Elephanta Caves

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Elephanta Caves

UNESCO World Heritage Site

The 20 ft (6.1 m) high Trimurti sculpture

Location Elephanta Island, Maharashtra, India

Criteria Cultural: i, iii

Reference 244

Inscription 1987 (11th Session)

18°57′30″N 72°55′50″ECoordinates:
Coordinates
18°57′30″N 72°55′50″E
 Location of Elephanta Caves

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Elephanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a collection of cave temples
predominantly dedicated to Hindu god Shiva.[1][2][3] They are located on Elephanta Island,
or Gharapuri (literally "the city of caves") in Mumbai Harbour, 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) to the east of the
city of Mumbai in the Indian state of Mahārāshtra. The island, located offshore about 2 kilometres
(1.2 mi) west of the Jawaharlal Nehru Port, consists of Shaivite caves and a few Buddhist stupa
mounds.[2][4]
The Elephanta Caves contain rock cut stone sculptures, that show syncretism of Hindu and Buddhist
ideas and iconography.[4][5][6] The caves are hewn from solid basalt rock. Except for a few exceptions,
much of the artwork is defaced and damaged.[7] The main temple's orientation as well as the relative
location of other temples are placed in a mandala pattern.[2] The carvings narrate Hindu mythologies,
with the large monolithic 20 feet (6.1 m) Trimurti Sadashiva (three-faced Shiva), Nataraja (Lord of
dance) and Yogishvara (Lord of Yoga) being the most celebrated.[2][8][9]
The origins and date when the caves were constructed have attracted considerable speculations
and scholarly attention since the 19th century. These date them between 5th and 9th century, and
attribute them to various Hindu dynasties.[1][2] They are more commonly placed between 5th and 7th
centuries. Most scholars consider it to have been completed by about 550 CE.[3][10][11]
They were named Elefante – which morphed to Elephanta – by the colonial Portuguese when they
found elephant statues on it. They established a base on the island, and its soldiers damaged the
sculpture and caves. The main cave (Cave 1, or the Great Cave) was a Hindu place of worship until
the Portuguese arrived, whereupon the island ceased to be an active place of worship.[2] The earliest
attempts to prevent further damage to the Caves were started by British India officials in 1909.[12] The
monuments were restored in the 1970s.[2] In 1987, the restored Elephanta Caves were designated
a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is currently maintained by the Archaeological Survey of
India (ASI).[5][6]

History[edit]
The ancient history of the island is unknown in either Hindu or Buddhist records. Archeological
studies have uncovered many remains that suggest the small island had a rich cultural past, with
evidence of human settlement by possibly the 2nd century BC.[5][1] The regional history is first
recorded in the Gupta Empire era, but these do not explicitly mention these caves.[1] This has made
the origins and the century in which Elephanta caves were built a subject of a historic dispute. They
have been variously dated, mostly between from late 5th to late 8th century AD, largely based on the
dating of other cave temples in the Deccan region.[1] Colonial era historians suggested that the caves
were built by the Rashtrakutas in 7th century or after, a hypothesis primarily based on some
similarities with the Ellora Caves.[1] This theory has been discredited by later findings.[3][11]

The stone elephant that gave the name Elephanta. It used to be on south shore of the island, the British
attempted to move it to England in 1864, it broke, the reassembled pieces are now at the Jijamata
Udyaan(above).

According to Archaeological Survey of India and UNESCO, the site was settled in ancient times and
the cave temples were built between 5th and 6th century.[5][1] Contemporary scholars generally place
the completion of the temples to the second quarter of the 6th century and as a continuation of the
period of artistic flowering in the Gupta Empire era.[11][1][10] These scholars attribute these Cave
temples to king Krishnaraja of the Kalachuri dynasty.[3][7] The dating to a mid 6th century completion
and it being a predominantly Shiva monument built by a Hindu Kalachuri king is based on
numismatic evidence, inscriptions, construction style and better dating of other Deccan cave temples
including the Ajanta Caves, and the more firm dating of Dandin's Dasakumaracarita.[11][16][17]
According to Charles Collins, the significance of the Elephanta Caves is better understood by
studying them in context of ancient and early medieval Hindu literature, as well as in the context of
other Buddhist, Hindu and Jain cave temples on the subcontinent. The historic Elephanta artwork
were inspired by the mythology, concepts and spiritual ideas found in the Vedic texts on Rudra and
later Shiva, the epics, the Puranas and the Pashupata Shaivism literature corpus
of Hinduism composed by the 5th-century. The panels reflect the ideas and stories widely accepted
and well known to the artists and cave architects of India by about 525 CE. The mythology varies
significantly in these texts and has been much distorted by later interpolations, but the Elephanta
Cave panels represent the narrative version most significant in the 6th century.[18][19] The panels and
artwork express through their eclecticism, flux and motion the influence of Vedic and post-Vedic
religious thought on Hindu culture in mid 1st millennium CE.[20]
After the Caves completion in the 6th century, Elephanta became popular regionally as Gharapuri
(village of caves). The name is still used in the local Marathi language.[21] It became a part of the
Gujarat Sultanate rulers, who ceded it to the Portuguese merchants in 1534. The Portuguese named
the island "Elephanta Island" for the huge rock-cut stone statue of an elephant, the spot they used
for docking their boats and as a landmark to distinguish it from other islands near Mumbai. The
elephant statue was damaged in attempts to relocate it to England, was moved to the Victoria
Gardens in 1864, was reassembled in 1914 by Cadell and Hewett, and now sits in the Jijamata
Udyaan in Mumbai.[22][23][24]
A sketch and a photo of the Elephanta Caves in 19th century.[25]

Scholars are divided who most defaced and damaged the Elephanta Caves. According to Macneil,
the monuments and caves were already desecrated during the Sultanate rule, basing his findings on
the Persian inscription on a door the leads to the grand cave.[21] In contrast, others such as Ovington
and Pyke, link the greater damage to be from the Christian Portuguese soldiers and their texts which
state they used the caves and statues as a firing range and for target practice.[21][26][27] Macneil
concurs that Elephanta Caves were defaced and damaged during the colonial period, but assigns
the responsibility not to the soldiers but the Portuguese authorities.[21] The colonial era British
publications state they were "defaced by the zeal of Mahommedans and Portuguese".[22] Yet a third
theory suggests that neither Muslim rulers nor Portuguese Christians damaged the site, because
they both plastered the artwork and caves. It was the Marathas who tried to remove that plaster,
according to this theory which Wendy Doniger states is "possibly true", and it was therefore the
Marathas that caused damage to the artwork in the 17th century.[21]
The Portuguese ceded the island in 1661 to the colonial British, but by then the Caves had seen
considerable damage. The Portuguese had also removed and then lost an inscription stone from the
caves.[28][29] During the British rule, many Europeans visited the caves during their visit to Bombay,
then published their impressions and memoirs. Some criticized it as having "nothing of beauty or
art", while some called it "enormous art work, of extraordinary genius".[27] The British relied on the
port city of Bombay (now Mumbai), which led to it becoming a major urban center and migration of
Hindus looking for economic opportunities. The Elephanta caves re-emerged as a center of Hindu
worship, and according to British administration records, the government charged the pilgrims a
temple tax at least since 1872. In 1903, the Hindus petitioned the government to waive this fee,
which the British agreed to on three Shiva festival days if Hindus agreed. The Elephants Caves
were, otherwise, left in its ruinous condition.[30]
In late 1970s, the Government of India restored the main cave in its attempt to make it a tourist and
heritage site. The caves were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987 as per the cultural
criteria of UNESCO: the caves "represent a masterpiece of human creative genius" and "bear a
unique or at least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a civilisation which is living or
which has disappeared".[5]
Cave 1: Main, Great Cave[edit]
The main cave, also called Cave 1, Grand Cave or the Great Cave, is 39.63 metres (130.0 ft) square
in plan with a hall (mandapa).[7] The Cave has several entrances, the main entrance is unassumingly
small and hides the grand hall inside. The main entrance faces north, while two side entrances face
east and west. The cave's main entrance is aligned with the north–south axis, unusual for a Shiva
shrine (normally east–west).[5][15][1] However, inside is an integrated square plan Linga shrine (garbha-
griya) that is aligned east-west, opening to the sunrise.[7]

Elephanta main cave plan. The 6th century temple follows a mandala design, according to George Michell. [33]

Layout (3D Google Arts & Culture tour):

1. Ravananugraha
2. Shiva-Parvati, Mount Kailash
3. Ardhanarishvara
4. Sadashiva Trimurti
5. Gangadhara
6. Wedding of Shiva
7. Shiva slaying Andhaka
8. Nataraja
9. Yogishvara
16. Linga
East Wing Shrine
10. Kartikeya
11. Matrikas
12. Ganesha
13. Dvarapala
West Wing Shrine
14. Yogishvara
15. Nataraja
To reach the main cave, a visitor or pilgrim has to walk up 120 steep steps from the shore beach, or
take the tourist toy train. At the main entrance are four pillars, with three open porticoes and an aisle
at the back. Pillars, six in each row, divide the hall into a series of smaller chambers. The roof of the
hall has concealed beams supported by stone columns joined together by capitals.[15][1]

Main entrance, Cave 1

Side entrance
Main mandapa and pillars

The temple is enclosed in the cave, it has interior walls but no exterior wall. The pillars create the
space and symmetric rhythm as they support the weight of hill above. The main mandapa recesses
into a pillared vestibule (ardha-mandapa) on the south side, while a pillared portico (mukha-
mandapa) connects it to the main entrance. Embedded within the Great Cave are dedicated shrines,
the largest of which is the square plan Linga shrine (see 16 in plan).[7] It is a square garbha-
griya (womb house) with four entrances, located in the right section of the main hall. Steps lead from
the four doorways into the sanctum, which has a linga in the mulavigraha style. Each doorway is
guarded by a dvarapala on each side, for a total of eight dvarapalas, their heights spanning floor to
the ceiling.[34] These were badly damaged when the Portuguese ceded control of this region to the
British. The linga shrine is surrounded by a mandapa and circumambulation path (pradakshina-
patha) as in other Hindu temples. The pillars are similarly aligned east-west to this shrine, and have
an east entrance. Overlaid, as if fused, on the architecture of this temple is another open temple
aligned to the north-south direction with three faced Sadashiva as its focal center. One features the
abstract, unmanifest, aniconic symbol of Shiva, the other anthropomorphic, manifest, iconic symbol
of Shiva. The mandapa pillars of the two align up.[34]
The northern entrance to the cave is flanked by two panels of Shiva dated to the Gupta period, both
damaged. The left panel depicts Yogishvara(Shiva as the Lord of Yoga) and the right
shows Nataraja (Shiva as the Lord of Dance).[35] The Sadashiva is flanked by two large friezes, one
of Ardhanarishvara and the other of Gangadhara.[36] The walls of the mandapa feature other
Shaivism legends. All the friezes, states Stella Kramrisch, feature the vyaktavyakta concept
of Samkhya, where the state of spiritual existence transitions between the unmanifest-manifest, the
figures leap out of the cave walls towards the spectator as if trying to greet the narrative. Even the
manifested Sadashiva is shown to be rising out of the rocks.[36]
Each wall has large carvings of Shiva-related legends, each more than 5 metres (16 ft) in height.
The central Shiva relief Trimurti is located on the south wall opposite the main entrance. Also called
the Sadashiva, it is the iconic form of a pancamukha linga is set in a mandala pattern with the
abstract linga form of Shiva.[37] The Sadashiva is a colossal carving, a bit over 6.27 metres (20.6 ft),
depicting Tatpurusha (Mahadeva), Aghora (Bhairava), Vamadeva (Uma) and Sadyojata
(Nandin).[37] The carving is unusual because the standard ancient Hindu texts for murtidesign state
that the Tatpursha should face east, but in Elephanta it is the north face (pointing towards the main
entrance).[37]
Smaller shrines are located at the east and west ends of the caves. The eastern sanctuary serves as
a ceremonial entrance, and its shrine shows iconography of Shaktism tradition.[15][1]
Sadasiva: Trimurti[edit]
Trimurti Shiva flanked by the dvarapalas.

The Trimurti is considered a masterpiece and the most important sculpture in the caves.[38] It is
carved in relief on the south wall of the cave facing the north entrance, along the north-south axis. It
is also known as Sadashiva and Maheshmurti. The image, 6 m (20 ft) in height, depicts a three-
headed Shiva, representing Panchamukha Shiva.[39]
The three heads represent three essential aspects of Shiva: creation, protection, and
destruction.[40] The right half-face (west face) shows him holding a lotus bud, depicting the promise of
life and creativity. This face is symbolism for Brahma, the creator or Uma or Vamadeva, the feminine
side of Shiva and creator.[40] The left half-face (east face) is that of a moustached young man. This is
Shiva as the terrifying Aghora or Bhairava, the chaos creator and destroyer.[40] This is also known as
Rudra-Shiva, the Destroyer. The central face, benign and meditative Tatpurusha, resembles the
preserver Vishnu. This is the Shiva form as the "master of positive and negative principles of
existence and preserver of their harmony".[5][15] The three headed Shiva are his creator, preserver
and destroyer aspects in Shaivism. They are equivalently symbolism for Shiva, Vishnu and Brahma,
they being equivalent of the three aspects found in Shaivism.[38][40]
Gangadhara[edit]

Shiva bringing Ganges River to earth.

The Trimurti Shiva is flanked on its left by Ardhanarisvara (a half-Shiva, half-Parvati composite)
and Gangadhara legend to its right. The Gangadhara image to the right of the Trimurti show Shiva
and Parvati standing. Shiva brings the River Ganges down from the heavens to serve man, and her
immense power is contained effortlessly in Shiva's hair as she descends from heaven. The artists
carved a small three bodied goddess up high, a symbolism for Ganges, Yamuna and Saraswati. The
mother goddess Parvati stands tall next to Shiva, smiling. The carving is 4 m (13 ft) wide and
5.207 m (17.08 ft) high.[41]
The Gangadhara image is highly damaged, particularly the lower half of Shiva seen seated with
Parvati, who is shown with four arms, two of which are broken. From the crown, a cup with a triple-
headed female figure (with broken arms) to depict the three major rivers in Hindu texts. An alternate
interpretation of the three bodied goddess in Gangadharamurti panel here and elsewhere is that it
represents the regenerative powers of rivers in the form of Mandakini, Suradhani and Bhagavati.[41] In
this grotto scene, Shiva is sculpted and bedecked with ornaments, while gods gather to watch the
cosmic source of earthly abundance. The gods and goddesses shown are identifiable from
the vahana (vehicle) and icons, and they
include Brahma (left), Indra (left), Vishnu (right), Saraswati, Indrani, Lakshmi, and others.[41][42]
Wrapped on one of the arms of Shiva is his iconic coiling serpent whose hood is seen near his left
shoulder. Another hand (partly broken) gives the semblance of Shiva hugging Parvati, with a head of
matted hair. A damaged ornamented drapery covers his lower torso, below the waist. Parvati is
carved to the left of Shiva with a coiffured hair dress, fully bedecked with ornaments and
jewellery.[42] Between them stands a gana(dwarf jester) expressing confused panic as to whether
Shiva will be able to contain the mighty river goddess. In the lower left of the panel is a kneeling
devout figure in namaste posture representing the heroic mythical king Bhagiratha who worked hard
to bring the river of prosperity to his earthly kingdom, but unaware of the potentially destructive
forces that came with it.[42]
Ardhanarishvara[edit]

Ardhanarishvara (centre): half female (Parvati) and half male (Shiva), feminine-masculine equivalence.

On the wall to the east of the Trimurti is a damaged four-armed Ardhanarishvara carving. This
image, which is 5.11 m (16.8 ft) in height. It represents the ancient Hindu concept of essential
interdependence of the feminine and the masculine aspects in the universe, for its creation, its
sustenance and its destruction.[43][44] It is represented as half woman shown as half of Parvati in this
Elephanta panel on the right side, with breast, waist, feminine hair and items such as a mirror in the
upper hand. The second half man side is Shiva with male characteristics and items iconographically
his symbol. In Shaivism, the concept pictorially symbolizes the transcendence of all duality including
gender, with the spiritual lacking any distinctions, where energy and power (Shakti, Parvati) is unified
and is inseparable with the soul and awareness (Brahman, Shiva).[43][45][46]
In the panel, the relief shows a headdress (double-folded) with two pleats draped towards the female
head (Parvati) and the right side (Shiva) depicting curled hair and a crescent. The female figure has
all the ornamentation (broad armlets and long bracelets, a large ring in the ear, jewelled rings on the
fingers) but the right male figure has drooping hair, armlets and wristlets. One of his hands rests
on Nandi bull’s left horn, Shiva's mount, which is fairly well preserved.[47][48] The pair of hands at the
back is also bejewelled; the right hand of the male side holds a serpent, while the left hand of the
female side holds a mirror. The front left hand is broken, while a large part of the lower half of the
panel was damaged at some point. Around the Ardhanarishwara are three layers of symbolic
characters. The lowest or at the same level as the viewer are human figures oriented reverentially
towards the androgyne image. Above them are gods and goddesses such as Brahma, Vishnu, Indra
and others who are seated on their vahanas. Above them are flying apsaras approaching the fused
divinity with garlands, music and celebratory offerings.[47]
Shiva slaying Andhaka[edit]

Shiva slaying Andhaka

The panel in the northwest side of the cave, on the wall near west entrance and the Linga shrine
(see 7 in plan), is an uncommon sculpture about the Andhakasura-vadha legend.[49] It
shows Bhairava, or Virabhadra, a ferocious form of Shiva killing the demon Andhaka (literally, "blind,
darkness"). The relief is much ruined below the waist, is 3.5 m (11 ft) high and posed in action.
Though a relief, it is carved to give it a three dimensional form, as if the ferocious Shiva is coming
out of the rocks and impaling Andhaka with his trident.[50][51]
Bhairava's headgear has a ruff on the back, a skull and cobra over the forehead, and the crescent
high on the right. His facial expression is of anger, conviction of something he must do, and one in
the middle of action. The legs and five of the eight arms are broken, attributed to Portuguese
vandalism. The smaller broken image Andhaka is seen below Bhairava's image.[4] Also depicted in
his right hand is the symbolic weapon that Shaiva mythology states Shiva used to kill the destructive
elephant demon.[51] A hand holds a bowl to collect the blood dripping from the slain Andhaka, which
Shaiva legend states was necessary because the dripping blood had the power to become new
demons if they got nourished by the ground.[51][52] Furthermore, the artwork shows ruined parts of a
male and two female forms, figures of two ascetics, a small figure in front, a female figure, and two
dwarfs.[4] The uppermost part shows flying apsaras bringing garlands.[51]

Kalyanasundara: the wedding of Shiva and Parvati.

Wedding of Shiva[edit]
The niche image carved on the southwest wall, near the Linga shrine (see 6 on plan) is the wedding
of Shiva and Parvati. This legend is called the Kalyanasundara in Hindu texts.[49] Parvati is seen
standing to Shiva's right, the customary place for a Hindu bride at the wedding. The carvings are
substantially damaged, but the ruined remains of the sculpture has been significant to scholarly
studies of Hindu literature. In many surviving versions of the Puranas, the wedding takes place in
King Parvata's palace. However, in this Elephanta Cave panel, the narrative shows some earlier
version.[53] Here King Parvata standing behind Parvati gives away the bride to Shiva while Brahma is
the priest in the grotto relief.[53] Gods, goddesses and celestial apsaras are cheering witness to the
wedding. Vishnu is witness to the marriage, standing tall behind the sitting Brahma on the right side
of the panel. Just above the main images rishi (sages) and a few characters hanging from the ceiling
are seen blessing the wedding.[4]
The groom Shiva is shown calm and young, while Parvati is depicted as shy and emotional. Her
head is tilted towards him and her eyelids joyfully lowered, while his hand (now broken) is holding
hers.[53] Their dress reflect the Hindu customs. He wears the sacred thread across his chest, she the
customary jewelry. The other characters shown in the wedding carry items or are shown holding
items that typically grace a Hindu wedding. Chandra (moon god), for example, holds a traditionally
decorated water vessel (kalash). Brahma, the priest, is squatting on the floor to the right tending
the yajna fire (agni mandapa).[53]
Yogishvara: Lord of Yoga[edit]

Shiva as Yogishvara, god of Yoga.

The panel in the east side of the portico next to the north entrance (see 9 on plan) is Shiva in Yoga.
This form of Shiva is called Yogishvara, Mahayogi, Lakulisa.[54][49]
Shiva, states Stella Kramrisch, is the "primordial yogi" in this panel. He is the master of discipline,
the teacher of Yoga arts, the master who shows how yoga and meditation leads to the realization of
ultimate reality.[55][56][57]
The relief is in a dilapidated condition with most of the arms and legs broken.[4] He is seated
in padmasana lost in his meditation. His posture is well formed and suggests that the 6th century
artist knew this asana. He sits on a lotus with a stalk shown as if coming out of the earth, his legs are
crossed symmetrically. Two Nagas flank the lotus and express their reverence with a namaste
posture. The great yogi is being approached by various Vedic and Puranic gods and goddesses, as
well as monks and sadhus, yet there is a halo around him that keeps them at bay, as if they admire it
but do not wish to disturb his meditation.[55][57][58]
In some ways, the yogi artwork shown in this Hindu cave are similar to those found in Buddhist
caves, but there are differences. Yogi Shiva, or Lakulisa, wears a crown here, his chest is shown
vaulting forward as if in breathing exercises found in Hindu yoga texts, the face and body expresses
a different energy. This Shiva yogi comes across as the "lord of the caves" or Guhesvara in medieval
Indian poetry, states Kramrisch.[55] According to Charles Collins, the depiction of Shiva as Yogi in
Elephanta Cave 1 is harmonious with those found in the Puranas dated to early and mid 1st
millennium CE.[59]
Nataraja: Lord of Dance[edit]

Shiva as Nataraja, god of dance.

The panel facing the Yogishvara, on the west side of the portico next to the north entrance (see 8 on
plan) is Shiva as the Nataraja, "cosmic dancer" and "the lord of dancers".[54] It is also called
the Nrittamurti.[49]
The badly damaged relief panel is 4 m (13 ft) wide and 3.4 m (11 ft) high and set low on the wall. His
body and arms are shown as wildly gyrating in the lalita mudra, a symbolism for occupying all of
space, soaring energy and full bodied weightlessness. His face here resembles the Tatpurusha, or
the manifested form of Shiva that preserves and sustains all of creation, all of creative
activity.[60][61] This is an eight armed depiction of Nataraja. The parts of the panel that have survived
suggest that he is holding an axe, a coiled serpent is wrapped around its top. In another he holds a
folded cloth, possibly symbolic veil of maya.[60]
There are fewer gods, goddesses and observers in this panel than others in this cave, with Brahma,
Vishnu, Lakshmi, Saraswati and Parvati are visible and have a facial expression of being
spellbound. Also present are his sons leaping Ganesha and Kartikeya holding Shiva's staff, as well
as an ascetic and a rishi, thus weaving the family life and the ascetic monastic life, the secular and
the spiritual tied in through metaphorical symbolism of dance within the same panel.[60][62] The dancer
and destroyer aspects of Shiva are clustered in the northwest part of the cave, in contrast to yoga
and creator aspects that are found in the northeast parts.[63] This 6th-century Nataraja shares
architectural elements with those found in temples in the western parts of South Asia such as in
Gujarat, and in upper Deccan region.[64]
Mount Kailash and Ravananugraha[edit]
Left: Shiva and Parvati on Mount Kailasha. Right: Ravana shaking Mount Kailash.

The carvings at the east entrance are battered and blurry. One in the southeast corner of the
mandapa (see 2 on plan) depicts Shiva and Parvati in Mount Kailash in the Himalayas, and the
shows the Umamaheshvara story.[49] The scene includes rocky terrain and clouds layered
horizontally. On top of a rock sit the four-armed Shiva and Parvati by his side. Nandi stands below
her, while celestial apsaras float on the clouds above.[65] There are traces of a crown and a disc
behind Shiva, but it is all damaged.[4] The scene is crowded with accessory figures, which may be
because the eastern entrance was meant to have a devotional focus.[66]
The panel facing the Mount Kailash panel towards the northeast corner (see 1 on plan) depicts
demon king Ravana trying to lift Kailash and bother Shiva, a legend called Ravananugraha.[49][67] The
upper scene is Mount Kailash, where Shiva and Parvati are seated. Shiva is recognizable with a
crown, and other characters are badly damaged. A portion of ascetic skeletal devotee Bhringi relief
survives and he is seated near Shiva's feet. Near Shiva an outline of what may have been Ganesha
and Kartikeya are visible. Below the mountain surface is shown the demon-king Ravana is seen with
a few arms, trying to unsuccessfully shake Shiva and Parvati in Mount Kailash. The rest of the
details are blurry and speculative.[65][67] According to Charles Collins, the discernible elements of this
panel are generally consistent with those in medieval era Puranas, though there is a lack in literal
correspondence with any single text.[68]
Linga shrine[edit]

Shiva Linga shrine inside the cave complex.

The central shrine of the Great Cave temple is a free-standing square stone cella, with entrances on
each of its sides.[69] Each door is flanked by two dvarapalas (gate guardians), for a total of eight
around the shrine.[69] The height of the eight dvarapalas is about 4.6 m (15 ft).[23] All are in a damaged
condition except those at the southern door to the shrine. The Shaiva guardians carry weapons and
flank the doors.[69]
Six steps lead to the inside of the cella from the floor level. In the center is the mulavigraha Linga, is
set on a raised platform above the floor of the shrine by 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in). It is the abstract
unmanifest symbol of Shiva in union with the Yoni, and the symbol of Parvati together symbolising
the creative source and the regenerative nature of existence.[69] The temple and all the pillars are laid
out to lead the pilgrim's view towards it, the cella is visible from any point inside the cave and its
most significant progression.[70]
East wing: Shaktism[edit]

The smaller east shrine.

On the east side of the main hall is a separate shrine. It is a 17 m (56 ft)-wide courtyard with a
circular pedestal. It once had a seated Nandi facing the Linga shrine, but its ruins have not been
restored. To the south side of this eastern courtyard is the Shaktism shrine, with a lion, each seated
with a raised forepaw as guardian. Inside the west face of this small shrine (see 10-12 of plan)
are Sapta Matrikas, or the "seven mothers" along with Parvati, Kartikeya (Skanda) and
Ganesha.[49] The smaller shrine's sanctum features a linga and has a circumambulatory path around
it. The sanctum door has Shaiva dvarapalas.[49]
The Shakti panel in the east shrine is unusual in that counting Parvati, it features eight mothers (Asta
matrikas) in an era when Sapta matrikas were more common such as at Samalaji and Jogeswari
caves.[71] Additionally, the mothers are flanked on one side with Ganesha and the other with Skanda
(Kartikeya) when typical artwork from mid 1st millennium show the Shakta mothers with Ganesha
and Shiva.[71][72] According to Sara L. Schastok, the Skanda in the east shrine of Elephanta Cave 1 is
significant, just like the one found in Deogarh Hindu temple site, because he is depicted with regalia,
weapons and icons similar to Shiva and because he is surrounded by gods and goddeses. By
portraying Skanda with Matrikas, he is equated with the Krittikas legend and thereby Kartikeya, and
by showing him so prominently centered the artists are likely communicating the unity of Skanda-
Shiva, that all these divinities are in essence the same spiritual concept, "all emanations of
the lingam at the very heart of Elephanta", according to Schastok.[71]
West wing: Other traditions[edit]
On the west side of the main hall is another attached shrine, though in much more ruined state. The
larger cave on the south side of the west shrine is closed, contains ruins and is bigger than the
eastern side shrine. Some of the artworks from here were moved to museums and private
collections by mid 19th century, including those related Brahma, Vishnu and others. The western
face has two panels, one showing another version of Shiva in Yoga (see 14 on plan) and another
Nataraja (see 15 on plan). Between these is a sanctum with a Shiva Linga.[49][73]
This Yogi Shiva panel is damaged, but unlike the other Yogi depiction, here the leg position in Yoga
asana have survived. The Yogishvara is seated on a lotus, and near him are two badly defaced
characters, possibly one of parvati and another ascetic. Above him are ruin remains of celestial gods
or goddesses or apasaras. The Yogi Shiva is wearing a crown, and once again there is a space of
isolation around the meditating yogi in which no other character enters. Below him, under the lotus,
are Nagas and several badly damaged figures two of whom are in namaste reverence
posture.[74] The Nataraja shown in the west shrine is similar in style to one inside the main mandapa.
However, states Collins, its depth of carving appears inferior and it seems more eroded being more
open to rains and water damage.[75]
Caves 2-5: Canon hill[edit]

Other caves are smaller, the artwork inside mostly damaged.

To the south-east of the Great Cave is Cave 2. The front of this cave was completely destroyed and
restored in the 1970s. The portico is 26 m (85 ft) long and 11 m (36 ft) deep. The chapel is
supported by eight eight-cornered columns and two demi-columns and is irregular in shape. At the
back of the portico are three chambers; the main sanctum seems to be for a Linga, but that is lost.
The shrine door has some traces of sculpture. The dvarapalas of the shrine are now in fragments.[76]
Cave 3 is next to Cave 2 and in worse condition. It is a portico and mandapa with pillars. Two of
them have cells at the back. The central door at the back of the portico leads to a damaged shrine.
The sanctum door is flanked by dvarapalas on each side, leaning on dwarfs with flying figures over
the head. The shrine is a plain room 6 m (20 ft) deep by 5.7 m (19 ft) wide with a low altar, holding a
Linga. Cave 4 and 5 are also damaged, though the artwork remains suggest the caves were once
Shaiva temples as well.[76][77]

Elephanta Caves 2 and 3 plans, likely Hindu monasteries or pilgrim resting facility.

Caves 6-7: Stupa hill[edit]

Across the top of the ravine from Cave 1 on the other Stupa hill is a large hall known as Sitabai's
temple cave. The portico has four pillars and two pilasters. The hall has 3 chambers at the back, the
central one a shrine and the rest for monks or priests. The door of the central shrine has pilasters
and a frieze, with the threshold decorated with lion figures. The sanctum has no image now, but is
similar to Linga shrine on the island.
Next, along the face of the eastern hill to the north of Sitabai's cave is another small Hindu
excavation with a veranda, which was probably to be three cells, but was abandoned following the
discovery of a flaw in the rock. Past the 7th cave, to the east of hill is a dry pond, with large artificial
boulders and Buddhist cisterns along its banks. At the end of the north spur of the main hill is a
mound that resembles a Buddhist stupa. This, states Michell and Dhavalikar, may be the remains of
a much higher Buddhist stupa from about 2nd century BCE.[78]
Cave 6 is historically significant because though a Hindu temple, it was converted and used as a
Christian church by the Portuguese in the later years when the island was a part of their colony.[79]

An Elephanta artwork now at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai.

Lost monuments[edit]
Many artworks from the Elephanta Caves ruins are now held in major museums around the world.
These include an almost completely destroyed Durga Mahishasuramardini statue with only the
buffalo demon with Durga's legs and some waist surviving. Other scholarly studied museum held
Elephanta sculpture include a part of Brahma head, several ruins of Vishnus from different statues, a
range of panels and free standing stone carvings.[80][81] According to Schastok, some of these are
"surely not part of the Great Cave", but it is unclear where they were found when they were moved
elsewhere, or when ruins were cleared and restoration process initiated.[82]
The significant statues of Vishnu are difficult to explain and to position inside other surviving caves.
One theory states that some of the caves must have represented the Vaishnavism tradition. Another
theory by some scholars such as Moti Chandra suggests that the island once had open air structural
Hindu temples in addition to the caves, but these were the first victims of art destruction.[82]
The Vishnu sculptures found among the Elephanta ruins express different styles. One wears
a dhoti and has a looped girdle, while holding a conch at an angle near his thigh. The remnants of
his sides suggest that this was likely a four arm iconography.[82] Another statue has elements of
Shiva and Vishnu. It was identified to be Shiva by Pramod Chandra, as Kartikeya by Moti Chandra,
and as Vishnu by others. It shows a chain link near the thigh, has a gada (mace) on side, and
someone standing next to him of a damaged upper portion but with small waist and full breasts
suggestive of a devi. This statue too is wearing a dhoti.[82]
The island also had a stone horse according to 18th century records, just like the stone elephant that
made colonial Portuguese call it "Ilha Elefante". However, this horse was removed to an unknown
location before 1764.[83]