior, prior,
anterior, posterior, prefer, preferable are followed by to instead of than:
He is senior to me. (not ‘than me’).
d) Avoid double comparatives.
It is rather more important. (Wrong. The word rather is comparative)
It is rather important.
OR
It is more important.
His brother is a more better singer than he. (wrong)
His brother is a better singer than he.
e) When two persons or two things are compared, it is important to see that
the comparison is restricted to the only two that are compared.
The population of India is greater than the U. S. A. (wrong).
The population of India is greater than that of the U. S. A . (Right)
Use than that of; otherwise your sentence will give the impression that you are
comparing Indian Population with the U. S. A., a country).
f) When a comparison is introduced, followed by than, the thing compared
must always be excluded from the class of things with which it is compared,
by using other. For example,
Delhi is larger than any city in India. (Wrong)
Delhi is larger than any other city in India. (Right)
g) Do not use other or any in the superlative degree. For example,
He is the wisest of all other students in his class. (Wrong)
He is the wisest of all. (Right)

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h) Use an adjective of the superlative degree, only when the noun it qualifies
indicates the possession of a quality to a higher degree than other member
of the same class.
He wrote the best book. (Wrong)
He wrote an excellent book.
i) An adjective in the superlative degree normally takes the and not a or an
before it.
This is a worst example of incompetence I have ever come across. (Wrong)
This is the worst example of incompetence I have ever come across.
(Right)
j) When two adjectives refer to the same noun and one of them is in the
superlative degree, the other must also be in the superlative degree. The same is
the case with the comparatives.
He is the best and honest minister in Parliament. (Wrong).
He is the best and the most honest minister in Parliament. (Right)
He is both charitable and richer than you. (Wrong)
He is both richer and more charitable than you. (Right)
k) The two first is a meaningless expression, for it implies two things may be
first. So is the two last.
The two first chapters of the novel are dull. (Wrong)
The first two chapters of the novel are dull. (Right)
l) Use some in affirmative sentences and any in negative and interrogative
sentences:
I shall buy some books. (not any)
I shall not buy any books. (not some)
Have you bought any book? (not some)
m) Later and latest refer to time. latter and last refer to position:
He came latter than I. (Wrong)
He came later than I. (Right)
Between these two books the later is more interesting. (Wrong)
Between these two books the latter is more interesting. (Right)

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n) Farther means more distant or advanced, further means additional.

Calcutta is farther (not further) from the equator than Colombo.
After this, he made no further (not farther) remarks,
o) Older and oldest may be used for persons or things, but elder and eldest
apply to persons only. They are chiefly used for comparisons within a family.
He will inherit the property after death of his elder (not older) brother.
He is the oldest (not eldest) inhabitant of this village.
My brother is elder to (not than) me.
p) little, a little and the little are correctly used as follows:
There is little hope of recovery. (not likely to recover) (hardly any hope).
There is a little hope of recovery. (may possibly recover).
Do not waste the little energy you possess. (the small amount, whatever it is).
q) few, a few and the few are correctly used as follows:
Few women can keep a secret. (Hardly any woman can keep a secret).
A few were present. (Some were present).
The few members who came for the show had to return disappointed. (not many,
but whoever there was).
r) less refers to quantity, whereas fewer denote number. For example,
No less than fifty persons were killed in the accident. (Wrong).
No fewer than fifty persons were killed in the accident. (Right)
We do not buy fewer than one litre of milk. (Wrong)
We do not buy less than one litre of milk. (Right)

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 25
CORRECT USAGE OF ADVERBS

25.1 Introduction

An Adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective or

another adverb. Sometimes, Adverb standing at the beginning of sentences even
modifies the whole sentence.
Geeta runs quickly.
This is a very interesting book.
He works quite efficiently.
Fortunately, he escaped unhurt.

25.2 Kinds of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner: bravely, fast, happily, hard, quickly, well

Adverbs of Place: by, down, here, near, up, there
Adverbs of Time: now, soon, still, then, today, yet
Adverbs of Frequency: always, never, occasionally, often, again, twice
Adverbs of Affirmation and Negation: certainly, definitely, surely
Adverbs of Degree or Quantity: fairly, hardly, rather, quite, too, very
Adverbs of Reason: hence, therefore
Interrogative Adverbs: When, Where, why
Relative Adverbs: When, Where, why

25.3 Comparative & Superlative Adverb Forms

a) With adverbs of two or more syllables we form the comparative and

superlative by putting more and most before the positive form.
quickly more quickly most quickly
Single syllable adverbs, hard and early; add er, est
hard harder hardest
early earlier earliest
Irregular Comparisons:

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Well better best

Little less least
Much more most
far farther farthest (of distance only)
far further furthest (used more widely)

25.4 Position of Adverbs

a) Adverbs of manner, which answer the question ‘How’?(e.g., well, fast,

quickly,
carefully, calmly) are generally placed after the verb or after the object if
there is one; as :
It is raining heavily.
She sang beautifully.
He does his work carefully.
He gave me the money reluctantly.
b) When the verb is transitive, an adverb can be placed either before the
verb or after the object, but not between the verb and the object.
He briefly explained his meaning. (Correct)
He explained his meaning briefly. (Correct)
He explained briefly his meaning. (Wrong)
c) If an adverb is placed after a clause or a phrase, it is considered to modify
the verb in that case clause/phrase.
They secretly decide to leave the town. (the decision was secret)
(However, if we move secretly to the end of the sentence above, we change
the meaning)
They decided to leave the town secretly. (The departure was to be secret.)
d) Adverbs of frequency, which answer the question ’How often? (e.g.,
always, never, rarely, usually, generally) and certain other adverbs like
almost, already, hardly, nearly, just, quite are normally put between the
subject and the verb if the verb consists of only one word; if there is more
than one word in the verb, they are put after the first word.
His wife never cooks.

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He has never seen a lion.

I have often told him to write neatly.
I quite agree with you.
I usually have breakfast at nine.
e) Adverbs of degree-absolutely, almost, completely, fairly, far, just, much,
nearly, only, quite, rather modify adjectives or other adjectives.
You are absolutely right. I am almost ready.
But enough follows its adjectives or adverb:
The box isn’t big enough. He didn’t work quickly enough.
f) Only can also modify verbs. As a general rule, the word only should be
placed immediately before the word it modifies; as
He had only six apples. (not more than six)
He only lent the car. (He didn’t give it)
g) Fairly and rather
Both mean moderately, but fairly is chiefly used with favourable adjectives
and adverb while rather is used in this sense before unfavorable adjectives
and adverbs.
Ram is fairly clever, but his brother is rather stupid.
I walk fairly fast, but my wife walks rather slowly.
He was fairly relaxed; she was rather tense.
Rather can be used before certain favourable adjectives/adverbs such as
amusing, clever, pretty, well’ but then its meaning changes. It becomes nearly
equivalent to very, and the disapproval vanishes:
She is rather clever. (She is very clever)
It is rather a good play. (It is a stronger recommendation than It is a fairly
good play.
h) Else should be followed by the adverb but, not than:
It is nothing else than pride. (Wrong)
It is nothing else but pride. (Correct)
Call me anything else than a fool. (Wrong)
Call me anything but a fool. (Correct)

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 26
CORRECT USAGE OF ARTICLES

26.1 Introduction

The Adjectives a or an and the are usually called Articles.

A or an is called the Indefinite Article, because it leaves indefinite the person or
thing spoken of , as,
A teacher: i.e. any teacher.
The is called the Definite Article, because it points out some particular person or
thing spoken of; as,
He met the teacher; meaning the particular teacher.

26.2 The Indefinite Article ‘a/an’

a) The form a is used before a word beginning with a consonant, or a vowel

with a consonant sound:
a man a European a university
a hat a one-way street a hole
b) The form an is used before words beginning with a vowel (a, e, i, o, u) or
words beginning with a mute h, or before individual letters spoken with a
vowel sound:
an apple an island an M.P.
an egg an hour an orange
an MBA

26.3 Use of ‘a/an’

a) a/an is used before a singular noun which is countable, when it is

mentioned for the first time and represents no particular person or thing:
I need a pen. They live in a bungalow.
b) a/an is used before a singular countable noun which is used as an example
of a class of things:

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A child needs love. (all children, any child).

A car must be maintained. (all cars, any car).
c) a/an is used in certain expressions of quantity with certain numbers and in
expressions of price:
a lot of a couple Rs. 10 a kilo
a great many a dozen a great deal of
a hundred three times a day
a thousand 90 kms an hour
d) In exclamations before singular, countable nouns:
Such a long rope!
What a pretty doll!
e) a can be placed before Mr/Mrs./Miss:
A Mr. Sareen means a man called Sareen and implies he is stranger to the
speaker.
Mr. Sareen, would mean that the speaker knows him.
f) a/an are used in following cases:
in a group of 20 people show an interest in to give an assurance
in a majority of cases a breach of peace lack of a quorum
accepting a bribe run a temperature on a charge of murder.

26.4 Omission of ‘a/an’

a) a/an is omitted before plural nouns and before uncountable nouns.

b) a/an is omitted before names of meals (except when these are preceded by
an adjective)
We have dinner at eight in the night.
We have a special dinner every Sunday.
The article a is also used when it is a special meal given to celebrate
something:
I was invited to lunch (at his house in the ordinary way)
I was invited to a lunch to celebrate his promotion.

26.5 The Definite Article-The

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a) The definite article is used, when the object or group objects is unique or
considered to be unique:
the earth the equator the moon the sun the stars
b) The definite article is used to talk about people and things we have already
mentioned:
She has two children – a girl and a boy. The boy is fourteen, the girl is eight.
c) The definite article is used before a noun made definite by the addition of a
phrase or a clause:
the girl in blue. the place where I met her
the man with the stick. the bag that he is carrying.
d) The definite article is used before a noun which by reason of locality can
represent only one particular thing.
My wife was in the living room. (the living room of this home)
Please bind the report. (the particular report with him)
e) The definite article is used before superlatives and first, second etc. used as
adjectives or pronouns and before only:
the first week the only way the best plan
f) The definite article is used as an adverb with a comparative:
the sooner the better
g) the + singular noun can represent a class of animals or things:
The elephant is in danger of becoming extinct.
The computer has made life easier for students.
But man used to represent the human race has no article:
Man is mortal.
h) the + adjective represents a class of persons.
the old (old people in general)\
the rich
the poor

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i) the is used before certain proper names of seas, rivers, groups of islands,
chains of mountains, plural names of countries, deserts, regions, famous
buildings, classics, newspapers and abbreviations:
the Atlantic the Ganges the Himalayas
the Persian Gulf The Times of India the Bible
the North Pole the South Pole the UNO
the USA the USSR the Taj Mahal
the Netherlands
j) the is used before other proper names consisting of adjective + noun or
noun + of + noun
the Indian Dairy Association the Gateway of India
k) the is also used in the following cases:
give someone the benefit of doubt go on the rampage
go to the cinema, the theatre at the national level
at the point of the knife give the slip
in accordance with the law put to the vote
in the public interest

26.6 Omission of ‘The’

a) The definite article is not used before names of places or before names of
people.
b) the is not used before abstract nouns except when they are used in a
particular sense:
Men fear death.
The death of his only child made him desolate.
c) the is not used before parts of the body and articles of clothing.
Raise your right hand. He took off his coat.
But notice the sentences of the type:
She seized the child’s collar. I patted his shoulder. He hit his
leg.
Could be expressed –

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She seized the child by the collar. I patted him on the shoulder. He hit him
on the leg.
d) Nature: Where it means the spirit creating and motivating the world of
plants and animals etc. is used without the.
If you interfere with nature you will suffer for it.
e) The omission of the before home, church, hospital, prison, school and before
work, sea:
When home is used alone i. e. not preceded or followed by a descriptive
word or a phrase, ‘the’ is omitted.
He is at home.
But for home preceded or followed by a descriptive word or a phrase,
the is used:
We arrived at the bride’s home.
A mud hut was the only home he had ever known.
Bed, church, court, hospital, prison, school, college, university.
The is not used before the nouns listed above when these places are
visited or used for their primary purpose – thus; we go
to bed to sleep to hospital as patients.
to church to pray to prison as prisoners.
to court as litigants to school/college/university to study.
When these places are visited or used for other reasons, the is necessary:
He went to the church to meet the priest.
He goes to the prison sometimes to give lectures.
Sea: We go to sea as sailors. To be at sea is to be on a voyage. But we can
also live by/near the sea.
Work and office:
Work : [place of work], is used without the
He is on his way to work. He isn’t back from work yet.
Office: Place of work needs the –
He is in/at the office.
To be in office (without the) is to hold an official position (opposite of out
of office)

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f) The is not used in following cases:

Gold is a precious metal. (Material nouns)
Fever, typhoid etc. (before names of diseases unless these names are in
plural form e. g. the measles, the mumps etc.)
Hell, Heaven, God, Parliament (the Pope, the Devil are exceptions)
Red, blue, green (before colours)
Queen Elizabeth, President Lincoln (before certain titles, followed by
names)
26.7 Expressions That Do Not Take Any Article
at night/noon; by car/bus/bicycle/plane/train/boat; on foot;

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 27
AGREEMENT OF VERB WITH THE SUBJECT: TENSE, MOOD, VOICE

27.1 Introduction

A Verb is a word that tells or asserts something about a person or thing.

· A Transitive Verb is a verb that denotes an action which passes over from the
doer or subject to an object. e.g.
The boy kicks the football.
· An Intransitive Verb is a verb that denotes an action which does not pass over
to an object or expresses a state or being. e.g.
He ran a long distance. (Action)
The baby sleeps. (State)
There is a flaw in this method. (Being)

27.2 Linking Verbs

Most verbs assert action, but a few express a static condition or state of being (no
action). Most of these inactive verbs are called Linking Verbs.
· The most common linking verb is to be, in its various forms of number, person,
tense and mood.
· Other common linking verbs are appear, become, feel, grow, look, prove,
remain, seem, smell, sound, stand, taste, turn.
· When these verbs are followed by nouns or pronouns as direct objects, they are
not linking verbs, but imply or express action. They are linking verbs if you can
substitute some form of to be for them.
The sky looks cloudy this morning. (Linking Verb)
Ram looks at Mohan as if he hates him. (Action Verb)
The tea tasted too sweet. (Linking Verb)
The girl cautiously tasted the drink. (Action Verb)

27.3 Auxiliary Verbs

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An auxiliary verb helps out a main verb. An auxiliary verb has little meaning of its
own; rather it changes the meaning of the main verb.
Ganesh has left the city.
The machine will be sent this afternoon.
As we were leaving, we were stopped by a policeman.
Among all the auxiliary verbs, particular care should be taken to use the
following correctly:
shall and will
should and would

27.3.1 Shall and will

Many writers still have strong convictions that the only correct way to express the
simple future in formal writing is:
I shall do it. We shall do it.
You will do it. You will do it.
He will do it. They will do it.
a) and that strong determination can only be expressed through:
I will do it. We will do it.
You shall do it. You shall do it.
He shall do it. They shall do it.
Though this distinction is not strictly observed, it is best to follow it.
b) should and would:
Should chiefly implies obligation in the sense of ought to; and would
expresses a customary action with all three persons:
I should urge you to take action fast. (ought to)
You should do everything to protect your reputation. (ought to)
Everyday he would answer his letters as soon as he finished reading the mail.
(habitual action)
I would always advise a careful revision before signing. (habitual action)

27.4 Verbs: Tense, Mood and Voice

The form of a verb or verb phrase tells us three things about the action or state it
names.

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· It tells us what time the action occurs (tense)

· What the attitude of speaker or writer is (mood)
· Whether the subject is performing the action or receiving it (voice).

27.5 Tense

Tense is the time of the action or state expressed by the verb. The three divisions of
time – past, present, future – are shown in English by six tenses. The three primary
or simple tenses are the present tense, the past tense, and the future tense. The
three perfect (or secondary) tenses are the present perfect, the past perfect, and the
future perfect.
Present I play (I am playing)
Past I played (was playing)
Future I shall play (shall be playing)
Present Perfect I have played (have been playing)
Past Perfect I had played (had been playing)
Future Perfect I shall have played (shall have been playing)
a] Present Tense:
It indicates that the action or condition is going on or exists now:
He takes exercise every morning.
The letters are posted.
b] Past Tense
It indicates that an action or condition took place or existed at some
definite time in the past.
Yesterday I attended the meeting.
They were married on Saturday.
c] Future Tense
It indicates that the action will take place or that a condition will exist in
the future.
We shall move to Bangalore next week.
The train will leave at midnight.
The future may be stated by present tense accompanied by an adverb (or
adverbial phrase) indicating time:

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I am going to stop later on today.

Our trip begins tomorrow.
d] Present Perfect Tense
It indicates that an action or condition was begun in the past and has just been
completed or is still going on. The time is past but it is connected with the
present. The present perfect tense presupposes some relationship with the
present:
We have lived in Bombay for fifteen years.
The water has been too cold for swimming.
e] Past Perfect Tense
It indicates that an action or a condition was completed at a time now past. It
indicates action “two steps back”. That is, the past perfect tense presupposes
some relationship with an action or a condition expressed in the past tense:
The college campus was crowded because new students had joined.
She was employed by Tata Steels Company. She had worked there for five
months.
f] Future Perfect Tense
It indicates that an action or a condition will be completed at a future time:
By the time you arrive, I shall have finished my work.

27.6 Proper Use of Tenses

a] Simple Present Tense

i) Use the simple present tense to express general truths or accepted facts
and to indicate habitual action. Use the present tense in critical writing
about literature and the other arts.
GENERAL TRUTHS All that glitters is not gold.
The sun rises in the east.
HABITUAL ACTION The old man exercises daily.
The bank closes at four o’clock.
He takes milk every morning.
CRITICAL WRITING In Dickens’ novel David Copperfield, David’s harsh
stepfather sends him to London where every day

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David works in a warehouse pasting labels on

bottles.
Jane Austen’s use of ironic comment is highly
effective.
ii) In exclamatory sentences beginning with here and there to express what
is actually taking place in the present.
Here comes the bus!
There she goes!
iii) To indicate a future event that is part of a plan or arrangement.
We go to Bombay next week.
When does the college reopen?
iv) It is used, instead of the Simple Future Tense, in clauses of time and
condition.
I shall wait till you finish your lunch.
If it rains we shall get wet.
b] Present Continuous Tense
Use the present continuous
(i) For an action happening at the time of speaking.
It is raining.
She is singing (now).
Why are you sitting at my desk?
(ii) For an action happening about this time, but not necessarily at the
time of speaking.
He is teaching French and learning Greek.
I am reading Oliver Twist (but I am not reading at this moment).
(iii) For an action that is planned or arranged to take place in the near
future.
I am going to the cinema tonight.
My uncle is arriving tomorrow.
(iv) With always, continually, constantly for a frequently repeated action
or for a particular obstinate habit- something which persists, we use
present continuous tense.
He is always losing his keys.
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He is continually working.
I am constantly making that mistake.
v) The following verbs, on account of their meaning, are not always used in
the continuous form:
Verbs of perception: see, hear smell, notice, recognize
Verbs of appearing: appear, look, seem
Verbs of emotion: want, wish, desire, feel, like, love, hate, hope,
refuse,
prefer
Verbs of thinking: think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, trust,
remember, forget, know, understand, imagine, mean, mind
Have (possess): own, possess, belong to, contain, consist of
These verbs are used in the simple present. They may, however, be
used in the continuous tenses with a change of meaning:
I am thinking of (considering the idea of) going to Canada.
c] Present Perfect Tense
(i) Use the Present Perfect Tense to indicate completed activities in
the immediate past.
He has just gone out.
It has just struck eleven.
(ii) To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite.
I have never known him to be so foolish.
Have you read Gitanjali by Rabindra Nath Tagore?
(iii) To describe past events when you think more of their effect in the
present than of the action itself.
I have finished my work (now I am free).
I have cut my finger ( and it is bleeding now).
(iv) To denote an action beginning at some time in the past and
continuing up to the present moment.
I have known him for a long time.
She has been ill since last week.
(v) The following adverbs (or adverb phrases) can be used with the
present perfect tense: just, often, never, ever (in questions only), so

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far, till now, yet (in negatives and questions), already, since-phrases,
for-phrases, today, this week, this month, etc.
So far this month I have sold three hundred and fifty books.
The Bombay office has corresponded with him ever since the accident.
We read your comments with great interest, but lack of information has
prevented a complete reply until today.
d] Present Perfect Continuous Tense
(i) The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used for an action which
began at some time in the past and is still continuing.
They have been building the building for several months.
They have been playing since morning.
e] Simple Past Tense
(i) The Simple Past Tense is used to indicate an action completed in
the past. It often occurs with adverbs or adverb phrases of past
time.
She attended the meeting yesterday.
She left the school last year.
(ii) The Simple Past Tense is also used for past habits.
He always carried an umbrella.
He studied many hours a day.
f] Past Continuous Tense
(i) The Past Continuous Tense is used to denote an action going on at
some time in the past. The time of action may or may not be
indicated.
We were listening to the music all evening.
The light went out while I was reading.
(ii) The Past Continuous Tense is also used, with always, continually
etc., for persistent habits in the past.
He was always grumbling.
g] Past Perfect Tense
(i) The Past Perfect Tense is used to express an action completed
before a certain moment in the past.

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At 9 pm, I had finished my home work.

I had already known the result when he rang me up.
(ii) The Past Perfect Tense is used to express an action in the past
which was completed before another action, also in the past.
The doctor had left when I reached there.
The thieves had escaped by the time the police arrived.
(iii) When two Simple Past Tenses might give the impression that the
two actions happened simultaneously, the Past Perfect Tense is
used after ‘when’.
When she had recited her poem, she sat down.
(iv) The Past Perfect Tense is used to express unfulfilled desires of the
past.
I wish he hadn’t gone. (but he went)
I would rather you had come alone. (but you did not)
(v) The Past Perfect Tense is used to express impossible (unfulfilled)
condition.
If you had worked hard, you would have passed.
h] Past Perfect Continuous Tense
(i) The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used for an action that began
before a certain point in the past and continued up to that time or
stopped just before it.
At that time he had been writing a novel for two months.
(ii) The Past Perfect Continuous Tense is used to express a single
action which occupied a period of time in the past.
He had been washing his car for the last fifteen minutes.
i] Simple Future Tense
(i) The Simple Future Tense is used to express an action that is still to
take place, with or without expression of time.
I shall see you tomorrow.
They will help us.
Note: The simple future Tense generally expresses pure or colorless future.
When the future is coloured with intention, going to + infinitive construction
is preferred, e.g. He is going to build a new house.

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j] Future Continuous Tense

(i) The Future Continuous Tense represents an action as going on at
some time in future time.
I shall be reading the paper then.
(ii) The Future Continuous Tense is also used for future events that are
planned.
I shall be staying here till Wednesday.
He will be meeting us next week.
k] Future Perfect Tense
(i) The Future Perfect Tense is used to indicate the completion of an
action by certain future time.
I shall have written the project by that time.
L] Future Perfect Continuous Tense
(i) The Future Perfect Continuous Tense indicates an action
represented as being in progress over a period of time that will end
in the future.
By next December we shall have been living here for eight years.

27.7 Mood

Verbs appear in three moods: Indicative, Imperative and Subjunctive.

· Indicative is the mood of actuality. We use this about ninety-nine percent of
the time. It is used for ordinary statements and questions (He is happy, Is he
happy?)
· Imperative mood is the mood of making commands or requests. (Be
happy.)
· This subjunctive is the mood of unreality and is used to expresses
conditions contrary to fact and high desirability (If he were happy).
Subjunctive mood needs to be carefully handled.
a] Use the subjunctive to express conditions contrary to fact.
Reeta could settle the argument if she were here. [But she isn’t here.]
If the rose bush were healthy, it would have more buds. [The bush is not
healthy.]

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Last year, the bush looked as though it were going to die. [But it didn’t die.]
Note that all clauses beginning with if automatically express a condition
contrary to fact.
If I were you, I’d refuse to let him use my office.
If I were you, I would call on him again.
b] Use the subjunctive were after as though, as if and even if to express doubt or
uncertainty:
He talks as if he were the only intelligent person in the group.
She looked as though she were completely exhausted.
Even if that were to happen, we have substantial reserves to draw upon.
c] As an auxiliary form (that is, part of other verbs), be is used after verbs like ask,
urge, insist, require, vote, move etc.
He moved that the meeting be adjourned.
I, therefore, urge that this be reconsidered.
We must insist that this payment be made in three days.
He insisted that he be given one more chance.

27.8 Voice

Voice refers to the ability of transitive verbs to show whether the subject performs
or receives the action named by the verb.
When the subject performs the action, the verb is in the active voice. When it
receives the action, the verb is in the passive voice.
ACTIVE Mohan wrote a letter.
The poison drove its victim mad.
PASSIVE A letter was written by Mohan
The victim was driven mad by the poison.
Only transitive verbs, that is, verbs that can take an object, can show both active
and passive voices. We can say: The student wrote the paper or The paper was
written by the student, but only He talked, not He was talked.
Most sentences in writing use verbs in the active voice, which is almost always
more direct, more economical, and more forceful than the passive.

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1 Use the passive when the actor is not known. Consider the following:
His proposal was rejected.
The play was first performed in sixteen century.
2 Use the passive when the receiver of the action is more important than
the actor. Consider the following:
The new bridge was completed in April.
A new video film was prepared.

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 28
EFFECTIVE SENTENCES

28.1 Introduction

Agreement is the grammatical relationship between a subject and a verb or a

pronoun and its antecedent or an adjective and the word it modifies. Such agreement
frequently poses a few problems in English language. This lesson discusses as to
how we can write effective sentences by making proper use of agreement between a
subject and a verb or a pronoun or its antecedent.

28.2 Subject-Verb Agreement

There are some grammatical patterns, such as the agreement in number of a subject
and a verb, or a pronoun and its antecedent that one must watch carefully.
a) When two singular nouns refer to the same person or thing, the verb is
singular.
The poet and scholar is dead.
b) Do not be confused by words or phrases that come between the subject and
verb. Find the subject and make the verb agree with it.
The first two chapters of the book were exciting. [The verb agrees with the
subject, chapters, not with the nearest noun, book].
c) When two singular nouns are practically synonymous, the verb is singular.
His power and influence is very great.
Peace and order is the most important issue.
d) When two singular nouns though not synonymous, are intended to express
jointly a single idea, the verb is singular.
Bread and butter is what he has for breakfast.
Slow and steady wins the race.
e) When the same singular noun is qualified by two contrasting adjectives, the
verb is plural.
Mental and physical science are not the sam
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f) Use a singular verb with collective nouns when the group is considered as a
unit acting together. Use a plural verb when the individual members of the
group are acting separately.
Collective nouns have a singular form but name a group of persons or things as
a single unit: audience, bunch, crowd, family, herd, jury and the like.
Our family goes out to dinner fortnightly. [The family acts together as a
single unit.]
The family have been arriving all morning. [Members of the family arrived at
different times.]
The committee is meeting today. [The singular verb is emphasizes the
committee acting as a unit.]
The committee are unable to agree on a plan. [The plural verb are emphasizes
the members of the committee acting separately.]
g) Subjects indicating sums of money, distance, measurement and the like
ordinarily take singular verbs.
Three quarters of the money is already spent.
Ten rupees is not a large sum.
Forty years is a long time to live in one town.
Six miles is a long distance.
If the items that make up the quantity are thought of as separate parts rather
than as a single unit, the verb may be plural.
Forty percent of the trees were damaged by the hurricane. [The trees were
damaged separately.]
One half of the students have finished the examination. [The students finished
individually.]
The expressions the number takes a singular verb, but a number takes a plural
verb.
The number of candidates for the position was large.
A number of candidates were applying for the position.
The number of people moving to the Southwest is increasing.
A number of business firms have moved from New York.

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h) Use a singular verb with nouns that are plural in form but singular in
meaning, such as economics, news, and physics.
Mathematics has always been Betty’s downfall.
The financial news was favorable last month.
i) A plural verb is preferred with nouns which are plural in meaning though
singular in form. They are: number, plenty, variety, rest, enemy, cannon,
none, pair, dozen, the brave etc.
None but the brave deserve the fair.
Plenty of men are charitable.
Plural verb is placed after such nouns, as plenty, number and variety according
to the context. Unless the context shows that those words are used to imply
plurality, the verb must be singular:
Too great a variety of pursuits costs much and pays little.
There is often a number of claims to meet.
j) Two nouns connected by and not, as well as, with, together with, besides, in
addition to, like, are followed by a verb in the singular when the former of
the nouns is in the singular. For example:
John and not his brother was present.
The coach, as well as the players, was happy over the victory.
Reema, together with her friends, was here.
Silver as well as gold, has fallen in price.
The commander with all his men has been killed.
Milk besides butter, is supplied by this dairy.
Satish like Harish, is a good boy.
The house with all its fittings and furniture was sold yesterday.
k) When two nouns or pronouns are joined by not only … but also the verb
agrees with the second noun or pronoun. For example:
Not only the officer, but also six soldiers were killed.
Not only six soldiers, but also the officer was killed.
l) Two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected by the conjunctions
either …. or, neither …. nor, require a singular verb. If the subjects differ in

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number or person, the verb follows the number and person of the subject
nearest to it.
Either the cat or the dog has done it.
Neither praise nor blame seems to affect him.
Neither the P.M. nor his Ministers desire war.
Either the dean or his assistant was to have handled the matter.
Either you or he has to be here.
Either you or your friends have made this mistake.
Either the Ministers or the P.M. is to be blamed.
m) When either and neither are used as nouns or adjectives they must be
followed by singular verbs.
He asked me if either of the applicants was suitable.
Neither men was strong.
n) Any noun qualified by adjectives each and every must be followed by a
singular verb.
Each one of these qualities is to be found in him.
Every man and woman was killed.
o) A verb should agree with its subject and not with the complement.
Our only guide was the stars. (Correct)
The stars were our only guide. (Correct)
p) When the subject is the title of a novel, a play, or the like, or a word used as
a word, use a singular verb even though the form of the subject is plural.
Romeo and Juliet is a Shakespeare play.
Songs and satires is a book by Edgar Lee Masters.
Women is the plural of woman.
q) Indefinite pronouns ending in –one, -body and –thing, such as anyone,
everybody, and something, always take singular verbs. The indefinite
pronouns another, each, either, neither and one always take a singular verb.
Everybody in the audience was enthusiastic.
Another of the pesticides has provided harmful to birds.
Each of the students needs individual help.

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Neither of the books was available in the library.

The indefinite pronouns all, any, most, none and some may take either a
singular or a plural verb depending upon the noun they refer to.
Some of the silver is missing. [Some refers to the singular noun silver.]
Some of her ancestors were slaves. [Some refers to the plural noun ancestors.]
None of the work is finished. [None refers to the singular work.]
None of the birds have migrated yet. [None refers to the plural birds.]
A singular verb is sometimes used with none even when it refers to a plural
noun. The plural is more common, however, in both spoken and written
current English.
r) When the adjectives, much little and less are used as nouns they must be
followed by a singular verb.
Much of what you have said, has been said by others.
More than a year has passed since I saw him.
A little of good manners makes our life sweet.
Less than a million tons is produced in a year.
s) Many a should always be followed by a singular verb.
Many a man has lost everything by putting his eggs in one basket.
Many a soldier has died for the sake of his country.
BUT
Many a man and woman were standing there.
t) If the principal clause is in the past tense, it must be followed by a past tense
in dependent clause.
He told me he does not believe in God. (Wrong)
He told me he did not believe in God. (Correct)
However, this rule does not apply to such universal truths as
We are taught that the earth moves round the sun.
At last he was convinced of the fact that honest is the best policy.
u) In a subjunctive mood where there is an expression of some wish or
supposition, the verb is plural.
I wish I were a film actor.

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Though he were the P.M. of this country, I would say the same.
If he were here, he would support me.
v) Learn the correct uses of will and shall. To express simple future action
shall is used in the FIRST PERSON and will in the SECOND PERSON and
the THIRD PERSON.
I shall come. (First Person)
You will come. (Second Person)
He will come. (Third Person)
They will come. (Third Person)
Shall is used in the second and third person to express (a) command, (b)
promise, (c) threat, (d) determination, whereas will is used in the first person to
express (a) willingness, (b) promise, (c) threat or determination.
Thou (you) shall not steal. (Command)
You shall have a holiday tomorrow. (Promise)
You shall be punished for this. (Threat)
I will send you my book. (Willingness)
I will try to do better next time. (Promise)
I will punish you if you do that again. (Threat)
w) Make sure that a demonstrative adjective (this, that, these, those) agrees in
number with the noun it modifies.
These adjectives forms seldom cause difficulty. One frequent error, however, occurs
when the demonstrative adjective is used with kind of or sort of followed by plural
nouns. Demonstrative adjective modifies the singular noun kind or sort and not the
following plural noun. Thus a singular demonstrative is used.

NONSTANDARD These kind of fruitstaste sweet.

STANDARD This kind of fruit tastes sweet.
NONSTANDARD These sort of dresses are expensive.
STANDARD This sort of dress is expensive.

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Module 5. Structural and functional grammar

Lesson 29
BASIC SENTENCE FAULTS

29.1 Introduction

The purpose of writing is to communicate facts, feelings and ideas effectively. For the clarity of expressions, we need
to write correct sentences, which conform to the conventions of written English. This lesson discusses as to how we can
write effective sentences by making proper use of sentence fragments; subordination, coordination and parallelism.
Verbosity, faulty predication, dangling modifiers and illogical comparisons should also be carefully avoided.

29.2 Use of Subordination

A common failing of writers is the expression of ideas of unequal importance in constructions that seem to give equal
weight. Meaning can be grasped more quickly and more easily if subordinate ideas are indicated and put in
subordinating constructions. A sentence should express the main thought in a principal clause. Less important thoughts
should be expressed in subordinate clauses.
ü This machine has been imported from Japan and it is easy to operate.
ü This machine, which has been imported from Japan, is easy to operate.

29.3 Use of the Verb ‘BE’

The verb ‘be’ is often a cause of stylistic problems. Eight basic forms of verb ‘be’ are: am, are, is, was, were, be,
being, been.
Avoid verb ‘be’ followed by adjectives or nouns that can be turned into strong, economical verbs.
e.g. The new policy is violative of the Civil Right Act.
The new policy violates the Civil Right Act.
His new skateboard was the cause of an accident.
His new skateboard caused an accident.

29.4 Faulty Parallelism

In written English, word and phrases joined by ‘and’ are normally similar both in form and its meaning. Violations of
this convention are called “Faulty Parallelism”

ü My hobbies are hunting, fishing and to write.

ü My hobbies are hunting, fishing and writing.
He would like a career in publishing or as a teacher.
ü He would like a career in publishing or in teaching.
Nobody wants wealth without being happy.
ü Nobody wants wealth without happiness.
His success was generally attributed to his talent, integrity and to his insatiable appetite for work.
ü His success was generally attributed to his talent, integrity and insatiable appetite for work.

29.5 Dangling Modifiers

As a rule, an infinitive or a participle at the beginning of a sentence should modify the subject of the sentence. If it has
nothing to modify either logically or grammatically in the sentence, it is called a ‘dangling modifier’ and the sentence
is grammatically incorrect.
In other words, a dangling modifier is one that that has nothing to modify because what it ought to modify has not
been clearly stated in its sentence. For example:

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ü Driving through the mountains, two lions were seen.
ü Driving through the mountains, we saw two lions.
ü Looking through the telescope, clusters of stars were seen.
ü Looking through the telescope, I saw clusters of stars.

29.5.1 Avoid dangling participial phrases

A participle is a verb form used as an adjective to modify a noun or pronoun. A participial phrase consists of a
participle or object.
DANGLING Taking the right turn, the market was closed. [There is nothing in the sentence that can be
sensibly be taking the right turn A revision must identify some person.]
REVISED Taking the right turn, we found the market closed.
When we took the right turn, the market was closed.
DANGLING Being made of glass, Mohan handled the tabletop carefully.
REVISED Because the tabletop was made of glass, Mohan handled it carefully. [The Participial
phrase is expanded into a subordinate clause.]

29.5.2 Avoid dangling phrases containing gerunds

A gerund is an – ing form of a verb used as a noun. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund, its object and any modifiers
of the gerund or object. In typical dangling phrases containing gerunds, the gerund or gerund phrase serves as the object
of a preposition.
DANGLING Before going to the market, our work was done. [Who did it?]
REVISED Before going to the market, we did our work.

29.5.3 Avoid dangling infinitive phrase

An infinitive consists of the infinitive marker to follow by the plain form of the verb. An infinitive phrase consists of an
infinitive, its object and any modifiers of the infinitive or object.
DANGLING To write properly, a cardboard must be used. [Who will use the cardboard?]
REVISED To write properly, you must use a good cardboard.
DANGLING To write effectively, practice is necessary.
REVISED To write effectively, you [or one] must practice.

29.5.4 Avoid dangling elliptical clauses

An elliptical clause is one in which the subject or verb is implied or understood rather than stated. The clause dangles
if its implied subject is not the same as the subject of the main clause. Eliminate a dangling elliptical clause by (1)
making the dangling clause agree with the subject of the main clause or (2) supplying the omitted subject or verb.
DANGLING When a small girl, my grandfather gave me a scarf.
REVISED When a small girl, I was given a scarf by my grandfather. [The subject of the main clause
agrees with the implied subject of the elliptical clause.]
When I was a small girl, my grandfather gave me a scarf. [The omitted subject and verb are
supplied in the elliptical clause.]
DANGLING While going to Delhi, my car overturned.
REVISED While going to Delhi, we overturned the car. [The subject of the main clause agrees with the
implied subject of the elliptical clause.]
While we were going to Delhi, the car overturned [or we overturned the car]. [The elliptical
clause is expanded into a subordinate clause.

29.6 Faulty Predication

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The subject of a sentence is whatever answers the question ‘who’ or ‘what’ before the verb. The ‘predicate’ includes the
verb along with any word that complete or modify its meaning. When a mismatch of meaning occurs between a subject
and a predicate, the result is called “Faulty Predication”. e.g.
ü Grammar is where I have most of my writing problems. (the predicate treats grammar as if it were a place)
ü I have most of my writing problems in Grammar.
ü College athletics is a controversy that will not be easily resolved.
ü College athletics is a controversial subject.

29.7 Incomplete And Illogical Comparisons

A comparison expresses a relation between two things. To make a comparison complete and logical, include both items
being compared, include all words necessary to make the relationship clear, and be sure that the items are in fact
comparable.

a] void incomplete comparisons

INCOMPLETE Our new car gets better mileage. (Better than what?)
REVISED Our new car gets better mileage better than our old one did.
b] Avoid ambiguous comparisons
AMBIGUOUS I like her more than Jane. (More than Jane likes her? More than
You like Jane?)
REVISED I like her more than I like Jane
I like her more than Jane does.
c] Avoid illogical comparisons
ILLOGICAL A doctor’s income is greater than a teacher. (The sentence compares an income to a
teacher.)
REVISED A doctor’s income is greater than a teacher’s.
A doctor’s income is greater than that of a teacher.
d] Avoid grammatically incomplete comparisons
Comparisons using expressions as good as, as strong as and the like always require the second as.
INCOMPLETE He is as good, if not better than, Ram.
REVISED He is as good as, if not better than, Ram.
In comparisons of items in the same class of things, use other or any other. In comparisons of items in different
classes, use any.
INCORRECT Calcutta is bigger than any city in India.
REVISED Calcutta is bigger than any other city in India.
Calcutta is bigger than any city in Pakistan.

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