Org Divers Evol

DOI 10.1007/s13127-011-0044-4

REVIEW

Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress

and remaining questions
Gregory D. Edgecombe & Gonzalo Giribet & Casey W. Dunn & Andreas Hejnol &
Reinhardt M. Kristensen & Ricardo C. Neves & Greg W. Rouse & Katrine Worsaae &
Martin V. Sørensen

Received: 22 October 2010 / Accepted: 1 March 2011

# Gesellschaft für Biologische Systematik 2011

Abstract Metazoa comprises 35–40 phyla that include Protostomia and Deuterostomia) or membership in Deuter-
some 1.3 million described species. Phylogenetic analyses ostomia. The main clades of deuterostomes (Ambulacraria
of metazoan interrelationships have progressed in the past and Chordata) and protostomes (Ecdysozoa and Spiralia)
two decades from those based on morphology and/or are recovered in numerous analyses based on varied
targeted-gene approaches using single and then multiple molecular samples, and also receive anatomical and
loci to the more recent phylogenomic approaches that use developmental support. Outstanding issues in protostome
hundreds or thousands of genes from genome and tran- phylogenetics are the position of Chaetognatha within the
scriptome sequencing projects. A stable core of the tree for protostome clade, and the monophyly of a group of
bilaterian animals is now at hand, and instability and spiralians collectively named Platyzoa. In contrast to the
conflict are becoming restricted to a key set of important broad consensus over key questions in bilaterian phylog-
but contentious relationships. Acoelomorph flatworms eny, the relationships of the five main metazoan lineages—
(Acoela + Nemertodermatida) and Xenoturbella are sister Porifera, Ctenophora, Placozoa, Cnidaria and Bilateria—
groups. The position of this clade remains controversial, remain subject to conflicting topologies according to
with different analyses supporting either a sister-group different taxonomic samples and analytical approaches.
relation to other bilaterians (=Nephrozoa, composed of Whether deep bilaterian divergences such as the split

Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article

(doi:10.1007/s13127-011-0044-4) contains supplementary material,
which is available to authorized users.
G. D. Edgecombe (*) A. Hejnol : R. C. Neves
Department of Palaeontology, The Natural History Museum, Sars International Centre for Marine Molecular Biology,
Cromwell Road, University of Bergen,
London SW7 5BD, UK 5008 Bergen, Norway
e-mail: [email protected]
R. M. Kristensen : M. V. Sørensen
G. Giribet Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen,
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Universitetsparken 15,
Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark
Harvard University,
26 Oxford Street,
Cambridge, MA 02138, USA G. W. Rouse
Scripps Institution of Oceanography,
C. W. Dunn La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology,
Brown University, K. Worsaae
80 Waterman Street, Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen,
Providence, RI 02912, USA 3000 Helsingør, Denmark
 G.D. Edgecombe et al.

between protostome and deuterostome clades date to the the information in a more objective and thorough manner.
Cryogenian or Ediacaran (and, thus, the extent to which the Hence, within a relatively short period, the computer and
pre-Cambrian fossil record is incomplete) is sensitive to phylogenetic software became standard tools for systematists
dating methodology. and prompted the publication of numerous morphology-
based hypotheses on animal evolution (e.g. Backeljau et al.
Keywords Phylogenomics . Expressed sequence tags . 1993; Eernisse et al. 1992; Glenner et al. 2004; Nielsen et al.
Animal evolution . Bilateria . Ecdysozoa . Spiralia 1995; Schram 1991; Schram and Ellis 1994; Sørensen et al.
2000; Wallace et al. 1996). Other important developments
involved refinements in interpretations of homologies (see,
Introduction for example, the work by R. A. Jenner for critical discussion
of characters and character codings; e.g. Jenner 2001, 2004a,
Ever since Ernst Haeckel published his artistically illustrated 2004b) and the use of species, instead of supraspecific taxa
phylogenetic trees, scientists have worked towards under- coded as inferred groundplans, for higher-level phylogenetic
standing the evolution of multicellular animals and the studies (Prendini 2001).
relationships between their main lineages. Although not based The most ground-shaking innovation in modern phyloge-
on explicit methodology, Haeckel’s (1866) trees are consid- netics was beyond any doubt the introduction of molecular
ered hypotheses of relationships and some of these, e.g. the sequence data. The first attempts to understand metazoan
common origin of bilaterian animals, still find support today, phylogeny through inference of molecular sequences were
whereas numerous others have been falsified by morpholog- made in the late 1980s (e.g. Field et al. 1988; Lake 1990; Raff
ical reinterpretations, novel kinds of data derived from new et al. 1989). The molecular approach experienced a substan-
technologies (e.g. electron microscopy, DNA sequencing) tial breakthrough with the contributions of several authors
and ever-advancing analytical methods. who redefined the major splits in animal phylogeny, largely
The path to present-day insights has been shaped by using nuclear ribosomal genes (e.g. Aguinaldo et al. 1997;
thousands of scientists who have contributed data, methodo- Carranza et al. 1997; Halanych et al. 1995; Winnepenninckx
logical developments, and philosophical insights. To mention et al. 1995a, b), and convincingly demonstrated the potential
every single contribution would be impossible in this review, for molecular sequence data to recover deep divergences in
but a few major key events should be addressed briefly the animal kingdom.
because they have been highly significant for our current Since the turn of the millennium, the use of molecular
knowledge. An important philosophical contribution was sequence data in phylogenetics has developed rapidly. From
made by the entomologist Willi Hennig, who defined the using a single selected locus, alone or in combination with
outline for modern phylogenetic systematics. Before the ideas morphological data (e.g. Giribet et al. 2000; Giribet and
of Hennig (1950, 1965, 1966) became established, phyloge- Ribera 1998; Glenner et al. 2004; Peterson and Eernisse
netic studies had suffered from several shortcomings, notably 2001; Zrzavý et al. 1998), researchers switched to multilocus
the failure to distinguish between monophyletic and para- approaches (e.g. Giribet 2003; Giribet et al. 2004; Mallatt et
phyletic groups. Hennig stressed the importance of identify- al. 2004, 2010; Mallatt and Giribet 2006; Mallatt and
ing apomorphic character states and the recognition of clades Winchell 2002; Paps et al. 2009a; Sørensen et al. 2008;
(monophyletic groups) as the only systematically valid Wallberg et al. 2007), and subsequently to phylogenomic
groups. A second major advance was made in the late approaches with inclusion of the mitochondrial genomes,
1960s and early 1970s with the introduction of explicit complete genomes, or partial transcriptomes (expressed
numerical methodologies for phylogenetic analysis that used sequence tags, ESTs) (Baguñà et al. 2008; Bourlat et al.
parsimony, likelihood, and other optimality criteria as an 2006; Copley et al. 2004; Dellaporta et al. 2006; Delsuc et al.
arbiter for choosing between competing hypotheses (Farris 2006; Dopazo and Dopazo 2005; Dunn et al. 2008; Hejnol et
1970; Farris et al. 1970; Felsenstein 1973; Kluge and Farris al. 2009; Lartillot and Philippe 2008; Marlétaz et al. 2006;
1969). Up to that point the ideas of Hennig had been adopted Matus et al. 2006; Philippe et al. 2004, 2005, 2007; Roeding
by many systematists, but the complexity and number of et al. 2007; Schierwater et al. 2009; Siddall 2009; Webster et
potential phylogenetically informative characters often al. 2006). Analyses of sequence data have been joined as well
forced scientists to base their hypotheses on a few selected by phylogenetic approaches that use rare genomic changes as
characters—e.g. larval ciliary bands, excretory systems, or characters, although these apply mostly to vertebrate
embryology in the case of deep metazoan relationships— genomes. The use of microRNAs, small non-coding RNAs
leaving out much other important information and carrying analyzed as absence/presence characters, has also been
the risk of producing biased results based on homoplasies. incorporated into the molecular toolkit in recent years
Computerized phylogenetic analysis allowed the researcher (Rota-Stabelli et al. 2010a; Sempere et al. 2006, 2007;
to handle much larger morphological datasets and analyze Sperling et al. 2009a, b; Wheeler et al. 2009).
Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress

Consequently, myriad phylogenetic hypotheses have congruence and discrepancies between various hypotheses
been published in the past decade alone, and even the most we explore the current consensus in metazoan phylogeny
dedicated systematic researcher may from time to time fail (summarized in Fig. 1), and discuss our present knowledge
to see the consensus in this deep forest of phylogenetic in relation to morphological and developmental character
trees. In the present contribution we review some of the evolution. We also appraise the merits and limitations of
most recent phylogenetic analyses of higher-level metazoan several alternative molecular phylogenetic approaches that
relationships, with emphasis on the newest developments, are currently used to address the vexing question of
mostly based on phylogenomic studies. By pointing out metazoan interrelationships.

Fig. 1 Summary of relationships

within Metazoa. Nodes labelled
with circled letters (taxon-name
abbreviations) have received
broad consensus
 G.D. Edgecombe et al.

Results and discussion number, breadth of taxon sampling, and the number and
types of genes sequenced. This has led to the broadly held
Metazoans and phylogenomics conclusion that increased sampling, across both genes and
taxa, is a prerequisite for improved resolution of the tree of
Metazoa (animals) is a monophyletic group of heterotrophic life (Sanderson 2008). Phylogenomic methods—the con-
organisms. Apomorphies include special glycoproteins in struction of species trees using many genes—have rapidly
the form of collagens (Ax 1996), protein kinase C for cell expanded in the past few years to meet this challenge.
signaling (Gamulin et al. 2000), use of RFamide and Deep gene sampling across many broadly sampled taxa
acetylcholine (Nickel 2010) as neurotransmitters, and required new technical approaches. Directed sequencing of
features of gametogenesis (Ax 1996). Metazoa includes PCR fragments works well across a broad number of taxa, but
approximately 1.3 million described living species (the does not scale well to large numbers of genes. Genome
estimated number of undescribed species ranges from 10 to sequencing is the only way to generate a nearly comprehen-
200 million) in 35–40 phyla depending on the classification sive set of gene predictions for an organism, but remains too
followed, but most recent ones have subsumed many expensive to scale across broadly sampled taxa. Expressed
formerly recognized phyla, such as Echiura, Pogonophora, Sequence Tags (ESTs), randomly acquired sequence frag-
Sipuncula and Vestimentifera into Annelida, Acanthoce- ments of expressed genes obtained from complimentary DNA
phala into Rotifera, and even Phoronida into Brachiopoda. libraries, have proved to be a productive intermediate solution.
For the purpose of this article, we consider the following 36 Since the first animal phylogenomic analyses using EST data,
phyla: Ctenophora, Porifera (as Calcarea, Silicea and relationships have been resolved for several groups of phyla
Homoscleromorpha in Fig. 1), Cnidaria, Placozoa, Acoela, (Bleidorn et al. 2009; Bourlat et al. 2006; Delsuc et al. 2005,
Nemertodermatida, Xenoturbellida, Echinodermata, Hemi- 2006; Dunn et al. 2008; Egger et al. 2009; Hausdorf et al.
chordata, Cephalochordata, Urochordata, Craniata (including 2007, 2010; Hejnol et al. 2009; Helmkampf et al. 2008a, b;
Vertebrata), Loricifera, Kinorhyncha, Priapulida, Nematoda, Marlétaz et al. 2006; Matus et al. 2006; Philippe et al. 2005,
Nematomorpha, Tardigrada, Onychophora, Arthropoda, 2007, 2009; Roeding et al. 2007, 2009; Struck and Fisse
Annelida, Mollusca, Brachiopoda, Phoronida, Nemertea, 2008; Webster et al. 2006; Witek et al. 2009).
Chaetognatha, Bryozoa, Entoprocta, Cycliophora, Platyhel- Three important limitations plagued the first animal
minthes, Gastrotricha, Gnathostomulida, Micrognathozoa, phylogenomic studies. First, they added data for only a
Rotifera, Rhombozoa, and Orthonectida. small number of taxa (typically 1–3) at a time, so sampling
The so-called ‘new animal phylogeny’ (Adoutte et al. was heavily biased towards organisms that were already
2000; Giribet et al. 2007; Halanych 2004), largely driven well represented in public archives (e.g. vertebrates, insects,
by molecular data, supports the monophyly of Bilateria, the nematodes, and molluscs). This left many key groups
existence of a large clade of moulting protostome animals entirely unrepresented, making it impossible to rigorously
named Ecdysozoa (Aguinaldo et al. 1997; Giribet 2003; test the positions of the added taxa. Second, these studies
Schmidt-Rhaesa et al. 1998; Telford et al. 2008), and the did not fully leverage the potential of ESTs to inform gene
presence of a clade that contains the spiralian phyla selection, relying instead on manually curated gene lists,
(Spiralia or Lophotrochozoa; Giribet 2008; Giribet et al. particular groups of proteins selected a priori, or gene lists
2000, 2009; Halanych 2004; Halanych et al. 1995). Two from previous studies. In contrast to targeted-gene studies
main bilaterian clades, Protostomia and Deuterostomia based on PCR amplification of particular genes, gene
(Fig. 1), are well supported in phylogenomic analyses with selection in EST studies can be part of the data analysis
broad taxon sampling (Dunn et al. 2008; Hejnol et al. 2009; process rather than a facet of project design (Fig. 2). Gene
Philippe et al. 2009). selection after data acquisition has several potential advan-
Although the major clades of animals based on molec- tages, including a more detailed assessment of orthology, the
ular analyses have now been recognized for nearly a ability for explicit evaluation of informativeness (Townsend
decade, resolving the more detailed relationships among 2007), and improved scalability. Third, many phylogenomic
the phyla within each major clade with high levels of studies have not yet released to public databases all the data
support and/or stability has been difficult using target-gene on which they are based. In these cases, only the subsets of
approaches that rely on directed sequencing of PCR genes considered in the final analyses are released, which
products. This lack of clear resolution has been presented makes it impossible for other investigators to include these
frequently in the literature as an intractable signature of the data in matrices that use different sets of genes.
Cambrian explosion, even after using sequence data from In order to overcome these limitations of prior animal
50 genes (Rokas et al. 2005). Alternatively, the lack of EST studies, Dunn et al. (2008) generated a more broadly
resolution has been suspected to reflect the limits of the sampled phylogenomic analysis of animals. This study
available data, which were restricted in terms of taxon contributed new EST data for 29 animal species that were
Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress

Fig. 2 Flow chart for phyloge- Sequencing Acquisition

nomic analyses employed by Obtaining Collect organisms,
Dunn et al. (2008) and Hejnol gene randomly sequence
et al. (2009). Closed circles sequences mRNA
represent gene sequences
Assembly
Assemble mRNA sequences
into gene sequences,
create combined gene
database across species

Phenetic Pairwise comparison

Phase Assess the pairwise sequence
Identify similarity by comparing all
sets of genes to all other genes,
homologous a subset of genes, or a
genes reference. Tools for pairwise
similarity comparisons include
BLAST.

Clustering
Identify hypothesized sets of
homologous genes by
extracting clusters of genes that
have many strong pairwise
connections. Filter clusters
according to taxon sampling.

Phylogenetic Build gene trees

Phase Infer a phylogenetic tree for all
Identify the genes in each cluster.
sets of
orthologous
genes

Orthologs 1 Traverse trees

Traverse each tree and prune away
sets of orthologous genes according
Orthologs 2 to explicit criteria. Each gene
tree may be decomposed into 0,1, or
more sets of orthologs.

explicitly selected to be as complimentary as possible to conflicting support in earlier studies with fewer data. A
existing data. New approaches were developed for orthol- follow-up study (Hejnol et al. 2009) added EST data for
ogy identification and gene selection, producing a matrix of additional representatives of key groups, for which phylo-
150 genes with 50.9% occupancy across 77 taxa. This genomic data had been unavailable (Cycliophora and
study reinforced several previously identified clades that Nemertodermatida) or which had been the most unstable
split deeply in the animal tree (including Protostomia, taxa in the previous study (Acoela); furthermore, gene
Ecdysozoa, and Spiralia), and provided new insight into a predictions from recently completed genomes for a placo-
number of long-standing issues for which there was strong zoan (Srivastava et al. 2008) and a gastropod mollusc were
 G.D. Edgecombe et al.

added. A scalable gene selection strategy was developed results, or lack broad enough taxon sampling to address
that relied on explicit criteria and was fully automated. This the issue. These are some of the most fundamental
approach allowed an expansion of gene sampling to 1487 questions in metazoan phylogeny, and our ability to
genes. Encouragingly, the most unstable taxon in the reconstruct the most recent common ancestor of animals,
previous analysis (Dunn et al. 2008), Acoela, was placed determine which characters were present before animals
along with other acoelomorphs as sister group to the radiated, and establish the sequence of character changes
remaining Bilateria, with strong support following in- that resulted in the differences between these groups lies in
creased sampling and improved gene selection methods. the balance.
Now that it is possible to automate matrix construction From the 105 possible rooted bifurcating trees for five
from large genomic and transcriptome datasets, one of the taxa, only a few possibilities have been proposed (see Fig. 3
most pressing analytical challenges in phylogenomic for some recent examples). Improved taxon sampling
analyses is to develop new methods for assessing which within the five extant lineages of Metazoa and, perhaps
character sets support which phylogenetic hypotheses. even more importantly, for the outgroup taxa is necessary to
Phylogenetic inference is too computationally intensive to resolve this issue with more support. Few published
assess a large number of ad hoc combinations of characters phylogenomic analyses include representatives of all five
and taxa (e.g. removing different gene sets to see if they are metazoan groups, which greatly limits comparison across
in conflict with a particular topology); thus, approaches that existing studies. The traditional view held for more than
can further dissect the signal from a smaller number of 100 years, that Porifera is sister group to all other animals
large analyses will be increasingly important. (Fig. 3a), had been based on their lack of tissue organiza-
tion, lack of a nervous system, and the similarity of
The basal metazoan lineages choanocytes to choanoflagellates (e.g. Nielsen 2001). The
placozoan genome paper included a phylogenomic analysis
Five major extant lineages of animals result from the of Placozoa, Porifera, Cnidaria, and Bilateria, and was
deepest splits in the animal tree of life: Bilateria, Cnidaria, consistent with the classical view of sponges as the sister
Ctenophora, Placozoa, and Porifera. It is widely believed group to all other metazoans (Srivastava et al. 2008).
that each of these groups is monophyletic; the only Ctenophores, however, were absent from this analysis.
exception in recent literature has been the proposition that An analysis of mitochondrial genomes, which again did
Porifera is paraphyletic, giving rise to all other animals not include Ctenophora, found that Bilateria was sister
(Sperling et al. 2009a, 2010), but this has been contradicted group to Porifera, Cnidaria and Placozoa (Dellaporta et al.
by much larger samples of genes that defend sponge 2006), consistent with the topology of Fig. 3c. The authors
monophyly (Philippe et al. 2009). The topology and rooting claimed at the time, however, that this was an artefact
of this five-taxon tree are still in dispute; the different introduced by Bilateria. When Bilateria was excluded, they
studies either give unresolved or strongly conflicting found that the remaining metazoan tree rooted along the

A Porifera B Ctenophora C Placozoa

Placozoa Porifera Porifera

Cnidaria Placozoa Cnidaria

Ctenophora Cnidaria Ctenophora

Bilateria Bilateria Bilateria

D Placozoa E Porifera
Bilateria Ctenophora
Cnidaria Cnidaria
Ctenophora Placozoa
Porifera Bilateria

Fig. 3 Some postulated relationships among the five main metazoan Hypothesis by Schierwater et al. (2009), with Bilateria as sister group to
clades. a Traditional hypothesis based on morphology, with sponges a clade that contains placozoans as sister to sponges, cnidarians and
as sister group to other metazoans (e.g. Nielsen 2001). b Hypothesis ctenophores. d Hypothesis with monophyletic Coelenterata (Philippe
based on phylogenomic analyses, with ctenophores as sister group to et al. 2009). e Hypothesis with monophyletic Eumetazoa but with
all other metazoans (Dunn et al. 2008; Hejnol et al. 2009). c Ctenophora as sister to all other eumetazoans (Pick et al. 2010)
Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress

stem of Placozoa—the only molecular analysis to support phore phylogeny makes it unclear if the basal ctenophore
Placozoa as sister group to other animals. The same authors node was bracketed. In spite of these obvious limitations
subsequently published an analysis that included cteno- regarding taxon sampling (Pick et al. 2010), the placement
phores, a similar mitochondrial dataset, nuclear genes, and of ctenophores was well supported and consistent across all
a small morphological matrix (Schierwater et al. 2009), analyses of these matrices, including different subsets of
concluding that the placozoan rooting was spurious, and taxa and genes. The inclusion of Placozoa in the analysis of
that Bilateria is sister group to the remaining metazoans Hejnol et al. (2009), missing in the Dunn et al. (2008)
(Fig. 3c). The placement of Ctenophora as sister group to dataset, did not alter the placement of Ctenophora as sister
the remaining metazoans was, however, statistically indis- group to all other Metazoa.
tinguishable from the bilaterian rooting in that study (see More recent EST analyses that also included all five
their Table 1). groups of metazoans included much improved sponge
The analyses of Dunn et al. (2008) and Hejnol et al. sampling (Philippe et al. 2009; Pick et al. 2010). These
(2009), including representatives of all five groups, placed new data include ESTs for all major groups of sponges:
Ctenophora as sister group to the remaining animals Homoscleromorpha (O. lobularis), Calcarea (Sycon raphanus,
(Fig. 3b). Sampling within these lineages varied greatly, Leucetta chagosensis), Demospongiae (Ephydatia muelleri,
and several important poriferan lineages in particular were Carteriospongia foliascens) and Hexactinellida (Oopsacas
not represented. These analyses only included representa- minuta, Heterochone calyx), the latter two depicted in our
tives of Demospongiae (ESTs for Suberites domuncula and Fig. 1 as a clade named Silicea based on the shared presence
whole genome sequence data of Amphimedon queens- of spicules made of hydrated silica. These analyses place
landica) and Homoscleromorpha (Oscarella lobularis), Porifera as sister group to all other metazoans, but bootstrap
but no data from the two other sponge groups, Calcarea support is only 62% and relationships between the five groups
and Hexactinellida. Two (Dunn et al. 2008) and three of metazoans (Fig. 3d) are highly sensitive to outgroup
(Hejnol et al. 2009) species of ctenophores were included, selection. In contrast to trees based on nuclear housekeeping
respectively, but uncertainty regarding the internal cteno- genes (Sperling et al. 2009a, 2010) that depict sponges as a

Table 1 Palaeontological data used for calibrating the bilaterian chronogram in Fig. 4

Label Clade Type Date [My] Key fossil(s)

A Bilateria max 635 Marinoan deglaciation

A Bilateria min 555 trace fossils
B Mollusca min 528 Latouchella
C Arthropoda_Onychophora min 528 Rusophycus
D Brachiopoda_Nemertea min 525 paterinids
E Ecdysozoa min 525 Markuelia
F Bivalvia_Gastropoda min 521 Fordilla, Bulluniella
G Craniata_Urochordata min 520 Haikouichthys, Myllokunmingia, Zhangjianichthys
H Priapulida_Kinorhyncha min 520 Xiaoheiqingella
I Myriapoda_Chelicerata s.l. min 520 Haikoucaris
J Annelida min 520 Phragmochaeta, Archaeogolfingia, Cambrospinculus
K Echinodermata_Hemichordata min 519 helicoplacoids
L Nematoida_Tardigrada min 508 Kuonamka Formation tardigrade
M Pycnogonida_Euchelicerata min 500 Cambropycnogon
N Branchiopoda_Hexapoda min 500 Rehbachiella
O Polyplacophora_Cephalopoda_Caudofoveata min 492 Matthevia
P Cephalopoda_Caudofoveata min 489 plectronocerids
Q Echinoidea_Asteroidea min 480 Petraster
R Xiphosura_Arachnida min 478.6 Lower Fezouata Formation xiphosuran
S Nematoda_Nematomorpha min 408 Palaeonema
T Arachnida min 408 Rhynie Chert prostigmatan mites
U Synapsida_Sauropsida min 312 Hylonomus
V Echiura_Capitella min 307 Coprinoscolex
 G.D. Edgecombe et al.

paraphyletic group, the monophyly of Porifera is netic position of Xenoturbella with Acoelomorpha as sister
strongly supported in all the analyses by Philippe et group to Nephrozoa was not recovered with phylogenomic
al. (2009). Importantly, while Placozoa is a monospecific studies that instead placed Xenoturbella among deuteros-
phylum (but clearly composed of additional cryptic tomes (Philippe et al. 2007; Philippe et al. 2011), a
species; e.g. Voigt et al. 2004) and Ctenophora is well relationship also supported by ciliary ultrastructure (Franzén
known to have a very long stem for the genes studied and Afzelius 1987; Pardos 1988).
(Podar et al. 2001), the Philippe et al. (2009) study The phylogenetic position of acoelomorphs + Xenoturbella
confirmed that the stems of Cnidaria and Porifera, as well will continue to be debated in light of new data (Philippe et
as the two internal branches of the five-taxon tree, are al. 2011), but the most recent phylogenomic analyses agree
extremely short (whereas the Bilateria stem is of moderate with the morphological view relating Xenoturbella to acoels
length). This mixture of branch lengths could indicate why and nemertodermatids (e.g. Lundin 1998; Nielsen 2010). The
the topology and rooting of the five-taxon tree are study of Philippe et al. (2011) is based on three different
currently so unstable. datasets—mitochondrial protein coding genes, phylogenomic
The first sponge genome was recently published (Srivastava analyses and microRNA content—which all provide only
et al. 2010), and the study included several phylogenomic weak evidence for a position of Acoelomorpha + Xenotur-
analyses. In analyses limited to taxa for which complete bellida with deuterostomes rather than more basally among
genomes are available (lacking ctenophores because no Metazoa. The microRNA content presented in Philippe et al.
ctenophore genome sequence has yet been published), the (2011) is incongruent to the microRNA content of nemerto-
sponge was found to be sister group to the other sampled dermatid Meara stichopi published elsewhere (Wallberg
animals. Cnidarians were placed as sister group to Bilateria, 2009), which instead supports a position of acoelomorphs
and Placozoa as sister to that grouping. Analyses that before the protostome-deuterostome split. A deuterostome
included EST data for additional taxa, including more affinity of acoels is at odds with most morphological
ctenophores, recovered Ctenophora as sister group to all evidence. The organization (or lack) of organ systems in
other animals (Srivastava et al. 2010, supplementary infor- acoelomorphs and Xenoturbella, such as gross body mor-
mation section S7), though the authors stressed the impor- phology, the blind gut, non-epithelial gonads, lack of an
tance of additional taxon sampling, particularly among the excretory and vascular system, a simple brain, and the lack of
outgroup taxa. Preliminary analyses of a draft ctenophore a dorsal or ventral centralized nerve chord, shows no
genome (Ryan et al. 2010) supported a clade comprised of similarities with deuterostomes (Hejnol and Martindale
Placozoa, Bilateria and Cnidaria (resolved as in Fig. 3b), to 2008a). Furthermore, acoelomorphs and Xenoturbella do
the exclusion of Porifera and Ctenophora. That study, not show any traces of deuterostome characters, such as gill
however, did not differentiate between the alternative place- slits, that one would expect to be present even in highly
ments of Porifera or Ctenophora as sister group to the derived lineages (such as the chorda in ascidians). If a
remaining Metazoa. deuterostome position does become established for this clade
then it would suggest that its members have undergone
Acoelomorpha and Xenoturbella are a clade dramatic losses of features.
Molecular dating generally interprets the divergences
Hejnol et al. (2009) corroborated previous suggestions that between most bilaterian phyla to have taken place at least
the acoel and nemertodermatid flatworms form a clade, during the Ediacaran Period, 635–542.5 Mya (Peterson et
Acoelomorpha, that is sister group to all other bilaterian al. 2008), or even earlier, in the Cryogenian (Blair 2009);
animals, the latter being united under the taxonomic name see the section entitled “A bilaterian chronogram” below.
Nephrozoa in recognition of the shared presence of an Macroscopic fossils from the latter half of the Ediacaran
excretory system (Jondelius et al. 2002; Ruiz-Trillo et al. (from ca. 575 Mya) have been assigned by palaeontologists
1999, 2002; Sempere et al. 2007). Nephrozoa itself to the stem- or crown-groups of Bilateria (Xiao and
encompasses two putative clades whose status and mem- Laflamme 2009), and some have been placed in the stem
bership have been debated since the 19th century: Proto- groups of particular bilaterian subclades, such as Mollusca
stomia and Deuterostomia. The Hejnol et al. (2009) study or Panarthropoda (Peterson et al. 2008). The phylogenetic
found diminishing evidence for the placement of the affinities of the Ediacaran macrofossils remain subject to
enigmatic Xenoturbella within Deuterostomia (Bourlat et highly divergent opinions, and the case for Bilateria
al. 2003, 2006, 2009; Perseke et al. 2007); instead, all remains ambiguous from the body fossils alone (the trace
analyses placed Xenoturbella with Acoelomorpha, with fossil record for at least the terminal part of the Ediacaran,
which it shares several morphological features (Lundin from 555 Mya, provides a stronger case for Bilateria;
1998, 2001; Nielsen 2010; Pedersen and Pedersen 1986, Jensen et al. 2005). It appears likely that Ediacaran
1988; Raikova et al. 2000; Westblad 1949). This phyloge- macrofossils will continue to be slotted into phylogenies
Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress

inferred from molecular data rather than fundamentally Ambulacraria (e.g. Winchell et al. 2002), some authors
contributing to tree reconstruction themselves. have challenged the monophyly of Chordata (e.g. Delsuc et
al. 2006; Mallatt et al. 2010; Mallatt and Winchell 2007),
Deuterostomia and many analyses limited to few genes find non-
monophyly of either protostomes or deuterostomes (e.g.
Deuterostomes are defined as a group of animals in which Mallatt et al. 2010). Perhaps the newest challenge, and still
through development the blastopore typically becomes the unsettled, is the position of Xenoturbella, once postulated to
anus in the adult, while the mouth develops as a new opening have an affinity to hemichordates (Pedersen and Pedersen
from the end of the archenteron, but the fate of the blastopore 1986, 1988; see discussion above).
shows considerable intraphyletic variation (Nielsen 2001). The Possibly the last deep relationship to have been settled
composition of Deuterostomia has also changed through within Deuterostomia is the monophyly of Hemichordata, a
time, with some of the lophophorate groups (especially group that had been considered as paraphyletic by some
Brachiopoda and Phoronida) still being considered deuter- authors (e.g. Nielsen 2001 separated Pterobranchia and
ostomes by some authors due to the scarcity of opposing Enteropneusta as two phyla; Ax 2001 proposed paraphyly
morphological arguments, although all molecular studies of Hemichordata as well as of Pterobranchia). All recent
place them with the protostome phyla (see below). Some molecular analyses exploring a broad diversity within the
morphological arguments for protostome affinities were put phylum agree on the monophyly of Hemichordata (e.g.
forward by Hejnol (2010), such as a derived trochophore Cannon et al. 2009; Holland et al. 2009).
larva and similarities in chaetal structures. Likewise, putative
deuterostome affinities of chaetognaths have lost strength The main protostome lineages and the position
after the emergence of phylogenomic analyses (Marlétaz et al. of Chaetognatha
2006; Matus et al. 2006; see additional discussion on
Chaetognatha below). Currently, Echinodermata and Hemi- Evidence for the monophyly of protostomes has typically
chordata are grouped as the clade Ambulacraria, principally come from developmental characters such as the fate of the
based on phylogenomics, while the three chordate lineages, blastopore and the mode of formation of the mesoderm
Cephalochordata, Urochordata and Craniata, also form a (Nielsen 2001), though new character sources such as a suite
clade. Ambulacraria is also supported by several exclusive of novel microRNA families (Wheeler et al. 2009) strengthen
gene expression patterns not shared by Chordata (Brown et the case for Protostomia as a clade. Traditionally protostomes
al. 2008), although recent data on enteropneust neurogenesis had been depicted as a paraphyletic assemblage of worm-like
have been argued to instead support a sister-group relation- animals that share a dorsal (or circumesophageal) brain
ship between Hemichordata and Chordata (Kaul and Stach connected to a ventral, often paired longitudinal nerve cord.
2010). Within Chordata, Olfactores groups Urochordata and Given the lack of a ventral centralized nerve cord in acoels
Craniata (Delsuc et al. 2006), and in molecular datasets only and nemertodermatids (e.g. Raikova et al. 2004a, b) and the
the position of Cephalochordata has received minor instabil- current phylogenetic framework for metazoans, we follow
ity, with a brief placement as sister group to Echinodermata Giribet et al. (2009) in excluding acoels and nemertoderma-
(Delsuc et al. 2006) soon corrected in favour of sister-group tids from Protostomia in the following discussion. Two
relations to Olfactores by subsequent phylogenomic analyses clades encompass most of the diversity within Protostomia:
(e.g. Delsuc et al. 2008; Dunn et al. 2008; Hejnol et al. 2009). Ecdysozoa and Spiralia (Fig. 1).
The discovery of putative deuterostome fossils from the A taxon that unites moulting protostomes, Ecdysozoa, is
Cambrian, such as vetulicolians (Aldridge et al. 2007; Shu currently recognized as monophyletic in most analyses.
et al. 2001), yunnanozoans (Mallatt and Chen 2003; Shu et Skepticism about its validity has particularly come from
al. 2003), vetulocystids (Shu et al. 2004), and cambroemids genome analyses with only a few taxa several of which have
(Caron et al. 2010), has added to evidence provided by pre- rejected Ecdysozoa in favour of a taxon that unites coelomate
radial stem group echinoderms (Smith 2005) that external animals; while the corresponding ‘Coelomata hypothesis’ is a
gill slits are a primitive deuterostome character lost during traditional one, little morphological evidence has been offered
the early evolution of echinoderms (see reviews by Shu et for its support in modern times. The Coelomata hypothesis
al. 2010; Smith and Swalla 2009). The deuterostome relates arthropods more closely to vertebrates than to
affinities of at least some of those groups (notably the nematodes (Blair et al. 2002; Dopazo et al. 2004; Longhorn
vetulicolians and yunnanozoans) are disputed by other et al. 2007; Philip et al. 2005; Rogozin et al. 2007; Wolf et
palaeontologists, who posit that possible moult assemblages al. 2004). Numerous reanalyses of those data and, notably,
indicate a relationship to Ecdysozoa (e.g. Bergström 2010). more comprehensively sampled datasets, have in turn
Despite the long-standing molecular-based acceptance of dismissed Coelomata as an artefact of poor taxon sampling
the composition of Deuterostomia and monophyly of (i.e. distant outgroups and systematic artefactual attraction of
 G.D. Edgecombe et al.

nematodes to phylogenetically distant taxa at the base of zoa, together with the alliance of annelids with molluscs
Bilateria) (Dunn et al. 2008; Hejnol et al. 2009; Holton and and other spiralians, rather than with arthropods (Eernisse
Pisani 2010; Irimia et al. 2007; Philippe et al. 2005). et al. 1992) as predicted by the Articulata hypothesis, is
The name Spiralia (see discussions on this name vs. supported by an ever-growing series of analyses that have
Lophotrochozoa in Giribet et al. 2009 and Hejnol 2010) used different genes and diverse combinations of data and
was first coined by Schleip (1929) because of the varied analytical approaches (Telford et al. 2008). In
stereotypical spiral development that occurs only within contrast, Articulata is not supported by any kind of
this clade (Maslakova et al. 2004a; Nielsen 2001). Spiralia molecular evidence.
contains all animals with spiral development in addition to Although the idea of arthropods as being allied to
some others that do not show this special mode of nematodes has a long history (reviewed by Scholtz 2002),
development. This character, like many others within the union of Panarthropoda and Cycloneuralia as Ecdyso-
Metazoa, shows homoplasy at several levels, apparently in zoa (Aguinaldo et al. 1997) was originally established using
the form of secondary reduction (Hejnol 2010)—but never data from the small nuclear ribosomal subunit (18S rRNA)
as convergence outside the clade. This indicates that any and has been strengthened by numerous subsequent
animal with spiral development is an unambiguous member analyses using larger taxonomic samples of nuclear
of the clade Spiralia, whereas absence does not necessarily ribosomal genes (e.g. Giribet and Ribera 1998; Giribet
invalidate membership, as this type of development has and Wheeler 1999; Mallatt and Giribet 2006; Mallatt et al.
been lost several times. 2004, 2010; Petrov and Vladychenskaya 2005; Zrzavý et al.
The position of the chaetognaths (‘arrow worms’) remains 1998). Likewise, Ecdysozoa is a clade when sequences for
one of the major controversies in bilaterian phylogenetics. small and large nuclear ribosomal RNA are analyzed
Among the range of alternative affinities proposed for this together with 11 nuclear protein-coding genes (Baguñà et
group over the long history of debate, recent studies based on al. 2008), or when they are combined with complete
both morphology (Harzsch and Müller 2007) and phyloge- mitochondrial genomes and nuclear protein-coding genes
nomics (Dunn et al. 2008; Hejnol et al. 2009; Marlétaz et al. (Bourlat et al. 2008). Other kinds of molecular data that
2006; Matus et al. 2006) have strongly converged on support Ecdysozoa are myosin heavy chain II (Ruiz-Trillo
chaetognaths being early diverging members of Protostomia, et al. 2002), Na+/K+-ATPase subunit (Kusche et al. 2005), a
even though the latter show what has often been recognized novel microRNA family (Wheeler et al. 2009), nuclear
as ‘deuterostome-like’ development (but see Kapp 2000). housekeeping genes (Helmkampf et al. 2008a, b), Hox gene
Beyond this, however, there is little consensus as to their signatures (Balavoine et al. 2002; de Rosa et al. 1999),
exact position. Depending on character and taxon sampling, mitochondrial genomics (Rota-Stabelli et al. 2010b), a
they have been placed either as sister group to Spiralia or combined analysis of 71 protein-coding genes (Philippe et
within the latter (Dunn et al. 2008, Helmkampf et al. 2008b; al. 2005), and several other recent phylogenomic studies
Matus et al. 2006;), within Ecdysozoa (Baguñà et al. 2008; (e.g. Dunn et al. 2008; Hejnol et al. 2009; Holton and
Helmkampf et al. 2008a; Paps et al. 2009b), or as sister Pisani 2010; Philippe et al. 2007; ribosomal protein
group to Spiralia + Ecdysozoa (Dunn et al. 2008; Marlétaz et analyses of Bleidorn et al. 2009).
al. 2006; Matus et al. 2006). The nervous system of In addition to the body of molecular support, ecdysozoans
chaetognaths has recently been found to be similar to that share a set of characters related to the cuticle and its moulting.
of other protostomes in having a typical circumoral Where documented, moulting in the ecdysozoan phyla is
arrangement of the anterior CNS (Harzsch and Müller induced by similar ecdysteroids, and all members of the group
2007). Resolving the placement of Chaetognatha is critical lack locomotory cilia—they lack ciliation on any external
to the reconstruction of some of the most basic developmen- surface. Although some authors have attempted to correlate
tal characters for bilaterians, including cleavage mode and the presence of a thick cuticle with the lack of locomotory
the fate of the blastopore. cilia, the presence of both in gastrotrichs (e.g. Ruppert 1991)
corroborates their validity as independent phylogenetic
Ecdysozoans and the status of Panarthropoda characters. The layering of the cuticle in ecdysozoans shows
and Cycloneuralia detailed similarities, including differentiated epi-, exo- and
endocuticle, with the first of these itself being trilaminate
The ‘Ecdysozoa vs. Articulata’ debate of the middle part of (Schmidt-Rhaesa et al. 1998). All Ecdysozoa for which the
the past decade (e.g. Giribet 1999, 2003, 2004; Jenner and data have been documented share a unique tissue-specific
Scholtz 2005; Pilato et al. 2005; Schmidt-Rhaesa 2004, immunoreactive marker, horseradish peroxidase (HRP), in
2006, 2007; Schmidt-Rhaesa et al. 1998; Scholtz 2002, the neural tissue (Haase et al. 2001).
2003; Zrzavý 2001) is no longer a debate from the Two main subgroups of Ecdysozoa have been retrieved in
perspective of molecular data. The monophyly of Ecdyso- many analyses: Cycloneuralia and Panarthropoda. Cyclo-
Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress

neuralia (also referred to as Introverta), named for the collar- than to scalidophorans (Rota-Stabelli et al. 2010b). Ac-
shaped circumesophageal brain shared by its members, unites cordingly, pending a stable resolution of the tardigrade-
Nematoida (a widely recognized clade composed of Nem- nematode question, our summary tree (Fig. 1) leaves the
atoda + Nematomorpha) with Priapulida, Kinorhyncha and monophyly of Cycloneuralia and Panarthropoda open.
Loricifera, the latter three often being grouped as a putative The Scalidophora concept was formulated based largely
clade named Scalidophora. Panarthropoda sensu Nielsen on shared details of the introvert in priapulids, kinorhynchs
(1995)—also named Ailopoda by Hou and Bergström and loriciferans, and each of the three possible interrelation-
(2006)—groups Arthropoda with Onychophora and Tardi- ships among the three groups has been advocated in the
grada, implying a single origin of paired ventrolateral recent literature based on morphology (reviewed by
segmental appendages in tardigrades, onychophorans and Neuhaus and Higgins 2002). However, the sparse molecu-
arthropods. The name Arthropoda is variably applied to lar data for loriciferans ally the group with Nematomorpha
Onychophora + Euarthropoda. Herein, we follow the rather than with Kinorhyncha and/or Priapulida, and imply
prevalent usage in English-language publications of restrict- that morphological characters previously considered as
ing the name Arthropoda to the euarthropods. synapomorphic for the scalidophoran taxa would instead
A result of several phylogenomic analyses that has be conditions for Cycloneuralia (Sørensen et al. 2008; see
challenged the monophyly of both Cycloneuralia and Park et al. 2006 for a less precise hypothesis), if not even
Panarthropoda is an affinity between nematodes and for Ecdysozoa as a whole. The sister-group relationship
tardigrades (Hausdorf et al. 2010; Hejnol et al. 2009; between Priapulida and Kinorhyncha has been found in
Meusemann et al. 2010; Philippe et al. 2007; Roeding et al. multilocus analyses (e.g. Mallatt and Giribet 2006; Paps et
2007, 2009). Although some similarities, e.g. the myo- al. 2009b) as well as in phylogenomic ones (Dunn et al.
epithelial cells in the pharynx bulb, have long been 2008; but see Hejnol et al. 2009), although these analyses
observed among nematodes, tardigrades and loriciferans did not include molecular sequence data from loriciferans,
(Kristensen 2003), the standard morphological position of whose members have recently been found to constitute the
tardigrades over the past decade or two has been in the first metazoans to live in permanently anoxic conditions
context of panarthropod monophyly, with tardigrades (Danovaro et al. 2010).
resolved either as sister group to Onychophora + Arthro- The Cambrian fossil record is an additional source of
poda (anatomical and phylogenomic arguments reviewed data bearing on scalidophoran/cycloneuralian interrelation-
by Edgecombe 2010) or as sister group to Arthropoda ships. Large macrofaunal fossils similar to loriciferans have
(according to the Tactopoda hypothesis; Budd 2001) with recently been documented from the Cambrian Sirius Passet
Onychophora the sister group of that assemblage. The Lagerstätte of Greenland (Peel 2010), supplementing the
choice between Tardigrada + Nematoda and Tardigrada + record of loricate larvae known from Cambrian phosphatic
(Onychophora + Arthropoda) is sensitive to the model used microfossils (Maas et al. 2009). Stem-group priapulids such
in maximum likelihood analyses and to taxon sampling as palaeoscolecids are known from detailed anatomical
(Dunn et al. 2008; Rota-Stabelli et al. 2010a, b), and preservation including cuticular structure and sensilla
alternative relationships of tardigrades to either nematodes (Harvey et al. 2010), and three-dimensionally preserved
or onychophorans are likewise found when broad taxon embryos allow inferences on life history strategies in
sampling is used in parsimony-based direct optimization putative stem-group scalidophorans (Dong 2007).
analyses (Park et al. 2006).
The tardigrade-nematode attraction is tied to a recurring Spiralia
problem of establishing the monophyly of Cycloneuralia
with molecular datasets. A few analyses have retrieved a The first phylogenomic studies to include lophophorates
partial ecdysozoan clade that resolves priapulids with indicated that Lophotrochozoa is nested within a clade of
Arthropoda or Panarthropoda while placing Nematoda in animals with spiral cleavage (Helmkampf et al. 2008a, b) or
a phylogenetically distant position (mitogenomic datasets perhaps is equivalent to Spiralia (Dunn et al. 2008; Hejnol
of Bleidorn et al. 2009; Rota-Stabelli et al. 2010b; Webster et al. 2009), the name adopted here (as in von Döhren and
et al. 2006, 2007). Existing phylogenomic samples that Bartolomaeus 2007; Giribet 2002, 2008; Giribet et al. 2009;
include members of most major ecdysozoan groups and Hausdorf et al. 2007; Helmkampf et al. 2008b; Henry et al.
agree on the monophyly of Ecdysozoa have resolved 2007; Witek et al. 2009).
Cycloneuralia as strictly monophyletic (Dunn et al. 2008: Spiralia has been suggested to comprise two putative clades,
Bayesian trees after unstable taxa were deleted), as Platyzoa (Cavalier Smith 1998) and Trochozoa (Roule 1891).
monophyletic if tardigrades are accepted as an ingroup The name Trochozoa is preferred (see Giribet et al. 2000;
taxon (Roeding et al. 2009), or as paraphyletic with respect Rouse 1999) over the more recently coined Eutrochozoa
to Panarthropoda., e.g. Nematoda closer to panarthropods (Ghiselin 1988) used by some authors (Eernisse et al. 1992;
 G.D. Edgecombe et al.

Valentine 2004). Whether or not Platyzoa is a clade (e.g. yngeal brain. However, the neuropil of the circumpharyngeal
Dunn et al. 2008; Giribet et al. 2000; Glenner et al. 2004; brain of cycloneuralians maintains its size all around the
Hausdorf et al. 2010; Todaro et al. 2006; Zrzavý 2003) pharynx (Schmidt-Rhaesa 2007), whereas the gastrotrich
remains unclear, as many analyses provide low support and/or brain is instead composed of a ventral plus one or two dorsal
unstable relationships for the exact position of the ‘platyzoan’ commissures (Hochberg and Atherton 2011; Rothe and
phyla, although most authors tend to group them in a clade or Schmidt-Rhaesa 2009). Thus, although both kinds of brains
in a grade giving rise to Trochozoa. are wrapped around the pharynx, their homology is
The identification by Dunn et al. (2008) of a core set of questionable. Similarities truly exist between the gastrotrich
stable taxa within Spiralia whose relationships are well and the cycloneuralian (in particular the nematode) pharynx,
supported provides a more detailed picture of Platyzoa. The which in both cases is muscular, triradial and highly
only stable taxon (as measured by leaf stability metrics) cuticularized. On the other hand such pharynxes are also
putatively assigned to Platyzoa was Platyhelminthes (Dunn found elsewhere within the Metazoa, and even within the
et al. 2008, Fig. 2), which was found to be the sister group Platyzoa among some rotifers (de Beauchamp 1965), and
of Trochozoa with strong support in analyses restricted to they might have evolved convergently on several occasions.
stable taxa. All other platyzoans, e.g. the members of It is difficult to point out any clear-cut platyzoan autapo-
Gnathifera (sampled as Gnathostomulida and Rotifera) and morphies, but all members of the group, with the exception
Gastrotricha, were unstable in these analyses (Dunn et al. of polyclad flatworms and the parasitic acanthocephalan
2008, Fig. 1 and supplement), and their position could not rotifers, are strictly direct developers.
be resolved with confidence. The platyzoan taxa investi- Trochozoa contains those groups with a typical trocho-
gated to date have relatively long branches, which has led phore larva, defined as having a ciliary band known as a
some authors to suspect that support for the group is a prototroch (Rouse 1999), as occurs in Annelida sensu lato
systematic error (e.g. Telford 2006). The well-supported and Mollusca. The larva of a nemertean has been
position of Platyhelminthes as sister group to Trochozoa interpreted as a modified trochophore with a vestigial
(which cannot be the result of long-branch attraction, since prototroch (Maslakova et al. 2004b), which further supports
Trochozoa does not contain taxa with long branches) may the inclusion of Nemertea in Trochozoa. That said, many
serve as an anchor attracting long-branch taxa whose Trochozoa do not develop through a trochophore stage (e.g.
placement is not based on strong signals. The resolution Brachiopoda, Phoronida, and most nemerteans). Even
of this problem (including tests of this specific hypothesis) within groups in which a trochophore is widespread (such
will require a two-pronged strategy of greatly improved as Annelida and Mollusca) there are clear cases of it being
taxon sampling within putative platyzoan groups, and lost (e.g. clitellate annelids and cephalopod molluscs).
detailed investigations into their positions designed specif- Trochophores are thought to occur outside Trochozoa, as
ically to identify systematic error. This part of the metazoan delineated in Fig. 1 in only one case, Entoprocta (see
tree is seen as one of the most exciting areas of animal Nielsen 2001), which has been suggested to be the sister
phylogenetic research, and as one that has been difficult to group of Mollusca (Haszprunar 1996, 2000; Haszprunar
approach from the genomics point of view because of the and Wanninger 2008; Wanninger 2008), based especially
small size and difficulties of working with many of its on shared features of the foot sole of the larva of
members. Loxosomella murmanica and Neomeniomorpha, but also
Even if Platyzoa were a well-supported clade, an unequiv- on the presence of chitinous non-moulted cuticle, the sinus
ocal morphological apomorphy is hard to delineate. The circulatory system and a number of neural features (e.g.
putative clade contains a series of acoelomate or pseudocoe- Haszprunar and Wanninger 2008). Considering the contra-
lomate animals—no coelomates belong to this group—some dicting molecular results, further work on the placement of
with special types of jaws formed of cuticularized rods, this the group and the cell lineage of its ‘prototroch’ is needed.
group being named Gnathifera (Gnathostomulida, Micro- From the time of their original description (Funch and
gnathozoa, and Rotifera) (Ahlrichs 1995; Kristensen and Kristensen 1995), affinities of Cycliophora with entoprocts
Funch 2000; Sørensen 2003). Some phylogenomic support and bryozoans have been identified as highly likely (also
for the monophyly of Gnathifera is emerging (Witek et al. see Giribet et al. 2004). A sister-group relationship between
2009), albeit with indecisive resolution as to their placement entoprocts and cycliophorans was strongly supported in the
relative to other Platyzoa. Platyzoa also includes other types first phylogenomic analysis to include Cycliophora (Hejnol
of flat worms, including Platyhelminthes and Gastrotricha. et al. 2009). This clade was placed as the sister group to
Gastrotrichs have previously been suggested to be a basal Bryozoa (see Polyzoa in Fig. 2 of Hejnol et al. 2009),
lineage within Ecdysozoa or Cycloneuralia (Nielsen 2001; although with low support. One of the cycliophoran larval
Schmidt-Rhaesa et al. 1998; Zrzavý 2003), based on several forms, the chordoid larva, has been interpreted as a
ecdysozoan traits including the cuticle and a circumphar- modified trochophore (Funch 1996), but its homology with
Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress

true trochophores, such as that of Entoprocta, needs further corresponding disagreement is individual rather than be-
study. The overall neuroanatomical condition of the tween morphologists and molecular biologists per se, as
cyliophoran chordoid larva much more closely resembles many morphologists and paleontologists have suggested
the situation of adult rather than larval stages of a number relationships of brachiopods to molluscs, or of bryozoans to
of spiralian taxa (Neves et al. 2010). entoprocts and cycliophorans, therefore implicitly placing
Annelids represent perhaps one of the most interesting and ‘lophophorates’ in Protostomia. In most instances of
unstable areas of bilaterian phylogeny due to the large number phylogenomic topologies that have been truly novel and
of species and disparate body plans that have been assigned to indicative of interpretations of anatomical character evolu-
this phylum through history. While certain apomorphies of the tion very different from what had been anticipated by
phylum are well established (Rouse and Pleijel 2007), its morphologists, such as the resolution of Ctenophora as the
members are capable of modifying each and every single one sister group of all other metazoans (Dunn et al. 2008), the
of them. For example, there are annelids without segments ‘surprising’ result has been contradicted in other phyloge-
(e.g. Echiura), without chaetae (e.g. Dinophilidae, Hirudinea) nomic studies in favour of a more traditional topology (e.g.
or without nuchal organs (e.g. Clitellata); at the same time, Philippe et al. 2009 for Porifera as sister group of
segments of similar identity are present in other phyla (e.g. Eumetazoa). Figure 1 includes a few clades that have
Arthropoda and Chordata; see Seaver 2003), and ultrastruc- certainly contradicted morphological orthodoxy, such as the
turally identical chaetae are present in brachiopods (Lüter identification of Olfactores in favour of a cephalochordate +
2000). Therefore, the composition of Annelida has been in craniate clade, or Ambulacraria in favour of Hemichordata
flux, and several taxa once treated as separate phyla are now as sister group of Chordata. That said, the ‘phylogenomic’
considered as parts of Annelida, including Pogonophora, groupings are ones identified and named based on
Vestimentifera, Echiura, and—more contentiously as to morphological arguments, in the case of Ambulacraria well
whether it is sister to Annelida or a part of the annelid over a century ago, and Olfactores emerged from a
ingroup—Sipuncula (e.g. Dordel et al. 2010; Dunn et al. palaeontological hypothesis. Ecdysozoa is similar in many
2008; Hejnol et al. 2009; Mwinyi et al. 2009; Sperling et al. respects. It is indisputable that Ecdysozoa runs against the
2009b; Struck et al. 2007). Other taxa traditionally treated as grain of two centuries of morphology-based classification,
annelids, such as Diurodrilus, are now considered as of the era of nearly universal endorsement of Articulata
uncertain kinship (Worsaae and Rouse 2008), and whether (though with dissent from those who recognized characters
Myzostomida are related to annelids or to platyzoans is still that speak to a closer relationship between nematodes and
in flux (Bleidorn et al. 2007, 2009; Eeckhaut et al. 2000; arthropods; see Scholtz 2002 for historical precursors of the
Hejnol et al. 2009; Mallatt et al. 2010; Zrzavý et al. 2001). Ecdysozoa concept). However, it is a distortion to view
For other problematica with suggested annelid affinity, such Ecdysozoa as a ‘molecules versus morphology’ argument,
as Jennaria (Rieger 1991), Lobatocerebrum (Rieger 1980) because Ecdysozoa receives solid anatomical support from
and the parasitic Orthonectida (Halanych 2004; Slyusarev characters of the cuticle and its moulting. Perhaps the most
and Kristensen 2003), the lack of informative morphological unanticipated grouping included in Fig. 1, from the
and especially molecular data may explain why these taxa perspective of morphology, is Platyzoa. As discussed in
are generally not even considered in phylogenetic analyses. the section on Spiralia above, unambiguous morphological
or developmental apomorphies for a platyzoan clade are
Do phylogenomic trees conflict with morphology? unknown and the potentially artefactual attraction of its
members in molecular analyses must receive further testing.
Our review has emphasized recent advances in metazoan We consider it a fair summary of the state of play to say
phylogeny contributed mostly by molecular systematics, that that the conflict between different phylogenomic
and in particular by phylogenomic approaches. Figure 1 is a datasets and between different morphological datasets with
summary of clades that have been recovered repeatedly in respect to metazoan relationships is not materially different
well-sampled phylogenomic analyses. We do not, however, from the respectively conflict (or, conversely, congruence)
make a distinction between this topology and ‘a’ morpho- with each other.
logical cladogram for Metazoa, because the groups in Fig. 1
are in large part the ones recovered by morphologists. Well- A bilaterian chronogram: fossil-calibrated divergence times
established ‘phylogenomic’ clades such as Bilateria, Proto-
stomia, Deuterostomia, Spiralia, and Trochozoa were Molecular dating with paleontological calibration provides a
identified, of course, by 19th century zoologists based on basis for estimating the divergence times of the major lineages
anatomical and developmental evidence. The composition of Bilateria (for recent examples and citations of earlier works,
of Protostomia and Deuterostomia varies among authors see Blair 2009; Peterson et al. 2008). Figure 4 is a chronogram
with respect to the position of the ‘lophophorates’, but the based on the most likely topology in the 64-taxon Bayesian
 G.D. Edgecombe et al.

Xenoturbella bocki
598 Saccoglossus kowalevskii
320
Ptychodera flava
559
K Q 480
Strongylocentrotus purpuratus
617
Asterina pectinifera
Branchiostoma floridae
584 Ciona intestinalis
549
G Homo sapiens
312
U Gallus gallus
Richtersius coronifer
155
L Hypsibius dujardini
530
Spinochordodes tellinii
490
S Xiphinema index
567 385
Trichinella spiralis
H 520
Echinoderes horni
A
635
598 Priapulus caudatus
E Euperipatoides kanangrensis
M Anoplodactylus eroticus
503
Carcinoscorpius rotundicauda
578 479
C 527 R Boophilus microplus
418
I T Acanthoscurria gomesiana
564
Scutigera coleoptrata
Carcinus maenas
267
Fenneropenaeus chinensis
526
Daphnia magna
500
N Drosophila melanogaster

O Chaetopleura apiculata
520 Chaetoderma nitidulum
489
618 P Euprymna scolopes
B
551 Argopecten irradians
366
425 Crassostrea virginica
521 Mytilus galloprovincialis
F Aplysia californica
213
Biomphalaria glabrata
Haementeria depressa
583 297
Lumbricus rubellus
437
V Capitella teleta
486 360
Urechis caupo
J Platynereis dumerilii
520
Chaetopterus variopedatus
453
562 Themiste lageniformis
603 Phoronis vancouverensis
542 Cerebratulus lacteus
383
525 Carinoma mutabilis
D Terebratalia transversa
Schmidtea mediterranea
109
428 Dugesia japonica
495 Echinococcus granulosus
Macrostomum lignano
452
Ediacaran

Cambrian

Paraplanocera oligoglena

Fig. 4 Chronogram for Bilateria based on Bayesian tree of Dunn et al. (2008) under penalized likelihood and the palaeontological calibrations
listed in Table 1

analysis of Dunn et al. (2008) using relaxed-clock methods for Calibration to constraints was performed by penalized
a 150-gene sample. Because of the substantial incongruence likelihood (Sanderson 2002), as implemented in r8s v1.71
among the relationships between the main non-bilaterian (Sanderson 2003), with a truncated Newton (TN) algo-
lineages in phylogenomic studies to date (Fig. 1), the topology rithm. The optimization of the smoothing parameter was
used for dating is for Bilateria alone. obtained using the cross-validation feature in r8s follow-
Higher-level metazoan relationships: recent progress

ing the instructions of the program manual (available at aided in providing sound hypotheses of homology. Detailed
http://loco.biosci.arizona.edu/r8s/). All analyses passed fate mapping studies of spiralian embryos have helped to
the gradient check implemented in r8s. Calibration points unravel the evolutionary origin and modifications of larval
were assigned from minimum dates for branch points in ciliary bands, a character often used in phylogenetic
the tree based on the oldest well-corroborated fossil(s) for reconstructions. Such studies have allowed tracing the
clades with reliable palaeontological data (Table 1; Elec- evolutionary history of the prototroch, including its loss in
tronic supplementary material). A maximum of 635 Mya some nemertean larva (Maslakova et al. 2004a, b) and its
was set for Bilateria. This date was used by Peterson et al modification to a feeding structure in the veliger larva of
(2008) as a maximum for Eumetazoa based on palae- gastropods (Hejnol et al. 2007). High-resolution fate maps
oecological changes associated with Marinoan deglacia- deliver a complex data-set for comparisons between major
tion. Because subsequently published studies have animal clades (see Hejnol et al. 2007; Meyer et al. 2010)
provided strong evidence for crown-group sponges by and can also show the variation of developmental patterns,
635 Mya (demosponge biomarker data of Love et al. e.g. cell fate changes of the mesentoblast (4d cell) (Meyer
2009), we have not imposed an Ediacaran (<635 Mya) et al. 2010). Small, non-injectable embryos can be studied
maximum for all eumetazoans and restrict this constraint by 3D timelapse microscopy (4D microscopy) (Hejnol and
to Bilateria only. Schnabel 2005, 2006) and thus allow comparisons of fate
The resulting chronogram is consistent with Ediacaran maps across all Metazoa.
origins for many animal phyla, and with dates of 598, 603 Another level for comparisons of structures between
and 618 Mya for Ecdysozoa, Spiralia and Protostomia, species has been added by studies of important transcription
respectively (Fig. 4). We emphasise that the imposition of a factors and signalling molecules that trigger the develop-
maximum on bilaterian origins at the Cryogenian-Ediacaran ment of these structures. Answers to old questions such as
transition provides a shorter “fuse” (Conway Morris 2000) the origin of the mesodermal germ layer may be indicated
to the bilaterian radiation than has been retrieved in other by the finding that mesodermal genes are expressed in the
clock trees that either excluded maxima or set them farther endoderm of diploblastic animals (Martindale et al. 2004).
back in time (e.g. Blair 2009). Under those conditions, Specific transcription factors can help to determine the
divergences of the major bilaterian lineages are typically homology of structures, such as the mouth in cnidarians,
dated to the Cryogenian, forcing the fossil record to be acoelomorphs, protostomes and deuterostomes (Arendt et
interpreted as a poor chronicle of divergence times (many al. 2001; Hejnol and Martindale 2008b). Similarly, it has
lineages that have no fossil record until ca. 520 Mya, in the helped to understand the evolution of the bilaterian anus,
early Cambrian, are predicted to have originated at least possibly from a gonopore (Hejnol and Martindale 2008b).
125 My earlier than their first palaeontological appearan- Not only organ systems and larger structures can be traced
ces). Our analysis attempts to calibrate with more minima back to their evolutionary origin using gene expression
(divergences conservatively constrained by reliable fossil studies, but also single cell types, e.g. photoreceptors,
assignments) and few maxima. The chronogram converges formerly described exclusively by ultrastructural studies,
on previous studies in predicting that such bilaterian groups are now characterized by the expression of specific opsins
as Arthropoda, Mollusca, and Chordata had stem groups that correlate with the cell morphology (Arendt et al. 2004;
extending to various depths in time in the Ediacaran. Passamaneck et al. 2011).
However, there are pitfalls to be avoided when interpret-
The critical role of developmental biology for informing ing gene expression patterns. Not every complex structure
and testing systematic hypotheses can be homologized solely by gene expression patterns. It
has been shown that ‘simple’ animals such as the sea
Developmental biology has provided insight into the anemone Nematostella vectensis have the complete set of
interpretation of morphological and anatomical characters. bilaterian WNT genes (Kusserow et al. 2005) and that the
The description of the development of an organism can complex segmented arthropod legs follow the same
provide a more detailed picture of a morphological patterning system as the non-articulated legs of onycho-
character and can give insights into the homology of phorans (Janssen et al. 2010) which was co-opted from a
structures and their evolutionary origin. Recent advances head-axis patterning system (Lemmons et al. 2010) in the
have been mainly in the fields of cell lineage and fate arthropod lineage. To get a better understanding of the
mapping studies and in the area of molecular developmen- developmental changes during evolution, more studies of
tal biology. Modern studies of cell lineages during early ‘minor’ taxa are needed. Especially by looking at simple
embryogenesis, both using intracellular dye injections and structured organisms will we obtain a better understanding
4D microscopy techniques, have provided detailed under- of the branches of the phylogenetic tree on which important
standing of the development of several animals and have gains and losses have taken place.
 G.D. Edgecombe et al.

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