chapter 2.
WOOD AS A BUILDING MATERIAL
2.1 WOOD AS A CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
Wood is an organic material, produced by great that if each was marketed separately,
a large number of woody plants and quite it would create an impossible situation.
variable in properties. In fact, the term Consequently, commercial groupings are
"wood is not much more definitive than made to combine species of similar
the term "metal." Many species with differ- properties and appearance. This often
ing characteristics are used in construction happens when similar species are
for many purposes. Compare for example intermingled in the forest. An example is
balsa and birch, or redwood and rosewood. the grouping of the many oaks into two
Wood is naturally grown, and the vari- categories: red and white with softwoods,
ability within a species, due to genetic and Hem-fir in the West may include western
environmental influences, is substantial. In hemlock and any of the six true firs grown
general, the variation for most wood there. Southern pine comprises a mixture of
properties (the ratio of highest to lowest for any of the ten southern pines, and Canadian
any property) is more than 2:l. spruce-pine-fir can include any of the trees
from those three botanical genera that are
Wood has three cardinal directions related
present in a mill's log supply. Before ship-
to the trunk of the tree. Parallel to the long
ment lumber products are sorted at the mill
axis of the stem is called the longitudinal
into four broad categories: appearance or
(L) direction. The other two, radial (R) and
finish grades, structural and construction
tangential (T), are transverse to the stem of
grades, special purpose grades, and cutting
the tree and can be easily seen on the end
or industrial grades.
of a log. These directions (see Figure 2-l),
are important because wood properties vary
according to grain orientation. Wood
2.1.2 performance Properties
properties are also affected by the presence
of imperfections such as knots and pitch Wood performance is dependent on a wide
pockets. The grading process takes into range of characteristics, the importance of
consideration these imperfections, as well as which depends on how the piece is
defects that might occur in manufacturing. intended to be used. These characteristics
include the following (see page 2-3).
2.1.1 Species and Commercial Groupings
Each species has its own characteristic
properties. The number of species is sG
chapter 2 - 2 WOOD: DETAILING FOR PERFORMANCE
Any surface of a wood product which is tangential to the annual rings, such
as a flat grained board, is called a tangential (T) face, as are the
properties measured across that face. Similarly, a radial (R) surface
is one which cuts across the annual rin s at a right angle, such as a
vertical grained board. The longitudinal ?L) direction is parallel to the grain
and to the length of the log.
CARDINAL DIRECTIONS IN WOOD
Figure 2- 1
WOOD: DETAILING FOR PERFORMANCE chapter 2 -3
Strength important, but these are fairly well defined
Stiffness and their effects well established. When
Hardness wood is used as a raw material in the
Finish Retention manufacture of more refined wood
Treatability with Preservatives products, the performance characteristics
Resistance to may be more related to factors in the
manufacturing process than to the intrinsic
shrinkagelswelling
qualities of the natural wood. Thus, an
warping
important rule is that the more a product is
checking
changed from natural wood, the less
weathering
relevant is information regarding the
decay
properties of the natural wood.
photodegradation
color changes
For example, in the case of natural
insect attack
durability, lumber is considered to possess
exactly the characteristic resistance that the
This manual is primarily concerned with
wood in the tree trunk possesses (although
building products manufactured from
it may be affected to a degree by
western softwoods, used where they are
kiln-drying conditions). It is equally valid
exposed to weathering or where they are
to assume that when this lumber is further
part of the envelope that protects the
manufactured into glued laminated beams,
structure from the weather. Therefore, some
the heartwood durability is unaffected.
properties, such as strength and stiffness,
When the same wood is manufactured into
are not discussed. They are well covered
plywood in a hot press, a claim that the
elsewhere. Of greater concern here are
product contains the same resistance as the
those properties that govern deterioration or
original wood is probably far less certain.
changes in size and shape. Deterioration
When the product is manufactured into a
refers to the loss of the ability of a wood
particleboard, the relationship becomes
product to serve its intended purpose in
doubtful, and it is probably nonexistent in
appearance, strength, or other functions.
a wet-process hardboard or cardboard.
The purpose might include, for example,
providing a protective envelope or structural
support.
2.1.4 The Changing Products of the
Forest
The characteristics of wood harvested over
2.1.3 Wood Products and Species
the years have changed as the supply of
Properties
old growth timber has been replaced by
The product properties of sawn lumber are wood from younger, more vigorous trees.
relatively easy to identify. Manufacturing In virtually all cases, this change is adverse
factors that affect performance, such as to building use. Resistance to insects and
grain angle or size and shape, are decay. texture, dimensional stability,
chapter 2 -4 WOOD: DETAILING FOR PERFORMANCE
weather resistance, and strength are all less gravity, are the primary factors that affect
satisfactory in wood from younger and general dimensional stability: shrinkage and
smaller trees. The most important change is swelling. More rapid growth also changes
in the percentage of pieces containing the "texture" of the wood, a term not well
juvenile wood. The actual volume of the defined but one that is used in comparing
juvenile core is increased by the more rapid working or machining qualities. Extractives
growth of young trees in today's managed and texture are also the two most important
forests. Additionally, there is less of the factors that determine how well wood holds
higher quality mature wood surrounding the up when exposed to weathering.
lower quality core because the trees are
harvested when their diameter is smaller.
This results in a lower specific gravity, a
lower concentration of heartwood extrac-
tives, proportionally less heartwood, and 2.2 CAUSES OF WOOD
frequently a sharper transition from spring- DETERIORATION
wood to summerwood in an annual ring.
Juvenile wood, produced during the first 5 The deterioration of wood buildings can be
to 15 years of growth at any point in the discussed in terms of exposure hazards and
trunk, constitutes a major part of the log in their effects. Although some of these
short rotation trees. Its high longitudinal conditions do not necessarily lead to
shrinkage is particularly damaging because deterioration by themselves, they often lead
of the twisting and bowing that often to circumstances where degradation is
results as it dries. Smaller logs also mean promoted.
a smaller average radius of the annual rings
with an increased tendency to cup, as well
as more severe checking when drying and HAZARDS
when exposed to weathering. Strength is
Exposure to sunlight
affected by both the lower specific gravity
and the increased juvenile wood content. Exposure to moisture and heat cycles
Changes in moisture content
Natural durability results from chemicals
formed in the tree as heartwood is Attack by insects and decay fungi
developed These extractive chemicals are
found in greatest concentration in the outer
heartwood at the base of the tree. The PRINCIPAL EFFECTS
concentration decreases toward the center of
Surface erosion (photodegradation)
the trunk and toward the top of the tree.
Smaller trees thus have both a higher Checking, splitting, and warping
percentage of sapwood and a lower
Shrinkage and swelling
durability in the heartwood. Extractives and
their concentration, along with specific Disintegration and decay
WOOD: DETAILING FOR PERFORMANCE chapter 2 - 5
2.2.1 Exposure to Sunlight surface. This cycling of moisture and the
attendant changes in size and shape cause
Sunlight causes surface erosion or
stresses in the wood. Checking and splits
photodegradation, a photochemical process
will develop when these stresses exceed the
that results in disintegration of the wood
wood strength in tension perpendicular to
cell wall. It will occur to some degree
the grain; when stresses are below the
whenever light reaches the wood surface,
wood strength, creep often occurs.
that is, if the wood can be seen through
whatever finish has been applied. The
Glue bonds in wood products have varying
disintegrated wood materials generally
degrees of water resistance. Even water-
accumulate on the surface and provide
proof bonding systems can fail if the inter-
protection against further deterioration
surface stresses are too great, although
unless removed by rainfall or some other
these failures are most often adjacent to the
means. Dense wood, including the dense
glueline, not in it. Plywood and particle-
bands of the annual rings, is more resistant,
board are made by hot pressing. The heat
so the wood will develop a washboard
and pressure used cause the wood cells to
surface over time. The average rate of 1/4
flatten out and to stay set semipermanently.
inch to 113 inch per 100 years is generally
Unfortunately, cycling moisture contents do
low enough so that it is not a problem with
result in relaxation and recovery, causing
most sawn lumber. The rate for western red
swelling from the pressed size.
cedar is two and one-half times greater and
can be a real problem with thinner boards The most important factors affecting the
in severe exposures. With cedar-faced severity of checking are the species, the
plywood the face veneer may disappear in size, the product type, and the exposure
less than ten years. condition. Plywood checking patterns are
determined by the manufacturing process.
Glulam beams check differently from sawn
timbers, often with more serious conse-
2.2.2 Exposure to Moisture and Heat
quences; sawn timbers from the center of
Cycles
the tree (heart center or boxed heart) check
The cyclical exposure to these weathering worst of all. Composite panels such as
elements leads to various types of particleboard, hardboard, and flakeboard
degradation, including checking and follow different patterns of weathering
splitting of wood as well as separation at because they are more prone to erosion and
the glueline of bonded wood products. loss of internal bond. They tend to
Wood will absorb or lose moisture disintegrate due to loss of bond between
depending on its moisture content and the particles or fibers as weathering progresses.
relative humidity of the surrounding air, The edges of particle and hardboards are
and will either swell or shrink as it does particularly vulnerable to shrinkage and
so. These changes occur rapidly at the swelling because of the openings between
surface, but are controlled by the much the matted fibers and in the exposed cut
slower diffusion of moisture below the fibers.
chapter 2 -6 WOOD: DETAILING FOR PERFORMANCE
Depending on their size and location, incorrect, then splits will develop between
checks and splits may or may not seriously fastenings. These types of failures can be
affect strength. However, they provide avoided with proper design, material, and
crevices where moisture can collect; when installation.
the checks are very deep, this moisture is
Changes in moisture content can also cause
more likely to be absorbed into the wood
changes in shape, called "warp," due to
than to evaporate. Continuing cyclical
different rates of shrinkage in different
exposure causes the original smaller
directions, moisture gradients within the
openings to consolidate and enlarge. As
piece, or both. This warping is of four
these checks and splits grow, they become
distinct types: bow, crook, cup, and twist.
more effective at trapping moisture, which,
Again, these changes in geometry are
in turn, can be absorbed, especially when
generally not serious to building or material
the checks and splits are located on a
integrity, but they can lead to performance
horizontal surface or when they are running
problems. For example, the cupping of
horizontally on a vertical surface. The
excessively thin lumber siding can expose
absorption of excessive moisture in solid,
a felt membrane to weathering, which, in
laminated, and composite wood products
turn, leads to rapid deterioration of the
leads to decay, in addition it can cause
building envelope. These distortions also
structurd disintegration in composite panels.
affect both appearance and structural
properties. For example, the axial
load-carrying capacity of a tall column can
2.2.3 Changes in Moisture Content
be significantly reduced if, upon drying, the
Wood swells as it adsorbs moisture and member becomes bowed.
shrinks as it dries. The degree of movement
depends on the species and the direction of
the grain (longitudinal, radial, and 2.2.4 Attack by Insects and Decay Fungi
tangential), as well as on the amount of
INSECTS
moisture change. Shrinkage and swelling in
themselves are not detrimental, if they are Insects attack wood products for two
accommodated in the design of the building purposes: to consume the wood as food and
detail. An example of failure indirectly to burrow into the wood for habitation.
caused by the shrinkage of framing Both weaken the wood's structural
members is the buckling of thin panel properties and lead to premature failures.
siding due to insufficient space provided at Many types of insects attack wood,
the horizontal joint between panels. including termites, beetles, carpenter ants,
Shrinkage also creates problems when and carpenter bees. Prevention of insect
siding with an excessively high moisture attack can take three forms: (1) selection
content is installed. When the amount of of naturally resistant wood species, (2)
shrinkage is small, the wood will creep preservative treatment of wood to deter the
elastically without splitting; but if the infestation, and (3) blocking of access to
shrinkage is excessive or if the nailing is the wood products by soil poisoning and
WOOD: DETAILING FOR PERFORMANCE chapter 2 - 7
other barriers. (See Chapter 12 for further protected simply by keeping it dry; decay
discussion.) Keeping the wood dry will cannot occur if there is no continuous
control some, but not all, insects. exposure to water as opposed to the water
tightly bound within the wood substance of
the cell walls.
DECAY
The fungi that cause decay are always
MOLDS AND MILDEWS
present in the environment. They are
simple, primitive plants that lack Molds and mildews produce dark-gray-to-
chlorophyll and therefore are unable to black colorations. They are also fungi, but
manufacture food. They live by digesting affect mainly the appearance of wood
food manufactured by other plants, in this products and not the structural
case wood. Fungi have 4 growth characteristics. They tend to grow in high
requirements similar to the basic needs of humidity and can be controlled by chemical
humans: food, water, air, and a satisfactory additives in the applied finish or by
temperature. When decay has progressed to reducing the humidity. Other fungi may
a readily detectable stage, the wood has produce stains in the wood, but these
long since lost most of its strength. Major generally occur at the sawmill or before,
strength reductions occur early in the not in wood in use.
process, when decay is in the incipient, or
previsual, stage of development, as shown
in Table 2-1. Even experts are unable to
detect decay in the field at a 5% weight
loss and only with difficulty before weight
Table 2-1
loss reaches 10%. It is only at that point Approximate Values for Strength Loss in
that the changes in color, odor, and other Softwoods at Early Stages of Decay by
characteristics begin to become apparent. Brown-Rot Fungi*
Strength Properties--Loss in Percent
Decay will be prevented if any of the four
% Compression Compression Tension
basic requirements is removed, although Weight Perpendicular Parallel Parallel
change in temperature, either elevated or Loss to Grain to Grain to Grain
reduced, is seldom used as a control
method and is not likely to be effective.
Exclusion of air is not common, but is
illustrated by untreated wood foundation
pilings driven to below the water table
level. Making food unavailable is achieved
*Values obtained f?om published experimental results and adjusted to
by using the heartwood of a naturally equivalent weight-loss levels.
durable species such as redwood or, more [W. Wayne Wilcox, Review of Literature on the
dependably, by using wood treated with a Effects of Early Stages of Decay on Wood Strength.
toxic preservative. Most wood in use is Wood and Fiber 9(4):252-257.1
