A

SEMINAR REPORT
ON
THERMOELECTRIC GENERATOR
In Partial fulfillment of requirement for the degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In
Mechanical Engineering
Submitted By:

RISHABH KUMAR
1705240040

Under the guidance of

Asst. Prof. ABHAY RATNA

PANDEY

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Institute of Engineering and Technology,
Lucknow

SEPTEMBER, 2019
 Certificate

Certified that this [Link]. Seminar/Project Report titled “Thermoelectric Generators” by

“RISHABH KUMAR” is approved by me for submission. Certified further that, to the
best of my knowledge, the report represents work carried out by the student.

Date: Signature and Name of Guide

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest appreciation to all those who provided me the
possibility to complete this report. A special gratitude, I give to my guide, Mr.
Abhay Ratna Pandey Sir, whose contribution in stimulating suggestions and
encouragement, helped me to coordinate the resources and their usage in writing
this report.
I would also like to express my gratitude to all the faculty members of the
Mechanical Engineering Department of Institute of Engineering and Technology
who helped throughout this report from attaining various research papers to
understanding the concepts elaborated in them.

Rishabh Kumar
Mechanical Engineering
[Link] – 3rd Year
2

ABSTRACT

Thermoelectric generators (TEGs) are small solid state devices that generate electricity
directly from heat. They have the potential to be applied in waste heat recovery systems and
be used as a primary heat engine as a generator.
In this study, a direct heat to electricity (DHE) technology using the thermoelectric
effect, without the need to change through mechanical energy, was applied to harvest low-
enthalpy thermal work. The power generator assembled with TEG modules had an installed
power of 1 KW at a temperature difference of around 120 °C. The power generated by the
thermoelectric system is almost directly proportional to the temperature difference between
the hot and the cold sides.
A Cost Analysis of the technology, however suggests that, the material costs are too
high for typical thermoelectric power generation applications at mean temperatures below
135ºC. Above 275°C, many bulk thermoelectric materials can achieve costs below Rs.72/W.
The major barrier to economical thermo electric power generation at these higher
temperatures results from system costs for heat exchangers and ceramic plates. For cooling
applications, we find that several thermoelectric materials can be cost competitive and
commercially promising.
3

Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………………..7

2. BASIC THEORY OF THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS…………………………..10

3. WORKING OFATHERMOELECTRIC MODULE…………………………………………..13

4. MATERIALS USED FOR THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS……………………...16

5. POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF THERMOELECTRIC

GENERATORS………………………………………………………………………………20

6. FUTURE ASPECTS OF TEG………………………………………………………………...24

7. REFRENCES…………………………………………………………………………………25
4
5

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram showing the basic concept of a simple thermoelectric power
generator operating based on Seebeck effect……………………………………………...8

Fig. 2: Schematic diagram showing components and arrangement of a typical single-stage

thermoelectric power generator……………………………………………………………9

Fig. 3a and 3b: Photographs of single-stage, and three-stage thermoelectric modules (typical
pyramid shape……………………………………………………………………………10
Fig. 4: Schematic of P and N Couple……………………………………………………11
Fig. 5: Conversion efficiency as a function of temperature and module material figure-of-
merit……………………………………………………………………………………...13
Fig. 6: Figure-of-merit of a number of thermoelectric materials and their potential
applications ……………………………………………………………………………...15
Fig. 7: Schematic diagram of thermoelectric modules. (a) Conventional thermoelectric
module with a plate-like configuration. (b) A novel thermoelectric module consisting of two
coaxial tubes……………………………………………………………………………..17

Fig. 8: Photograph of a thermoelectric power generator produced by the Japanese Energy

Conservation Centre, which used waste heat as energy source to generate an electric power
density of 100 kW/m3………………………………………………………………………………………….19

Fig.9: Photograph of a thermoelectric power generator produced by the Japanese Energy

Conservation Centre, which used waste heat as energy source to generate an electric power
density of 100 kW/m3…………………………………………………………………..21
6

NOMENCLATURE

QH: Rate of heat addition from the hot reservoir

QL: Rate of Heat rejection to the cold reservoir
TH: Temperature of Hot reservoir
TL: Temperature of cold reservoir
Tavg: Average temperature of hot and cold reservoir
Z: Thermoelectric material figure-of-merit (goodness factor) (K-1)

Ղ: Efficiency of Thermoelectric Generator

ՂCarnot: Carnot Efficiency of Thermoelectric Generator
7

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS

In today’s era, most of the electricity generation largely depends on fossil fuels. However, the
reserves of fossil fuels are currently depleting, since oil & gas are the least available sources.
In recent years, due to increase in cost of non- renewable resources like coal, oil and natural
gas, the cost of energy has also increase, be it energy in the form of household electricity or
in the form of chemical energy of burning fuels. Thus, alternative sources like solar, wind,
hydro and geothermal sources are now emerging as energy generation sources.
According to the World Energy Assessment (WEA, 2000), geothermal energy is one
of the largest sources of renewable energy. However, it has certain limitations which imposes
limits on the use of thermal energy for energy generation. Liu (2013) discussed likely factors
leading to the low growth rate of geothermal energy. The main factors include high initial
investment, high exploration risk, long payback and construction time, difficulty to assess
resource, and difficulty to modularize. Li (2013) also pointed out possible directions to
accelerate the growth of geothermal power. One of the solutions may be the large-scale
utilization of TEG technology.
Since 1821, many researches have investigated the application of thermoelectric
materials. Thacher (2007) developed a thermoelectric power generator using car exhaust heat.
The maximum power output reached 255 W. Kajikawa and Onishi (2007) developed an
advanced thermoelectric conversion exhaust system in a light truck. Maneewan and
Chindarksa (2009) investigated the characteristic and performance of TEG modules for
power generation at low temperatures. The unit achieved a power output of 2.4 W with a
temperature gradient of approximately 150°C. The conversion efficiency was about 3.2%.
Niu et al. (2009) constructed an experimental thermoelectric generator unit; a comparison of
the experimental results with those from the previously published numerical model was
analyzed. Hsu (2011) developed a low-temperature waste heat system to utilize the car
exhaust heat as well. When the engine rate boosted to 3500 RPM, 12.4 W of maximum
power output was obtained at an average temperature difference of about 30°C.
Numerical modelling of TEG systems has also been investigated. Esartea et al. (2001)
analyzed the influence of fluid flow rate, heat exchanger geometry, fluid properties and inlet
temperatures on the power supplied. Chen et al (2005) assumed that heat-transfer obeys the
linear phenomenological heat-transfer law and studied the performance of multi-element
thermoelectric-generators. Yamashita (2008) developed new thermal rate equations by taking
the temperature dependences of the electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity of the
thermoelectric (TE) materials into the thermal rate equations on the assumption that they vary
linearly with temperature. Freunek et al. (2009) described an analytical model for
thermoelectric generators and found that the influence of the Peltier heat on the output power
was about 40%. Eisenhut and Bitschi (2006) derived an analytic model based on convective
heat sources. Liu (2012) presented the designs of electricity generators based on
8

thermoelectric effects using heat resources of small temperature differences. Karabetoglu et

al. (2012) reported the approach to characterizing a thermoelectric generator at low
temperatures. Xiao et al. (2012) designed a solar thermoelectric generator using multi-stage
thermoelectric module; the total conversion efficiency was 10.52%. Suter et al. (2012)
established a numerical model for a 1kWe thermoelectric stack for power generation, which
may help define the configuration and operating parameter range that are optimal from a
commercial standpoint. Wang et al. (2013) presented a mathematical model of TEG and
preliminary analysis of factors. Kim (2012)derived a model describing the interior
temperature difference as a function of the load current of a thermoelectric generator (TEG)
and the results showed approximately 25% of the maximum output power is lost because of
the parasitic thermal resistance of the TE module used in the experiment.
Thermoelectric generation technology (2006), as one entirely solid-state energy
conversion method, can directly transform thermal energy into electricity by using
thermoelectric transformation materials. A thermoelectric power converter has no moving
parts, and is compact, quiet, highly reliable and environmentally friendly. Therefore, the
whole system can be simplified and operated over an extended period of time with minimal
maintenance. In addition, it has a wider choice of thermal sources. It can utilize both the
high- and low-quality heat to generate electricity. The low-quality heat may not be utilized
effectively. Thermoelectric power generators offer several distinct advantages over other
technologies:
• They are extremely reliable (typically exceed 100,000 hours of steady-state
operation) and silent in operation since they have no mechanical moving parts and require
considerably less maintenance;
• They are simple, compact and safe;
• They have very small size and virtually weightless;
• They are capable of operating at elevated temperatures;
• They are suited for small-scale and remote applications typical of rural power
supply, where there is limited or no electricity;
• They are environmentally friendly;
• They are not position-dependent; and
• They are flexible power sources.
The major drawback of thermoelectric power generator is their relatively low
conversion efficiency (typically ~5%). This has been a major cause in restricting their use in
electrical power generation to specialized fields with extensive applications where reliability
is a major concern. Applications over the past decade included industrial instruments,
military, medical and aerospace [1, 5], and applications for portable or remote power
generation. However, in recent years, an increasing concern of environmental issues of
emissions, in particular global warming has resulted in extensive research into
nonconventional technologies of generating electrical power and thermoelectric power
generation has emerged as a promising alternative green technology. Vast quantities of waste
heat are discharged into the earth’s environment much of it at temperatures which are too low
to recover using conventional electrical power generators. Thermoelectric power generation
(also known as thermoelectricity) offers a promising technology in the direct conversion of
low-grade thermal energy, such as waste-heat energy, into electrical power. Probably the
earliest application is the utilization of waste heat from a kerosene lamp to provide
thermoelectric power to power a wireless set. Thermoelectric generators have also been used
to provide small amounts electrical power to remote regions for example Northern Sweden,
as an alternative to costly gasoline powered motor generators. In this waste heat powered
thermoelectric technology, it is unnecessary to consider the cost of the thermal energy input,
and consequently thermoelectric power generators’ low conversion efficiency is not a critical
9

drawback. In fact, more recently, they can be used in many cases, such as those used in
cogeneration systems, to improve overall efficiencies of energy conversion systems by
converting waste-heat energy into electrical power.
There are many kinds of materials that have been used in TEG such as lead telluride
(PbTe) and bismuth telluride (Bi2Te3). Otherwise, many synthetic routes of thermoelectric
materials have been well developed and can improve the performance of the TEG, like
mechanical alloying, hydrothermal, melt and growth and microwave synthesis.
Furthermore, it has been found that the nanostructure effectively reduces the thermal
conductivity and leads to obtain a better figure-of-merit of TEG.
10

CHAPTER 2

BASIC THEORY OF THERMOELECTRIC GENERATORS

The basic theory and operation of thermoelectric based systems have been developed for
many years. Thermoelectric power generation is based on a phenomenon called “Seebeck
effect” discovered by Thomas Seebeck in 1821 [1]. When a temperature difference is
established between the hot and cold junctions of two dissimilar materials (metals or
semiconductors) a voltage is generated, i.e., Seebeck voltage. In fact, this phenomenon is
applied to thermocouples that are extensively used for temperature measurements
Based on this Seebeck effect, thermoelectric devices can act as electrical power
generators. A schematic diagram of a simple thermoelectric power generator operating based
on Seebeck effect is shown in Fig. (1). as shown in Fig. (1), heat is transferred at a rate of QH
from a high-temperature heat source maintained at TH to the hot junction, and it is rejected at
a rate of QL to a low-temperature sink maintained at TL from the cold junction. Based on
Seebeck effect, the heat supplied at the hot junction causes an electric current to flow in the
circuit and electrical power is produced. Using the first-law of thermodynamics (energy
conservation principle) the difference between QH and QL is the electrical power output We.
It should be noted that this power cycle intimately resembles the power cycle of a heat engine
(Carnot engine), thus in this respect a thermoelectric power generator can be considered as a
unique heat engine.

Fig. (1). Schematic diagram showing the basic concept of a simple thermoelectric power generator operating based on
Seebeck effect.

Figure 2 shows a schematic diagram illustrating components and arrangement of a

conventional single-stage. Thermoelectric power generator. As shown in Fig. (2), it is
composed of two ceramic plates (substrates) that serve as a foundation, providing mechanical
integrity, and electrical insulation for n-type (heavily doped to create excess. electrons) and
p-type (heavily doped to create excess holes) semiconductor thermo elements. In
thermoelectric materials, electrons and holes operate as both charge carriers and energy
carriers. There are very few modules without ceramic plates, which could eliminate the
11

thermal resistance associated with the ceramic plates, but might lead to mechanical fragility
of the module. The ceramic plates are commonly made from alumina (Al2O3), but when
large lateral heat transfer is required, materials with higher thermal conductivity (e.g.
beryllium and aluminium nitride) are desired. The semiconductor thermo elements (e.g.
silicon-germanium
SiGe, lead-telluride PbTe based alloys) that are sandwiched between the ceramic plates are
connected thermally in parallel and electrically in series to form a thermoelectric device
(module). More than one pair of semiconductors are normally assembled together to form a
thermoelectric module and within the module a pair of thermo elements is called a
thermocouple [1]. The junctions connecting the thermo elements between the hot and cold
plates are interconnected using highly conducting metal (e.g. copper) strips as shown in Fig.
(2).

Fig. (2). Schematic diagram showing components and arrangement of a typical single-stage thermoelectric power generator.

The sizes of conventional thermoelectric devices vary from 3 mm2 by 4 mm thick to 75 mm2
by 5 mm thick. Most of thermoelectric modules are not larger than 50 mm in length due to
mechanical consideration. The height of single stage thermoelectric modules ranges from 1 to
5 mm. The modules contain from 3 to 127 thermocouples. There are multistage
thermoelectric devices designed to meet requirements for large temperature differentials.
Multi-stage thermoelectric modules can be up to 20 mm in height, depending on the number
12

of stages. Photographs of single and multi-stage thermoelectric modules are shown in Fig.
(3)

(a)

(b)

Fig. (3). Photographs of (a) single-stage, and (b) three-stage thermoelectric modules (typical pyramid shape).
13

CHAPTER 3

WORKING OF A THERMOELECTRIC MODULE

THERMOELECTRIC MODULE

Before understanding the working of a thermoelectric module, let us understand what a

thermoelectric module means. As explained in previous chapter, thermoelectric module is a
circuit containing thermoelectric materials which generates electricity from heat directly. .
However, the Seeback generated voltage is quite low which cannot simply be overcome by
connecting conductors in series, as in that case, the connecting wires would develop an
opposite potential and hinder the flow of electrons. To overcome this problem, we use a
conductor which conducts by positive electrons i.e. a p-type semiconductor, along with an n-
type semiconductor as shown. Here, no voltage is generated in connecting wires as they are
not under any thermal gradient, as before. Thus, we get a larger voltage.
A thermoelectric module consists of two dissimilar thermoelectric materials joined at
their ends: an n-type (with negative charge carriers), and a p-type (with positive charge carriers)
semiconductor. The reason for using semiconductors and not metals (whose electrical
conductivity are much higher) is their high thermal conductivity which prohibits the
temperature difference that has to be maintained A direct electric current will flow in the circuit
when there is a temperature difference between the ends of the materials, as shown in Fig. 4

Fig. 4: Schematic of a P and N Couple

In application, thermoelectric modules in power generation work in very tough mechanical

and thermal conditions. Because they operate in a very high temperature gradient, the
modules are subject to large thermally induced stresses and strains for long periods of time.
They also are subject to mechanical fatigue caused by large number of thermal cycles.
Thus, the junctions and materials must be selected so that they survive these tough
mechanical and thermal conditions. Also, the module must be designed such that the two
thermoelectric materials are thermally in parallel, but electrically in series. The efficiency of
a thermoelectric module is greatly affected by the geometry of its design. Using
thermoelectric modules, a thermoelectric system generates power by taking in heat from a
source such as a hot exhaust flue. In order to do that, the system needs a large temperature
gradient, which is not easy in real-world applications. The cold side must be cooled by air or
14

water. Heat exchangers are used on both sides of the modules to supply this heating and
cooling.
There are many challenges in designing a reliable TEG system that operates at high
temperatures. Achieving high efficiency in the system requires extensive engineering design
in order to balance between the heat flow through the modules and maximizing the
temperature gradient across them. To do this, designing heat exchanger technologies in the
system is one of the most important aspects of TEG engineering. In addition, the system
requires to minimize the thermal losses due to the interfaces between materials at several
places. Another challenging constraint is avoiding large pressure drops between the heating
and cooling sources.
If AC Power is required (such as for powering equipment designed to run from AC mains
power), the DC Power from the TE modules must be passed through an inverter, which
lowers efficiency and adds to the cost and complexity of the system.

WORKING

When waste heat from a given source is applied one side of a TEG Module a temperature
gradient develops across the ends of the Module. According to Seeback Effect, this
developed temperature difference will generate a voltage difference across junctions, as
charge carriers get excited and flow from high temperature to low temperature. This voltage
generated causes the electrons (majority charge carriers) from n-type semiconductor and
holes (majority charge carriers) from the p-type semiconductor to flow in the direction of
potential gradient. Thus, overall the electrons flow from low potential to high potential and
thus, a net current is obtained in the opposite direction of flow of electrons in the circuit.
The power output for most of the commercially-available thermoelectric power
generators ranges from microwatts to multi-kilowatts. For example, a standard thermoelectric
device consists of 71 thermocouples with the size of 75 mm2 can deliver electrical power of
approximately 19 W. The maximum output power from a thermoelectric power generator
typically varies depending on temperature difference between hot and cold plates and module
specifications, such as module geometry (i.e. cross-sectional area and thermo element
length), thermoelectric materials and contact properties.
The performance of thermoelectric materials can be expressed as
Z=α /kR …………………. (1) Where
2

Z is the thermoelectric material figure-of-merit,

α is the Seebeck coefficient,
R is the electric resistivity (inverse of electric conductivity) and
k is the total thermal conductivity. This figure-of-merit may be made dimensionless by
multiplying by T (average absolute temperature of hot and cold plates of the thermoelectric
module, K), i.e.
ZTavg = α2Tavg / kR…….. (2) and
Tavg= (TH+TL)/2;
The term α2/R is referred to as the electrical power factor. In general, a thermoelectric power
generator exhibits low efficiency due to the relatively small dimensionless figure-of-merit
(ZTavg< 1) of currently available thermoelectric materials. The conversion efficiency of a
thermoelectric power generator defined as the ratio of power delivered to the heat input at the
hot junction of the thermoelectric device, is given by:
15

ղ=We /QH
Limited by the second-law of thermodynamics, the ideal (absolute maximum) efficiency of a
thermoelectric power generator operating as a reversible heat engine is Carnot efficiency,
given by:

ՂCarnot=1-(TL/TH)

The value of the figure-of-merit is usually proportional to the conversion efficiency. The
dimensionless term ZT is therefore a very convenient figure for comparing the potential
conversion efficiency of modules using different thermoelectric materials. The conversion
efficiency as a function of operating temperature difference and for a range of values of the
thermoelectric material’s figure-of-merit is shown in Fig. (5).

Fig. (5). Conversion efficiency as a function of temperature and module material figure-of-merit.

It is evident that an increase in temperature difference provides a corresponding increase in

available heat for conversion as dictated by the Carnot efficiency, so large temperature
differences are advantageous. For example, a thermoelectric material with an average figure-
of-merit of 3x10-3 K-1 would have a conversion efficiency of approximately 23% when
operated over a temperature difference of 600K.

CHAPTER 4
16

MATERIALS USED FOR THERMOELECTRIC

GENERATORS

Among the vast number of materials known to date, only a relatively few are identified as
thermoelectric materials. As reported by Rowe, thermoelectric materials can be categorized
into established (conventional) and new (novel) materials, which will be discussed in the next
sections. Today's most thermoelectric materials, such as Bismuth Telluride (Bi2Te3)-based
alloys and PbTe-based alloys, have a ZT value of around unity (at room temperature for
Bi2Te3 and 500-700K for PbTe). However, at a ZT of 2-3 range, thermoelectric power
generators would become competitive with other power generation systems. The figure-of
merit Z of a number of thermoelectric materials together with potential power generating
applications relevant to waste heat energy is shown in Fig. (6). Effective thermoelectric
materials should have a low thermal conductivity but a high electrical conductivity. A large
amount of research in thermoelectric materials has focused on increasing the Seebeck
coefficient and reducing the thermal conductivity, especially by manipulating the
nanostructure of the thermoelectric materials. Because the thermal and electrical conductivity
correlate with the charge carriers, new means must be introduced in order to conciliate the
contradiction between high electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity as indicated
by Weiling and Shantung.

Fig. (6). Figure-of-merit of a number of thermoelectric materials and their potential applications

CONVENTIONAL THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS

17

Rowe reported that established thermoelectric materials (those which are employed in
commercial applications) can be conveniently divided into three groupings based on the
temperature range of operation, as shown in Fig.(6). Alloys based on Bismuth (Bi) in
combinations with Antimony (An), Tellurium (Te) or Selenium (Se) are referred to as low
temperature materials and can be used at temperatures up to around 450K. The intermediate
temperature range - up to around 850K is the regime of materials based on alloys of Lead
(Pb) while thermo elements employed at the highest temperatures are fabricated from SiGe
alloys and operate up to 1300K. Although the above mentioned materials still remain the
cornerstone for commercial and Fig. (5). Conversion efficiency as a function of temperature
and module material figure-of-merit. Fig. (6). Figure-of-merit of a number of thermoelectric
materials and their potential applications practical applications in thermoelectric power
generation, significant advances have been made in synthesising new materials and
fabricating material structures with improved thermoelectric performance. Efforts have
focused primarily on improving the material’s figure-of-merit, and hence the conversion
efficiency, by reducing the lattice thermal conductivity

NOVEL THERMOELECTRIC MATERIALS

It was recently reported in that a material which is a promising candidate to fill the
temperature range in the ZT spectrum between those based on Bi2Te3 and PbTe is the
Semiconductor compound ß-Zn4Sb3. This material possesses an exceptionally low thermal
conductivity and exhibits a maximum ZT of 1.3 at a temperature of 670K. This material is
also relatively inexpensive and stable up to this temperature in a vacuum.
Attempts are also being made to improve the competitiveness of thermoelectric in
directions other than by improving the figure-of-merit. In particular, efforts have focused on
increasing the electrical power factor, decreasing cost and developing environmentally
friendly materials. In addition, when the fuel cost is low or essentially free, as in waste heat
recovery, then the cost per watt is mainly determined by the power per unit area and the
operating period [5]. For example, considering the electrical power factor as the dominant
parameter, it has initiated a search for materials with high power factors rather than
conversion efficiency. Considerable success has been enjoyed in synthesising materials,
particularly attractive for waste heat recovery. For example, it is reported in [16] that the rare
earth compounds YbAl3, although possessing a relatively low figure-of-merit, has a power
factor at least double that of any other reported in the literature, which operates over the
temperature range of a waste heat source. When compared to YbAl3, MgSn has almost the
same performance but costs less than 25%.
Another recent direction to improve the competitiveness of thermoelectric materials,
other than by improving the figure-of-merit, is by developing novel thermoelectric module
shapes. As discussed previously, thermoelectric modules have typically plate-like shapes Fig.
(3) and fabricated from bulk semiconductors such as Bi2Te3 and PbTe, making them rigid
and unsuitable for covering relatively large surfaces that are curved or non-flat (e.g. circular
tubes) used in waste heat recovery applications. Also, this conventional configuration is
suitable for applications where the flow of heat is perpendicular to the ceramic plates.
However, when heat flows in radial directions, the attachment of plate-shape modules around
a cylindrical heat source is often complicated. It becomes increasingly difficult, if not
impossible, when the diameter of the cylindrical heat source decreases to less than 1 cm. In
addition, in order to improve thermal contact to heat sources of arbitrary geometry, it is
desirable to fabricate thermoelectric modules which can conform easily to a surface
18

Min and Rowe have also recently developed a novel tube-shape thermoelectric
module for power generation. It is fabricated from four ring-shaped thermoelements and its
performance in electrical power generation is evaluated by measuring the power output as a
function of temperature gradient across the device. Fig. (7) Shows a schematic of the novel
thermoelectric module. It consists of two coaxial tubes: the inner tube is a thermoelectric
assembly with heat source flowing in the centre and the outer tube is an ordinary tube to hold
the cooling fluid flowing between the inner and outer tubes. It was concluded, that a tube-
shape thermoelectric module could achieve similar performance to that of a conventional
plate-like module, and has an advantage in waste heat recovery applications where heat flows
in a radial direction.

Fig. (7). Schematic diagram of thermoelectric modules. (a) Conventional thermoelectric module with a plate-like
configuration. (b) A novel thermoelectric module consisting of two coaxial tubes.
19

CHAPTER 5

POSSIBLE APPLICATIONS OF THERMOELECTRIC

GENERATORS

Currently, thermoelectric generators are being studied upon and various experiments are
under progress. The following section represents some of the data that is obtained after using
thermoelectric generators in certain cases:

Domestic Waste Heat Applications

Rowe reported that a waste heat-based thermoelectric power generator is used in a domestic
central heating system with the modules located between the heat source and the water jacket.
In this application, the heat output provided by the gas/oil burner passes through the
generator before reaching the central heating hot-water exchanger. The generator converts
about 5% of the input heat to electrical power, the remainder of 95% transfers to the hot
water heat exchanger for its intended use in heating the radiator system. It was concluded that
two modules based on PbTe technology when operated at hot and cold side temperatures of
550oC and 50oC, respectively, would generate the 50W required to power the circulating
pump.

Waste Heat from Exhaust Gases Generated From Automobiles Applications

The utilization of waste heat energy from exhaust gases in reciprocating internal combustion
engines (e.g.
Automobiles) is another novel application of electricity generation using thermoelectric
power generators. Although a reciprocating piston engine converts the chemical energy
available in fossil fuels efficiently into mechanical work a substantial amount of thermal
energy is dissipated to the environment through exhaust gas, radiation, cooling water and
20

lubricating oils. For example, in a gasoline powered engine, approximately 30% of the
primary gasoline fuel energy is dissipated as waste heat energy in the exhaust gases; waste
heat energy discharged in the exhaust gases from a typical passenger car travelling at a
regular speed is 20-30 kW A comprehensive theoretical study concluded that a thermoelectric
generator powered by exhaust heat could meet the electrical requirements of a medium sized
automobile. It was reported in that among the established thermoelectric materials, those
modules based on PbTe technology were the most suitable for converting waste heat energy
from automobiles into electrical power. Wide scale applications of thermoelectrics in the
automobile industry would lead to some reductions in fuel consumption, and thus
environmental global warming, but this technology is not yet proven.

Industrial Waste Heat Applications

Most of the recent research activities on applications of thermoelectric power generation have
been directed towards utilisation of industrial waste heat. Vast amounts of heat are rejected
from industry, manufacturing plants and power utilities as gases or liquids at temperature
which are too low to be used in conventional generating units (<450 K). In this large-scale
application, thermoelectric power generators offer a potential alternative of electricity
generation powered by waste heat energy that would contribute to solving the worldwide
energy crisis, and the same time help reduce environmental global warming. In particular, the
replacement of by-heat boiler and gas turbine by thermoelectric power generators makes it
capable of largely reducing capital cost, increasing stability, saving energy source, and
protecting environment. A photograph of a thermoelectric power generator used in natural
gas field to directly produce power for cathodic protection of the well and gas line is shown
in Fig. (8). In this application, the thermoelectric device used the temperature difference
between hot and cold legs of a glycol natural gas dehydrator cycle.
21

Fig. (8) Photograph of a thermoelectric power generator produced by the Japanese Energy Conservation Centre, which used
waste heat as energy source to generate an electric power density of 100 kW/m3.

Recently, Min and Rowe, reported that in 1994 a £1.8M research project sponsored by
the Japanese New Energy and Technology Development Organization (NEDO) commenced
in the School of Engineering at Cardiff University, UK with the objective to convert low
temperature waste heat into electrical power. A series of WATT (Waste heat Alternative
Thermoelectric Technology) prototype generators have been constructed and identified as
WATT-X where X denoted the power output in watts. Basically the generator consists of an
array of modules sandwiched between hot and cold water-carrying channels. Some of the
heat flux which is established by the hot and cold temperature difference between the hot and
cold water flows is directly converted into electrical power. When operated using hot water at
a temperature of approximately 90ºC and cold flow at ambient Watt-100 generates 100 watts
at a power density approaching 80 kW/m3. In this application, the system was scalable
enabling 1.5 kW of electrical power to be generated.
Thermoelectric power generators have also been successfully applied in recovering
waste heat from steel manufacturing plants. In this application, large amounts of cooling
water are typically discharged at constant temperatures of around 90ºC when used for cooling
ingots in steel plants. When operating in its continuous steel casting mode, the furnace
provides a steady-state source of convenient piped water which can be readily converted by
thermoelectric power generators into electricity. It was reported, that total electrical power of
22

around 8 MW would be produced employing currently available modules fabricated using

Bi2Te3 thermoelectric modules technology.
Another application where thermoelectric power generators using waste heat energy
have potential use is in industrial cogeneration systems. For example, Yodovard et al.
assessed the potential of waste heat thermoelectric power generation for diesel cycle and gas
turbine cogeneration in the manufacturing industrial sector in Thailand. The data from more
than 27,000 factories from different sectors, namely, chemical product, food processing, oil
refining, palm oil mills petrochemical, pulp and paper rice mills, sugar mills, and textiles,
were used. It is reported that gas turbine and diesel cycle cogeneration systems produced
electricity estimated at 33% and 40% of fuel input, respectively. The useful waste heat from
stack exhaust of cogeneration systems was estimated at approximately 20% for a gas turbine
and 10% for the diesel cycle. The corresponding net power generation is about 100 MW.

Waste Heat from Incineration of Solid Waste Applications

Recently, the possibility of utilizing the heat from incinerated municipal solid waste has also
been considered.
For example, in Japan the solid waste per capita is around 1 kg per day and the amount of
energy in equivalent oil is estimated at 18 million kJ by the end of the 21st century. It was
reported by [7] that an on-site experiment using a 60W thermoelectric module installed near
the boiler section of an incinerator plant, achieved an estimated conversion efficiency of
approximately 4.4%. The incinerator waste gas temperature varied between 823K and 973K
and with forced air-cooling on the cold side an estimated conversion efficiency of
approximately 4.5% was achieved. An analysis of a conceptual large scale system burning
100 ton of solid waste during a 16 hour day indicated that around 426 Kw could be delivered.
In the waste heat from incineration applications, the thermoelectric modules are typically
placed on walls of the furnace’s funnels. This construction can eliminate the by-heat furnace,
gas turbine and other appending parts of steam recycle. Fig. 9 shows a photograph of a
thermoelectric power generator produced by the Japanese Energy Conservation Centre,
which used waste heat as energy source to generate an electric power density of 100 kW/m3.
23

Fig. (9). Photograph of a thermoelectric power generator produced by the Japanese Energy Conservation Centre, which used
waste heat as energy source to generate an electric power density of 100 kW/m3.

CHAPTER 6

FUTURE ASPECTS OF THE TECHNOLOGY

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Recently, an increasing concern of environmental issues of emissions, in particular global

warming and the constraints on energy sources has resulted in extensive research into
innovative technologies of generating electrical power and thermoelectric power generation
has emerged as a promising alternative green technology. In addition, vast quantities of waste
heat are discharged into the earth’s environment much of it at temperatures which are too low
(i.e. low-grade thermal energy) to recover using conventional electrical power generators.
Thermoelectric power generation offers a promising technology in the direct conversion of
waste-heat energy, into electrical power. In this paper, a background on the basic concepts of
thermoelectric power generation is presented and recent patents of thermoelectric power
generation with their important and relevant applications to waste-heat energy are reviewed
and discussed. Currently, waste heat powered thermoelectric generators are utilized in a
number of useful applications due to their distinct advantages. These applications can be
categorized as micro- and macro-scale applications depending on the potential amount of heat
waste energy available for direct conversion into electrical power using thermoelectric
generators. Micro-scale applications included those involved in powering electronic devices,
such as microchips. Since the scale at which these devices can be fabricated from
thermoelectric materials and applied depends on the scale of the miniature technology
available. Therefore, it is expected that future developments of these applications tend to
move towards nano technology. The macro-scale waste heat applications included: domestic,
automobiles, industrial and solid waste. Currently, enormous amounts of waste heat are
discharged from industry, such as manufacturing plants and power utilities. Therefore, most
of the recent research activities on applications of thermoelectric power generation have been
directed towards utilisation of industrial waste heat. Future developments in this area might
focus onto finding more suitable thermoelectric materials that could handle higher
temperatures from various industrial heat sources at a feasible cost with acceptable
performance. Another future direction is to develop more novel thermoelectric module
geometries and configurations. The developments of more thermoelectric module
configurations by developing novel flexible thermoelectric materials will make them more
effective and attractive in applications where sources of waste heat have arbitrary shapes.
25

REFERENCES

1. Thermoelectric Power Generation Using Waste-Heat Energy as an Alternative Green Technology

Basel I. Ismail*, Wael H. Ahmed** *Department of Mechanical Engineering, Lakehead
University, Canada, **Component Life Technology, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd., Canada.
2. A 1 KW Thermoelectric Generator for Low-temperature Geothermal Resources
Changwei Liu, Pingyun Chen, Kewen Li* China University of Geosciences, Beijing
29 Xueyuan Road, Beijing 100083, China *Corresponding author e-mail:
likewen@[Link]
3. SMART POWER GENERATION FROM WASTE HEAT BY THERMO
ELECTRIC GENERATOR 1PRASHANTHA.K, 2SONAM WANGO 1Industrial
Automation Engineering 2Electrical engineering Department, BCET, INDIA Bangalore
College of Engineering and Technology
E-mail: 1prashanthgate14@[Link], 2SonamWango@[Link]
4. [Link]