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SOIL GROUPS OF NEW ZEALAND

Part 5
PODZOLS AND
GLEY PODZOLS

New Zealand Soc·ety of Soil Science 1980

 SOIL GROUPS OF NEW ZEALAND

PART 5
PODZOLS AND GLEY PODZOLS
Edited by R. Lee

NEW ZEALAND SOCIETY OF SOIL SCIENCE 1980

 3

CONTENTS
Page
Pref ace R. Lee 7

A. PODZOLS
1. Definition and Classification
Podzols - Definition, classification
and international correlation J.D. Cowie 11
Podzols in the FAO/Unesco Classification R. B. Miller 15
RESTRICTED PUBLICATION
2. Distribution and Properties
This volume has been compiled from Northland Peninsula H.S. Gibbs 18
both published and unpublished Coastal Bay of Plenty W.A. Pullar 24
information. Authors must be con- Rotorua, Taupo and East Coast W.C. Rijkse 30
sulted before papers are cited in J.C. Heine 37
Wellington
other publications. Nelson and Marlborough M.D. Laffan 45
West Coast, S.Island G. Mew 53
Canterbury T.H. Webb 61
Otago, Southland and Stewart Island J.G. Bruce 64

3. Vegetation, Process and Pedology

Podzol vegetation I.A.E. Atkinson 73
The mechanism of podzolisation B.K. Daly 83
The role of organic matter in the H. K.J. Powell &
podzolisation process M.C. Taylor 88
Analytical procedures used for different- B.K. Daly &
iating and classifying podzolised soils R. Lee 97
The genetic connection between horizons
in the podzol profile J.A. Pollok 103

4. Chemistry and Biochemistry

Survey chem.istry of podzols L.C. Blakemore 105
The effect of podzolisation on total
element levels J .S. Whitton 109
The variable charge component of podzols K.W. Perrott 112
Potassium fixation characteristics of podzols R. Campkin 114
Scanning electron microscopy studies C.W. Ross &
on some New Zealand iron-pans G.D. Walker 117
Nitrogen cycling and the role of nitrogen
fertiliser on Wharekohe silt loam K.W. Steele 123
Pigments in podzols K.R. Tate 129
Changes in soil organic matter with increas-
ing soil development in three podzolised
soils from a climosequence in tussock D.J. Ross &
grasslands L.F. Molloy 132
P.O. HASSELBERG, GOVERNMENT PRINTER, WELLINGTON, NEW ZEALAND - 1980
5. Physics, Engineering, Mineralogy and Micromorphology
Some physical properties of podzols from
North Auckland M.W. Gradwell 137
Corrosion in podzols H.R. Penhale 139
Smectite formation in the E horizons of a A.W. Young and
catena of podzols A.S. Campbell 141
 4 5

Page
Page Total element levels in gley podzols J .S. Whitton 269
Potassium fixation characteristics of a
Clay mineralogy of some South Island high
G.J. Churchman 149 gley podzol R. Campkin 272
country podzolised soils
Mineralogy of some New Zealand podzols G.G. Claridge 154 Variable charge for the B horizon of an
Micromorphological properties of podzols B.C. Barratt 170 Okarito silt loam R.L. Parfitt 274
Moessbauer spectra for two iron pan samples C.W. Childs 277
Field tests for ferrous iron and ferric-
6. Agriculture and Forestry organic complexes in some West Coast soils C.W. Childs 281
Pastures-Land development on podzolised S.R. Hewitt, Chemical nature of the soil organic matter M.R. \'Ji I Iiams &
northern yellow-brown earths and P.W. Shannon & extracted from a gley podzol soil (Okarito) K.M. Goh 284
podzols ('gumlands') B.R. Keenan 175
Selenium deficiency in northern podzols J.H. Watkinson 184 11. Physics and Engineering
Pasture development on a Northland Physical properties of wetland soils,
P.J. Rumball 184
'clay' podzol West Coast, S.Island R.J. Jackson 292
Agriculture on the podzols of Otago, Physical properties of some podzols and
A.R. Rankin 186
Southland and Stewart Island stagnopodzols in upland Britain, with
Short commentary on the agricultural use R. Lee &
J. Morton 188 reference to the New Zealand situation R.J. Jackson 295
of podzols of the West Coast, S.Island
P.J. Thode 188 A note on some measurements of permeability
Forestry on podzols of North Auckland and compressibility on Okarito soils P.R. Barker 296
Forestry on podzolised soils in Otago Corrosion in gley podzols H.R. Penhale 300
J.R.Purey-Cust 194
and Southland
Exotic forestry on hill and steepland 12. Mineralogy and Micromorphology
G.P.S. Allan 195
podzols on the West Coast, S.Island
Factors influencing the clay mineralogy of A.S. Campbell &
podzols and gley podzols in the Reefton area A.W. Young 301
B. GLEY PODZOLS Some observations on the clay mineralogy of
West Coast gley podzols G.J. Churchman 314
7. Definition and Classification Sand mineralogy of wet, podzolised soils
from the West Coast, S.Island S. Robertson 315
Definition, classification and boundaries Micromorphological properties of gley podzols B.C. Barratt
J.D. Cowie 199 321
with related soils
The classification of gley podzols and Bi ogy
J .A. Pollok 201
associated soils in terms of 'Soil Taxonomy'
The classification of gley podzols in Microbial populations in wetland soils from
FAO/Unesco terms R.B. Miller 209 the West Coast, S.Island V.A. Orchard 333
Invertebrate fauna of some wet, podzolised
8. Distribution and Properties soils from the \\lest Coast, South Island H.P. Mccoll 341
West Coast, S.Island G. Mew 211
G. Mew 220 . Agriculture
Golden Bay Area, Nelson
South land J.G. Bruce 221 Agriculture on the gley podzols of the West
High altitude gley podzols C.G. Vucetich 222 Coast, S.Island J.D. Morton 344
Pasture growth on gley podzols and associated
9. Vegetation and Pedology soils of the West Coast, S.Island -
re~ults of lime, fertiliser and species
The relationship of indigenous vegetation trials J.D. Morton 347
to gley podzols and pakihi landscapes Multiple plant nutrient deficiencies in G.S. Smith &
on the West Coast, S.Island G.N. Park 227
'pakihi' soils of the West Coast, S.Island K.R. Middleton 350
Gley podzols and vegetation change - a study Nutrient concentrations in run-off from a
in the Tararua Range G.N. Park 232
wet terrace land soil on the West Coast, H.K.J. Powell &
Gley Podzols - Soil processes and S. Island M.C. Taylor 354
classification G. Mew 238
Changes in chemical and physical properties
with development on an Addison soil,
10. Chemistry Westport M.B. O'Connor 359
Chemical properties of wet podzolised soils Progress report on the effect of agricultural
from the West Coast, S.Island R. Lee 249 d~velo~ment on some chemical, physical and R. Lee,
Redox potential measurements in two gley R. Lee & b1olog1cal properties of an Okarito silt R.F.Thomas &
podzols and a podzolised gley from E.J. Gibson 261 loam, near Reefton V.A. Orchard 365
West Coast, S.Island
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Page
PREFACE
Studies on development of a wet terrace soil H.K.J. Powell &
for agriculture - Maimai soils at Bell Hill M.C. Taylor 374
There has been concern for several years about the lack of precise
15. Forestry definitive criteria thin the New Zealand Genetic Soil assification.
Exotic forestry on the wet podzolised Podzols and Gley Podzols are no exception in this regard although one
soils of the West Coast, S.Island G. P . S . All an 383 could argue that the nature of the podzolisation process and its results
Indigenous forest management of the wet
are such that it should, in comparison with other soil groups, be
podzolised soils of the West Coast,
relatively easy to establish such criteria for a podzol group. Not only
G.P.S. Allan 385 is there a lack of definitive criteria, but what little there is does
S.Island not seem to have been uniformly applied. Currently in the genetic
Fertiliser trials for exotic forestry on
wet podzolised soils West Coast, S.Island D.J. Mead 389 classification podzols are defined as having prominent 0, and ash-grey
Rooting patterns of Pinus radiata and
silica-rich, A2 horizons, and commonly but not always humus and iron
Pinus muricata on a ploughed and
illuvial horizons; the A2 horizon being taken as the main differentiat-
fertilised gley podzol in Westland P.J. Gorman 392 ing characteristic. However, on Soil Bureau files re are many examples
1
of soils with ash-grey A2 rizons being classi ed as lised soils
1

396 rather than podzols and also examples of soils without as grey A2
16. Bibliography horizons being classified as podzols. There may well have been good
reasons why these soils were so classified, but it hardly helps a
classification system if the reasons are not followed up, analysed,
discussed and results disseminated through the classifica on scheme.
The somewhat peculiar, elevated, status of the gley pod s is also
symptomatic of a lack of definitive criteria. This group of soils,
perhaps best considered as a sub-group of podzols, has in many cases
been raised to a status equal to that of the podzols ves.
Podzolisation as a process is one that has interes and intrigued
soil sci sts since the recognition of soils themselves.
standing what is involved in the formation a pod
slowly; there is, however, probably s 11 a 1
sci sts can say that they fully understand
most widely accepted theory of recent years has been that
developed through the redistribution of Al, Fe and
lowing the movement of Al and Fe organic complexes
and their subsequent precipitation at depth. The
involved and the nature of the precipitation mechanism been the
subject of much discussion in the literature. Recent observations on the
presence of allophanic-type materials in the illuvial ho zons of
podzols formed from non-volcanic parent materials have led to the
proposal that a redistribution of Al and Si in an ino complex0 may
also occur during podzolisation. The process known as 1 ysis may
also have a role to play in the development of the wetter zol le.
The main function of the NZSSS 'soil gro 1 issues is sent
the current 1 state-of-play 1 in relation to the soil group under discussion.
They attempt to present what is known at the date of issue about ass-
~fication, nition, distribution, properties and use. Hope ly the
1ssue has achieved this function.
The continued willingness of authors to give their me to the
Preparation of articles for soil groups issues is greatly appreciated
by council of the society. I would like to add my thanks to all the
authors so readily contributed to this issue.
nally I would like to thank Janice Gibson and Rod .Furkert for
their help in the final preparation of the manu pt, ire Mclean for
 8
9

final typing and Heather Kinloch and Quentin Christie for help with
diagrams, tables and photographs.

R. Lee
Soil Bureau, DSIR
Lower Hutt

October 1980

A. PODZOLS
 11

1. DEFINITION CLASSIFICATION

s - FINITION; CLASSIFICATION
AND INTERNATIONAL CORRE ION

J.0. Cowie
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt

Podzols were defined in New Zealand by Grange (1944) in the follow-

ing terms - "A well_develo~ed podzol_ is characterised by a_dar~-grey
humus-bearing topsoil resting on a light ash-grey layer which in turn
rests on a brown iron-cemented layer. In places a horizon of humus-
bearing soil is interposed between the grey and the iron-bearing layer".

This followed the contemporary overseas concept of podzols, and

the definition was confirmed later in Soils of New Zealand (N.Z. Soil
Bureau 1968b)where podiform soils (podzols) are defined as "They have
prominent 0 2 and ash-grey structureless silica-rich A2 horizons*and
commonly but not always have humus and iron illuvial horizons. Owing
to the transient nature of the 0 2 horizon after clearing the forest,
the A2 is the main differentiating characteristic".

However, this fairly tight definition of podzols has not always

been followed in New Zealand.

In the early genetic soil classification outlined by Grange (1945)

the term podzol was used to include all soils in which the podzolising
process was operating and so included soils which we now regard as yellow-
brown earths, yellow-brown sands, yellow-brown pumice soils, podzolised
yellow-brown earths and podzolised yellow-brown pumice soils as well as
mature podzols as defined.

Two subgroups of podzols were recognised: primary podzols to include

the soils from rhyolitic ashes and the secondary podzols to include those
from sedimentary rocks.

In each subgroup various leaching stages were recognised, from the

weakly developed soils such as yellow-brown sands, yellow-brown pumice
soils and weakly leached yellow-brown earths, to strongly leached and
podzolised soils and podzols, by the terms young, immature, semi-mature
and mature.

In the General Survey of the Soils of North Island, New Zealand

(N.Z. Soil Bureau 1954) most of these soils were renamed primary
podzo~ic and secondary podzolic soils with both being subdivided into
leaching stages recognised by the terms young, immature, semi-mature,
sub-mature and mature. These leaching sequences were dependent on rain-

*
The A2 horizon would be equivalent to an albic or E horizon
 12 13

fall and vegetation, and the mature and some of the sub-mature soils were I technical terms of the New Zealand classification (N.Z. Soil
as true podzols although they were not separated out as such n 196 3b) the podzols are classed as podiform at Category I and the
Bureau f
on the map legend. This was done however on the 1948 Soil Map of New ke criteria is t~e presence o a w~ll-developed pale colo~red st:ucture-
Zealand (Taylor 1?48 - see also Taylor &Cox 1956) where another separate y and silica-rich subsurface horizon (an albic or E horizon) with sub-
1ess
group, the podzolised yellow-brown earths was created to include the 'di"ary features being· a h ig
· hl Y organic
· A h orizon,
· and the presence o f
semi-m~ture and sub-mature members of the podzolic soils group.
si
· an·d . h b · 1
These iron . humus pans in t e su soi .
podzolised yellow-brown earths represent an intermediate stage between
the yellow-brown earths and podzols and are strongly leached soils This is in contrast to the present North American, English and FAO
characterised by greyish-coloured horizons, coatings of iron and h~mus soil classification systems ~here ~ost of the emphasis is placed in the
on the B horizon, and the lack of the well developed A2 (E) horizon of characteristics of the B horizons in the classification of these soils.
the podzols. However strict boundary criteria have never been formulated The concept of the pale-coloured subsurface horizon has however been a
and this requires to be done if the genetic classification is to progress. valuable and useful one for New Zealand, as it allows soils to be fitted
into soil development sequences, with the most strongly leached soils
Early.wor~ers in New Zealand soon recognised the dominating effects under higher rainfalls and a concentration of mor-forming trees, having
of .vegetation in the development of podzols and podzolised soils, and well developed and thick E horizons. However, this concept is now
while these tended to be formed in areas of high rainfall and on acid, becoming less useful. Large-scale exotic forestry operations in which
coarse-textured parent materials, they also required mor-forming trees the upper soil horizons are grossly disturbed, and land clearing and
such as kauri, rimu, kamahi, silver beech, mountain beech, or mountain pasture development accompanied by deep ploughing or discing are tending
cedar as essential components of the vegetation. to obliterate or mask the pale-coloured subsurface horizons. Because of
this, more emphasis will, in the future, need to be placed on subsoil
As these trees were mostly randomly distributed in the forest, characteristic in the classification of podzols and podzolic soils in
podzols and podzolised soils usually formed an intricate mosaic in which New Zealand.
it was difficult to map the individual soils separately. This was
partly the reason that podzolised soils and podzols were included If the criteria of the pale-coloured subsurface horizon is retained,
together in many soil maps and publications. This, and the lack of additional criteria will be needed to separate podzols from weakly and
strict definition of the boundaries between podzolised soils and podzols moderately leached soils with well developed E horizons such as gleyed
have led to many inconsistencies in the New Zealand soil literature with yellow-grey earths. These criteria could include very low percentage
a tendency to call many soils with well developed A2 horizons and iron- base saturations or the presence of a spodic horizon as defined in
humus pans podzolised soils rather than simply podzols. Soil Taxonomy.

For instance in the General Survey of the Soils of North Island At Category II, they are subdivided according to their energy status,
(N.Z. Soil Bureau 1954) the soil profile shown in Fig.18 is classed in so we have northern podzols as appodic soils; central and southern soils
the caption as a podzolised soil, but in the text on the following page as (pro)podic soils and upland and high country podzols as eldepodic
as a podzol. soils.

As well, the profiles described in Soil Groups of New Zealand At Category III they are subdivided according to the kind and grade
(N.Z. Society of Soil Science 1957) as Renata silt loam and as Haast of weathering and at this stage podzols from rhyolitic ash or from wind-
series, are classed as podzolised yellow-brown earths yet they would fit blown sand are taken out as subpodic soils (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968b).
the concept of podzols as defined. However with the podzols from rhyolitic ash, it may be important to high-
light their allophanic nature and class them as subamopodic. This would
In the common terms of the New Zealand genetic soil classification, separate them from the sand podzols and allow a place for podzols from
no hard and fast rules were made for the subdivision of the podzols. more strongly weathered tephra as amopodic soils.
On the soil map in the Descriptive Atlas of New Zealand (Taylor et aZ.
1959~ they are subdivided into northern, central and southern podzols, At Category IV they are subdivided according to morphological
and in the New Zealand Atlas (Leamy &Fieldes 1976) as northern, central, differences which are interpreted in terms of the kind and degree of
southern and high country podzols. On the Soil Map of New Zealand processes that have produced them. These include gleying, and clay humus
~N.Z .. so~l Bureau 1968b) they are subdivided on the basis of iron/humus and iron illuviation. At this stage, the gley podzols are separated out
illuviation and on gleying. They also may be given names according to and they are .regarded as a sub-group of the podzols rather than as a
the type of podzol. For instance the podzol described by Pullar &Cowie separate group. Thus the kauri podzol, Wharekohe silt loam, is classed
(1?67) at Mount Maunganui would be called a sand podzol; the Wharekohe as a B-gleyed clay illuvial appodic soil; the sand podzol, Te Kopuru
soils of North Auckland a kauri podzol; podzols under rimu as rimu sand as a humus-iron illuvial appodic (subappodic?) soil; the rimu podzols
podzols; podzols from rhyolitic ash as pumice podzols; and the strongly of the King Country from Taupo Pumice as a humus-iron illuvial subpodic
gleyed Okarito soil as a gley podzol. In many publications the gley soil (subamopodic).
podzols have been elevated to the status of a separate soil group rather
than.as a subdivision of the podzols, but this has been nowhere near At Category V they are subdivided according to the state of enleaching
consistent. although most would be in the very strongly enleached class.
 14
15

At Category VI they are subdivided according to the type of parent

IN SCO CLASSIFI ION

CORRELATION
Almost all the podzols* as defined in the New Zealand classification
fit into the Spodosol order of the USDA Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey R.B. Miller
1975) although they are not necessarily equivalent. In Soil Taxonomy Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
criteria for the definition and classification of the Spodosol
order are based on properties of the B horizon rather than of the surface
or subsurface horizons as in the New Zealand classification system. The study of podzols for the FAO/Unesco Soil Map of the World is a
in practice most of the New Zealand podzols have a spodic very good example of the value of this project to soil science. To say
horizon as defined. that classification in the podzol area world-wide was a shambles would
be to put it mildly. The names "podzol", "podzolic", and their relatives
Most of the New Zealand podzols would be classed as Orthods or Humods were used for a vast range of soils. In addition, many very similar soils
at the suborder level although those with gleyed horizons, including some had quite different names. An account of the podzol study was given by
podzols, the gley and groundwater podzols, and some of the upland Dr Dudal at the First Congress of the Bulgarian Society of Soil Science
country would be Aquods. in 1970 and reprinted in "New Zealand Soil News" (Dudal 1971) . He
described the nomenclature problem and explained how the situation had
Most of them would be included in Haplic subgroups except for some been rationalised in the Soil Map of the World legend. His conclusions
of the upland and high country podzols which would be Cryic. Those with were:
iron-pans would be Placic.
1. If soil names are to have a scientific meaning, the use which has
Some of the North Auckland soils such as Wharekohe have a densipan been made of the names podzol, podzolic and podzolised needs to be
and it has been proposed that such soils be classed as Densiaquods seriously reconsidered. This problem is not limited to "podzolic" soils
. D. Smith, pers. comm.). but applies equally well to a number of other soil groups .
2. It appears that bleached or pale surface horizons are not necessarily
In the Canadian system of soil classification (Canada Department of
developed by podzolisation but may also be formed by argilluviation or
1970) most New Zealand podzols would fit in the Podzolic
seasonal surface waterlogging, or both. As a result, certain soils which
order but again this order would encompass both podzols and podzolised
have been classified as "podzolic" have to be reclassified and renamed
soils. (e.g. as Luvisols, Acrisols, Podzoluvisols or Planosols). Such adjust-
ments should not be considered as a break with tradition but as a
In the English system of soil classification (Avery 1973) the podzols
reflection of dynamic progress in soil science.
fall into the major group of Podzolic soils which are characterised by
a podzolic B horizon (similar to a spodic horizon). 3. Podzolisation is not always accompanied by the formation of bleached
horizons. Consequently, the intensity of podzolisation is not necessarily
Most would fall into the podzol (sensustricto) group which is indicated by the degree of bleaching of the surface or subsurface horizons.
characterised by a continuous albic E horizon and/or a distinct iron/humus On the other hand, bleached horizons may be obliterated by cultivation.
horizon. Some of the upland and high country podzols may be classed as It is therefore necessary that podzols be defined in first place on the
Humic Cryptopodzols and the groundwater podzols and gley podzols as characteristics of their B horizon rather than on the nature of their
Gley Podzols and Stagnopodzols. A horizons.
4. Marked textural profiles in soils may not be the result of argilluv-
In the FAO soil classification (FAO 1974) the podzols would fit into iation only. It appears that seasonal surface waterlogging alternating
the podzol unit. with drying may be an important process in their formation. Furthermore,
it seems that in certain environments illuvial clay accumulation is only
a temporary stage in soil formation and that it may be followed by a
progressive breakdown of the B horizon. Both these processes seem to
~arrant the separation at high level of the soils in which they play an
important role (Planosols and Podzoluvisols respectively).
5. Although soils have major zones of distribution it appears that their
development and occurrence may result from different combinations of soil
forming factors which are not necessarily bound to present day climatic
The New Zealand podzols with a high clay content such as Wharekohe do zones.
not fit the Spodosol order as they have too low a combined index of
accumulation to have a spodic horizon. This criteria and the ratio 6. In order to promote comparative studies and the transfer of experience
of pyrophosphate extractable iron plus aluminium to clay, would need ~nd knowledge over country boundaries, it is highly desirable that an
to be changed before these soils would fit into the Spodosol order. international agreement be reached on a common classification and nomen-
clature of soils. An attempt has been made, within the FAO/Unesco Soil Map
of the World Project, to prepare a comprehensive list of the major soils
 16 17

Other Podzols having a B horizon in which a subhorizon contains

covering the earth's surface, taking int~ acc~unt prese~t knowledge on dispersed organic matter and lacks sufficient free iron to turn
their characteristics, genesis and relationships to environmental redder on ignition
conditions. The proposed subdivision and nomenclature are not meant as Humic Podzols (Ph)
a substitute for existing soil classification systems and names! bu~ they
could be used as a conunon denominator with a vi~w to strengthening inter- Other Podzols in which the ratio of percentage of free iron to
national understanding. percentage of carbon is 6 or more in all subhorizons of the B
horizon Ferric Podzols (Pf)
THE FAO/UNESCO PODZOL UNITS Other Podzols lacking or having only a thin (2 cm or less) and
discontinuous albic E horizon; lacking a subhorizon within the
To classify podzols in the FAO/Unesco system the Key to Soil Units B horizon which is visibly more enriched with carbon
in Volume 1 of the Soil Map of the World texts (FAO 1974) is followed. Leptic Podzols (Pl)
The Key starts with Histosols (organic soils) and continues with Other Podzols
Lithosols, Vertisols, Fluvisols (on recent alluvial deposits), Salonchaks Orthic Podzols (Po)
(salty soils), Gleysols, Andosols, Arenosols (sandy soils), Regosols,
Rankers, Rendzinas and then comes to Podzols.

The Podzols are soils which do not fall into any of the preceding In the New Zealand part of the 1:5000 OOO Soil Map of the World,
units and which have a spodic B horizon. three sub-groups occur, Gleyic Podzols on the West Coast of the South
Island, and Placic Podzols and Orthic Podzols in many areas. Placic
Spodi c B horizon Podzols are dominant in associations only in Stewart Island but occur
as associated soils or inclusions along the West Coast of Northland and
This is defined as follows and is clearly close to the spodic horizon in the West of Southland. Orthic Podzols are noted on the peninsula
of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy: running up to the North Cape, in the South Island mountains, and in South-
east Otago. The Podzols are commonly associated with Dystric Cambisols,
"A spodic B horizon meets one or more of the following requirements but other soils such as Regosols, Lithosols, Gleysols, Histosols and
below a depth of 12.5 cm, or, when present, below an Ap horizon: Acrisols also occur in the units.

1. A subhorizon more than 2.5 cm thick that is continuously cemented Correlation at order level with New Zealand "Podzols" is reasonably
by a combination of organic matter with iron or aluminium or with straightforward. At suborder level, no direct correlation is possible,
both. except perhaps with the Gleyic Podzols. The sand podzols, such as the
2. A sandy or coarse-loamy texture with distinct dark pellets of Te Kopuru soils of Northland, appear to fit satisfactorily into Orthic
coarse silt size or with sand grains covered with cracked coatings. Podzols. The lowland and upland "podzolised yellow-brown earths and
podzols" of South-east Otago such as the Tautuku and Pukepahi soils, and
3. One or more subhorizons in which: many of the high country podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols of
(a) if there is O.l percent or more extractable iron, the ratio the South Island mountains, also come into this subgroup. Placic Podzols,
of iron plus aluminium (elemental) extractable by ~yrophosp~ate with an iron pan, also occur in Northland and the South Island high
at pH 10 to percentage of clay is 0.2 or more, or if there is country but are best and most extensively developed in Stewart Island,
less than 0.1 percent extractable iron, the ratio of aluminium e.g. Paterson soils. Thus both Placic and Orthic subgroups occur in the
plus carbon to clay is 0.2 or more; and New Zealand podzols and podzolised yellow-brown earths in all areas and
zones.
(b) the sum of pyrophosphate-extractable iron plus aluminium i~
half or more of the sum of dithionite-citrate extractable iron Correlation with Soil Taxonomy is more precise as the spodic horizon
plus aluminium; and requirement is conunon to the Podzols and the Spodosols. In the subgroups
(c) the thickness is such that the index of accumulation of amorphous in New Zealand, the Gleyic Podzols would relate generally to the Aquods,
material (CEC at pH 8.2 minus one half the c~ay percen~age the Placic Podzols to the Placorthods, and the Orthic Podzols to the
multiplied by the thickness in centimetres) in the horizons that Haplorthods.
meet the preceding requirements is 65 or more".

Within the Podzol unit six sub-units are defined. These are:
Podzols having a thin iron pan in or over the spodic B horizon
Placic Podzols (Pp)
Other Podzols showing hydromorphic properties within 50 cm of the
surface Gleyic Podzols (Pg)
 18 19

2. DISTRIBUTION AND PROPERTIES

NORTHLAND PENINSULA
R Northern sand podzol
~ Northern loamy podzol
H.S. Gibbs
Department of Earth Sciences, t\!~~.~/:~~ Northern loamy podzol mosaic
University of Waikato
Northern podzols are a subgroup of the major podzol group developed
in warm humid regions of New Zealand from rock materials of dominantly
siliceous composition. They occur widely on terrace, rolling and moder-
ately steep land subject to well distributed rainfall of 1400 mm or more,
and an average annual temperature of 15°C. Under these conditions rock
materials are strongly weathered thus providing contrast with podzols of
more southern parts of New Zealand. This contrast was demonstrated
externally by the growth of kauri trees in the native forests in associat-
ion with other "pines" such as rimu and tanekaka. Since the time of
settlement the vegetation on many areas of podzols has been shrubs, ferns
and rushes, but the soils contained many roots and much gum of past kauri
trees that failed to regenerate on the sites after destruction by fires.
The soils were commonly described as gumland soils and research under
that term was reported by Grange (1934). The distribution of podzols
and podzolised yellow-brown earths in Northland is shown in Fig.1.

The podzols of the northern subgroup are conveniently described

under two headings - northern sand podzols and northern loamy podzols.

A. NORTHERN SAND PODZOLS:

Characteristics of the northern sand podzols are strongly expressed
in profiles of the Te Kopuru soils. These soils are extensively developed
on siliceous sand deposits of terrace lands along the western and northern 0 -SO km
coastal areas of North Auckland. A profile description is:

Location: Mititai-Tauraroa Road 1.1 km east of Highway 12,

N23/465614
0 '
Topography: 5 lower half of straight slope, aspect S. altitude
35 m
Site Drainage: Well drained Soil Map 01f
Vegetation: Manuka, bracken fern, rushes of unused land
Climate: Annual rainfall 1250 mm. Mean temp. range 19°C-10°C North Aock.l1a1rld
Parent rock: Aeolian siliceous sands of Pleistocene Age
Pit Description:
1 - 0 cm litter of dead and decomposing leaves,
A 0 - 23 cm brownish black (lOYR 3/1) loamy sand; very friable;
weak medium crumb grading below 10 cm into single
grain structure; many roots; many white grains;
distinct wavy boundary, Prepared from data in Soil Bureau bulletin 26
E 23 - 45 cm pale grey (7.5YR 8/1) sand; firm to very firm towards
base; structureless; few roots; distinct wavy
boundary, Figure 1. Soils of North Auckland
Bh 45 - 60 cm dark reddish brown (5YR 3/2) sand; friable; weak fine
nut structure; many roots; many white grains;
indistinct irregular boundary,
 20 21

Bfe 60 - 68 cm reddish brown (7.5YR 4/4) sand; hard and finely

laminated; indistinct wavy boundary,
C on yellow (lOYR 7/8) compact sand with red stains
along cracks for 15-20 cm.
Soil type: Te Kopuru loamy sand
Soil Classification: Northern sand podzol

This profile is a text book example of the podzolisation process in

its thick, distinct balanced expression of E, Bh, Bfe, and C horizons.
The virtual absence of 0 horizon (150 cm - 30 cm thick in forest reserves)
and over thickening of A horizon are due to past replacement of the native
forest for farming and subsequent reversion of the grassland to shrubs
and ferns. The latter vegetation and associated organisms have melanised
the upper part of the previous E horizon, as indicated by the numerous
white sand grains in the present A horizon.

A quarry near the profile shows that the site has received three
deposits of sand with intervals during each of which the surface soils
were podzols. It is notable that horizons of profiles on the latest sand
deposits are less than half as thick as those on the lower half of the
slope (as described above). Soils on the lower slopes are developed from
older sand deposits subject to podzolisation before burial and for that
reason are more susceptible to the modern repetition of the process.
Thus the section demonstrates (1) a continuation of· the environment of
podzolisation and (2) the influence of the time factor on the degree of
development of the profiles.

On flat terrace land adjoining the site described above, profiles

(e.g. Fig.2) are notable for
(1) E horizons up to 1 m thickness of which the lower half is extremely
hard and compact. It has been variously termed silica pan or densipan,
(2) Bh horizons 0-50 cm thick and very hard when dry,
(3) Bfe horizons consisting of thin iron pans and little staining.

These profiles indicate the effect of topography in decreasing the

external drainage and increasing the internal effects of gleyisation
associated with perched water table conditions.

Greater effects of reduction and gleyisation are seen in profiles

on lowlands subject to periodic saturation with groundwater. Soils of
the One Tree Point series express these conditions, as illustrated by the Figure 2. Te Kopuru sand profile
profile described in Soils of New Zealand (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968b). This
soil shows the increased influence of gleyisation on podzolisation in the
extensive staining of all horizons by products of the decomposition of
organic matter, in the less acid, higher cation exchange capacity, high Colloids between E and B horizons. The compacted B horizon is a barrier
exchangeable aluminium and phosphate retention of subsurface horizons. to Water and to roots, thus favouring shallow rooted plants. Planting
Where successive additions of sand have occurred, sections show 3 levels of tree crops has not been successful. Use for agricultural purposes
of deep Bh horizons indicating repetition of the processes as the land has been successful after application of ·a wide range of elements -
accumulated. Phosphorus, potassium, calcium, molybdenum, copper, cobalt, selenium
according to requirements of the particular plants. Details of fertiliser
Analyses of Te Kopuru sands show typical podzol properties - strongly tr~atments are given by During (1972) and by Hewitt et al. (1980) in
acid reaction, low to very low contents of nutrient elements, depletion of this issue. Although initial treatments are heavy and costly, maintenance
upper horizons of all elements except silicon, marked increase in more levels are low because leaching is restricted by the subsoil pans and the
stable elements, and in organic, mineral and amorphous sesquioxide low content of clays provide little resistance to nutrient supplies.
 23
22

The profile properties of Wharekohe soil are due primarily to the

B. NORTHERN LOAMY PODZOLS parent rock. Under the strong weathering the sedimentary rocks provide
a parent material high in clay (kaolin, illite, cristobalite) that drains
Loamy podzols are developed on sedimentary sandstones, siltstones, slowly and influences the rate and composition of leaching and the kind
claystones, greywacke or colluvium and alluvium derived from erosion of of vegetation (compared with the Te Kopuru soil). Field evidence
these rocks. Wharekohe soils (e.g. Fig.3) are representative of the indicates that these conditions commonly are factors responsible for
class and occur extensively in the region from Auckland city to North Cap northern yellow-brown earths such as Waikare and Whangaripo soils (N.Z.
usually in close.association with ~oils of the northern yellow~brown ear~ soil Bureau 1968b). In these soils -
group. The profile of Wharekohe silt (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968b) illustrates (1) decomposition of organic matter is rapid (c.f. C/N ratios),
the properties of loamy podzols. Although the broad pattern of (2) there is downward migration of clay,
morphological and chemical properties are consistent with podzols, the (3) there is little amorphous sesquioxides in B horizons (c.f. Tamm
paler duller colours of subsurface horizons, the thick coatings of humic extracts),
stained colloids to aggregates of the B horizon, and the separate mottling (4) iron is segregated into mottles,
of iron accumulation differ markedly from the sand podzol. (5) the vegetation is mixed forest with a dominance of podocarp spp.

Where the nutrient level becomes low (through leaching of local

material) the proportion of kauri increases and the effects of polyphenols
and other organic compounds from leaves, bark and litter of kauri (invest-
igated by Bloomfield 1957b)intensifies the decomposition and dispersion
of constituents in the upper horizons. In these circumstances podzolis-
ation becomes a dominant process and is the basis for the direct associat-
ion of kauri trees and podzols. This association is supported by the
local occurrences of the feature (Taylor &Pohlen 1962) termed "eggcup"
podzol (although generally more saucer shaped than eggcup) in which areas
of Waikare soils have patches of loamy podzols that approximate in shape
a vertical projection of the kauri trees on the ground. In the patch,
E and B horizons decrease in thickness outward from a central core that
represents the site of the trunk and input of stem flow. These patches
provide a spectacular exhibit of a concept of podzolisation that deserves
detailed investigation to clarify its sequential development. Does kauri
trigger soil evolution?

Mosaic patterns of Wharekohe loamy podzols and northern yellow-brown

earths are common on convex and straight sloping land in North Auckland.
On concave slopes Wharekohe soils are more extensive being formed on
colluvium washed from adjacent slopes, which being largely eroded A or E
horizons is predisposed to further podzolisation. The surface drainage
is slow and the horizons tend to pale brownish grey to white colours.
This latter feature of gleyisation also characterises the Kara soils formed
in alluvial deposits under periodic high groundwater conditions.

Loamy podzols also include soils developed on rhyolite and dacite

such as Parahaki sandy loam. One of these soils studied by Swindale &
Jackson (1960) showed similar general properties to Wharekohe soils with
differences in contents of clay and composition of secondary minerals
resulting from differences in parent rock rather than in processes of soil
formation. Mineralogical analyses of many loamy podzols report glass in
the upper horizons, indicating additions of volcanic ash to the surface.
The additions are important to the geological history of the region but
are considered too small to modify soil processes.

Wharekohe soils show the typical pattern of chemical properties for

podzols, with higher values than Te Kopuru soils for properties relating
to clay content and slower drainage and leaching. The major difference
from the sand podzols lies in the physical properties (see Fig.3) - weak
Figure 3. Wharekohe silt loam profile to negligible aggregation in A and E horizons, coarse nutty to prismatic
aggregates in the B horizon. These properties are the major limitation to
 24
25

agricultural use as they cause wide fluctuations in the moisture content

which is very difficult to overcome. These limitations are less
restrictive on deep rooting trees which, however, require fertilisers to BAY OF PLENTY
overcome the low nutrient content of the loamy podzols .

CLASS I FI CATION ORNTON

Some alternative classes for northern podzols are:

l ta:. ~

.AW;I,
WHAKATA E
A. Podzols and gleyed podzols respectively for Te Kopuru and Wharekohe 8 . 2 . ~
soils .
EDGEC UMBE
B. Podzol for Whar ekohe soil on basis of derivation from average rock
in a strong weathering zone . In that case Te Kopuru soil would be 3
a podzolised northern yellow-brown sand. §! =~.::: Sands ~
C. Podzolised northern yellow-brown earth for Wharekohe soil with
podzol for Te Kopuru soil. '·"
Profiles And
Sampling Sites
('
5
~ f 11~~ O 5
D. Spodosol for Te Kopuru and Ultisol for Wharekohe under Soil Taxonomy ~Hill Boundary To Cl:Jlc:::Jit:::Jic::J+=:l====:i1 km
rules. Rangitaiki Plains

My preference would be to continue the term podzol and to subdivide

on prior processes and so maintain historical links to the soil that has
demonstrated the science of pedology to millions of people. FIG. 1 A. LOCALITY MAP
B. DISTRIBUTION OF INLAND DUNES AND ASSOCIATED
SOILS ON RANGITAIKI PLAINS PROFILE AND SAMPLING
SITES INDICATED

COASTAL BAY OF PLENTY

i
W.A. Pullar
Retired, formerly Soil Bureau Sued · dunes antedac1n1 Taupo pumice erupuona
----ii
•I
~
INTRO DUCT ION
j
Sand podzols in the coastal Bay of Plenty area are limited to small
areas on the rearward coastal dunes at Mt. Maunganui and adjacent Papamoa
Beach and to the oldest inland dunes on Rangitaiki Plains (Fig.I) .
None have been noted at Waihi Beach and none east of Whakatane. Profiles
at Mt. Maunganui have been described by Pullar &Cowie (1967), at Papamoa
Beach by Pullar (1969), and on Rangitaiki Plains by Pullar &Selby
(unpublished) . A plan showing the age of the dune system on Rangitaiki
Plains and a section across the system are given by Pullar &Selby (1970).
Sand podzols were classified as a special case of yellow-brown sands by
Pullar (1977) but at that time this small group of soils was not envisaged
as a subject of separate study.

MT MAUNGANUI

Sand podzols at Mt . Maunganui and Papamoa Beach have a thick iron

oxide pan (Fig . 2) . There is also an A2 horizon at Mt . Maunganui but
the analysis shows relatively high base saturation values throughout the
profile with no marked drop in the A2 horizon. In the B2fe horizon there
is 0.7% C so the pan is more properly described as an "iron-humus pan" .
 26
27

In 1967 Pullar &Cowie thought that no true podzol was present, but with
more accent on the movement of organic matter to the B2h horizon as a
criterion for a podzol, the soil would now be considered a sand podzol .

RANGITAIKI PLAINS
Age of Dunes TARAWERA ASH

Inland dunes are distributed as a continuous strip contiguous to KAHAROA ASH

the coastal dune s ystem from Matata to near Piripai and as a discontin- Tp TAUPO PUMICE
uous belt in the Awakeri and Piripai localities and in Whakatane Borough .
Mp MAPARA TEPHRA
The largest areas are 4000 m long and 500 m wide and the dimensions of
the smallest areas are much less at 150 m and 50 m respectively. The
elevation ranges from 16 m at Matata, to a metre at Thornton, 4 to 5 m 3
El DUNE SANDS
2
at Awakeri and 6 m in Whakatane Borough. 1
5000- 2700 yr Bp. Sand 2700 - 2100 yr Bp. Sand 2100 - 1800 yr Bp.
Podzol (with thin humus pan ) Podml (with thi humus pan) YeAow Brown Sands
The inland dunes are grouped in age categories according to dated
tephra markers as follows: post-Mapara Tephra eruption to pre-Taupo
Pumice eruption (c . 2100 to c. 1800 yr B. P.); pqst-Whakaipo eruption to
pre-Mapara eruption (c . 2700 to c.2100 yr B.P.) ; post-Whakatane eruption
IO
to pre-Whakaipo eruption (c. 5200 to c. 2700 yr B. P. ). No Whakaipo Tephra (')
C'I
was seen on ridges (Profile 3 in Fig . 3) but was seen in nearby swales. r..
co
Profiles for soils in each category are shown in Fig . 3 and chemical (')

'CJ) co
CJ)
properties for soils on the youngest and oldest dunes are graphed in co O>
Fig.4. A section across the dune system from youngest to oldest would z-
show a progressively thickening iron-oxide/iron oxide-humus pan similar z z z
0 0 0
to that shown for the system at Mt . Maunganui (Fig.2) .

Profiles
z i==
o <
NZ
-
er -(.!)
z~
Oz
N (.!)
z <
N
0
i==
z I- <
_, ::E
z er +
-
er0 Ci(.!)5 UJer I-UJ UJ_,>
o
I ~
en g ff3 UJ <
I 0 I 0 ~ ::E UJ
A feature of the profiles in Fig.3 is the deeper than usual A 0.00
0.00
horizons ranging from 30 cm to 50 cm thick . In Profile 1 the A horizon A, Tr2 A, Tr 2
comprises a mixture of tephra and dune sand whilst in Profiles 2 and 3
it is wholly tephra. In Profiles 1 and 3 the Taupo Pumice layer is
associated with the B2 horizon and in Profile 2 with the A12 horizon.
Underlying dune sands to a depth of 133 cm are still within the zone of 0.20
H A11 Ka II A 11 Ka :?I
.·.·.·.•
·.·.·.·.· a;
0.20
pedological processes , particularly in Profiles 2 and 3, where the sand II A,, ~
a;
grains are iron - humus-coated and humus-coated respectively to form a pan. !11111111 E
.._

Thickness of solum (A + B horizons) ranges from nearly 80 cm in

lllB 2 1e+1 Tp Ill A 12 Tp
!!t!!! I
Ii:
UJ
Profile 1 to more than 130 cm in Profile 2. Profile 3 appears to have 0.40 IVuA Mp 0.40 0
two solums of nearly 40 cm each (see section under Horizon Designation) .
Ill A3 Ka
UJ
(.)
Vu A2 )j)ji!!!j IV A 3 <
Chemical Properties Mp
~m~~~~~ u.
er
:::::::::
VB, ..-.. II B, ::::::::: :::>
Vu B2h :~:}~: ·:·:·:·:·
·.·.·.·.·
·.·.•.••· en
Ch emical properties are compared for two soils , yellow-brown sand ~=~==~=·
and sand podzol , with more or less the same parent materials with an
0.60 ~0.83 0.60
age differ ence of 2000 years (Fig.4). Some erosion is evident between
the marker beds in the yellow-brown sand but none in the older sand [;f~
VB y o.93 fV 8 2 Tp

podzol . With time the older soil has become a little more acid, has a ~1.33
~ c
wider C/ N ratio of nearl y 20 in the A horizon and up to 40 in the buried ·=·=·=·=·
0.80 H ::::;::::
B horizon , has higher CEC values throughout the profile but a distinctly 0.80
lo wer % ba se saturation. Of the cations, Mg and K are of about the same
concentration but Ca is higher in the. A horizon of the older soil.
Inorganic P has been leached from the old er soil . FIG 3 SOIL PROFILES OF KOPEOPEO LOAMY SAND ON RIDGES OF INLAND
DUNES, RANGITAIKI PLAINS .
Organic C ranges from 4 to 6.7% in the A1 horizons and this value
reduces to about 1.0 to 1 .7% in the B2 horizons associated with Taupo
 28

29·

. (Fig.4). A value of 1.2% was obtained for the uB 2h horizon of

Pumic~coated dune sand in the podzol of Profile 3 and 2.0% for a similar
hum~son in Profile 2 (not shown in Fig.4). The darker portion of the pan
c:
<
c: <:==
c:.f- -() CD< = - = HORIZON
h~~~za hue of 5YR gave 0.9% C and the paler portion with a hue of lOYR
> >

____
,JJJ > >1;:>-::
> }' .., ~CD }'
~ _.,_ U)-:::
w~ve 0.3% c. The volume-weight of organic matter in the A horizons of
~ ~ g ~~~ ~
.....
0 0
.,.. .,.."'1 8: & ~
.....
0 0 ,.. DEPTH (cm) .,. ~hese soils amounts to 24 tonnes per 45 cm-hectare .
"~
~ wf?1@ fWi!u//m;ml
~
~
In the yellow-brown sand Tamm's extract gave an Fe value of 0.15%
f r the B2 horizon associated with Taupo Pumice and this figure is only
0
weww~
0 rpassed by that in the A1 horizon. No analysis was done for the sand
5> WT sudzol in Profile 3 except for the lowermost horizon of uB 2h where the
~ ~I:: ,.;
$..
z
?/?. ~~value was found to be negligible.
~~

~
1.,,. -<
l-:::c() ~ (/)
>
~
0
()
~
The wide C/N ratio of 40 in the uB 2h horizon of Profile 3 is for
the present not understood . A C/N ratio of 22 was also obtained for the
~m ..,0 B f +h in the sand podzol associated with Profile 2. Is something
l~
fr 0 ~
i~hibiting the oxidation of organic matter in a sandy soil?

.... :B Horizon Designation

l~ m
;m 0
I
In Profile 3 the designation of horizons in the lower part of the
profile presents difficulties. In the Bzfe+h horizon associated with
i'Q Taupo Pumice the iron oxide could be produced in situ or complexed with
se (I) mobile organic matter rather than being illuviated in this layer. Some
s
0
z
I

l
0

"'"'
support for in situ release comes from the presence of "rusty" Taupo
Pumice often noted in the sides of drains passing through swamps on
Rangitaiki Plains. Analysis, however, showed organic C to be present
·-< if "'...0 ~
?/?. with the iron oxide, so it was decided to nominate the Taupo Pumice
2
z r+
3
"' layer as a Bzfe+h horizon. The B2h horizon lies 3 horizons below the
C>
~
0
!ii Taupo Pumice layer . The problem is the designation of the two horizons
rn-t i ;a.
0
~ llil' in between.
> :II
::I ~E~
z c..
0
0 i ~
The upper one is described as a pale brown (lOYR 6/3) very friable
6
m i '
~ I
loamy sand with a weakly developed fine granular structure (Mapara
Tephra) and the lower one as a loose light brownish grey (lOYR 6/2) fine
-t ~
"'1
I "'
0
" sand (dune sand) . In Fig.3 the horizons are designated uA and uA2.

~
z ~ 0

> ~ ..... An alternative is to name them C horizons of the present soil and call
z .... I.... 0 z "U
the uB2h a uA horizon. A further alternative is to retain the uB2h
0 J: 3:'
0 ~ 15
'1n
..o
Ip with a uA absent perhaps from wind blowing in the past . At the Soil
c ~ Survey meeting in Whakatane in 1965 L.C. Blakemore offered the tentative
z
rn comment that . .. "without having seen the soil in the field there seems

~
0.,, to be room for doubt as to whether the uBfe (= uB2h today) horizon is
a buried B horizon or a buried A horizon. The main reason for this doubt
~ is that the organic content of this horizon seems too high for a B horizon
~ ~~1 at this depth and too raw (C/N 22) for it to have resulted from movement
i! o•
ii"'I - -=o and re-deposition "
! lj9a·-·
~i.j
g,
a-
~ 2 l ~ A completely different alternative is to regard the soil as a ground-
:!
(I) CD C/l(I)
CQCD
(/)
CD -n m o (') CD
(/)
CD
.,, m 0 ('> CD
(/)
CD water podzol. The water table could well have been near the surface at
;u- u the time of European settlement and before the neighbouring peat land
~
"'1
£!r~ !.... ...
"'1

c ~ ·~ ~
(with Pongakawa soils) was drained. Peat shrinkage measurements indicate
the surface could have been as much as 3 m higher than ·it is today .
The Taupo Pumice layer could have been waterlogged in a wet winter and on
drying out the iron on the pumice gravels would have become oxidised
giving the reddish colour characteristic of this layer in a poorly drained
soil.
 30
31

Classification
The seal of approval for the classification of the soil of Profile 3
as a sand podzol was given by Dr Guy Smith and W.C. Rijkse who examined
the profile in 1977. They applied a field test of burning a sample of
the pan uB 2h and obtained a white residue thus indicating a humus pan.
They regard the uB 2h horizon as part of the solum and classified the
soil to great group level as a Haplorthod.

Some confirmation of this determination comes from the observation

of egg-cup B2fe+h horizons on a dimpled surface near the site of Profile LO 0 ~ LQ 0
r..: T" LO !:"- 'I""'
2 and this arrangement suggests that podocarp trees grew there a long
time ago. The sand podzol, however, is regarded as an obsolete feature
of the present day soil _J
0
N
Land Use c <
0
0...
In the Mt Maunganui locality the principal use is industrial, in
the Papamoa locality increasingly residential, with the remainder near
mouth of Kaituna River still in pastoral farming. On Rangitaiki Plains
the main use is in pastoral farming, largely dairying.

0
T"

ROTORUA; TAUPO AND EAST COAST

W.C. Rijkse
Soil Bureau
Rotorua
< -
al al (.)

INTRODUCTION

Soils with tephric parent material that occur under a podzol-forming

environment (e.g. high annual rainfall resulting in strong leaching, high
altitudes, acid litter conditions) show stages of sequential podzol 0::: 0:::
development: >- >- >-
0 0 LO
c 'I""' T" cl
(a) At about 550 m altitude under an annual rainfall of some 1800 mm UJ
deposition of free sesquioxides occurs in the B horizon to form a Bfe en
generally of 7.5YR to 5YR hue, and an A2 horizon occurs irregularly, ::::i
mainly under former tree sites. These soils are referred to as podzolised 0
N
yellow-brown pumice soils, podzolised composite soils or podzolised yellow- c
brown loams depending on the nature of the parent materials. ~I
(b) In areas over 600 m altitude under annual rainfall of over 2000 mm, z
a profile on the same parent material, such as Taupo Pumice, will 0
intensify in podzol properties:
z
,....
The Bfe hori:on changes in hue from 7.5YR to 5YR or redder.
There is visible evidence of humus illuviation in the B horizon
with darker chromas and humus coatings on peds.
An albic or Ari horizon is common in this environment. Such soils
are pod~ols rither than podzolised soils (Fig.l).
 32 .) .)

These features are particularly well expressed in younger tephras

such as Kaharoa Ash, Taupo Pumice and Waimihia Formation, but
podzol development is not as clear in soils developed from older
weathered tephra where thin iron and humus coatings may begin to
appear over 600 m altitude. Similarly soils developed under
frost-flat conditions show only a weakly developed thin Bf
horizon, possibly due to lack of an acid litter-forming ve~etation.
Albic horizons are rare in podzols developed either from older
weathered tephra or in a frost-flat environment.

DISTRIBUTION

The distribution of podzols, podzolised soils and related steepland

soils in Central and Eastern North Island is shown in Fig.2. The soils
occur generally at high altitudes except where young tephra prevented
development, or above the forest line (Mts Ruapehu, Ngauruhoe, Tarawera).

The sequences of the soils are best illustrated with some frequently
occurring examples:

King Country (Fig.3, Section A-A~on Fig.2)

This west-east section is taken from Ongarue to Lake Taupo.

-•
Benneydale soils occur at relatively low altitudes compared with similar ~
2.

podzolised yellow-brown pumice soils. They occur on flat terraces and 0 «.!

are derived from water-sorted, generally coarse, pumice. It is possible

that forest grew on these terraces, hence the advanced podzolisation.
Kaama soils and Hukakia soils have similar parent material but because of
higher annual rainfall and high altitudes are stronger podzolised.
Tihoi and Pureora soils are both derived from airfall Taupo Pumice, but
Tihoi soil occur up to 750 m altitude under rimu-tawa forest where the A2
horizon occurs only locally (e . g. under rimu trees). In contrast,
Pureora soils occur above 750 m altitude under beech, and always have an A2
horizon and a Bhfe horizon.

The importance of vegetation of podzol formation is demonstrated in

profiles of Keepa soils developed on flow-tephra in a frost-flat environ-
ment . The vegetation on these frost-flats consists of monoao, tussock
grasses, lichens and mosses. Soil profiles only show a thin Bfe horizon
and no A2 horizon occurs.

Pokaka soils are podzolised yellow - brown loams with abundant iron
coatings on peds in the Bfe horizon .

At lower altitudes towards Lake Taupo, Oruanui soils only have 7.5YR
hues in the B horizon . Such soils are only thought of as weakly podzolised
but Soil Taxonomy classes them as Spodosols.

Mamaku-Lake Rotorua (Fig . 4, Section B-B~on Fig . 2)

Podzols (Mamaku soils) occur on the Mamaku Plateau above 600 m

altitude under a rimu-tawa forest vegetation. Profiles have an A-A2-Bhf -
Bf horizon with distinct accumulation of organic carbon in the Bhf e
ho~izon (A horizon has 4 . 5% C and Bhfe has 7 . 5% C). e

Waiteti soils at 500 m altitude under annual rainfall of 1800 mm

are only weakly podzolised with rare A2 horizons and weakly developed Bfe
horizon.
 i ' APPROXo AlTITUDE
l~i:?E
1~ (.Y ~

I~
0 0

~
0 0
Q

PODZOL FROM THIN

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 36
37

remoana

on the cross section are formed from Kaharoa Ash on

a Formation on Ash and older weathered

ituri soils occur up to about 650 m al under tawa-rimu

< <
z<( The climate (1600 to over 2000 mm annual rainfall) has been
z
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u::: S3i:l13~ NI 30nllll'o' a:: carrying out the general survey of the soils of North
and the years he was based in Wellington, I-LS. Gibbs
of Wellington region. Preliminary information was
of the N.Z. Society of Soil Science and
interim map in N.Z. Soil Bureau Record 39 Gibbs
reco the occurrence of podzolised yel earths and ls
in the Rimutaka and Tararua Ranges at altitudes greater than 500 m, under
Is greater than 1700 mm, and under mar-forming podocarp-beech
vegetation. In Wellington region, podzolised yellow-brown earths
and podzols are largely confined to these mountain lands. He also out-
correlation that exists between climate, altitude, vege-
and the soils in the Wellington region (Gibbs
 38
39

RECENT WORK
Williams has carried out a detailed transect for his M.Sc. thesis Gley podzols also occur in the soil complexes that have been mapped
near Dennan, southern Tararua Range, where he investigated the relation- in the mountain lands of the Wellington region, but have not been
ships between soil type, soil chemistry an~ physic~l characteristics, . separated out by Gibbs (1960b;in Heine 197S), probably because of their
and vegetation. He described the zonal soils ~f.his. study area as having is~lated occurrence. ~hey are ~trongly leached soils occurring in high
A horizons iron pans and almost complete humification of the upper :rainfall areas.and having A horizons that are often peaty, overlying
h~rizons. This work is further discussed by Vucetich (1980). The z~nal pale grey massive subsurface horizons resting on iron or iron/humus
cemented coarse-textured materials which create a perched water table
soils occur under tall-tussock grassland of the Tararua Range on a wide
(Cowie 1980a). The soil is waterlogged for most of the year. Thcv are
variety of slopes and aspects, wherever soil-forming processes have not
distinct from the grey peaty humic gley soils without impermeable iron
been modified by rejuvenation or accumulation. They would be classed as pans that occur in areas of permanently high water tables.
podzols.
PODZOLISED YELLOW-BROWN EARTH UNITS MAPPED IN I REGION
On wetter sites he described soils which are more gleyed, having
perched water tables' and iron pans above the gravelly parent material.
Gibbs (1960b)established soil names for podzolised yellow-brown
These would be included in the Gley Podzol group. earths occurring in the Wellington region, and these names are still
being applied there, as well as to similar soils on the northern Tararua
Where accumulation of organic matter is occurring in depressions and
Ranges in_Kairanga County (Cowie 1978) and on the southern Ruahine Range
other areas of high water tables, the soils he has described are Humic in Pohangina County (Rijkse 1977). The soils are:
Gley soils.
Rimutaka soils on steep land, above SOO m where annual rainfall is
Park (1971,1972b)has recorded a similar distribution of these kinds
greater than 2000 mm, under mar-forming vegetation of podocarp-kamahi-
of soils on Maymorn Ridge, southern Tararua Range. beech forest (Gibbs 1960b).
Observations and soil profile descriptions are being collected by. Renata soils on rolling and hill land, above SOO m, where annual
the present author during trips into the Rimutaka, Tararua.and Haurangi
rainfall is greater than 1800 mm, under mar-forming vegetation of kamahi,
Ranges, and especially from the Orongorongo and Mangar:::>a River catchments rimu and northern rata forest (Gibbs 1960b).
where soil surveys are being carried out.
Although the dominant soils in these mapping units are podzolised
PROBLEMS OF DEFINING PODZOLISED SOILS AND PODZOLS yellow-brown earths, other soil groups are included, mainly podzols.
However, podzol mapping units have not been separated or distinctly
Podzols are usually recognised in the field and defined readily by named from the podzolised yellow-brown earths because they are not
their ash-grey eluvial A2 horizons and humus/iron illuvial horizons extensive enough, occurring as they do in isolated pockets.
(Cowie 1980b).
Ruahine soils are classified by Gibbs (1960b)as strongly leached
Podzolised yellow-brown earths are not as readily defined as are yellow-brown earths and strictly should not be included in this article.
podzols as they represent an intermediate stage in the yellow-brown earth
Neverth~less,_ isolated pockets of podzols have been noted in areas mapped
to podz;l sequence. They are strongly leached, being ~hara~terised.by as Ruahine soils, as could be expected under a mor-forming vegetation of
greyish coloured upper horizons and iron or humus coatings in B horizo~s, podocarp-beech forest.
but they do not have the well-defined A2 (E) horizon of a podzol. Strict
criteria have not been formulated for defining podzolised yellow-brown OBSERVATIONS OF PODZOLISED YELLOW-BROWN EARTHS AND PODZOLS OCCURRING
earths from strongly leached yellow-brown earths. It ~ppe~rs from ~ohlen IN WELLINGTON REGION
(19S7a) that the process of podzolisation (which is active in po~zolised
yellow-brown earths) is conditioned by the presence of mor-forming vege- The following comments are based on observations made in the
tation such as beech rimu etc. Thus, it appears to be necessary to mountain lands:
take into account ex~ernal' environmental factors such as high altitude,.
high rainfall, low temperature, and especially ~he ~resenc~ o~ mor-for~ing Podzolised Yellow-Brown Earths and Podzols on Stable Sites
vegetation, for example beech forest, to determine if a soil is podzolised
instead of only strongly leached.
. These soils are extremely variable, mainly because of the steep and
varied topography of the mountain lands where these soils occur in the
The development of podzols tends to be related to the sites of the
W~llington region. Except in small areas of relatively stable but narrow
mor-forming trees themselves. As the mor-forming trees are randomly. ridg~s, soil formation is usually interrupted by rejuvenation caused by
distributed throughout the forest, the pattern of podzols and podzollsed
e:osion or deposition. On these relatively stable sites, soil profiles
yellow-brown earths is also random. The resulting so~l ~a~tern has to be
mapped as a complex as it is not possible to map the individual components
wi~h reasonably well-developed podzolic features may show the following:
of the complex separately, except at a very small scale.
th~n raw acid humus layer; very thin A1 topsoil; yellowish brown sub-
soils with strongly iron-stained coatings on stones and peds; grey
mottles; accumulation of iron staining towards the base of the subsoils;
underlain by yellowish brown colluvium with angular greywacke stones or
 40 41

gravels or in situ greywacke. These mapping units are so variable, however, A soil from spilite ~t Hell'~ Gate, Tararua Range, has an A2 and
that the podzolised yellow-brown earth soil sets, such as Renata and thin iron pan, both of which are irregular and not very obvious because
Rimutaka, will include, over quite short distances, gradations to podzols of the red colours (5YR) that dominate the profile. ·
having definite iron pans and A2 horizons (See profile 1, Appendix).
Inclusions Occurring in These Mapping Units
Podzolised Yellow-Brown Earths and Podzols in Wind-throw Sites
Included in the podzolised yellow-brown earth mapping unit are small
Deeper (100+ cm) profiles occur in depressions (forest dimples) of areas of other soil groups such as lithosols and organic soils, as
wind-throw sites on forested ridges. These profiles may have well-defined well as the podzols, gley podzols and humic gley soils already described.
A2 horizons (though these usually have been disturbed), humus-rich and
iron-stained Bhfe horizons. More usually though the profiles are very Lithosols are very thin with little or no subsoil development over
churned, caused by the wind-throw event that formed the forest dimple. rock. They oc~ur on eroding rock faces and between tussocks above the
In these churned profiles, topsails, bleached horizons (either Azor B ), bush line on WJ.ndy ridges, such as on Mt Climie, southern Rimutaka Range.
subsoils, and underlying material are turned over to depths of 80 to g Between . tussocks on such sites, the soil is very thin and the profile
100 cm or more. Organic matter is found irregularly, deep down the profile is not thick enough to show much soil morphology at all. These areas
along the ped faces, along cracks and old root channels. In some forest between tussocks are most likely areas of wind deflation.
dimples, especially upslope of wind-thrown stumps, material is accumulating
from slope wash, but these profiles are relatively young and also very Organic soils are simply thin raw humus layers over rock with no
churned up. If any podzolised features were forming, they have been mineral matter. They tend to be found on rocky ridges under stunted moss-
destroyed or rendered unrecognisable. (See profile 2, Appendix). covered beech forest where evaporation is low and fog-drip is prevalent,
such as on the southern Rimutaka Range (between Mt Mathews and
Egg-cup Podzols Mt Tapokopoko for example).

On some valley sides, isolated egg-cup podzols with A2 and Bfe Regosols are found on very steep slopes where the soil is continual
horizons have been noted. Most of these sites are in depressions left being rejuvenated by slope movement with removal and accumulation of
at the bases of fallen burnt tree trunks under pasture. The original passing debris. The profiles show complete mixing of organic matter and
forest had been cleared by fire and felling. Examples are to be found on fines throughout the parent colluvial material to depths of 100 cm or
the watershed between the Mangaroa and Orongorongo catchments. They more, over rock.
occur in areas dominated by churned podzolised yellow-brown earths and
strongly leached yellow-brown earths, like those described on p.39.
On the hills west of the Hutt Valley between Belmont and Porirua, at 350 m
altitude, egg-cup podzols occur infrequently on rolling upland in an area Overall, in the Wellington region, podzols are isolated and of patchy
mapped as strongly leached yellow-brown earths (Belmont soils) . The area occurrence, and are of such small extent that they cannot be mapped
was cleared for pastoral use by burning and felling in the 1910s and the separately.
egg-cup podzols probably mark the sites of mar-forming trees in the
original forest. A description of the Belmont 'podzol' is appended. The areas mapped as podzolised yellow-brown earths include many
(Profile 3, Appendix). members of the podzolised soil sequence, from strongly leached yellow-
brown earths to ~odzolised yellow-brown earths to egg-cup podzols, as
Gley Podzols and Humic Gley Soils well as other soil groups such as lithosols and organic soils.

Gley podzols have been described by the author from sites in the A complicating factor is the lack of strict definition between the
southern Tararuas that are similar to those in Williams' transect. The podzolised soils and podzols, and descriptions of some of the soils
grey (lOYR 6/2 and 2.5Y 5/4) subsurface horizons (A 2 or B ) overlie thin occurring in the areas mapped as podzolised yellow-brown earths show
but very firm iron pans lying over the firm angular greyw~cke colluvium. enough features for the soil to be classed as a podzol (Cowie 1980b).
The upper horizons were saturated with water. However, in depressions, O~ the other hand, most descriptions of soils from areas mapped as
the soils show accumulations of organic matter over grey horizons over Rimutaka soils conform with podzolised yellow-brown earth concepts
the greywacke colluvium. These would appear to be characteristic humic although the mapping unit must be expected to include many variati~ns on
gley soils. these steep mountain lands. It is not surprising that they have been
mapped as complexes in the past. Only detailed transects such as those
Variants Occurring in These Mapping Units made by Williams and Parks, and being made by the present author on
~~ongorongo_Research Station, can record the intricate patterns that
Variations in parent material occur in the greywackes of the mountain . pefully will allow more understanding of the processes taking place
ranges of Wellington region. These variations affect the texture of the in the soils of these mountain lands.
podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols. For example, soil textures
may be sandy over sandy greywacke parent material as on parts of the
southern Rimutaka Range (above Orongorongo Field Research Station), but
silty to clayey over argillaceous greywacke that is more common in the
Tararua Range.
 42 43

APPENDIX. PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS light brownish grey (lOYR 6/2) si 1ty clay loam;
8-15 Az
or 30 firm to friable; massive breaking to weakly
PROFILE 1 - PODZOL ON STABLE SITE developed medium blocky structure; few fine
diffuse strong brown (7.SYR 5/6) mottles;
On cutting on Field's Track, Tararua State Forest Park 1 cm diameter dark brown (7.SYR 3/2) worm channels
0
Slope 18 ; Aspect W and humus; many medium roots; irregular boundary,
Crest of convex ridge; forest dimples and terracettes
Greywacke colluvium over greywacke 15-30 or Bfe dark reddish brown (SYR 3/2) very firm; weakly
Imperfect drainage 30-40 developed medium blocky structure; many coarse
Kamahi, tawa, miro, pigeonwood, toro, red beech over ferns, grasses, moss diffuse strong brown (7.5YR 5/8) mottles; many
profuse dark reddish brown (5YR 3/2) coats;
Depth Horizon: Description: many light grey (lOYR 7/2) mottles combine to
(cm) form pan; irregular boundary,
3-0 Litter 30 or B2 light brownish grey (2.5Y 6/2) silty clay loam;
dark reddish brown (5YR 3/2) silty clay loam; 40-60 firm; massive; many fine and medium prominent
0-5 A11
fr~able; weakly developed fine crumb structure;
strong brown to reddish yellow (7.SYR 5/6-6/8)
many fine roots; indistinct boundary, mottles; many thin distinct dark reddish brown
(SYR 3/3) humus coats; few coarse weakly weathered
5-17 dark reddish grey (5YR 4/2) silty clay loam; angular greywacke gravels.
friable; weakly developed fine nut structure;
few fine faint strong brown (7.5YR 5/8) mottles;
many fine roots; indistinct boundary, PROFILE 3 - EGG-CUP PODZOL: INCLUSION IN STRONGLY LEACHED
brown (7.5YR 5/2) silty clay loam; friable; YELLOW-BROWN EARTHS (BELMONT SO
17-25
weakly developed block to massive structure;
few fine roots; sharp wavy but iTregular boundary, Waitangirua farm at Belmont Army Reserve, near cattle yards
Nl60/457383
25-35 light yellowish brown (lOYR 6/4) silty clay loam; Dimpled surface on gently rolling upland. Windfall site.
firm; massive; few fine diffuse reddish yellow Altitude 350 m; Aspect N
(7.5YR 6/6) mottles; few thin dark reddish grey Slope c. 8°; Rainfall 1500 mm
(5YR 4/2) humus coats; sharp wavy boundary, Introduced pasture grasses from podocarp broadleaved forest
yellowish red (5YR 4/6-5/8) placic horizon; iron Loess and solifluction material from greywacke
35-40
pan; very firm; massive; sharp wavy but irregular Depth Horizon: Description:
boundary, (cm)
40-65 yellowish brown (lOYR 5/6) silty clay loam; firm; 0-32 brown (lOYR 5/3.5) fine sandy loam; friable;
massive; few fine weakly weathered greywacke moderately developed fine nut and very fine crumb
gravels; distinct irregular boundary, structure; many fine roots; distinct irregular
light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4) fine gravel; firm; boundary,
65+
massive; abundant fine weakly weathered greywacke 32-40 A many voids (3 to 10 cm) probably left after branches,
gravel. P1 roots etc. were burnt or had rotted; many fine
roots; irregular horizon and irregular indistinct
boundary,
PRO FI LE 2 - PODZOL ON WINO-THROW SITE 40-59 Az many voids and cracks, and pieces of charcoal;
Marchant Ridge, Tararua State Forest Park light brown to brown (7.5YR 6/4 and 5/4) silty
0 clay loam; firm in situ; weakly developed medium
Slope 18 ; Aspect SE
Concave slope of forest dimple, below shoulder of rocky ridge crest block structure; many fine roots; irregular
boundary,
Greywacke colluvium
Imperfect drainage 59-86 charcoal fragments; dark reddish brown (SYR 3/4)
Silver beech, horopito, flax, ferns very fine sandy loam; thin humus coatings on peds;
Horizon: Description: firm peds but friable when disturbed; moderately
Depth
developed fine nut structure; dark reddish brown
(cm)
(5YR 2.5/2) thin coatings on peds and few dark
0-8 very dark brown (lOYR 2/2) humic silt loam; reddish brown (5YR 2.5/2) aggregations; very firm
friable; weakly developed fine and medium crumb concretions up to 1 cm diam.; few fine roots but
structure; many medium and coarse roots; fine root mat on upper surface of placic horizon;
indistinct irregular boundary, sharp boundary,
 45
44

PROFILE 5 - HUMIC GLEY SOIL

black (SYR 2.5/1) to dark reddish brown (SYR 3/2)
86-87
core; reddish brown (SYR 4/4) to yellowish red pit 20 m0 west of New Kime Hut, Tararua State Forest Park
(SYR 5/6) outer part of placic horizon; extremely slope 12 ; Aspect NE
firm; 0 texture; 0 structure; sharp boundary, concave mid slope; hummocky
dark brown (7.SYR 4/4) very fine sandy loam; with poorly drained; medium run-off; high water table
87-97 Greywacke colluvium l
very fine aggregates and few fragments of placic
horizon; firm; moderately developed fine and snowgrass, astelia, mountain daisy, eyebrights
medium nut fracture and block structure; Depth Horizon: Description:
distinct irregular boundary, (cm)
97-120+ light yellowish brown (2.SY 6/4) very fine sandy 0-4 0 root mat; distinct boundary,
loam; friable; massive with weak block fracture;
very thin indistinct yellowish brown (lOYR 5/4) 4-15 A1 brown (~OYR 5/3) silt loam; weakly developed fine
~nd_me~ium crumb structure; abundant fine roots;
coatings along fractures.
indistinct boundary,
15-22 light olive brown (2.5Y 5/4) silt loam· soft·
PROFILE 4 - GLEY PODZOL massive breaking to weakly developed m~dium block
structure; few medium distinct strong brown
Track cutting near Alpha Hut, Tararua State Forest Park (7.5YR 5/8) coatings on gravels; few fine weakly
0
Slope 15 ;Aspect N weathere~ angular greywacke gravels; many medium
Upper part of concave slope, just below shoulder of ridge crest roots; diffuse boundary,
Imperfect drainage, impeded by iron pan B light brownish y~llow ( lY 6/ 4) gravelly silty clay
Gravelly greywacke colluvium over greywacke
Stunted silver beech, leatherwood, dracophyllum, snowgrass, mat loam; soft; massive few fine distinct strong brown
C?.SYR 5/8) coatings on gravels; and mottles; many
grasses, moss f~ne_weakly weathered angular greywacke gravels;
Depth Horizon: Description: distinct boundary,
(cm) BC greyish green (5G 5/1) gravels; firm; massive;
thin raw, abundant fine weakly weathered greywacke gravels.
2-0 Litter
0-16 Ai dark brown (lOYR 4/3) gravelly silty clay loam;
firm; weakly developed fine crumb structure;
many fine weakly weathered angular greywacke
gravels; many medium roots; diffuse boundary,
light brownish grey and brown (lOYR 6/2 5/3) SON AND MARLBOROUGH
16-33
silty clay and gravel; firm; massive breaking to
weakly developed medium block structure many
increasing to abundant fine distinct light grey M.D. Laffan
(SY 7/1) mottles; few, increasing to many with Soil Bureau, DSIR, Nelson
depth, distinct strong brown (7.SYR 6/8)mottles;
humus coats decreasing to base; many fine weakly INTRODUCTION
weathered angular greywacke gravels.; few medium
roots; sharp irregular boundary, In the Nelson region podzols and associated podzolised soils have
yellowish red (SYR 4/6); extremely firm; massive; been mapped ex~e~sively at 1:253 440 scale at altitudes above about 300 m.
33-34 They are classified as upland and high country podzolised yellow-brown
reddish yellow (SYR 6/8 to 7.SYR 6/8) rims; sharp
irregular boundary, earths and podzols. At lower altitudes lowland podzolised yellow-brown
earths and podzols have been mapped only on a relatively small area in
34-40 brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) clayey gravel; very north-west Nelson.
firm; massive breaking to very weakly developed
medium block structure, many fine distinct strong In Marlborough, upland and nigh country podzolised yellow-brown
brown (7.SYR 6/8) mottles; few to many thin distinct earths and podzols have been mapped at 1:253 440 scale only on the
strong brown (7.SYR 6/8) iron coats on gravels; many northern boundary of the region. Upland and high country yellow-brown
fine weakly weathered angular greywacke coated earths have been mapped extensively at altitudes above about 300 m.
gravels; diffuse boundary, Re~ent investigations indicate that podzols occur widely within these
pale brown (lOYR 6/3) gravel; extremely firm; soils.
40-100+ BC
massive; profuse coarse weakly weathered angular
greywacke colluvial gravels and stones.
 46 4/

In the descriptions which follow horizon designations are after Patriarch steepland soils and Kenepuru steepland soils are formed
FAO (1974). from schist, schistose greywacke and greywacke, while Pelorus steepland
soils and Opouri steep land soils are formed from grey\,·acke. Relict
MARLBOROUGH REGION periglacial deposits and derived slope deposits occur extensively in
association with rock outcrops.
Distribution
In the Marlborough Sounds podzols have been recognised at low
Soil sets in which well developed podzols have been recognised during altitudes ranging from near sea level at Tennyson Inlet to about 150 m
recent investigations include Kenepuru steepland soils (47a), Opouri near Mt Stokes. In these areas the climate is superhumid with a mean
steepland soils (47b), Tekoa steepland soils (57a), Patriarch steepland annual rainfall range of 2000-2500+ mm. In other parts of the Marlborough
soils (57g) and Pelorus steepland soils (65) (N.Z. Soil Bureau 19683.). sounds where mean annual rainfall range is probably <2000 mm, podzo1s
The Pelorus steepland set is classified as upland and high country occur extensively at altitudes above about 550 m. Vegetation is mainly
podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols while Tekoa steepland and beech or beech/podocarp forest with lesser areas converted to grassland
Patriarch steepland sets are classified as upland and high country or exotic forest. Podzols tend to occur as isolated lenses in a random
yellow-brown earths. Other upland and high country yellow-brown earth pattern somewhat similar to those recognised in the Tekoa steepland set.
soil sets have not been investigated, but it is probable that podzols Some of the greyish coloured horizons characteristic of podzols have been
occur in some of them. Opouri steepland and Kenepuru steepland sets are tentatively interpreted as gley or gley and eluvial features. Interpret-
classified as lowland yellow-brown earths. ation of such horizons is difficult, particularly in soils formed on deep
slope deposits with annual rainfalls >2500 mm. Gley subsoil horizons
Tekoa steepland soils have been mapped south of the Wairau river commonly occur in shallow soils on crests of ridges and spurs. Profiles
at altitudes above 350 m. North of the Wairau river Patriarch steepland have thin L, F and H horizons overlying greyish coloured horizons which
soils occur.at altitudes above 750 m and Pelorus steepland soils at often have reddish mottles. Weakly weathered bedrock with a few joints
altitudes from 60 m to 1100 m. The alti tudinal range of Opouri steepland occur at depths of about 50 cm or less. Prominent reddish weathering
and Kenepuru steepland soils is approximately 0 to 750 m. rinds occur on surfaces of rock fragments >2 mm in the greyish coloured
horizons and on the surface of the underlying bedrock. It is considered
Podzols recognised within these soil sets are characterised by that under the superhumid climate a perched water table periodically
greyish coloured E horizons which commonly overlie iron and humus illuvial occurs on top of bedrock, even on steep slopes. Greyish coloured horizons
horizons. on these sites are interpreted as being gley, or gley and eluvial features
resulting from periodical water-logging of the soil.
Morphological Properties
Podzols are most strongly developed on moderately deep or deep well-
Tekoa steepland soils are formed from weakly weathered greywacke drained slope deposits, particularly on sites where thick organic
and derived slope deposits. Most of the deeper slope deposits represent horizons have accumulated. Profiles are characterised by thick H horizons
accumulation from periglacial activity during the Last Glaciation. overlying thin grey eluvial horizons which in turn overlie moderately thick
Vegetation was formerly beech forest but considerable areas now have a yellowish brown Bw, or Bh horizons. Cl horizons generally occur at depths
vegetative cover of tussock and low fertility grasses or scrub. Mean between 60-100 cm. The Bw and Bh horizons produce a strong reaction to
annual rainfall range is approximately 1000-1300 mm. NaF and have a distinctly greasy feel. Subsoil textures are generally
clay loams or clays. In some profiles a thin, hard, wavy iron pan occurs
Podzols occur within the Tekoa set as isolated lenses at altitudes below the E or Bh horizon. Representative profile descriptions are given
above 750 m. They have been traced to an altitude of 1500 m on Mt Phillips in the appendix (Profiles 1 and 2). Grey horizons occurring in some soils
between the Wairau and Waihopai rivers. Profiles are characterised by a formed on moderately deep or deep slope deposits have been interpreted as
thin greyish brown Al horizon overlying a distinctive ash-grey coloured E resulting partly from gleying processes. Reddish mottles usually occur
horizon. A sharply differentiated dark red iron-humus pan commonly in the greyish horizon and in any mineral horizons above. Stone fragments
occurs beneath the E horizon. Below the pan a yellowish brown friable Bw in the greyish horizons are usually more strongly weathered than those in
horjzon merges into an olive coloured c 1 horizon at a depth of about 1 m. lower horizons.
Textures are mainly silt loams or heavy silt loams. Subsoil horizons
generally have a greasy feel when rubbed and produce a positive reaction The most extensively occurring soils within the 'podzol zone' do not
to NaF. These features are indicative of subsoil accumulation of illuvial have recognisable E horizons. Profiles have A or AB, Bw or Bh and Cl
mineral-organic complexes formed during strong leaching processes. horizon designations. The Bw and Bh horizons react strongly to NaF and
feel greasy. Very thin L and F layers occur in these profiles but not
The podzol lenses cover an area with a diameter of about 1 m and occur thick H horizons. Because of extensive soil surface disturbance from
in a random pattern. They do not appear to be associated with any noxious animals, sheet wash and windthrow, any possible relationship
particular feature of the landscape or its microtopography, and they are between surface organic matter accumulation and degree of podzolisation
found in both thick slope deposits and shallow mantles over hard bedrock. has been difficult to establish. However, in areas where indigenous
Soils surrounding the podzol lenses are characterized by thin greyish brown forest occurs, profiles with distinct greyish E horizons generally have
topsoils overlying thick yellowish brown friable subsoils. Textures are thick accumulations of organic matter on the surface.
silt loams to heavy silt loams and subsoils have a distinctive greasy feel.
 48
49

Nutrient Status
is superhumid. Soil sets include Denniston so s (64f), Denniston hill
.
The overall nutrient status of Podzols sampled from the Marlboroug~
"d throughout the profile soils (64fH), Haupiri steepland soils (65b), Wakamarama steep land soils
Sounds is very low. Soil · reac t.ion is strongly
d aci low ~BS Very low levels (65d), Kaniere hill so s (66H), Kaniere steepland soils (66), Glenhope
with very low exchangeabl e ca, Mg and h K tan thevery
0 steepland soils (66a), Whitcornbe steepland soils (67), and Hohonu steep-
profile and• p retention •

of 0 5 M H2SO~ soluble p occur throug ou hi"gh i·n B horizons. land soils (67b) (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968b). Lowland podzolised yellow-
· · · h A horizons to very . brown earths and podzols include Puponga hill soils (62aH) and Pakawau
increases from medium in t ~ . L F H horizons, high in A horizons hill soils (62bH) in north-west Nelson.
Organic C levels are very high in .• '
and low to medium in Bw and Bh horizons.
Recent information is scant for most of these soils. However, no
Similar nutrient levels occur in associated soils which do not have clear morphological evidence of E horizons or iron pans was found in
distinct E horizons. profiles of Wakamarama steepland soils or Kaniere steepland soils during
recent soil surveys of the Westland and Buller regions. In the Charleston-
Limitations to Land Use Punakaiki region these soils have consequently been classified as upland
yellow-brown earths rather than as upland and high country podzolised
h dominant land use of podzols and yellow-brown earths and podzols (Laffan 1980).
In the Marlborough Sounds t e pr~ der beech or beech/podocarp
d .1 · atchment protection un .
associate soi s is c land generally have an incom- Podzols and podzolised
forest. The minor areas converted ~o grass s and fern Sheet erosion soils and Korere hill soils soils have been recognised within Hope hill
plete cover of low fertility demanding grasse .
is common but generally it is not severe. 1966; G. Mew, pers.comm.). formed from Moutere Gravels (Chittenden et al.

. h d minant land use of podzols and

Morpho l ogi ea 1 perties
South of . the . Wairau
t R7ver t e prel ofarmi·ng . Truncated soils and bare
sive pastora
associated soils is ex en . 1 1 at altitudes above about 1100 m Chittenden et aZ. (1966) described the occurrence of podzols and
ground occur extensively, particu ar y areas of severely eroded
. . severe However some podzolised soils within Hope hill soils. The podzols occurred mainly on
where climate is mo:e . . f;r catchment protection purposes. upper slopes and ridges under beech forest where mean annual rainfall
soils have been retired from grazing . digenous vegetation or else
They have either been left to rege~erate in rial oversowing of grasses range was 1500-1800 mm. A profile described on Hope Saddle at 600 m
revegetated with exotic tree plantings or ae altitude was characterised by a thin ash grey eluvial horizon overlying
and clover. a very thin discontinuous dark brown and red humus iron pan. Recent
investigations near Hope Saddle in Donald Creek catchment indicate that
podzols occur preferentially on shoulder sites, while yellow-brown
At altitudes below about 55o m dt h e main
. soil
d uselimitation of nutrient
is very low podzols
. d ·1 to pastoral pro uction an earths occur on other landscape positions. Podzols are characterised
and associate soi s b t 550 m low soil temperatures, and by profiles with H, Ah, E, Bwh, Bs, Bw and BC horizons. Podzolised
status. At altitudes above a ou . and frost lift, are soil
susceptibility to sheet and gully erosi?n,t tatus At altitudes above profiles with distinctive E horizons have also been recognised within
· · 1 t 0 very low nutrien s · Korere 1 soils at altitudes above 550 m (G.Mew,pers.comm.).
limitations additiona d the soils are generally
about 1100 m the limitations are very severe an
unsuitable for pastoral use. Investigation of soils formed from strongly weathered granite in the
Oparara Basin near Karamea show that podzols and podzolised soils occur
f odzols and associated widely (Mew &Laffan 1968). Altitude varies from 250-500 rn and mean
In the Marlborough Sound~ signific~~~ ~~;::t~y.p Inspection of
annual rainfall is between 3800-5000 mm. Podzols are characterised by
soils are being used for exotic productseveral stands of radiata pine
moderately thick or thick organic horizons over gravelly topsails.
relative tree height has been mad~ f~: 1 ange of 350-600 m. Average
Beneath are light yellowish brown eluvial horizons with many quartz
<10 years old and cove:ing a~ altitu in:ndrassociated soils above 550 m
height of trees established in podzols tablished in soils at 360 m. gravels. Zones of humus and iron accumulation occur below the eluvial
altitude was less than half that of_t~ees e; throughout the life of horizon. The iron accumulation commonly occurs within 30 cm of the
mineral soil surface as a thin moderately hard or soft iron pan. A
It is probable that slower growth wil ~ccu ociated soils at altitudes
brownish yellow gravelly layer underlying the pan merges into strongly
exotic stands established ~n po~~oi~m~~at~~~s to exotic production weathered granite rock at about 1.5 m depth. A representative profile
above about 550 m. The main soi d t altitudes above about 550 m,
forestry are very low nutrient statl~s.atnti~ona at all altitudes is the description is given in the Appendix (profile 3). Podzolised soils do
. t es A further imi a . t' not have a distinctive E horizon or strongly developed zones of humus
low soil tempera ur . . . bl. h. and harvesting opera ions. and iron accumulation.
susceptibility to erosion during esta is ingf exotic and indigenous
At altitudes above about 1100 m th~ best use or ion
forests would be catchment protection and recreat . Nutrient Status and Limi ons to land Use

NELSON REGION The nutrient status of upland and high country podzolised yellow-
Di stri but ion brown earths and podzols is very low. Very low nutrient status is also
reported for lowland podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols (N. Z. Soil
Upland and high country podzolised yellow- b r?wn area
earthswhere
and podzols
the climate Bureau 1968a)and for Hope hill soils (Chittenden et aZ. 1966).
have been mapped extensively in the Tasman Mountains
 50 51

Detailed information is not readily available on soil limitations to 2

pastoral use and production forestry use for most podzols and associated
soils in the Nelson region. However, very low nutrient status and low series Name: Kenepuru
soil temperatures are limitations common to most of these soils. Other Classification: Podzol
soil limitations such as thickness, hardness and depth to iron pans, and Location: Hill slope between Anakoha Bay and Mt Stokes
depth to bedrock are likely to be highly variable. Marlborough Sounds '
Grid reference: S16 411519
At altitudes above about 1100 m the most suitable land use for Landform: Crest of easy spur
podzols and associated soils is catchment protection and recreation. Microrelief: Forest dimgles
Slope: 16 Aspect: ENE Altitude: 240 m
overall Drainage: Well drained to moderately well drained
Parent Material: Slope deposits from subschist overlying weakly
APPENDIX. PROFILE DESCRIPTIONS to moderately weathered subschist bedrock
Vegetation: Beech/podocarp forest: beech, kamahi, toro, rimu,
PROFILE 1 BZechnum, rata vine
Land use: Protection forest at site, logged for rimu
Series Name: Pelorus elsewhere in vicinity
Classification: Podzol Erosion: Negligible at site, sheet erosion elsewhere
Location: Near summit of Mt Drew, between Admiralty Bay and Profile:
Waitata Bay, Marlborough Sounds
Grid reference: S10 195630 LFH 6-0 cm black (5YR 2.5/1) humic loam; loose; single grain;
Landform: Just below main ridge, on side of small broad spur distinct irregular boundary,
Microrelief: Hummocky with numerous rock outcrops and few to many E 0-8 cm white (SY 8/1) and very dark grey (SYR 3/1) loam;
surf ace stones friable; strongly developed fine and medium nut
0
Slope: 34 Aspect: NE Altitude: 580 m structure; abundant fine and medium roots;
Overall drainage: Well drained indistinct boundary,
Parent material: Slope deposits from greywacke overlying weakly
weathered, weakly fractured greywacke bedrock Bh1 8-20 cm yellowish brown (lOYR 5/6) clay; firm; strongly
Vegetation present: Low fertility demanding grass spp. and fern developed medium blocky breaking to strongly
past: Beech forest developed fine nut structure; many fine distinct
Land use: Very extensive sheep grazing yellowish red (SYR 5/6) and white (SY 8/1) mottles;
Erosion: Moderate sheet and frost lift many thin distinct dark brown (7.SYR 3/2) organic
Profile: matter cutans; many fine and medium roots; indistinct
A 0-7 cm very dark grey (lOYR 3/1) humic silt loam; very boundary,
friable; weakly developed very fine crumb structure; Bh2 20-40 cm yellowish brown (lOYR 5/6) silty clay; firm; strongly
many fine roots; distinct smooth boundary, developed fine and medium nut structure; few fine
E 7-19 cm light grey (lOYR 7/2) and very pale brown (lOYR 7/ 3) distinct yellowish red (SYR 5/6) mottles; many thin
silty clay loam; friable; massive breaking to weakly distinct brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/4) organic
developed fine blocky structure; few large strongly matter cutans; many fine and medium roots; diffuse
weathered greywacke siltstone gravels; many fine boundary,
roots; indistinct wavy boundary, Bs1 40-70 cm yellowish brown (lOYR 5/6) silty clay; firm;
Bh 19-55 cm yellowish brown (lOYR 5/8) clay; friable to very moderately developed fine and very fine nut structure;
friable; strongly developed very fine nut structure; few fine distinct yellowish red (SYR 5/6) mottles;
many thin prominent organic matter cutans; few to few thin distinct brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/4)
many medium and large weakly weathered greywacke organic matter cutans; few fine roots; diffuse
siltstone stones; few to many fine roots; diffuse boundary,
boundary, Bs 2 70-120 cm yellowish brown (lOYR 5/6) silty clay; firm; massive
Bw 55-95 cm yellowish brown (10YR 5/8) stony silty clay; friable; breaking to weakly developed very fine nut structure;
moderately developed very fine nut structure; many few fine distinct yellowish red (SYR 5/6) mottles; few
large weakly weathered greywacke siltstone stones; thin distinct brown to dark brown (7.SYR 4/4) organic
few fine roots; sharp irregular boundary, matter cutans; few small and medium weakly plus mod-
erately weathered subschist stones; few fine roots,
Cl on weakly weathered, weakly fractured greywacke siltstone C1 on weakly to moderately weathered, fractured subschist
bedrock. bedrock.
Notes: Bh and Bw give strong reaction to NaF
Lithic contact at interface of Bw and Cl. -
Notes: Reaction to NaF: Bh1 - weak Bh2 - weak Bs1 - strong Bs 2 - strong
 52 53

PROFILE 3 S, ISLAND
Series Name: Avery G. Mew
Classification: Podzol Soil Bureau, DSIR, Nelson
Location: Oparara Basin, 12 km NE of Karamea
Landform: Ridge crest site near drop-over to north
ON
Microrelief: Forest dimples
Slope: s0 Aspect: 10° Altitude: 500 m It h~s ~~en recognisedfforda ~?nsi~erable time that it is difficult
to sepa~~ ~
5
Overall drainage: Moderately well drained to imperfectly drained e proc~sses o po zo isation and gleying on the West Coast
Parent material: Granite, strongly weather in situ (Gibbs ~ N.Z. _soil Bureau 196~a,b), due to the effects of the
Vegetation: Podocarp/hardwood forest; large rimu, rata, kamahi, extrhemelydhigh rahi~bf~ll coupdled withffine-~extured parent materials. Most
quintinia, toatoa, toro, broadleaf, stinking coprosma, of t e po zo 1s ex i it some . egree o gleying culminating in thos e regarded
3 finger, Hall's totara, kidney fern, cutty grass as gley po d zo 1s. Such soils on the West Coast tend to occur over 1 - ·
Land use: Virgin forest areas f rom th e Mok'h"
i inui. R.iver to ~artins
. imited
Bay on rolling country, hill
Profile: slopes or steep land, but seldom, if ever, in entirely flat situat'
·11 d · · ions.
very dusky red (2.5YR 2.5/2) humus; friable to very Many are s t i covere in native forest, either beech/podocarp or podocar I
H 70-0 cm hardwood, but some have been cleared and developed for pastoral farm· p
friable; weakly developed fine and medium crumb . . d d ing.
Lim~t~ _areas are un er se~ond-growth scrub or gorse. The generalised
structure; profuse fine, medium and coarse roots; defrn1t1on_of podzol used in this ~rticle is a soil with a dark-coloured
indistinct smooth boundary, top overlyin? a pale-~oloured eluvi~ted horizon which is not waterlogged
Ah1 0-10 cm dark reddish brown (5YR 3/2) silt loam; friable; for long periods of time, although it may show some mottling. Beneath are
moderately developed medium blocky structure breaking usual~Y. zones of humus and/or iron accumulation, succeeded by horizons
to moderately developed fine blocky structure; few transitional to unaltered parent material.
fine faint dark reddish grey (5YR 4/2) mottles; few
small non-weathered subangular quartz gravels; many N CHARACTERISTICS OF WEST COAST PODZOLS
fine and medium roots; indistinct wavy boundary,
. The fo~lowing 19_series broadly meet this definition: Utopia, Waita,
10-16 cm dark reddish brown (SYR 3/2) to dark reddish grey Waiuta, Elliot, Casolis, Moana, Denniston and Bromielaw which occur on
(5YR 4/2) gravelly silt loam; firm; moderately . '
rolling coun~ry_ (~he l~tter three also occurring on hilly slopes), Carton,
developed medium and coarse blocky structure;
Ballarat, Taipo~~l~ Orikaka and Pidgeon which occur only on hilly slopes,
abundant small non-weathered sub-angular quartz and Wallaby, Waiiti, Harata, Euclid, Millerton and Tate which occur on
gravels; many fine and medium roots; indistinct wavy steep slopes (Table 1).
boundary,
E 16-24 cm light yellowish brown (lOYR 6/4) gravelly silt loam; e 1 Soil series and the landforms on which they occur
firm; massive; few fine distinct yellowish red (SYR 5/6)
mottles (mainly iron staining down roots); many small Soil series name Type of landform
non-weathered to strongly weathered quartz gravels with
some mica and feldspar; few fine roots; sharp irregular Utopia Easy rolling dunes
boundary, Waita (set) Undulating beach ridges
Waiuta Flat to easy rolling terrace margins
Bs 24-25 cm dark reddish brown (2.5YR 2.5/4) and red (2.5YR 4/6)
Bromielaw Dissected marine benches and hills
iron pan; very firm; massive; distinct irregular
Denniston Dissected high plateaux and hills
boundary,
25-80 cm brownish yellow (lOYR 6/6) gravelly sandy loam; firm
to friable; massive breaking to single grain; few thin
Elliot
Casolis
Moana
} Fans
Rolling moraine and hills
distinct red (2.5YR 5/6) cutans (humus stains down old Carton l
root channels); many small and medium non-weathered to Ballarat
strongly weathered quartz, mica and feldspar gravels; Taipoiti Hills

80-110+ cm
diffuse boundary,
pale yellow (2.5Y 7/4) gravelly loamy sand; firm break-
Orikaka
Pidgeon
Wallaby
J
ing to loose; massive breaking to single grain; many
Waiiti Steep land, mainly margins of main ranges
small and medium non-weathered to strongly weathered
Harata except for Wallaby which occurs on steep
quartz, mica and feldspar gravels. Euclid slopes in lowland
Notes: (1) Water seepage at base of LFH horizon. (2) E discontinuous along Millerton
face of profile. (3) Discontinuous Bh above iron pan - not present Tate
in described pedon. (4) Most roots form mat on top of pan. (5) Bw2
is disaggregated in situ granite. (6) Podzol characteristics are a
combination of presence of eluvial and illuvial horizons.
 54
55

Utopia, Waita, Waiuta, Denniston and Millerton were first named as sets
in the 1:253 440 mapping of the South Island (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a). Altitude
All the other series have been defined in the course of more recent West
Coast surveys at 1:63 360 and 1:50 OOO (Mew &Leamy 1977). Detailed The altitudinal range across which podzols are found is great, from
descriptions are given in soil unit sheets held on file and shortly to approximately 5 m to 1000 m, most are however in the 100-500 m range
be published by Soil Bureau; soil unit sheets for the Inangahua Depress- except for the limited few on the coast close to sea level, or in the
ion have been published (Mew et al. 1975). In addition 4 of the 5 sets high mountains.
(not Waita) were also mapped and defined at series level in the course
of these surveys. Other podzols having extents too small to map have Vegetation
been in many instances recognised in units where yellow-brown earths
predominate. These podzols have not been given separate geographic Curr~nt~y the:e are many vegetation types covering the podzols,
names and are only recorded as podzol or podzolised variants on the soil although it is unlikely that they are still actively forming under some
unit sheets of the relevant yellow-brown earths. of them. The range includes coastal broadleaf forest, podocarp forest,
beech/podocarp ~nd po?ocarp/hardwo?d forest, exotic forest, regenerating
SITE CHARACTERISTICS cutover, scrub including weed species such as gorse, pakihi vegetation
and pasture.
Landforms
PROF FEATURES
Podzols cover a wide range of landforms on the West Coast but,
despite this, are generally of limited extent. They can. occur on old Many of the features used to separate series have been generalised
dunes, on terrace margins, dissected terrace land, high plateaux, fans, in t~e site information given above. However, one of the major soil-
rolling moraine, in hill country on both spurs and main slopes, and in forming factors, parent material, is important in series differentiation
steep land bordering the main mountain ranges. Both stability and micro- and i: reflected by profile morphology. Details of morphology, parent '
topography seem to influence the landform situation in which the soils materials and other features used to separate individual series are
occur. They are almost always found on stable sites but occurrence may given.in the following brief descriptions. Series with related parent
be patchy over very short distances. materials are grouped together. FAO (1974) horizon designations are used.
Slopes Utopia and Waita

Almost all slope classes have been recorded, but flat to gently Utopia profiles generally show better-developed podzol features
rolling slopes are exceptional, as in these situations strongly gleyed tha~ those grouped under Waita series in that both sandy eluviated
podzols or other major soil groups more commonly occur. No one slope horiz?ns an~ zones ?f accumulation are commonly present in the former.
class has significantly more soil series developed on it, although it is In Waita soils a thin pale brown gravelly sand topsoil is underlain by
generally true to say that the greatest areal extent is on rolling slopes 30_cm or more of ~ott~ed gravelly sand, the greywacke and granite gravels
(most slopes under 12°). The soil series defined on steep and very steep being encrusted with ironstone. Utopia profiles from granite and gneiss
slopes are generally more variable in profile form as fewer stable sites or greywacke dune sand, average about 40 to 55 cm, whereas Waita soils,
occur. from beach gravels and sands, extend to about 45 cm.

Rainfall Waiuta

The rainfall range across which West Coast podzols are found is The Waiuta series is derived from glacial outwash alluvium contain-
quite large, from 2000 to 7600 mm per year. However, most occur within ing granite, greywacke and some schist, together with small amounts of
a range of about 2000 to 3800 mm. It is only those podzols on steep land loes7. Profiles have thin light brownish grey or pinkish grey silt loam
close to Ranges that experience rain averaging between 3800 and 4500 mm. or fine sandy loam E horizons, which may be mottled brown or strong brown.
They may also be_ stony. An underlying Bs is usually, but not always,
Soil drainage present. It varies between 0.5 and 15 cm and when thicker is not as
har~ as the thin massive pans. Light yellowish brown stony silt loam
Overall soil drainage varies from well drained to poorly drained, horizons below are transitional to parent 1 gravels. Further iron pans
but most of the podzols are classed as imperfectly drained in this may occur at parent material interfaces and within the gravels. Zones
environment. No major differences in drainage are found between the of humus accumulation may also be present. Overall profile thickness
different slope classes, although slightly more moderately well to averages 75 cm with a range of from 25-120 cm.
imperfectly drained soils occur on hill slopes. Increased rainfall in
steeper areas may balance out the effects of increased slope, assuming Carton
situations exist for comparison with lower slope, lower rainfall regions.
Similar soil texture, degree of weathering and parent materials would Carton series is also from glacial outwash but includes slope
need to be present in both. dep~sits resulting from downslope movement on the hills on which the
~eries occu~s. Profiles tend to be imperfectly drained and show mottling
in most horizons. Textures are commonly fine sandy loam close to the
 56

surface and stony silt loams at depth. E horizons may be light brownish basis of having a thin dark brown zone of humus accumulation above a
grey, mottled brownish yellow, and thin yellowish red iron pans usually light yellowish brown layer transitional to parent material. E and Bs
occur within the profile though not always directly beneath the E. horizons are discontinuous and only rarely present. Textures are sandy
Gravels with a light yellowish brown or light grey loamy sand matrix form loams or loamy sands throughout. Profile thickness averages 60 cm with
the parent material and occur on average 50-S5 cm from the surface (range a range from 34-81 cm.
30-68 cm).
Moana and waiiaby
EZZiot and Harata
Moana and Wallaby series are both derived from source material
Both series are grouped with the podzols although drainage is containing granite, greywacke and some schist. For the Moana series,
imperfect and mottling occurs in horizons both above and below zones of on rolling and hill slopes, it is in the form of moraine, with related
humus and/or iron accumulation. The latter may be up to S cm thick but slope deposits. For the Wallaby series, on steep slopes, a mixture of
are frequently weakly cemented and discontinuous. Both soils are from moraine, outwash gravels and Old Man Gravels forms the parent material.
mixed granite and greywacke, as alluvium with colluvium for Elliot on
fans, and as colluvium only for Harata which occurs on steep slopes. In Profile form is basically the same for both series with O Ah E
Elliot soils textures are very variable but with a tendency for silt loams Bs, Bw and C horizons commonly being present. ' ,
E horizons are ' usually
to occur in upper horizons (including E layers) with stony sandy loams or light brownish grey or light grey, some being mottled strong brown or
silty clay loams beneath. Overall profile thickness averages 30 cm with brownish yellow and reflecting the imperfect drainage of these soils.
a range from 20-60 cm. Harata profiles are more conventional podzols, Textures in them may be silt loam or sandy loam. Yellowish red or red
with fine sandy clay loams beneath. Overall profile thickness averages Bs horizons vary in thickness from 0.2 to 12 cm, the latter being
30 cm with a range from 20-60 cm. Harata profiles are more conventional usually softer and less strongly cemented. In some instances Bh zones
podzols, with fine sandy loam E layers succeeded by stony silt loams at are present above the Bs layers, or are the only evidence of accumulation,
depth, merging into horizons transitional to parent material at between Bs layers being absent. Yellowish brovm stony silt loam or sandy loam
4S and 110 cm. layers transitional to parent material occur in all instances beneath
zones of accumulation, but profile thickness is quite variable. For
CasoZis and Pidgeon Moana profiles on rolling slopes, mean thickness is 35 cm (range 18-SS cm);
on hill slopes the average is 74 cm (range 28-140 cm) and for the
The Casolis series occurs on fans and the Pidgeon series on hills. Wallaby series, 40 cm (range 34-S2 cm).
Both are derived from granite and/or granodiorite, the former from
colluvium and alluvium with stones throughout the profile, the latter EucUd
from strongly weathered rock in situ, together with some slope deposits.
Both have thin light brownish grey or greyish brown sandy loam or silt Euclid profiles occur on steep slopes and are moderately well to
loam E horizons which may be mottled yellowish brown in Casolis profiles. imperfectly drained. They are derived from moraine in which the main
Casolis soils are imperfectly drained whereas Pidgeon profiles are rock types are granite and gneiss. E horizons are light brownish grey,
moderately well drained. In Pidgeon soils a very dusky red moderately mottled strong brown. Iron pans are very thin or absent. Moderately
soft pan is underlain by yellowish brown horizons in which more clay is thick yellowish brown Bw layers (mottled yellowish red) underlie Ae or Bs
present in contrast to A layers (transition from silt loam to sandy clay horizons. Textures throughout are sandy loams, often stony. Secondary
loam). C horizons occur at about 80 cm. The pan in Casolis soils is layers of humus or iron/humus may occur inunediately above the C horizon
harder and a dark brown or dark greyish brown zone of humus accumulation at about 100 cm (range 97-117 cm).
is frequently present above it. Beneath are bouldery sandy loam layers
transitional to the parent material which occurs at about SO cm (range Denniston and MiZZerton
23-90 cm).
Denniston and Millerton series are both derived from hard
Orikaka siliceous sandstones within the Coal Measures, together with associated
slope deposits. Denniston series occurs on hill slopes and Millerton
Orikaka profiles, on hill slopes, are considered to be well drained series on steep slopes, the former being imperfectly to well drained
podzols, derived from granodiorite, with related slope deposits. Well and the latter moderately well to well drained. Neither series exhibits
developed examples have 0, Ah, E, Bh, Bs, Bw, Cw horizon sequences, all very strongly developed profile morphology in the upper profile,
horizons being comparatively thin and with sandy loam or loamy sand although E horizons have been distinguished in both. The sequence of
textures. Stones are present throughout in many profiles, which average horizons is commonly Au, E, Bw, Bh, (Bs), C. Both Bh and Bs layers may
SS cm to parent material (range 18-140+ cm). be absent. E horizons may be pale brown or pale grey in colour. Sandy
loam or loamy sand textures, sometimes stony, extend right down profiles
BromieZaw to the C, which is often solid sandstone, at an average depth of about
SS cm (range 37-100+ cm). Profiles on steep slopes tend to be deeper
The Bromielaw series occurs on both rolling and hill slopes. It than those on hills.
includes moderately well and imperfectly drained podzols from gneiss,
with related slope deposits. Profiles are distinguished mainly on the
 58 59

Balla:rat The set ha~ bee~ subdivided and a new series on glacial till
(Moana series) in an area between Inangahua Junction and Hokitika.
The Ballarat series occurs on hill slopes over iron-cemented Tertiary The name Waiuta has been retained and defined at series level as a
sands. Profiles are imperfectly drained and are comparable in form with odzol from glacial outwash. Hence areas of Waiuta soils originally
the Bromielaw series, having marked zones of humus accumulation and little ~apped between Inangahua and Hokitika are now reduced in extent when
evidence of iron movement. The lower part of the topsoil tends to be grey shown at the 1:50 OOO scale (Mew et al. 1975, Mew in press a). Waiuta
loamy sand and passes downwards into brown humic loamy coarse sand which soils are a minor component in complexes with Okarito soils on inter-
may be stony. Horizons transitional to parent material occur at about mediate and high glacial outwash terrace remnants on sides of the
60 cm, but little is known of the range of profile thickness. Inangahua River between Inangahua Junction and Maimai Creek. Complexes
also occur with Okari to soils over limited areas in the Grey Valley,
Taipoiti and Tate and also with Kini soils. Waiuta soils occur around the disused Big
River gold mine, near the Blackwater-Waiuta turn-off from State Highway
Taipoiti and Tate series are derived from greywacke, with related 7, near Mossy Creek and Hukawai, and also on a small unmapped terrace
slope deposits. The former series occurs on hill slopes and the latter remnant on Callaghans Ridge.
on steep slopes. Both are imperfectly drained and neither has strongly
developed podzol profile features in terms of zones of iron accumulation. Moana
E horizons are light brownish grey or pale brown and may be mottled.
Textures tend to be stony fine sandy loam, loamy sand or silt loam. Zones Moana soils cover quite large areas of rolling moraine country in
of accumulation, where present, are weakly developed and of stony silt the south-western Grey Valley, and more limited areas around the Kumara
loam texture. Horizons transitional to parent material tend to be Reservoir, Greymouth-Hokitika region. They are almost always mapped in
yellowish brown or brown, mottled, stony silt loams or silty clay loams. complexes, with Hochstetter soils (yellow-bro~m earths), Maimai soils
C horizons occur at an average of 50 cm (range 24-75 cm). and Flagstaff soils (gleys), or Kumara soils (gley podzols), or else
combinations of these. In many areas, such as on the Lands and Survey
Waiiti Bell Hill farm settlement block, Hochstetter and Moana soils alternate
over very short distances. The reasons for this variation are not at
The Waiiti series occurs on steep slopes and is derived from present fully understood.
colluvial mixtures of granite and Tertiary sandstone. Imperfect drainage
is reflected by mottling in the light brownish grey silt loam E horizon Moana soils on hills are mapped as Moana hill soils. They cover a
which overlies a very thin soft discontinuous yellowish red iron pan. In very limited extent where moraine has overridden upstanding remnants of
some instances a thin Bh may occur above the pan. A moderate thickness basement rock, and are complexed with other hill soils on Lake Hill near
of yellowish brown stony silt loam usually underlies the zones of Lake Hochstetter and also hills near Lake Ahaura.
accumulation. This grades into pale olive loamy fine sand (BC) at
between 45 and 110+ cm. Carton and Taipoiti
DISTRIBUTION OF PODZOLS Carton hill soils and Taipoiti hill soils both occur only in the
Grey Valley. They are complexed together in Tawhai State Forest south
Utopia of Reefton and also around Sawyers Creek. Carton hill soils are more
widespread than Taipoiti, extending patchily south as far as Kamaka and
Utopia soils are now recognised from just south of the Kohaihai River Caledonian Creek north of Atarau and covering a total of some 2050 ha.
(near Karamea) to the Charleston district in Buller County. Recent Taipoiti hill soils are mapped in single named units totalling 675 ha,
mapping (O'Byrne unpublished 1978) at the 1:63 360 scale shows a narrow and as constituents of complexes making up a further 1060 ha. Other
discontinuous strip of Utopia soils on the older dunes inland from the soils in the complexes are usually yellow-brown earths (Deadman hill soils,
coast from near the Kohaihai to the Little Wanganui River. The next Hinau hill soils). The main area where Taipoiti hill soils occur is in a
occurrence of the soils is on high Oturi interglacial surfaces in the band of country between Reefton and the disused Big River gold mine. A
Cape Foulwind district where they are mapped, at 1:253 440 (N.Z. Soil small area has been mapped near Moonlight Creek in the western Grey Valley.
Bureau 1968a), in complex with Kini soils (organic soils). The last
occurrence to the south is a small high strip immediately south of the Wallaby
Little Totara River mapped by Laffan (Laffan &Adams 1977).
Wallaby steepland soils only cover part of about 630 ha of complex
Wai ta in the mid-Grey Valley around Wallaby and Dead Horse Creeks south of
Nelson Creek. They occur with Arahura hill soils, Callaghans steepland
Waita soils have only been mapped at the 1:253 440 scale. They soils and Blackwater steepland soils, all yellow-brown earths or steepland
occur on patchy beach ridges from the area of the Waita River in South soils associated with them. The pattern is not a predictable one. It
Westland down to Martins Bay. may have been related to microtopography and/or the distribution of .native
trees such as rimu before conversion to exotic forestry.
Waiuta
Waiuta soils were first mapped widely at 1:253 440 in Inangahua,
Grey and Westland Counties, frequently in complexes with Okarito soils.
 60
61

Elliot, Waiiti and Harata

Pidgeon and Euclid
Elliot soils, Waiiti steepland soils and Harata steepland soils all
tend to occur close to the margin of the steep land bordering the eastern . . Both.Pid?eon.hil~ soils and Euclid steepland soils are of very
side of the Grey Valley. Elliot soils occur on fans beneath steep 1imi~ed distribution. in th~ Ch~rleston-Punakaiki region. They occur
slopes largely occupied by Harata steepland soils from near Troulands in single named mappin? units in contact with each other between Pidgeon
Creek north to around Allan Water. Waiiti steepland soils cover only a creek and around the middle reaches of Tailings Creek, close to the
small total area (about 500 ha) between Allan Water and the Clarke River. steepland boundary of the survey area due east of Charleston. Areas
In addition, Elliot soils occur west of the southern end of Lake Brunner are; 50 ha_ for Pidg~on hill soils and about 90 ha for Euclid steepland
on a fan at the foot of the Hohonu Range. soils. AdJacent soils tend to be steepland soils related to yellow-brown
earths.
Casolis
Denniston and Millerton
Casolis soils occur at the north-western part of the Grey Valley
between the Otututu River and Maimai Creek, and also around the Mokihinui De~n~ston soil~, Denniston hill soils and Millerton steepland soils
River and Tate Creek south-south-east of Seddonville in the Mokihinui- were originally defined and mapped on the Denniston Plateau in the course
Orikaka region. They are formed on a discontinuous series of fans, and of ~h~ 1'.253_440 surv~y. Further definition and mapping in the adjacent
border hill country transitional to the steep slopes of the Paparoa Range Mokih~nui-Orikak~ region has been carried out (Heine et al. 1977), and
in the Grey Valley. About 750 ha are located in this area. The soils the first two soils have been found to be extensive, fringing the plateau
occupy a similar position on fans near Seddonville but cover a much north towards Seddonville, and also to the east. Frequently soils on
smaller area, only 128 ha. rolling country and hills have been mapped as complexes; areas in these
complexes total about 1100 ha. Other soils that occur in complexes are
Bromielaw Ngakawau hill soils and Mokihinui steepland soils (both yellow-brown
earths or related soils). Large areas occur between Seddonville and
Bromielaw soils occur on rolling country and Bromielaw hill soils Charming Creek, on the true right bank of the Ngakawau River, and north
on hilly slopes in both the Charleston-Punakaiki and the Mokihinui- and south of Isolated Hill. Millerton steepland soils only occupy a
Orikaka regions. In the former region they are located from the vicinity smal~ area (about 200 ha) near Chasm Creek.
of the Nile River south to White Horse Creek. Bromielaw soils may be
complexed with either Charleston or Addison soils (both considered to Tate
be gley podzols). The hill soil equivalent occurs over small areas as
an independent unit, or is complexed with Tiropahi steepland soils (steep- Tate steepland soils have been defined in the Mokihinui-Orikaka
land soils related to yellow-brown earths). region but also occur between Charleston and Punakaiki. In both regions
they are mapped only in complexes close to the eastern boundaries of the
In the Mokihinui-Orikaka region Bromielaw soils only cover part of surveyed areas on the margins of the main ranges. In Mokihinui-Orikaka
a 220 ha complex with Bromielaw hill soils in three small areas south of the other soils in the complex are Wakamarama steepland soils and Kaniere
Seddonville near Chasm Creek. The hill soils are rather more widespread; s~eepland soils. (both related to yellow-brown earths) . Total area of the
about 700 ha in total on east-facing slopes of Radcliffe Ridge and also single c~mplex unit is about 3300 ha but Tate soils form only a subsidiary
near the Ngakawau River. P~rt of it. In Charleston-Punakaiki, Tate steepland soils are complexed
with Wakamarama steepland soils between the Fox River and Bullock Creek
Ballarat as a subsidiary member of a complex covering 900 ha. '

Ballarat hill soils only occur in the Charleston-Punakaiki region.

They cover two blocks totalling approximately 260 ha, the first 2 km
south-east of Charleston below a limestone scarp and the second between
Morrisey Creek and Woodpecker Bay to the south.
RBURY
Orikaka
Orikaka hill soils are confined to the Mokihinui-Orikaka region T.H.Webb
where they are comparatively widely distributed, although frequently in Soil Bureau, DSIR, Christchurch
complexes. Total area in complexes, of which the hill soils form a INTRODUCTION
moderately high percentage, is about 2500 ha. Associated soils are all
yellow-brown earths or steepland soils related to yellow-brown earths
(Blue Duck, Mackley, Ngakawau, Ngakawau hill soils, Kaniere steepland The formation of podzolised soils in Canterbury is largely related
soils). They occur in patches from just south of the Ngakawau River to the ~ombined effect of mor-forming mountain beech forest (Nothofagus
through to near Pensini and Blue Duck Creeks. so~andr~ var. cliffortioides) and in places red beech (N.fusca) and high
r~infall (> 1200 mm). The occurrence of podzols therefore coincides with
t e extensive beech forests which occurred northwards from the catchment
 62
63

of the Rakaia River and in isolated patches to the south (Wardle 1964)
and had a maximum altitude of about 1300 m. The present distribu~ion of (Molloy &Cox 1965) or be associated
some podzol profiles also depends upon the stability of the regolith (Ives et al. 1972).
Thin iron pans have been recorded in 'pockets'
following burning within the last 1000 years. bleached A2
horizons (Molloy 1964, Ives et al. 1972) and
present in most podzolised profiles. are usual
DISTRIBUTION
Lewis Set
The most strongly developed podzols, and the only soils :1assified Under secondary tussock or scrub vegetation ~o the east (mapped
as podzols in Canterbury are found within areas mapped as Lew~s set mainly as Tekoa set), most podzolised profiles have been interpreted as
(N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a). These soils occur on the lower forested slopes relict feat:ires formed under the previous beech forest. Erosion, onset
of the Main Divide where rainfall exceeds 1700 mm. Molloy &Cox (196~) on the burning of the forest, has buried the podzol profiles on lower slopes
and Fox (1956) both described a similar range of soils withi~ the L~wis and truncated ~hem on upper slopes. The well preserved buried profiles
set from studies in the Waimakariri Basin. Strongly podzolised soils_ have an A2 horizon about 7-10 cm thick, consisting of bleached auartz
were confined to easier, more stable slopes and were found to be a:sociated gr~in: overlying humus and iron illuvial B horizons. In some p;ofiles a
with both living and dead beech trees. Molloy &Cox (1965) desc:ibed thin iron pan occurs between the humus B and the diffuse iron B horizon
them as follows - "These soils have acquired a deep layer of reddish-brown A similar pattern of buried and truncated podzols occurs in the head- .
acid mor overlying a thick, structureless grey lens of blea~hed quartz wate:s of the Rakaia River in the Ryton Valley where well developed podzol
grains, which in turn overlies a discontinuous zone_ of .reddish-brown humus profiles_ are also preserved on moderately steep sheltered ridge crests
(B. Harrison pers.comm.).
and iron, grading into yellowish-brown stony loam with weakly developed
fine blocky structure".
Distinct A2 horizons have been preserved on rolling moraines and
On steep slopes soils are generally only weakly podzolised and are steep lower mountain slopes in the Lake Sumner region in North Canterbury.
similar to strongly leached yellow-brown earths of slight~y drier regions. Apparently this region has suffered little erosion forest removal,
These soils have a variable thickness of acid mor, and thin pale ?rey to allowing large sections of A2 horizons to be preserved. The bright yellow-
greyish-brown topsoils overlying deep yellowish-brown stony sub:oils. ish-brown subsoils are similar to those described in soils in other
Fox (1956) considers the A2 horizon would have been more ext~nsive but areas and it is possible that A2 horizons may have been more widespread
in many cases has been removed by erosion. ?n rej:1venated sites such_ as in these soils, prior to the removal of forest, than is commonly assumed.
debris avalanches, young soils have formed with thi~ very stony topsoils lised-gley' Soils
which sometimes overlie older yellowish-brown subsoils.
E.J.B. Cutler (pers. comm.) considers 'podzolised-gley' s and
Molloy &Cox (1965) did not observe iron pans on sloping land but 'gleyed-podzol' soils are quite common above the bushline in the super-
they found soils with iron pans on the forested terraces near the Andrews humid ~one (>2500 ~ rain~all~. The~e.soils have thin c topsoils
River. Ort the highest terraces peaty-gleyed podzols have.formed where overlying grey horizons with iron staining around stones. Thin iron pans
strongly cemented iron pans impede drainage. The A2_horizon has coarse are common. Burrows (1963) described several, what he considered to be
prismatic structure with "grey colours along the vertical structure "strongly podzolised soils" above the bushline near Arthurs and Lewis '
faces and within the lower half of the structure elements". A.W. Young Passes. Th~se soils were formed under Chionochloa oreophila, C. australis
(pers. comm.) has described 'podzolised-gley' soi~s in a catena on or C. crass~uscula and had distinct grey to bro~~-grey (10YR 4/1-5/2) A
2
moraines near Bealey. The 'podzolised-gley' profiles occur on toes~opes zons beneath thin organic rich layers Subsoils were dark yellowish-
between podzol profiles on footslopes and peats in the flat depression. brown and very stony and commonly had distinct humus coatings.
Slow drainage out of the depression in the moraine_has created a
permanent water table and is the cause of the gleyin? on toeslopes. PROPERTIES
Adjacent to the peat, gleying extends from the topsoils to ~he base of.
the profile, while more remote from the depressiong (i.e. higher) gleying Podzolised soils from Lewis, Bealey and Katrine sets show similar
is confined to lower horizons. che~ical properties. C/N ratios of mineral horizons vary from 20-30 and
pH is g~nerally 4.0-4.7 in topsoils and 4.5-5.5 subsoils. Most profiles
Sealey and Katrine sets sho1:1' evidence of humus accumulation in subsoil horizons. Commonly B
Areas mapped as Bealey and Katrine sets (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a) hor~zons hav~ a 20-30% increase in organic carbon compared the A
2
still carry beech forest or retain the impress of former beech forest. horizon and in two profiles organic carbon levels reached 4-5% in subsoil
Soils have a similar mosaic of profile forms to those described_for the horizons which represents a 3-4 fold increase compared levels in the ;;
Lewis set, but podzol forms tend to be less well de~eloped. Bright A2 horizons. Sesquioxide extractions from two profiles from Bealey
(A.W. Young pers.comm.) and five profiles from the Lake Sumner region
ye~lowish-brown to strong brown iron illuvial B horizo~s are comm~n, but
pale coloured A2 horizons are often quite rare and their ab:ence is indicate effects of podzolisation. Oxalate extractable Al and Fe
usually attributed to their removal by erosion (Fox 1~56, Wilde_ 1974). gener~lly showed maximum subsoil values of 1-2% which represent a 4-10
Studies in this region indicate that profiles with thick A2 horizons may fold increase from the A2 horizon. Oxalate extractable Si reached maximum
values of 0. 7-1.5% which represents a 10-40 fold increase from the A
be relict features developed under a forest pre-dating the present forest 2
horizon. Pyrophosphate extractable Al and.Fe reached maximum values of
0.5-1.5% in subsoil horizons. It is also notable that clay in the fine
 64 6S

fractions reached a maximum value of 30 - SO% in the B horizon of all of

these soils. Particle size of the A2 horizon was measured only in the 40 60 80 100
two profiles at Bealey , where clay was 20% of the fine fraction. km

LAND USE
These podzolised soils, other than those occurring on a limited area
of rolling and hilly land, have little value for pastoral production.
They occur in cold environments with limited growth potential and they
have very low nutrient levels and high phosphorus fixation . Where the
vegetation is secondary tussock and scrub they are used for extensive
summer grazing in an undeveloped condition.

Hardy species such as Lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) and Douglas

fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) can be grown quite successfully in this
region and while it is envisaged that the predominant value of exotic
forest is for protection forestry, there is a limited potential for
production forestry under special management (A.H . Nordmeyer pers.comm . ) .
Where native forests have been removed there is active induced and
natural erosion and erosion potential is high . Thus their management
assumes its greatest importance from a soil and water conservation stand-
point.

OTAGOJ SOUTHLAND AND ST EWART ISLAND

J.G.Bruce
So i l Bureau, DS IR, Gore

OTAGO-SOUTHLAND REGION
Podzols and related soils cover some 1 32S OOO ha (Long 1966) which
represents approximately 20% of the Otago-Southland region. The distrib-
ution pattern (Fig . 1) is relatively simple as it reflects a combination
of high rainfall and largely mountainous topography. The podzols and SOILS AREAS
related soils extend in an arc from the southern part of the Southern
.. ·..
Alps into a very broad belt throughout the fiordland massif, and continue
in a somewhat more restricted pattern along the southern and south-eastern
:: :-:.
........ Lowland podzolised yellow-brown
earths and podzols DJ Alpine
coastline . There are also a few isolated occurrences on the coastal
uplands of Otago as far north as Dunedin, as well as on the uplands of
inland Otago.
·(Assoctated Lowland yellow-brown earths) m Fiordla.nd

The soils can be subdivided into three broad groups of podzols and
related soils as follows (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a) : lowland podzolised
yellow-brown earths and podzols 207 9SO ha (16%) ; high country podzolised
High country podzolised
yellow-brown earths rn Coastal Southland and
South Otago.

yellow-brown earths and podzol s 1 076 SOO ha (81%) ; and gley podzols
40 SOO ha (3%) . The area of lowland podzolised yellow-brown earths and
podzols includes some 60 OOO ha of lowland yellow-brown earths which are
Gley Podzols
m Coastal Otago

closely associated with podzols in the coastal and near coastal region of
western Southland adjacent to Fiordland . This area is shown separately
on Fig.1.
Alpine barrens

Fig.I.
m Inland Otago uplands

Generalised distribution of podzols and related soils

in Otago and Southland
 66 67

A physiographic breakdown of the soils shows that about 3% (40 SOO ha; 72%)
occur on terraces and flats, and a further 3% (37 600 ha) occur on
rolling land of which 16 900 ha are at high altitudes. Soils on hilly covers all of Fiordland National Park. It extends
land represent about 18% (243 2SO ha) of the total, of which SS 100 ha ar boundary of the region at , where it
at high altitudes. The remaining 76% (1 004 SOO ha) is on steep slopes e to include the fiordland massif adjacent to the
all of it in the high altitude regions of Fiordland and the Southern Al~s. formed Lakes Te Anau, Manapouri, Monowai, Hauroko, Poteriteri and
kapoua, reaching the south coast.near Big River which drains Lake Hakapoua.
Approximately 90% of the soils are in extremely rugged and inaccessib area is very rugged and mountainous and along the west coast is
parts of the region and are largely poorly or improperly known. Few of e 1·sed by a number of sheer-sided fiords. There are many peaks of over
nc .
these soils have been walked on by anyone, let alone have they come under 1800 m the e 1 evatioi: ranges up to 27S7 m at Tutako Peak on the Darran
pedological scrutiny. Mean annual rainfall ranges from about 1200 mm at Te Anau and
in the east to 3539 mm at West Arm on Lake Manapouri in the
Soil names used in this account are those of the soil sets in the area, and 6236 mm at Milford Sound. Highest recorded average
"General Survey of the Soils of South Island, New Zealand" (N.Z. Soil at Wilmot Pass (671 m).
Bureau 1968a).
s and related soils cover over three quarters of the f iordland
On the basis of the distribution pattern five areas are recognised area. exceptions include the Alpine barrens, recent soils in valley
and the soils are described according to these areas. floors, southern yellow-brown earths, and , all of are
closely associated with the podzols.
Alpine (132 350 ha; 10%)
Lowfond podzolised yeUow-brown earths and podzols represent slight
The Alpine area extends from the northern boundary of the region to more than 5% of the podzols. They include Fiordland hill soils (52 OOO ha)
the Hollyford and Pike Rivers on the west, and to the east includes the which have developed on predominantly granitic rocks under dicotylous-
northern catchment areas of Lakes Hawea, Wanaka, and Wakatipu. The area podocarp forest. They have a discontinuous distribution along coast
is predominantly steep to very steep and is dominated by Mt Aspiring line as well as in a few localities on the shores of Lakes Te Anau and
(303S m). Manapouri. Fiordland soils are dominantly shallow soils on granite and
have a deep duff layer on the surface. In many places they are associated
The podzols and related soils are all high country soils and occur yellow-brown earths - Breaksea soils, and also the Matauira soils -
in a zone between the high country yellow-brown earths and the higher gley podzols - on adjacent terraces, Some small areas of Waita soils
altitude alpine barrens. Soils belonging to five soil sets have been (570 ha) developed on gravel and sand derived from greywacke and
recognised; Polnoon, Lewis, Haast, Whitcombe, and McKerrow. occur in coastal areas at Big Bay and Martins Bay. These soils occur in
greater abundance further north.
Only Polnoon soils, which cover a small area (2 8SO ha), are local
within the area. They have developed under beech forest on glacial till High country podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols cover over
and outwash grounds composed of schist. The major occurrence is on fans 900 OOO ha, the majority of which are shallow or very shallow to bedrock.
and terraces along the Dart River with other smaller occurrences on a They include a small area of soils referred to as the Denniston hill set
tributary of the Polnoon Burn and in the headwaters of the Shotover River. (950 ha) near Milford Sound. These soils cover a much larger area in the
more northern parts of the West Coast. Haast steepland soils, which
The soils belonging to the other four soil sets all have their major also occur in the adjacent Alpine area, have been mapped (13 600 ha) in
areas of occurrence further to the north beyond the Otago-Southland the Martins Bay area on the west side of the Alpine fault, and in part are
region. They are all steepland soils and can be combined into two climo- associated with the Denniston soils. A further occurrence, including the
sequences. altitudinally associated Whitcombe steepland soils, covers 14 675 ha near
Lakes Monowai and Hauroko in the eastern part of Fiordland.
The Lewis and Whitcombe soils are developed on greywacke in the area
of the Humbolt Mountains at the head of Lake Wakatipu. Lewis soils also Steepland high country podzols developed on granite and granodiorite
occur separately in the headwaters of the Hunter River. The somewhat include the Garnock-Princess climosequence. They occur on the eastern
lower altitude Lewis soils are developed under beech forest. With flanks of fiordland from the head of Lake Te Anau to Lake Poteriteri,
increasing altitude they merge with the Whitcombe soils which have a covering 65 250 ha. Garnock steepland soils have developed under silver
vegetative cover of snow tussock grassland. Together they cover 24 400 ha, and mountain beech up to the snow line at about 1000 m, with the
however this represents less than 8% of the total area of the two soil altitude Princess steepland soils occurring under snow tussock and sub-
sets (318 OOO ha). alpine scrub. Kepler steepland soils (6800 ha) are high altitude podzols
developed on conglomerate from granitic and dioritic rocks under snow
The Haast and McKerrow soils are developed on schist and have a tussock. They have a patchy distribution on the west side of Lake Te Anau
comparable altitudinal zonation to the Lewis and Whitcombe soils. and merge westwards with the Garnock and Princess soils. Kepler soils
Haast soils have developed under beech forest and McKerrow soils under also occur on the mid- to upper slopes of the Earl Mountains, northwest
snow tussock grassland. Soils belonging to these two sets cover some of Lake Te Anau. At lower elevation these soils are closely associated
lOS OOO ha of the Alpine area (Haast 52 700; McKerrow S2 400) but even so with Borland steepland soils, a southern yellow-brown earth developed on
this area represents less than 20% of the total area of both sets (S34 975 similar parent material.
 69
68

Hinahina soils cover 26 195 ha of hilly and rolling land in the

The majority of the high country podzols in the fiordland area area from sea level to about 470 m. The majority occue in the Catlins
belong to two soil sets which are associated in a cli~osequence. The~ are district, although there are 3000 ha on the coastal promontory of
Titiraurangi steepland soils (493 5;00 ha) and Resolution steepland soils Howells Hills near Riverton. They are developed on tuffaceous greywacke
(306 400 ha including 21 400 ha of hill soils) .. These s~ils are but generally lack the loess cover of the Tautuku soils. Subsoils have
developed on the various metamorphic and ~lutonic ~ol~anic rocks of a moderately thick humus/iron accumulation as distinct from a thin iron
Fiordland, including schist, gneiss, granite and diorite. They extend_ pan.
from sea level to the high tops with the separation between the two soil
sets taken at the bush line at about 1000 m. The Titiraurangi soils occur Soils developed on sands are widespread in coastal regions but do
dominantly under mountain and silver beech and Resolution s~ils ':1nder :now not cover a large area. Toetoes soils (1860 ha) are developed on coastal
tussock and subalpine scrub. Considerable areas of Resolution hil.l soils sand accumulations, much of it in dune fonn, from Waipapa Point to the
occur on the ridges in the south-west part of the area from Breaksea Sound Catlins River estuary. Included also is 40 ha in the adjacent Coastal
to the Cameron mountains south of Lake Poteriteri. otago area. Soils in most areas are considerably humus stained, although
near Pounawea they have a thick grey eluvial horizon underlain by weakly
GZey podzois in a fiordland area cover 6800 ha and all are referred iron/humus cemented sand.
to the Matauira soil set. A much larger area occurs in the adjacent coastal
region. Omaui soils (3580 ha) occur on the Bluff Peninsula on hilly and
rolling land. They are developed on thick accumulations of tuffaceous
Coastal Southland and South Otago (220 140 ha; 17%) greywacke sand overlying norite. A well developed thin iron pan occurs
deep in the profile near the sand weathered rock interface. The vege-
This area abuts Fiordland and extends intermittently round the south tation, dominated by manuka, is short and stunted because of strong winds.
coast to near the lower Clutha River floodplain. The area is all under
1000 m elevation, the highest points being 870 m on the Longw~od R~nge_ High country podzoiised yeZiow-brown earths and podzoZs occur in
in western Southland and 700 m on Beresford Range in the Catlins district. two areas. Pukepahi hill soils (21 100 ha) occur on the upper slopes
Average annual rain fall is between 1100 mm and about 1600 mm. of the Maclennan, Beresford, and Rata ranges in the Catlins. They are
developed on tuffaceous greywacke under a mixed podocarp-dicotylous
Lowland podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols make up almost forest with subalpine scrub at higher elevations. Longwood soils cover
half (93 515 ha; 43%) of the podzols and related soils. High country . 11 575 ha of hilly and rolling land above 500 m on the Longwood Range.
podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols, and gley podzols and_a:socia~ed Parent material is norite with some tuffaceous greywacke. They have
soils 15% each (32 675 ha and 33 700 ha respectively). The remaining_27?o developed under silver beech forest with subalpine scrub and snow tussock
(60 250 ha) include the lowland yellow-brown earths of the Hauroko soil at higher elevations.
set which are closely associated with podzols in the western part of the
region adjacent to Fiordland. Associated southern yeiiow-brown earths include the Hauroko soils
(60 250 ha) which are extensive along the boundary between fiordland and
Lowiand podzoiised yeiiow-brown earths and podzo~s include_ the T~utuku coastal areas. They have been included because many of the soils are
soils (40 225 ha) developed on tuffaceous greywacke with a varying thick- strongly podzolised. Hauroko soils are developed on soft Tertiary sand-
ness of loess cover. They are deep, usually friable, soils ~ut tend to stones and mudstones and in most places have a cover of gravels derived
be somewhat blocky and hard where the well weathered unde:ly~ng roc~s are from fiordland rocks. Vegetative cover is dominantly silver beech with
encountered. Well developed thin iron pans are characteristic an~ in some kamahi, rimu and rata. Profiles are variable, but include many with
places have multiple banding. Ori~inal vege~ation was podo~arp-dicotylous humus stained subsoils, and iron pans up to 3 cm thick. Surface horizons
forest dominated by rimu and kamahi. A portion of these.soils have been are generally peaty, and subsoils grey to pale brown nut structured silty
cleared for farming but most is still in forest. The maJor occurrence of clay loams or clay loams. Much of the area is under the control of
Tautuku soils is in the Catlins district (37 OOO ha) but there.are 3000 ha N.Z. Forest Service.
on rolling land near Orepuki in western Southland where the soils are
developed on deep loess. GZey podzois and associated soils include Tisbury (14 250 ha) and
Matauira (19 450 ha) soils.
Kaka hill soils (7900 ha) developed on Tertiary sandstones occur
largely in the Rowallan Forest west of Tuatapere. The somewhat similar Coas Otago (2790 ha; 0.2%)
Traill* hill soils (13 795 ha) are widespread on the lower slopes o~ the
Longwood Range. They are developed on tuffaceous gre~wacke and norite. This area includes the coastal regions of Otago up to Otago
With increasing elevation they merge with Longwood soils on the upper Peninsula. Podzols and related soils cover only a small area in a
slopes of the range. scattered pattern.

* Traill soils and Traill hill soils (Sets 6lb &6lbH) are incorrectly Lowiand podzoiised yeiiow-brown earths and podzoZs comprise largely
spelt "Trail" in "General Survey of the Soils of South Island, the Takitao hill soils (1575 ha), which occur between 100 m and 400 m on
New Zealand" (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a). the coastal uplands east of Milton. They have developed under rimu,
Cedar, kamahi forest on greywacke with an overlying variable thickness
 71

of schist loess. Toetoes soils (mentioned above) cover a small area on

the southern coast near the Lower Clutha Plains.

High country podzoZised yeZZow-brown earths and podzoZs are restricted

to two small areas on the uplands at the back of Dunedin, near Swampy
Summit (742 m) and at Mihiwaka (560 m) . The soils, which are included in Codfish Is.

~
the Leith soil set, cover 1175 ha and have developed under a podocarp-
dicotylous forest dominated by cedar. Parent material comprises schist
loess over phonolite, much of it disturbed by solifluvial action.

Inland Otago Uplands (10 OOO ha; 0.8%)

This area includes the damp upland region of inland Otago extending
from the Maungatuas (900 m) near the Taieri Plains to the Garvie Mountains
(1250 m) north of Waikaia . In addition to these areas other locations
are on the Lammerlaw Range (1200 m), the Blue Mountains (1000 m), and
the Umbrella Mountains (1100 m) . All the soils are included in the
Maungatua soil set and are classified as high country podzoZised yeZZow-
brown earths and podzoZs. In places they are associated with high country
yellow-brown earths, and upland peats (Kaherekoau soils) . Maungatua
soils are developed on schist which has a variable cover of schist loess.
Rainfall ranges from 750 mm to 1000 mm, and native vegetation includes
snow tussock and subalpine scrub . Profiles are generally shallow to
the underlying schist rock. They have thin peaty surface layers over
brownish grey friable silt loams with a thin hard iron pan. Little use
is made of these soils.

STEWART ISLAND
Stewart Island or Rakiura, the third island of New Zealand's
"triple star", has an area of approximately 1700 km 2 of which more than 0!.________
10
I ____20
I km
half (94 435 ha; 55%) are classified as podzols or related soils (Leamy
1974). Much of the land is rugged and inhospitable. There are a number
of peaks over 600 m the highest being Mt Anglem (980 m). Rainfall is
high, ranging from 1250 mm to in excess of 3750 mm . The parent material
of the soils includes diorite in the north, granite in the south, a thin Southern podzolised yellow - brown earths
belt of schist between these two, colluvial and alluvial debris derived and related steepland soils
from these three rock types, and sand in dune form .
lntergrades between Subalpine pcidzolised yellow-brown earths
and Organic soils and related Steepland soils
The podzols and related soils are arranged in four groups, and their
distribution pattern is shown in Fig.2 .
.lntergrades between Subantarctic to Southern podzolised .
yellow - brown earths and Organic soils and re1ated Steepland soils
Southern podzolised yellow-brown earths (63 135 ha; 66%)
Soils belonging to this group occur largely in the northern part of - lntergrades between yellow-brown sands and podzols
the island beyond Doughboy Bay and Port Advent ure . They have developed
under kamahi , rimu, rata forest from sea level to about 350 m. The
major soil units include Rakiura soils and hill soils (10 420 ha) and the
associated Bungaree steepland soils (2560 ha), developed on diorite
north of Paterson Inlet. Paterson soils and hill soils (29 745 ha) and Fi g. 2 Generalised distribution of podzols and
associated Pikaroro steepland soils (5875 ha) developed on granite on related soils on Stewart Island
rolling hilly and steepland south of Paterson Inlet ; and the Hapuatuna
soils (5410 ha) and associated Abrahams steepland soils (2135 ha)
developed on schist in the Freshwater area. Three other soil units cover-
ing almost 6000 ha include Waipikaho soils (2135 ha) on fan alluvium and
colluvium in Freshwater; Yankee soils (10 ha) on dioritic alluvium on
 I "-

73

north coast benches; and Kaihuka soils (3845 ha) on granitic alluvium on
coastal benches south of Paterson Inlet. 3. VEGETATION~ PROCESS AND PEDOLOGY
Intergrades between subalpine podzolised yellow -·brown earths
and organic soils (5240 ha; 6%)
poDZOL VEGETATION
Soils of this group are developed on diorite on the northern part
of the island above about 350 m. They include the Anglem soils and I.A.E. Atkinson
hill soils (3105 ha) and the associated Murray steepland soils (2135 ha). Botany Division, DSIR, Lower Hutt
Natural vegetation is leatherwood, manuka, and bog pine, with subalpine
vegetation at higher elevation. The diorite is little weathered and INTRODUCTION
profiles are generally shallow. Iron pans may occur at the surface of
the weathering diorite. At lower elevations these soils grade into The vegetation associated with pod zols in New Zealand has never
Rakiura and Bungaree soils. been studied systematically; nor has the role of plants in their form-
ation been properly evaluated. What kinds of vegetation occur on these
Intergrades between subantarctic to southern podzolised soils? Is some particular kind of plant necessary for the full develop-
yellow-brown earths and organic soils (22 640 ha; 24%) ment of a podzol? Do those plants under which podzolisation occur have
any particular physiological characteristics? What effects do changes
These soils occur in the southern part of the island south of in vegetation have on the long-term stability of a podzol?
Doughboy Bay between sea level and about 300 m. They include Waianiwa
soils and hill soils (17 730 ha) and the associated Pearl steepland There is not sufficient information to answer any of these
soils (4910 ha) all of which are developed in granite or granitic questions properly but in this review I will attempt to summarise what
colluvium. In coastal areas, mainly north of Port Pegasus they are is known about them.
associated with the Kaihuka soils, Native vegetation is podocarp-
dicotylous forest dominated by kamahi, rimu and rata. The soils generally What kinds of vegetation are associated with podzols in New Zealand?
have a thick surface layer of peat and thin mineral horizons on granite.
Illuvial humus and iron tends to accumulate in the crust of the weathering North Island:
granite. Descriptions of podzol vegetation are few. In North Auckland and
Auckland, podzols are usually associated with kauri* forest, although
Intergrades between yellow-brown sands and podzols (3420 ha; 4%) only a minority of kauri forest soils show podzol features. In spite
of the world-wide pedological interest in kauri podzols, no detailed
Soils of this group occur on flattened sand dunes in the central description, either quantitat i ve or qualitative, appears to have been
part of the island, largely near Freshwater. made of a kauri forest on a podzol.
They are all separated as Tolson soils and have sandy profiles A characteristic vegetation called "gumland scrub" developed after
which tend to become reddish brown with depth. However there is consider- burning of kauri forests. Descriptions are given by Kirk (1870), Carse
able variation in the development of the soils. In many places the (1910) and Cockayne (1928) but it is not possible to be certain that
Tolson soils are associated with gley soils on valley floors . Native the particular communities described were actually on podzols. Wheeler
vegetation is dominated by Dracophyllum, coprosmas and manuka. (1963) gives a brief description of "guml and scrub" dominated by manuka
and bracken in North Cape. Field Sheet 1 of the North Auckland soil
survey (1:63 360) shows that this scrub is on a pod zol : the Te Kopuru
sand.

The only comprehensive account of gumland scrub on a podzol is

that of Esler & Rumball (19 75). Their quantitative data for stands on
Wharekohe silt loam at Kaikohe show that as well as manuka, the shrub
Dr>acophyllwn l essonianwn, the sedges Bawnea teretifolia and Schoenus
brevifolius, and the fern Gl ei chenia circinnata are all abundant.
In the Bay of Plenty, Pullar &Cowie (1967) described a soil on
dune sands at Mt Maunganui which they considered to be more than 4000
years old. Its podzol features included a pale brownish grey Az horizon
and a thick weakly iron-i lluvial pan. The original vegetation is not
known although Atkinson (in Pullar &Cowie 1967) suggested podocarps or

* See glossary for scientific names of New Zealand plants mentioned

in text.
 75

kauri may have been present.

e 1 Vegetation associated and s*
In North Island uplands, podzols are sometimes found in podocarp
forests on soils derived from pumice of the 120 A.D. eruption (Baumgart series Range of textures Associated vegetation Reference for
1952; Vucetich &Wells 1978). Descriptions of some of these forests vegetation
(McKelvey 1963), can sometimes be related to soil types. Podzols are
associated with at least some stands of McKelvey's type Ml, "podocarp/ NORTH ISLAND LOWLANDS
kamahi/scrub hardwoods", in which rimu and matai are the principal podo-
carps, as well as type Gl, "Hall's totara/ scrub hardwoods". sand to peaty sand "scrub, rushes" (origin- N.Z.Soil Bureau
ally kauri forest) (1954)
Incipient podzols, with weakly iron-cemented B horizons, occur on sand to fine sandy (originally kauri J.E.Cox (pers.
Tihoi silty sand weathered from Taupo pumice in the Puruorakau catchment loam forest) comm.)
of the Purukohukohu IHD Experimental Basin (Rijkse &Bell 1974; Daly & sandy loam to clay "manuka, rushes" N. Z. Soil Bureau
Rijkse 1974). Nicholls & Beveridge (1971) describe the rimu-kamahi (1954)
forest that is associated with this soil. fine sandy loam to "scrub, rushes",
silt loam umbrella fern in "pipe-
In southern uplands of the North Island, shallow podzols occur clay gumland"; kauri
frequently on moderate slopes beneath silver beech forest although the forest
mapping units within which these soils occur are not true podzols. In fine sandy loam manuka scrub, kauri Swindale (1957a)
mapping soils of the Rimutaka Range, J.C.Heine (pers. comm.) has found to silt loam forest
shallow podzols in both hard beech and silver beech forests. Point loamy sand "kauri forest, later N.Z.Soil Bureau
becoming a peaty swamp" (1968b)
South Island:
A.2 NORTH ISLAND UPLANDS
Here also it is seldom that vegetation descriptions have been silty sand to
closely related to soil types such that one can be sure that podzol "rimu-tawa", "beech and Un pub . S • B • soil
sandy loam rimu", "cut-over bush" unit sheet;
vegetation is described. In Westland, Chavasse (1962) published a clear
exposition of the relationships between forests, soils and landforms. podocarp-dicotylous Vucetich & Wells
forest (1978)
Podzols occur on terraces within the Waiuta loam and Ahaura stony sandy sandy loam to
loam where typically the forest is composed of rimu with smaller amounts "beech, rimu, tawa, W.C.Rijkse (pers.
gravelly sand totara" comm.)
of miro and kahikatea. In Westland National Park, Wardle (1977) loamy sand
describes rimu/kamahi-quintinia and kaikawaka-Hall's totara forests "pasture, manuka, cut- Unpub. S. B. soil
over bush" unit sheet
associated with podzolised yellow-brown earths. sandy loam monoao (Dracophyllwn
In mountains of eastern South Island, relict humus-iron podzols subulatum) shrubland,
have been recorded beneath tussock grasses and shrubs by Molloy et al. tussock grasses, "gener-
(1963) and associated with a previous cover of mountain beech forest ally frost-flat vege-
tation"
identified from charcoal remains. Molloy's (1964) study in the silt loam to sand
Torlesse Range, Canterbury, also showed that the positions of buried "rimu, tawa, beech" ii

loamy sand to rimu/tawa forest; Vucetich & Wells

"eggcup podzols" were at variance with the most likely podzolising sandy silt
plant in the existing vegetation (Dracophyllwn aceroswn). This, allied dicotylous forest with (1978); Rijkse
with their deep burial, suggested that podzolisation had occurred beneath Hall ' s totara "beech (1979)
forest"
an earlier forest of mountain beech. Waikar emoana sandy loam to "beech forest and cut- Rij kse ( 1979)
fine sandy loam over bush"
General Comments coarse sand to "many areas in black Rijkse (1979)
loamy sand beech"
Indications of the nature of podzol vegetation can be gleaned from coarse sand
the 4 miles to the inch soil surveys of the North and South Islands "beech forest" Unpub. S,B, soil
(N.Z. Soil Bureau 1954, 1968a) as well as other soil surveys (Table 1). unit sheet
Because the ashy-grey colour of the A2 horizon is not always present in SOUTH ISLAND LOWLANDS
soils in New Zealand described as podzols, the definition of Taylor &
Pohlen (1962:159) has not been followed rigidly in compiling Table 1. silt loam ''conif erous-dicotylous Tomlinson &
forest" containing Leslie (1978)
In addition to those listed in Table 1, podzols sometimes occur in kaikawaka
isolated pockets within soils not described as podzols, e.g. the podzols silt loam to rimu/kaikawaka/kamahi N.Z. Soil Bureau
formed under hard beench forest on Hope hill soils (Chittenden et al. clay loam forest, kaikawaka forest (1968a); Wright
1966:37). Discontinuous distributions of this kind underline the fact et al. (1952)
 76 77

Table 1 (continued) Table 1 (continued)

Associated vegetation Reference for
Soil series Range of textures vegetation Range of textures Associated vegetation Reference for
series
vegetation
rimu forest; silver Gibbs et al.
sandy loam to loam
Waiuta beech forest; "manuka, (1950) SOUTH ISLAND UPLANDS
fern and rushes" sandy loam "low scrub and pakihi N.Z. Soil Bureau
"red and hard beech Unpub. S.B.soil
sandy loam to silt vegetation"; "beech/ (1968a)
Elliot forest"; podocarp/ unit sheet
loam podocarp (rimu)"
hardwood forest stony loam to "subalpine scrub, flax, II

"beech/podocarp forest " 10 ngwood

casolis sandy loam silt loam dracophyllum", "snow
cutover for rimu" tussock, herbfields and
"podocarp forest" N.Z. Soil Bureau
sandy loam bog communities"
Puponga (1968a)
stony loam to "beech forest" (mountain "
Utopia loamy sand to "broadleaved (kamahi)/ " sandy loam and silver beech);
sandy loam podocarp (rimu,kahikatea) "subalpine scrub"
forest, coastal scrub" stony loam to "beech forest" (silver II

rimu/kamahi forest; Gibbs et al.

Wai ta gravelly sand to sandy loam and mountain beech);
rimu forest (1950), N.Z.
loamy sand "few podocarps"
Soil Bureau
sandy loam "snow tussock, herbfields", II
(1968a) "subalpine scrub; much bare
"red tussock and manuka N.Z. Soil rock"
Toe toe loamy sand (1968a)
to sandy loam scrub"; "rimu forest"
stony loam to "coastal broadleaved
Omaui forest with patches of " * A small minority of podzols are not included in this table as no
sandy loam information about their vegetation could be found.
rimu/kamahi forest";
manuka scrub
silt loam "po do carp forest; podocarp/
Hukarere hardwood forest; beech/ Unpub. S.B. that necessary conditions for podzolisation are only met locally, for
podocarp forest (logged unit sheet example where there is a particular species of tree.
for rimu)"
"cutover beech forest It appears that most of the vegetation types associated with podzols are
Moana gravelly silt not unusual in composition, at least so far as their main species are con-
loam to silt loam logged for rimu; podocarp
or podocarp/hardwood cerned. Thus kauri forest, podocarp and podocarp/dicotylous forests in which
forest" rimu, Hall's totara, kaikawaka or kamahi are important, or beech and beech-
"scrub, pakahi; regener- " podocarp forests containing rimu, red beech, silver beech, or hard beech are
Bromielaw loamy sand to kinds of vegetation that are not restricted to podzols or even podzolised
sandy loam ating beech/podocarp
forest" yellow-brown earths. Similarly, secondary vegetation such as manuka scrub
"cutover beech-podocarp " monoao shrubland that has developed after clearing of forest from podzols,
Carton fine sandy loam not specific to this soil group.
to silt loam forest"
sand to loamy "scrub; regenerating
Ballarat podocarp/hardwood forest " Of the understorey species associated with forests on podzols, and the
sand smaller species of the secondary scrub communities, more work is needed
Taipoiti fine sandy loam "beech-podocarp forest" " before we can say that there is nothing different about the composition of
to silt loam " podzol vegetation. For example, further study may show that one or two
loamy coarse sand "beech-podocarp forest"
Orikaka endemic shrubs such as Dracophyllum lessonianum, Pomaderris haJniltoni and
to fine sandy loam Ii
P.pPUnifolia var. edgerleyi occur only in the scrub communities of podzols.
silt loam "beech-podocarp forest"
Pidgeon podocarp-hardwood forest " In any case, composition is only one parameter of vegetation. Measurements
Wallaby silt loam of growth rates, of mineral turnover or species longevity, for example, may
stony fine sandy beech-podocarp forest " :eveal that podzol vegetation in New Zealand is distinctive even though this
Harata
loam ls not apparent at present.
Waiiti gritty silt loam "beech-podocarp forest" "
stony sand to "beech-podocarp forest" " Is some particular kind of plant necessary for devel of a ?
Euclid
sandy loam "
fine sandy loam "beech-podocarp forest"
Millerton "beech-podocarp forest" " Tree species that have been shown to have effects sufficient to produce
Tate stony silt loam Podzo1 profiles in New Zealand are kauri (Grange 1939, Taylor &
 79
Pohlen 1954, Gibbs et al. 1968, Cox 1977), rimu (Baumgart 1952,
Vucetich &Wells 1978), Hall's totara (Baumgart 1952, McKelvey 1963),
kaikawaka (Wright et al. 1952, Tomlinson &Leslie 1978), mountain beech In the northern hemisphere, ?odzols are associated with coniferous
(Molloy et al. 1963, Molloy 1964), silver beech (Gibbs et al. 1950), red t...~ees although
.f the work of
. Bloomfield
. (1954c) and Davies (1 970 ) s h ows
beech (Campbell 1975), hard beech (Blakemore &Miller 1968) and, in the that con~ ~rs ~re notdunilqu~ ~n possessing leaf constituents capable
Chatham Islands, Dracophyllwn arboreum (Wright 1959). Although Pinus mobilising iron an a uminium and moving them down the p of"l
of . d 1 h r 1 e.
radiata is capable of lowering pH in pumice soils to depths of 2-3 m n
I Britain, po zo s t ave been
( · found beneath both beech , Fagus sy "Iv a t -z..ca,
i,
·
(Mcintosh 1980) no podzols have been described beneath this species. and oak, Quercus pe raea, Dimbleby &Gill 1955, Mackney 1961).

Podzols have been associated with a number of other trees, for The vegetation types listed in Table 1 include manuka scrub monoao
example, kamahi (Gibbs et al. 1968). The mere presence of a species shrubland, subalpine scrub, grasslands of red tussock and snow t~ssock,
within a forest type where podzols occur cannot be accepted as sufficient and alpine herbfields. Can podzols form beneath such vegetation?
evidence of a capacity of that species to induce podzolisation. Kamahi
occurs on podzolised profiles of the Tautuku silt loam (cf. N.Z. Soil In th~ manuka ~gurnland) scrubs of North Auckland, the presence of
Bureau 1968b) but the podzol features may have resulted from the growth I<auri gum in.the soi~ shows that its podzol features could be inherited
of rimu present on the site at an earlier time. Rimu occurs with kamahi from an earlier kaur1 forest. At higher altitudes many podzols now
throughout the greater part of the geographic range of kamahi. Burns beneath tussock or shrubs have apparently developed beneath an earlier
(1931) found that both tawheowheo and kamahi decreased the acidity of forest cover (e.g. Molloy 1964).
the surface soil in comparison with rimu.
That podzolisation, at least so far as iron pan fonnation is
There has been a tendency by some workers to connect mar-forming concerned~ c~noccur under tall tussock grasses, is demonstrated by the
trees, i.e. those that produce mor-type litters, with podzolisation. work of Williams (1975~,b) at 1300-1400 m in the Tararua Range. On stable
Tree species associated with podzolisation such as kauri, rimu and the slopes of less than 24 formed from angular rock debris, he found that
southern beeches usually produce mor litters. However, there is not continuous humic iron pans could develop beneath a tussock cover of
necessarily any one-to-one relationship. Mor litters have been attrib- Chionoahloa fZavescens with a litter pH of 4.55. Discontinuous iron pans
uted to matai, miro, hinau and kamahi (Vucetich &Wells 1978) and I have could sometimes be found under a tussock cover of C.pallens whose litter
noticed that taraire can sometimes produce a definite mor litter. That pH was 5.05. There was nothing to suggest that these iron pans were
all these species also induce podzol formation is extremely doubtful. relict features.

Thus in New Zealand the range of trees beneath which podzolisation In and, Wardle et al. (1973) described a soil with a cemented
occurs appears to be restricted to four species of southern conifer iron-humus pan beneath a tussock community dominated by Chionochloa
(kauri, two species of podocarp, kaikawaka), four species of southern ~aicu?aris. In this case it is not known whether or not the iron pan is
beech and the epacrid tree Dracophyllwn arbo~eum. These can be called inherited from an antecedent vegetation.
"podzolising species" but without any implication that they will always
induce podzolisation. Often, other conditions necessary for podzolisat- Overseas work also indicates that at least partially developed
ion will not be met. For instance, Wright (1951<?-andpers.comm.) has found P?dzols_can be formed under non-forest vegetation. Tedrow's (1977)
that the Fijian kauri (Agathis vitiensis), a close relative of the New discussion of pedogenic gradients in the northern polar region shows
Zealand species, forms a mull type of litter and is not associated with clearly that podzolisation extends from the forest zone into the tundra
podzols in Fiji. zone although with steadily weakening effect. Tedrow (p.562) records
podzols in special situations on mountains up to 1680 m where the plant
It is practically certain that more species than listed here are cover consisted of shrubs.
capable of inducing podzolisation but until the appropriate field work
is done it seems best to adopt a conservative view.
Do podzolising trees have any particular physiological or
An unanswered question relating to podzolisation in a typical morphological characteristics?
podocarp/dicotylous forest concerns the effects of northern rata. This
tree, widespread in lowland forest, is well known for its ability to Various groups of plant compounds, including organic acids, poly-
establish high up in the forks of a tall podocarp, particularly ~henols and polysaccharides have been suggested as of key significance
rimu, and then, by growing roots down the side of the trunk of the ~n contributing to podzolisation. As there is no agreement as to which
supporting tree, form a new tree. At a later stage the multiple trunks is ?f greatest importance, it is not yet possible to list the physio-
of the rata coalesce around the supporting tree with death of the latter logic~l characteristics that distinguish plants that induce podzolisation.
following perhaps as a result of competition and old age. No measure- ~Ost if not all of these plants produce acid litters of pH less than 5,
ments are available but nothern rata does not appear to be a species _ut whether all plants producing acid litters have podzolising effects
15
likely to induce podzolisation. If so, to what extent can podzolisation doubtful. Because ash alkalinity of the fresh litter reflects the
trends initiated by a rimu subsequently be reversed by a rata? ~ap~city of a plant to return nutrients, particularly calcium, Blakemore
Miller (1968) suggested this parameter (using plants on immature soils)
an an index of a tree's capacity to degrade soils. There is probably
~~me relationship here, since foliage calcium levels must influence
1
1 tter pH, but among the ash alkalinities they quote, manuka has the
owest value. Manuka is not known to have any podzolising effects.
 80
81

In studying podzolisation Bloomfield (1953a,1954b) found rimu leaves

more active than kauri leaves in dissolving hydrous sesquioxides of
iron and aluminium. This led him to measure the effectiveness of addition of adequate fertilisers, is possible to
leaves in deflocculating kaolin suspensions (Bloomfield 1954a.) and here pasture on some North Auckland podzols, particularly the
he found that kauri leaves were more effective than those of rim~. ~e silt loam. How stable the podzolic profile will be under this
therefore suggested that this latter property was a factor contributing 1 nt cover remains to be seen but certainly it is still possible to
to the greater overall effectiveness of kauri as a podzolising agent. P ~se essential podzol features in a Wharekohe soil up to at least
ognrls
yea after the pasture was established.
Petersen (1976) suggested that too high a concentration.of alll1!1inium
in the A horizon would immobilise organic compounds, preventing their The podzol features of pumice soils appear to be less stable than
movement to deeper levels and thus inhibiting podzolisation. Since of North Auckland podzols; i t seemsthat they can be gradually lost
there are large differences in the capacities of plants to take up 1~ewing a major change of vegetation such as the establishment of
st~re (cf. Daly &Rijkse 1974).
aluminium (Webb 1954, Moomaw et al. 1959) it may be wort~w~ile to .
compare the foliage aluminium leve~s of the k~own pod~olising species
with other kinds of plants to see if any consistent differences emerge. An important study now being made in Britain is that of Miles (1977)
0 has compared soil properties beneath heather moorland with nearby
Still another characteristic of podzolising species that may be of nds of invading birch (Betula pendula). The stands ranged in age
significance is the extent to which crown-intercepted precipitation ~m 18 to 90 years and the original soil under the heather moorland was
is channelled as stemflow down the trunk. In their study of the effects typical podzol. As Miles s~ates, the s?il conditions befor~ birch
of stemflow water on the properties of a soil under beech (Fagus sp.) ionization cannot be determined conclusively so that the evidence of
Gersper &Holowaychuk (1970) found that this flow intensified podzolisat- ange the birch ~ust_be i~terpret~d with cauti?n. Howe~er, the
ion in the soil nearest the trunk. Campbell (1975) demonstrated a rends indicated following invasion by birch were an increase in pH,
similar effect under red beech in Westland: pH and CEC values both ncrease in available calcium and increases in microbial and earthworm
decreased as one approached the trunk of the tree. ctivity. The soil beneath a 38 year-old birch stand was sufficiently
ltered to be termed a brown podzolic soil. Miles suggests that the birch,
The term "egg-cup" podzol has been in use since the early s?il ith its deeper root penetration than heather, may be extracting calcium
rom deeper down the profile.
surveys in North Auckland. "Egg-cup" podzols were found under single
kauri trees (cf. Taylor &Pohlen 1962) but no description of e~ther the
lateral dimensions and depths of the various horizons or the size and Such effects may not be restricted to trees for, in another study in
Britain, Jarvis & Duncan (1976) have found that, where bracken is
position of the associated kauri tree in one of these P?dzols has been
~dvancing into heather, a redistribution of iron, aluminium and manganese
published. It is possible that their real shape approximates more to a
occurred which in effect represented a reversal of the podzolisation
saucer than an egg-cup. Such podzols may result from stemflow effects
process. These studies suggest there could be more to learn about some
but, under natural conditions, these effects are confounded by the greater
New Zealand plants concerning their capacity for reversing trends of
twig and bark fall nearer the trunk. J?odzolisation.
Tolerance of low nutrient levels is a pre-requisite for any plant
growing on a podzol although measurements of nutrient tolerance among
New Zealand plants are few. Peterson (1962) studied the level~ of
isation and the need for field experiments
mineral nutrition required to maintain maximum growth of seedlings of
Apart from the work of Stevens (1968aj little information is available
kauri and tanekaha. His results showed that, compared with Eu:opean
; on rates of podzolisation in New Zealand and the developmental position
trees such as spruce (Picea sp.), birch (Betula pendula) a~d pines
of the podzol relative to other soil groups. Are most podzols changing
(Pinus sylvestris and P.strobus), the two New Zeala~d species could be
at different rates towards gley podzols, as appears to be the case in
placed in the lowest nutrient requiring g:oup ~or nitrogen and phosphorus.
Westland (cf. Stevens) or is there a spectrum of relatively stable "end-
Foliar analyses of New Zealand beech species given by Adams (1976a) con-
points" which rates of change have become extremely slow and which
firms that these also are tolerant of rather low nutrient levels.
include a range of soils from those "weakly podzolised" to the podzols and
gley podzols? No soil is likely to have reached an "end-point" i f the
vegetation it supports is still in a state of gradual change.
What effects do changes in vegetation have on the long-term
stability of a podzol? present unsatisfactory state of our knowledge concerning the
role of plants in the podzolisation process suggests a need for some
The fact that kauri podzols were recognised in North Auckland in long-term field experiemnts. Of particular value might be a study of
manuka "gumlands" that had lost their kauri cover in pre-E:iropean times, podzolisation on the Te Kopuru sand since the process could be expected
suggests that such podzols are relatively stable and certainl~ not to occur at a high rate on this well-drained material. Planting of small
obliterated by the effects of scrub. A similar argument applies to the blocks of different tree species, known or suspected to have podzolising
numerous relict podzols of the South Island mountains formed under beech effects, could be done on unpodzolised areas of .the Te Kopuru sand,
forest but now under tussock or shrubs. Preferably under an already existing canopy of manuka. This would provide
an opportunity for measuring rates of mineralogical change, redistribution
of clay and other podzolising effects associated with various trees,
 82
83

including kauri, using unplanted stands of manuka and completely

cleared areas as controls. With any one block of trees there would be
further opportunities to increase understanding of the process by ISM I I
manipulating single tree-soil profiles, by removing certain components
of the litter. Here, as with other aspects of the study of podzolis-
ation, there is a need for much closer liaison between botanists and B.K. Daly
soil scientists that has hitherto occurred. Soil Bureau, OSIR, Lower
Summary of Conclusions
1. Few accounts of podzol vegetation have been published in New Zealand.
In overall composition it appears similar to that on other soil groups. The term podzolisation is defined for the purposes of this discuss-
More subtle differences, relating to composition, productivity and as soil process, or combination of processes, leading to the
species longevity, may be present but have not been studied. elopment of a podzol. There is a general concensus on the broad
inition of podzols (Spodosol in U.S. Soil Taxonomy) in most soil
2. On freely-drained material in a moderate to high rainfall, podzol ssification systems. That is, a podzol is a soil in which humus
formation can be induced beneath a few species of trees in New Zealand, d sesquioxides have been moved from the upper part of the profile
in particular kauri, rimu, Hall's totara, kaikawaka, the four species of d redeposited lower down, giving an eluvial (A 2 ) horizon low in
southern beech and Dracophyllum arboreum. The podzolising effect, squioxides an illuvial (B 2 ) horizon rich in sesquioxides and
however, is not invariable on all kinds of soil and therefore must be ganic matter.
influenced by additional factors not identified. Weaker podzolising
effects have been noted with a few species of shrubs and tall tussocks. Most classification systems now recognise podzolisation and
lay as separate processes and separate the soils formed by
3. Morphological characteristics that affect stemflow, such as angle ese processes into different taxa (the main exception to this is the
of branching and crown shape, as well as physiological characteristics ssian It is possible however for the processes to occur in
such as the plant's calcium uptake and polyphenol content may influence he same soil, probably sequentially, and hence give a soil with a
the capacity of a species to podzolise soils. However, the critical odzol illuvial horizon over a clay illuvial horizon (Soil Survey Staff,
factors have yet to be identified with certainty. 1975).

4. Podzols formed under kauri or southern beech species appear to be To ain the podzolisation phenomenon adequately a theory must
relatively stable and thus not prone to disappear quickly following explain how all three major constituents, organic matter, Al and Fe,
changes of land use. Whether any native plant is capable of bringing mobilised and also redeposited in the B horizon.
about significant changes in the properties of a podzol is not known.
This aTticle discusses some of the important earlier and current
5. Closer liaison between botanists and soil scientists is needed to theories of podzolisation and examines in more detail the most widely
determine the particular role of the plant in podzol formation and the accepted theory of recent years, namely that Fe and Al move as soluble
developmental relationship of vegetation and soils during podzolisation. organic complexes.
A field experiment is suggested for the Te Kopuru sand which would allow
rates of podzolisation to be measured and enable a comparison of the AND ORGANIC MATTER
effects of kauri with other trees.
Some y es

Glossary of common and scientific names of New Zealand early theories concentrated on the mobilisation of Fe
plants mentioned in the text sometimes Al) as simple ions, due to the acidity of the A horizon, with
precipitation in the B horizon because of a higher pH. This theory has
bracken Pteridium esculentwn miro Podocarpus f errugineus been negated by many authors (e.g. Stobbe & Wright 1959) usually on th~
Hall's totara Podocarpus hallii monoao Dracophyllum subulatum ~rounds that the pH in podzols does not usually get low enough for Fe 3
hard beech Nothofagus truncata mountain Nothofagus solandri var. to be mobile. However as Petersen (1976) demonstrates with thermo-
beech aliffortioides dynamic calculations, Al could be mobilised due to acidity and Fe due
kahikatea Podoaarpus daarydioides t~ moderately reducing conditions. However he points out that it is
kaikawaka Libocedrus bidwillii red beech N.fusca difficult to explain the translocation of organic matter in terms of
kamahi Weinmannia raaemosa rirnu Dacrydiwn aupressinum acidity and/or reducing conditions.
kauri Agathis australis silver
manuka Leptospermum saoparium beech Nothofagus menziesii The translocation of Fe, Al and organic matter in the colloidal
matai Podocarpus spiaatus tanekaha Phylloaladus triaho- st~te has been suggested, notably by Mattson (Mattson &Nilsson 1935).
manoides Thi~ involves positively charged ferric and aluminium hydroxide sols
tawheowheo Quintinia,serrata ~oving and precipitating in the B horizon because of the higher pH
in horizon. Negatively charged humus sols are precipitated in
the upper part of the B horizon because of the positively charged
sesquioxide colloids already there.
 85

A number of authors have demonstrated difficulties with this theory:

for example Stobbe &Wright (1959) state that the necessary pH gradient Being a very recent proposal there been no comment on the
with depth is absent in many profiles. Petersen (1976) claims that the to-imogolite theory in the literature. So it is not possible to
theory does not provide a satisfactory mechanism for the formation of proieW the subject further in this paper; full details of the processes
sesquioxide sols in the A horizon and does not explain fully the observed r~Vt may be involved are given by Farmer (1979). The remaining sections
distribution of sesquioxides in relation to organic matter. ~fathi~ pa~er consider in more detail the organic-complex theory of
podzol1sat1on.
Current Theories
pooZOL ON AS A PROCESS INVOLVING ORGANIC COMPLEXES
The most generally accepted current theory involves the movement
of Al and Fe as soluble organic complexes, with subsequent redeposition preconditions for podzolisation
in the B horizon. However, there is considerable disagreement on the
nature of the organic matter involved (Powell &Taylor 1980b -this issue) The prerequisites for podzolisation, which are also the factors
and some disagreement on the mechanism of deposition. An extensive ecessary for the formation of mobile fulvic acid have been proposed
review of pertinent literature is given by Petersen (1976). ns: vegetation type, low pH and base status, and a net downward move-
:ent of water through the profile. Texture is also regarded as
Davies (1971) described two mechanisms for solubilisation of Fe important, partly because of its affect on leaching, but also because
and Al by complex formation with organic matter. The first, based mainly a clay soil is likely to have greater quantities of available Al and Fe
on the work of Bloomfield (1970) ascribes the mobilizing role to poly- in the topsoil.
phenols derived from 'canopy drip' and leaf and bark leachates of
various plant species (e.g. aspen, kauri, rimu). These have been shown A soil with high base status, does not allow the build-up of
by a number of authors to be effective at complexing Fe and Al, and at water soluble fulvic acid. This is possibly due to the stabilizing
forming artificial podzols in columns of soil leached with leaf extracts. effect of cations like calcium on organic matter (c.£. rendzinas and
The mechanism of deposition is variously ascribed to slow oxidation of chernozems). Also the biological activity of high nutrient status
the complex or microbiological attack of the organic component. soils will be rich and varied, and as there will also be ample Ca, Al
and Fe to hold fulvic acid, it will be quickly decomposed.
The second mechanism involves fulvic acid produced in the 0 and A
horizons as the active agent. (Although fulvic acid is strictly a term In a coarse textured, well leached soil however, there will be
reserved for the organic matter fraction remaining in solution after negligible amounts of cations to hold fulvic acid in the topsoil.
acid'ification of a NaOH extraction, the term is widely used in the The lower nutrient status and pH will also ensure a lower population
literature for the naturally occurring, sometimes water soluble, low of micro-organisms capable of breaking down the soluble organic matter.
molecular weight fraction in soil. The classical fulvic acid probably
represents this fraction fairly closely). The mechanism involving Vegetation
fulvic acid is described by a number of authors, but is probably covered
in most detail by Schnitzer and co-workers (e.g. Schnitzer &Skinner 1963; Certain vegetation types have always been associated with podzols,
Wright &Schnitzer 1963, Schnitzer 1969). and the litter of these vegetation types probably has some influence
on the amount and nature of the fulvic acid produced. The main
Petersen (1976) described a comprehensive series of experiments, vegetation types described are coniferous forest, heath and in New
using soil extracts and soil solutions from podzols, which demonstrate Zealand, kauri, rimu and beech. Coulson et al. (1960) showed that
support for the theories of the above authors. These theories involve under conditions of poor nutrition some plants produced more poly-
the transport of Al and Fe as complexes with fulvic acid and precipitat- phenols in their litter than the same species on soils with higher
ion of the complex in the B horizon by the uptake of an excess of Al nutrient status. This would make the litter more resistant to break-
and/or Fe. down. (mor-type humus) and probably has an influence on the production
of mobile fulvic acid.
Recent observations on the presence of proto-imogolite and allophane
in Scottish and New Zealand podzols (Farmer 1979; Young et al. 1980; The importance of vegetation in the podzolisation process is
R.L. Parfitt and R. Lee pers. comm.) have important implications for the illustrated by the spatial distribution of podzol soils. Dokuchaiev
processes involved in podzolisation. Farmer (1979) for example, proposes (as quoted by Muir 1961) commented on the "strange discontinuity of
that a hydroxyaluminium orthosilicate complex (proto-imogolite) which the podzol in one and the same peasant 1 s field". This can be exp~ained
forms readily from orthosilicic acid and hydroxyaluminium cation species, by the podzolising effect of a single tree. Mackney ( described
and which is soluble at pH <5, can transport Al from eluvial horizons the development of a podzol under a single beech tree. The 1 7gg cup'
and deposit it in B horizons. Organic material may or may not be podzol is well known in New Zealand and Campbell (1975) describes the
associated with the process; it is not, of necessity, required for the mechanism of formation of a uniform area of podzol soils where 'egg
process to occur. Thus the movement of Al and Fe as an organic complex cup' podzols gradually coalesce under the influence of successive
may not be the only process to take place during podzolisation. The generations of trees.
occurrence of proto-imogolite also highlights the fact that some redist-
ribution of Si can occur during podzolisation. Nature Fulvic Acid
Considerable work has been carried out on the structure, composition
and molecular weight of fulvic acid. Much of it is contradictory and
 86
87

open to criticism (Petersen 1976). However, a number of points emerge.

The material is of relatively low molecular weight, although higher
than the simple organic acids that some authors state are the main organic matter which has leached through the Bh horizon without
podzolising organic matter species. It is more oxidised than the rest icking enough Al or Fe to precipitate it, will be precipitated by
of the organic matter, with most of this extra oxygen in the form of d orbing Al or Fe from the less stable metal complexes in
5
Bf horizon. This is in accordance with recent results reported
extra functional groups, mainly carboxyl and phenolic. The solubility
of these large molecules is the result of the dissociation of the ti/ oaw~on et al. (1978) from a l~simeter study on a podzol. They showed
that there w~s a sha:p decrease in the ~ontent of solub~e organic matter
functional groups giving a negative charge. The same phenomenon gives
the material its ability to complex metals. ·n the solution passing through the B2 hir (Bhfe) and B2i r (Bf ) horizons.
~ 150 they fou~d that the B2ir horizon w~s very effective at r~moving the
Precipitation of the metal-organic complex • oluble organic matter, whereas the B2hir was not, suggesting that the
:zhir ho:izon wa~ saturated wi~h.organic ma~ter while the B2ir had
It is apparent that as fulvic acid complexes metals and metal sesquiox1des available to precipitate organic matter. They concluded
hydroxides on its path down the profile, it will lose its negative that the B2hir was growing downwards into the B2ir.
charge. Once most or all of the functional groups have been saturated
with positively charged metal or metal hydroxide ions the charge on the The same workers (Ugolini et al. 1977) in an earlier report on the
complex will approach neutrality and it will precipitate. study describe the movement of metal ions and organic matter right out
of the profile. This possibly indicates that the organic matter had not
Schnitzer (1969) states that 1:1 metal fulvic acid complexes are adsorbed enough Al and Fe to precipitate, although it is more likely
soluble and 6:1 complexes are very insoluble. These ratios are based that the organic matter was of lower molecular weight and remained
on the determination of an average molecular weight for the hetero- soluble even when its functional groups were saturated with Al and Fe.
geneous mixture and therefore are subject to some doubt. However they
show that fulvic acid can be precipitated by an excess of Al and Fe.

Petersen (1976) describes a convincing mechanism for the formation McKeague et al. (1967) show that the composition of a thin iron
of podzol B horizons, based on his own and earlier work. He reasonably pan is similar to the material precipitated in podzol B horizons. They
assumes that the organic matter molecules involved in complexing Al showed it to be a complex of Fe and organic matter which was soluble in
and Fe have a high molecular weight and a relatively random orientation acid-oxalate reagent. Studies on a number of iron pans in the authors'
of functional groups. The complexation of a trivalent ion such as Al laboratory have also showed that they were soluble in acid-oxalate
or Fe will require a certain steric arrangement of the organic matter reagent giving a dark coloured solution. The placic horizon as described
functional groups in order that true metal organic complexes may be in Soil Taxonomy can be formed from an Fe-organic matter complex.
formed between an Al or Fe ion and 3 functional groups on the organic
molecule. This requirement is unlikely to be fulfilled in many instances It can therefore be inferred that the thin iron pan, which contains
and Fe and Al attached to 1 or 2 organic functional groups, with the organic matter, is formed by a podzolisation process. The question to
r~maining co-ordination requirement of the metal satisfied with OH groups, be answered is why it has precipitated in a thin cemented band rather
will be common. than in a diffuse zone as in a normal podzol B horizon.

It is probable then, because of the heterogeneous nature of soil A number of clues to the possible mechanism exist. From the
organic matter, that the complexes will exist in forms ranging from appearance of the material and the results of McKeague et al. (1967) it
true metal-organic complexes to compounds consisting mainly of metal is probable that the complex has a low C:metal ratio and consists mainly
hydroxides associated with minor amounts of organic matter (Petersen of iron hydroxide ions. Also the usual wavy shape of the pan suggests
1976). The complexes involving metal hydroxide ions will be less stable, a wetting front, and the fact that the pans are Fe-organic matter
with the metal ion being attached to only one functional group of the complexes with little or no Al present, indicates a redox mechanism may
organic matter. be at least partly responsible for the deposition.

This theory offers an explanation for the often observed layering Once precipitated the pan would grow and become cemented because of
in podzol B horizons. The first group of complexes to be precipitated the ample supply of Fe in the form of hydroxides on the organic matter.
will be those in which the organic matter has a relatively small number
of functional groups with a favourable steric arrangement for the SUMMARY
adsorption of trivalent metal ions. These complexes will be precipitated
relatively quickly and high up in the B horizon, with a high carbon:metal As stated earlier, a theory for the mechanism of podzolisation must
ratio (Bh horizon). Lower in the horizon, organic matter with a larger 7xplain the mobilisation and transport of all three major constituents
number of functional groups having less favourable steric arrangement involved. The complexation and transport of Al and Fe by soluble organic
will be precipitated with greater quantities of Al and/or Fe, mainly matter formed in the topsoil, with subsequent precipitation in the B
in the form of hydroxides. This layer will have much lower carbon:metal horizon by the adsorption of sufficient Fe and Al to neutralise most of
ratios (Bfe horizon). the organic matter functional groups, offers an explanation for the
~bserved phenomenon. Recent observations of the presence of proto-
imogolite and allophane in podzols however may well lead to some
modification of this explanation for podzolisation.
 88

89
THE RO OF ORGANIC MATTER IN THE PODZOLISATION PROCESS

H.K.J. Powell and M.C. Taylor organic acids can not only ~issolve iron oxide coatings on soil
Department of Chemistry artic~es but also a~tack c~ay minerals. Schnitzer &Kodama (1977)
University of Canterbury have discussed the dissolution of clay minerals in fulvic and humic
acidS· Ong et al. (1970), Stevens~n &Ardakani (1972) and Huang &
Keller (~971, 1972) have.noted the increased solubility of clay minerals
INTRODUCTION in sol~ti~ns of carbo~ylic and hydroxy carboxylic acids:a-hydroxy acids,
e.g. c1tr1c, are particularly effective.
The profile of a podzolised soil shows the end result of a downward
movement of iron, aluminium and organic matter, with visible zones of IRON(III)-ORGANIC INTERACTIONS - A SIMULATION
eluviation and deposition. It is generally accepted that some fragment
of the "soil organic matter" is involved in the mobilization of iron This work considers a mod~l_m:chanism for mobilization involving
and aluminium, whether as a complexing, colloid stabilizing or reducing the interaction between the mob1llz1ng agent and the equilibrium
agent.
Fe(OH)3 ~ Fe 3 + + 30H
Following a brief review on the mobilization of iron and aluminium
in soil systems this paper will focus attention on the formation of where "Fe(OH)3" rep:es~nts the weathered iron deposits on soil particles
iron(III)-organic acid complexes. Based on a computer s.imulation it in the zone of eluv1at1on (A2 horizon). Acidification will displace this
attempts to answer the question "which, if any, of the organic acid and equilibr~um to the.right, and it may be noted that typically the pH is
oxyacid groups could complex and mobilize iron from Fe(OH) 3 under soil 1-1.5 units l~~er ~n the zone of eluviati~n than in the illuvial zone.
conditions?" It does not consider possible redox processes between Removal of Fe , either by complex formation, or by reduction to Fe 2+
iron(III) and organic reagents, nor the competition between aluminium(III) will also increase the iron concentration in soil solution and contribute
and iron(III) to bind with organic reagents. to mobilization.

A. MECHANISMS FOR PODZOLISATION A species which complexes with Fe 3 + will be a base and thus involved
in a series of competing stepwise equilibria with protons. Further, the
Stobbe &Wright (1959) describe three possible mechanisms for strongly hydrolysed f?rric ion is involved in formation of stable hydroxo
podzolisation: . F e (OH) 2 + Fe ( OH}2 + and Fe 2 (OH) 2+ ; these account for a high
comp l exes, viz 2
percentage of dissolved iron in all systems at pH >2 where Fe(OH) 3 is
(i) mobilization of iron as Fe(II): this may occur under strongly present and strong complexing agents are absent. Thus, in general terms,
reducing acidic conditions as found in gleyed or ground-water the following equilibrium controls the solubility of Fe(OH) 3 :
podzols,
(H L _....
(ii) the movement of iron and aluminium oxides as humus protected + Hn-lL + + L) + Fe 3 + ...-
n
sols, as suggested by Deb (1949), and
+
(iii) the movement of iron and aluminium as soluble metal-organic FeL
x + Fe (HL)
y
+ .. ' + Fe(OH)L + zH +
complexes.

Many workers have studied the solubilization of iron and aluminium

Fe(OH) 2 + Fe(OH)2 + + Fe2 (OH)2 2+ •••.. (1)
oxides by soil- or plant-derived organic matter or by representative
organic acids. Thus, Bloomfield (1954b, 1957a,1970), Hingston (1963), where the concentrations of the ligand species H Land FeL , .. and
Muir et al. (1964), Davies et al. (1960), Davies (1970) and Ellis (1971) hyd7oxo species are linked by stepwise equilibriR for whicft ligand proto-
have demonstrated the capacity of leaf extracts (especialJy the poly- nation constants (Si), stability constants (K .. ) and hydrolysis constants
(Kh .. ) are defined: lJk
phenol and citric acid components) to hold ferric iron in solution, and 1J
have suggested their involvement in the podzolisation process. Anderson
(1970) has suggested that polysaccharides may chelate and translocate [H.L]
metal ions in soil. Wright &Schnitzer (1963) have shown that podzol- 1 [Fe.H.Lk]
like profiles·can be generated in soil columns by use of a leaching
B~
i
= K.lJ"k = i J
[L][H+]i
agent such as EDTA.
= [Fe. (OH) .][H+]j
Schnitzer &Khan (1972), Langford &Khan (1975) Petersen (1978) and K_
--h .. 1 J
others have noted the formation of stable soluble complexes between 1]
[Fe3+Ji
fulvic acid and iron and aluminium at low metal to acid ratios. Wright
&Schnitzer (1963) have suggested fulvic acid as the dominant fraction Because of the competitiqn represented by equation (1) it does not
of soil organic matter active in podzolisation.
necessarily follow that the base (ligand) giving the most stable iron(III)
complex (as represented by the Kijk value) will complex the largest
~ercentage or iron at a given pH and metal:ligand ratio; this ligand
ay also have the greatest affinity for protons.
 90
91

IRON(III) - A CLASS~ CATION

COOH
Ahrland (1974) has classified the aqueous metal ions in terms of
their affinities for different types of donor atoms. Class b ions
-o 2 so OH
CH 2 0H
form their most stable complexes with the heavier donor ato~s i~ each II

°'OH
III
periodic group, i.e. the metal affinity sequences S >> 0, Cl >>F , OH
P >> N and Se,S>I->Br->CL->N>O>F- result. Ions in class bare HO
typically heavy transition metals in low oxidation states and w'fth d 8 - d 10 -0 2so OH 0
configuration. In contrast, class a ions form much more stable complexes
with F- and 0- than with any other donors. In this class are the Group II !he calculations considered the effect of ligand solutions at 10~3M
ions and small highly charged ions such as Be 2 +, U4 +, Al 3 + and F~ 3 +. 6
to 10 M on the fer:ic ion in equilibrium with Fe(OH) 3 • (Organic
reagents ~~ve.been_isolate~ from soil in amounts equivalent to ~l0-3M
Thus, oxygen donor ligands - carboxylic acids+ inorganic oxyacids to 5 x 10 _Min soil solution (Stevenson &Ardakani 1972)). The total
and phenols are the most likely complexors for Al 3 and Fe 3+ in the soil concent:at:on of soluble species, ·FeT, and the percentage distribution
system. For reasons of geometry, entropy, and endothermic donor-donor of ferric ion among complex species (feL, FeL 2 FeL 3 FeH L Fe(OH)L )
interactions (built into 6H~ for a chelate), a chelate (multidonor or ·
an d h yd:oxo species ( FeOH z+ , ~e(OH)2 "' , Fe (0H) '2+ ) were
' n ' · ..
a function of pH. FeT = Fe 3 + L: FeH L + L: Fe
2 2 calculated as
multidentate) ligand will give more stable complexes than an equivalent + L: Fe (OH) L
number of monodentate ligands. For example, for the reaction of a metal nm n m ·
with phenol and catechol, Figs. 1~ and_ lb show the % composition (soluble species) for the
Fe(OH)s(oxalic ~~id and Fe(OH 3 /succinic acid systems: pH 2.2- 7.0;
total l~gand 10 M. For oxalic acid, complexing dominates throughout
<Qj-o-~ 3+ o- o- th: e~tir: pH range wherea~ the less strongly co-ordinating succinic

g-o-~
Fe +
©r: o- o- /
~ Fe 3 + + 2 acid is displaced from Fe 3 by hydroxide ion at pH >4. However, for
bot~ syst~ms t~e.total concentration of soluble iron species decreased
rapidly with rising pH (hatched line is pFeT; R.H. axis), Thus, the
figures refer to % composition in a system for which the total concentrat-
ion is decreasing with increasing pH, The significance of this is seen
K is >l. Th~s, oxygen containing chelates will be the best ligands for by noting that at 4 the concentration of the M(succinate)+ complex
Fe 3 + and Al 3 . is only 5% of the value at pH 3.

Many organic compounds have been isolated from or identified in soil Qualitatively similar.curv:s are obtained for all the other ligands,
extracts and plant extracts. These include keto, hydroxy, phenolic, except for phenol and acetic acid for which the maximum concentration of
carboxylic, amino acid and flavonoid compounds. Many chelating sites metal-ligand complexes is <0.5% of dissolved iron at all values.
will occur in polymers such as fulvic acid, humic acid, lignin, poly- For each ligand the degree of formation of M-L species decreases with
saccharides, tannins and proteins, but simple low molecular weight amino decreasing ligand concentration, e.g. for succinic acid the maximum %
acids, aliphatic and aromatic carboxylic acids, phenols and monosacchar- c?mposition for ML+ is 87.5% of Fe at 10- 3 M ligand and 0.7% at 10-6M
ides have been identified in soil organic matter (Swain 1970; Stevenson ligand. T
&Ardakani 1972) and aqueous extracts of leaves and bark (Lind &Hem 1975;
Muir et al. 1964; Lloyd & Bristo 1975; Lloyd 1976a,b,c; Bloomfield 1957). MOBILIZING CAPACITY OF LIGANDS
The building blocks of polymeric phenolics, e.g.catechol, protochatechuic
acid, gallic acid, ellagic acid and resorcinol, have also been identified . The capacity of a ligand to dissolve Fe(OH) 3 can be represented by
(Hingston 1963). (i) the total_c?ncen~ration of so~uble iron species, (FeT), in a solution
formed by equilibrating Fe(OH) 3 with the ligand, (ii) the increase in
COMPETITIVE EQUILIBRIA IN THE SOIL SYSTEM Solubility of Fe(OH) 3 in the presence of the ligand, or (iii) an
enhancement factor defined by the ratio FeT/(M + ~'Mn(OH) which relates
By computer simulation the solubility of Fe(OH)3 in solutions of the solubilities of Fe(OH) 3 in ligand solution and water, respectively.
oxygen containing ligands has been determined as a function of pH. A Each of these representations is considered below.
representative selection of ligand types was considered, viz. phenol,
tiron (I) and protocatechuic acid (II) (1,2-dihydroxybenzenes), acetic Capaci of a ligand to dissolve Fe(OH) 3
acid, glycollic, malic and citric acids (hydroxy carboxylic acids),
succinic and oxalic acids (dicarboxylic), salicylic acid, phosphoric . Fig. 2 plots pF~T (=-log Fer) against pH for Fe(OH)3 in water and
and pyrophosphoric acids, and kojic acid (III), (representing the hetero ligand solutions (10 5 M). For oxalic and pyrophosphoric acids there is
ring of the flavonols). No equilibrium data were available for benzene- a marked increase in dissolved iron between pH 3.0 and 5.2, with a
1,2-dicarboxylic acids (e.g. phthalic); in other cases "best" literature ~axirnum about pH 4.4. As the solubility decreases at pH .4 an
data were used, but many equilibrium constant determinations have been increasing percentage of dissolved iron appears as Fe(OH) 2 as observed
limited to measurements at pH <3.5, and additional equilibria may be for iron (III) in water alone. For other ligands the order of solubilities
important at higher pH.
 92 93

SUCCINIC ACID
100 2 2·0

80

i 60 6·0
composition p
- H20
40 - - - pfe 8·0 --· - SA LICY llC
- ........... - l
-·- XALIC
- - TIRON
20 10·0 ----Cl IC
++<4-+• H2P207=

5·5 6·5

2·4 2·8 3·2 3·6 4·0 5·2 5·6 6·0

tal concentration of dissolved iron (-log Fer) as a function

of pH for Fe(OH)3 in water and ligand solutions (10- 5 M)

XALIC ACID
100 2·0
' ' ....
........
.........
4·0
80 ---
- ...... , ....
...... 1
5·0 - - - - - - -
60 ' , nfe 6·0
'{ T
i ....
composition .... .... pfer
1
40
....
' 8·0 6·0 - - - - - - ------------------
10·0

2·5 3·5 6·5

pH

9·0

3·0 :M.I 4·2 5·0 5·4

pH
Figs. la, lb. % composition vs pH for (a) Fe(OH) 3 - succinic acid
s~stem, ~~d
(b) Fe(OH) 3 - oxalic acid system; total Plot of total concentration of iron(II!~-ligand species
Fi g.3
~1gand 10 M. Hatched line is -log (total dissolved against pH for different ligands at 10 · M. Hatched lines
iron) vs pH. Charges omitted. correspond to 10%, 1%, 0.1% of total ligand concentration.
 94 95

is salicylic (shown) > malic > kojic >> phosphoric > succ1n1c > proto-
catechuic > glycolic > phenol and acetic. (At concentrations >10- 5 M
phosphoric acid precipitates FeP0 4 ). Thus, although at 10- 3M ligands
such as succinic and protocatechuic acid are effective complexing agent~
for Fe(III), at 10- 5 M they do not compete effectively with OH-. 5·0

The Fe(III) complexes with citric acid and tiron are much more stable
Citric acid (10- 5 M) can maintain approximately 10- 5 M Fe(III) in solution ·
at pH <5. 5 (as Fe (OH) L-). Tiron forms complexes FeL, FeL 2 and FeL 3 ;
FeL has its maximum concentration at pH 3.8, FeL 2 at pH 6.4 (ligand,10- 5 M).
The formation of FeL 2 and FeL 3 complexes means that tiron has a reduced 3·0
capacity to hold iron in solution relative to citric acid. The shape of
the curve for tiron relates to the change in complex stoichiometry with
pH, the increase in free ligand concentration with pH, and the stepped
nature of the Fe(III)-tiron "formation curve". 2·0

Figure 2 indicates that, of the reagents chosen, the most effective

in mobilizing (dissolving) iron hydroxide by complexing are tiron, and l·O
citric, pyrophosphoric and oxalic acids. By comparison with data for
different ligand concentrations it is seen that citric acid, tiron and
pyrophosphoric acid at 10- 6 M can dissolve more ~e(OH) 3 than can g1ycoliic,
aspartic, succinic or protocatechuic acid at 10 4 M. 3·0 H! 4·6 5·0 5.4 5·8 6·2 6·6
pH
Increase in Fe(OH)3 solubility
The concentration of ligand species in solution, 2: MHnLm, represents Fig. 4 Plot of solubility enhancement for Fe(OH) 3 in solutions
the increase in solubi~ity of Fe(OH) 3 • Figure 3 plots p(r MHnLm) against of different ligands at 10- 5 M. E ~ FeT/ + 2: ) )
pH for total ligand 10 4 M. For each ligand (except citric acid and tiron) m
solubility decreases rapidly with increasing pH. The hatched horizontal
lines give values of p(2: MHnLm) corresponding to 10%, 1% and 0.1% of total
ligand. Thus at pH 4, >10% of the tiron, and citric, oxalic, malic,
salicylic and pyrophosphoric acids are bound to Fe(III) in solution. At 100
pH 5.2, <1% of the malic, salicylic and pyrophosphoric acids are bound
to Fe(III).
80
-------- ......

The solubility enhancement ratio 3+

Fe ·
H) itrat
Figure 4 plots the enhancement in solubility, log E, against pH for
different ligands at 10- 5M; E = FeT/(Fe + 2:Fen(OH)m). Note from Figures 60
2 and 4 that there is less enhancement in Fe(III) solubility at pH 3.5 tha
at pH 4.5 (approximately representing zones of eluviation and deposition).
Therefore it seems unlikely that a change in pH alone causes precipitation 40
of Fe(OH) 3 from soluble complexes in soil solution in the Bfe horizon.
The enhanced solubility of Fe(OH)3 in the presence of ligands may simply
accelerate a natural process of iron dissolution in an Az horizon of a 20
podzolic soil.

A system of competing ligands

In the soil system many ligands will compete simultaneously for the
available metal ions. Figure 5 plots % composition against pH for the
solution formed by equilibrating Fe(OH)3 with a solution containing all
6
14 ligands considered in this work (each 10- M) . It indicates that the
iron is distributed between several organic ligands, H2P20 7 2-,and OH-.
At pH 4.0 the major complex ~pecies are Fe(O~) (citrate)- 27.6%,+
Fe(H2P207) 27.3%, Fe(tiron) 17.4%, Fe(OH\2 12.6%, Fe(oxalate) 4.4% and Fig. 5 %composition for solution formed by equilibrating
6
Fe (oxalate)2 2.8%. Fe(OH)3 with 14 competing ligands each at M
 96
97

C. THE SOIL SYSTEM

L p S US DIFFER ING
Many workers have suggested that polyphenols are the active reagents
for mobilizing iron, by complexing and/or reduction. The present calcul- SI ING LISED SOILS
ations indicate that strongly complexing polyphenols, such as tiron, and
polycarboxylic acids (oxalic, citric) and pyrophosphate are significantly
more effective in dissolving Fe(OH) 3 than are the other reagents consider- B.K. Daly & R. Lee
ed. Polyphenols will enter the soil as substituents of the flavonols and Soil Bureau, DSIR, Private Bag, Hutt
the hydrolysable tannins. Many of the polyphenols are readily oxidised.
They may be oxidised by Fe(III) but the extent of oxidation-reduction
is critically dependent on pH and [0 2 ] (Powell &Taylor 1979b).

Tiron is an atypical polyphenol in that (i) it is not oxidised by Commonly podzolisation is considered as the process whereby Fe and
Fe(III), and (ii) it forms much more stable complexes with Fe(III) than .>Al are trai:slocate~ down_ a soil p~ofile in a complexed form with organic
does catechol, pyrogallol, gallic acid or protocatechuic acid (Powell & matter, this material being deposited at lower depths to give accumulation
Taylor 1979). Thus, it may be inferred that, in general, polyphenols zones of humus, Fe and Al. Consequently most methods that have been
will be less efficient (phenols much less efficient) than citric or oxalic used for differentiating and classifying soils have involved the
acids in solubilizing Fe(OH) 3 when the ligands are present at low concen- extraction of Fe and Al by various reagents. Re.cent J y the recognition
trations. It is noted that kojic acid, representing the hetero ring of of allophanic-type materials such as proto-imogolne in the accumulat-
the flavonols, is one of the less effective reagents. .i.on zones in podzols (Farmer 1979; Young 1980; R.L. Parfitt & R. Lee
rs. comm.), has indicated that Al-Si complexes may also be involved in
Some workers have suggested mobilization of iron involves reduction the podzolisation process, leading to a redistribution of Si, as well as
of Fe(III) to Fe(II) by polyphenols, followed by complexing of Fe(II). Fe, Al organic matter. This observation is too recent however to be
From Kijk values it is inferred that complexing of Fe(II) is unlikely at /reflected in the methods currently in use for classifying podzols.
the pH of a podzolic soil. We have observed that whereas catechol and
gallic acid complex Fe(III) in aerobic solution at pH <4, complexing of METHODS FOR IRON AND ALUMINIUM
Fe(II) (anaerobic) occurs only at pH >7.
commonly adopted extraction methods involve the use of
Wright &Schnitzer (1963) have suggested that fulvic acid is an dithionite-citrate or pyrcphosphate reagents.
active agent in mobilizing Fe(III). There is much debate on the
composition/structure of fulvic acid, but the presence of carboxyl, acid-oxalate method (Tamm 1922) is generally used in the
hydroxyl and phenolic groups is well established. Both carboxyl and \form suggested by Schwertmann (1959) and McKeague & Day (1966). A
phenolic groups are involved in metal complexing 1Gamble et al. 1970). modification suggested by Daly &Binny (1974) involves extraction by
For a 1:1 copper(II);fulvic acid solution (4 x 10 4M) measurements with leaching following the various leachings required for cation exchange
a copper(II) ion selective electrode established that 50% of the copper properties. The method is considered to extract the amorphous products
is complexed at pH 3 (Powell &Tennant 1979). Such complexing at low ?f weathering (L .:idblad 1934), with little attack on crystalline mater-
pH could be achieved only if fulvic acid contains carboxyl groupings as ials (Schwert.nann 1964).
represented by citric, phthalic and salicylic acids. If fulvic acid
does contain such structural units then it too could be associated with Lundblad (1934) used the method to differentiate podzols and brown
mobilization of iron in the soil profile. forest soils. McKeague &Day (1966) proposed the use of the difference
bet~een oxalate extractable Al and Fe (Al0 and Fe0 ) levels in B and C
SUMMARY horizons as a criteria for identifying podzol B horizons. This was
used together with organic carbon in early versions of the Canadian
One possible reaction contributing to the podzolisation process has system of soil classification (e.g. Proceedings of the 7th Meeting of
been considered, viz the dissolution of iron hydroxide by organic acids the National Soil Survey Committee of Canada 1968). The same authurs
and inorganic oxyacids. A computer simulation has indicated that at low la~er ~roposed the use of Al 0 of B horizons alone as a diagnostic
concentrations (<10- 5M) few organic acids compete effectively with criteria for podzol B horizons (McKeague &Day 1969).
hydroxide to complex and solubilize iron(III).
The most effective acids modelled were citric, pyrophosphoric and Dithionite-citrate (Fed and Ald) is used as an extractant, mainly
oxalic. In a competitive situation with other ligands these will complex fo1:'Fe, in some classification systems. Deb (1950) proposed a method
the largest proportions of iron(III). ~~ing sodium dithionite to reduce and extract Fe. The method was modi-
led by Aguilera &Jackson (1953) who added sodium citrate to act as
In general, polyphenols will not be effective complexing agents at a complexing agent. Mehra &Jackson (1960) introduced sodium bicarbon-
low concentration. The possible involvement of "fulvic acid" in the ~te
0
to buffer the mixture. The commonly used method now is that of
mobilization process is supported. Flavonones, as derived from litter lmgnen (1967) who used dithionite with a large excess of citrate and
and canopy drip will be much less effective complexing agents than ~n overnight shaking at room temperature instead of the 2 or 3 extract-
citrate, oxalate or pyrophosphate. ions at 60°C for 1 hour as in Mehra &Jackson's method.
 98
99

The pyrophosphate method (Fep and Alp ) was proposed by Aleksandrov ~morphous organic and inorganic forms and hen
(1960) and Bascomb (1968). This reagent is considered to extract the Al "" b f f d' . ' ce was not specific
and Fe bound to organic compounds in the soil (Aleksandrova 1960). Bas ugh to e use u 1 or ist1nguishing podzol B horizons. Th .
(1968) claimed that it also extracted inorganic amorphous 'gel' hydrous
ro~ide-te~rab~r~te method was tested by McKeague &Sheldri~ksodium
its applicability to the Canadian and US classif' t" (1977)
oxides (as distinct from amorphous 'aged' hydrous oxides). However, ey found ~hat in about half of the podzol B horizo~~at~~~ ~y~tems.
McKeague et al. (1971) showed, using synthetic organic -Fe complexes lY very little Al and Fe. It also extracted only small ae it e~tracted
and amorphous inorganic complexes, that the reagent was reasonably thetic Fe and Al fulvic acid complexes This mad . t mounts. rom
specific for organically complexed Fe, but a little less specific for d 'ff" 1 d . e in erpretation of
organic bound Al, in that it extracted some Al from synthetic amorphous e results l icu t an hence limited the usefulness of the method.
hydrated aluminium oxide. EMICAL CRITERIA USED IN CURRENT SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS

Table 1 Forms of iron extracted by dithionite-citrate, ln the ~bsence of the recent observations of proto-imogolite and
acid-oxalate and pyrophosphate 1ophane in podzols . (Farmer . 1979, Young 1980) and the i·mp 1 ications
- ·
e presence o f·d th isd material
h has . for the podzolisation process, it . has
ng b een fconsi
F ere
d t · at the dominant process in podzoli' t. ·
sa ion is the
Inorganic Fe Organic Bound Fe
vement o e an Al in an organically complexed fo Th
·f · t f rm. e most
ec1 1c reagen or the forms of Al and Fe involved in the po d zo 1 isation . .
Crystalline o~ides Amorphous Fulvic acid Other organic
Silicate Fe ocessh th ere
h
f ore appeared to be pyrophosphate
· · · It ·
is not surprising . .
(mainly goethite and haematite bound bound n t at t e 3 maJor soil classification systems which use ob" t.
· · b th · · . J ec i ve
iteria ase e1r criteria for podzol B horizons (spodic) on F and
lp· _These systems are those of the U.S. (Soil Survey Staff 197~
itain (Avery 1973) and Canada (Canada Soil Survey Committee 1978 '
The FAO system uses the same criteria as the us system) De f"ining
· )·
· 1
hem1ca · · · ·
Pyrophosphate
criteria in these three systems are as follows:

Spodic Horizon
Extraction good
- - - - Extraction poor Fe + Al /Fed + Al >0.5
p p d
N.B. Acid oxalate has a considerable attack on magnetite and its and Fep + Alp/% clay >O. 2
usefulness with soils containing this mineral is limited
and Index of Accumulation (CEC (pH 8. 2) - !.:2 %
horizon (cm)) > 65 clay x thickness of

Bf' Bhf and Bh horizons

The forms of Fe extracted by the foregoing reagents are summarised
in Table 1, which has been adapted from Bascomb (1968) and Andriesse Bf horizon - %C from 0.5 - 5%
(1979). Schwertman (1973) has warned against too rigid an interpret- and >0.6% Al
ation of the extractions stating that the distinctions are empirical + Fe i f texture finer than sand
p p
and represent an attempt to split up a continuum. >0.4% Al Fe
i f texture is sand
+
p p
and Fe + Al /% clay >0.05
Whilst it appears possible to characterise the forms of Fe p p
extracted by the three reagents with reasonable success, the distinct- and %C/Fe <20 or Fe <0.3%
ions for Al are not quite as clear-cut. Pyrophosphate appears to p p
extract organically bound Al quantitatively plus a little amorphous Bhf horizon - as above except carbon >5%
inorganic Al, and oxalate extracts fulvic acid bound Al and amorphous Bh horizon - %C >1%
inorganic Al (McKeague et al. 1971). Dithionite-citrate Al (Ald)
is not easy to interpret however, and usually gives similar results Fe <0.3% and ratio %C to Fe >20
to oxalate extractable (Moore 1973). Alo values which are larger than. British s t P P
Ald values are often obtained for podzols or soils derived from volcan1 ys em - Bh' B5 and Bf horizons
ash. more carbon (>6%) than an overlying E if present, and more
Fe + Alp than an overlying E or A.
Of the many extractants suggested for extracting Fe and Al from p If Fed >0.3 both value
soils others of interest are the pyrophosphate-dithionite method of and chroma are 3 or less
Franzmeier et al. (1965) and the sodium hydroxide-tetraborate method Bs - Fep + Al p >O . 3°"6
of Bruckert &Souchier (1975). McKeague (1967) showed that the pyro-
phosphate-dithionite method removed iron from crystalline oxides as wel and Fe + Al /% clay >0.05
p p
 100 101

Analytical data for two New Zealand podzols

Bf (thin iron pan) - no specific criteria, except that it is enriched Depth % Clay Al Fe
p p Aid Fed CEC Exch. NaF Al +Fe Al +Fe
in Fe and C . (pH 8.2) Al pH p p p p
Index of ODOE
p p % % <Jo % me.% me.% Ald+Fed
accumul-
% clay at ion
OTHER INDICES FOR DIFFERENTIATING PODZOLISED SOILS
5 0.00 0.01 0.05 0.00 35.9 0.31 6.4 0.20 0.00 234
Clark et al. (1968) suggested the use of pH dependent CEC for 7-14
0.03
Ex! 0.03 0.01 0.06 0.00 14. 7 0.49
podzolic soils, calculated from CE~ (pH 7) - L ~ations ~xtracte~ by 6.8 0.66 o. 01 89 0.08
NaCl (L bases+ Al); the lower limit for podzolic B horizons being 6 me.%. c Ex2 14-29 4 0. 15 0.02 0.18 0.00 24.3 4.1 7.1 0.94 0.04 335 0.92
The technique would have the disadvantage that other soils with high D Bthl 29-41 33 1. 17 0.21 0. 34 0.11 52.0 24.4 8.1 3 .1 0.04 426 0.63
variable charge such as volcanic ash derived soils and peaty soils would · Bth2 41-54 75 1. 75 0.56 0.60 0.71
E 71.5 33.4 9.0 1.8 0.03
respond in the same way as podzol B horizons. 442 0.67
F Bth3 54-83 84 1. 05 1. 92 1. 15 4.3 67.2 26.3 10. 1 0.54 0.04 7 31 0.56
Brydon &Day (1970) suggest the use of a NaF pH field test ~o . G Bth4 83-115 79 0.76 0.80 1. 02 2.6 56.0 25.9 10. 7 0.43 0.02 363 0. 23
distinguish podzol B horizons. They showed on a number of Canadian soils
that all the pH values for podzol B horizons were >10.2 and that other
snewell silt loam, steepland soil
B horizons had values >10.1. They also showed that A (A2) horizons gave
NaF pH values <9.0. e Ah 0-6 29 0.21 0 .18 0.19 0.37 49.1 4.5 7.3 o. 70 0.01 205 o. 30
B E 6-20 40 0.38 0.41 0.30 0.84 47.8 27.2 8.4 0.69 0.02 389 0.18
A technique under development at Soil Bureau (B.K. Daly, unpublished c Bh 20-38 71 1. 15 2.3 0.98 3.6 81.6 34.3 9.6 0.75 0.05 830 0.60
data) uses the organic matter extracted by acid oxalate reagent as a
D Bh 33-55 73 1. 94 3.2 1.88 4.2
podzolisation index. This method was originally examined follo~ing the 81.716.5 10.8 0.85 0.07 768 0.68
hypothesis that as fulvic acid has been proposed a~ the complexing.agent E Bw 55-95 64 1.49 1.94 1. 98 3.1 62.8 7.8 11. 3 0.68 0.05 1232 0.37
responsible for the measurement of Fe and Al organic comple~es d~ring
podzolisation (Daly 1980) and as acid oxalate extracts fulvic acid and
its complexed Fe and Al, as well as amorphous material, an estimation of
the organic matter in the extract should have some relevance to podzol-
The British system also sets the limit for the pyrophosphate/clay
isation. The quantity of organic matter in the extracts is estimated by ratio at 0.05, but unlike the Canadian system, sets no limit on the clay
using a simple colorimeter which passes light at around 430 nm. As it content. This system would more satisfactorily classify New Zealand
is the distribution within a profile which is important, no measure of podzols as podzolic soils.
absolute amounts of extractable orgartic matter is made; the measurement
being quoted as optical density of the oxalate extract (ODOE). The main reason for excluding clayey soils from Spodosols (or
podzolic soils in Canada) is presumably the effect of texture on leaching.
A number of soil sequences and other soils have been used to examine In the section on spodic horizons, Soil Taxonomy states that "spodic
the technique and to compare it with spodic horizon criteria. The horizons form mostly in coarse textured (sandy, coarse loamy, or coarse
technique separated the podzolised soils within the sequences well and. silty (i.e. 18% clay)) parent materials. If a parent material is rich
corresponded with the spodic horizon criteria. Soils which had a :podic clay, however, the formation of a spodic horizon is likely to be
horizon had a ratio of the ODOE of the B horizon to the Al (or Az if no delayed until eluviation or weathering has reduced the clay below a
A1 horizon) of >0.8. critical level. A spodic horizon then forms in the eluvial horizon".
APPLICATION OF CHEMICAL CRITERIA FROM U.S., CANADIAN Certain preconditions have been proposed as necessary for the
AND BRITISH CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS TO N.Z. PODZOLS podzolisation process to occur (Daly 1980). These result from a strong
leaching regime and it will undoubtedly take a lot longer to reach a
At present the USDA Soil Taxonomy system of clas~if ica~ion is bei~g strong leached stage in a clayey soil. However, in a clayey soil
tried in New Zealand. The chemical criteria for spodic horizon recognit- formed on acid sedimentary parent material with an ample supply of
ion have proved reasonably successful for New Zealand soils, with the
organic matter (due to climatic factors) to ensure a good structure, it
exception of podzols formed in heavier textured (> about 20% clay) soils. is probable that leaching and acid weathering could reasonably rapidly
In these soils the Al + Fep/% clay ratio limit of 0.2 excludes them produce the stage of development necessary for podzolisation to commence.
from being Spodosols.P This occurs in many New Zealand podzols (Table 2)
as it does in Scottish soils (M.Ragg, pers. comm.) and even in some U.S.
Another reason for considering that clay soils cannot be podzolised
soils (Ugolini et al. 1977). concerns the availability of aluminium. Petersen (1976) states " it is
Well established that the dominant absorbed cation in clayey acid mineral
The Canadian system of classification sets the Pep + Alp/clay ratio soils is aluminium that has been liberated from various minerals and
lower at 0.05, but also has the requirement that a podzolic B horizon amorphous aluminium compounds". He goes on to say that "this Al must
must have less than 35% clay. This system would include more New Zealand be assumed to react easily with organic compounds hence precipitating
podzols than the U.S. system but the 35% clay limit would still exclude them in the A horizon and preventing podzolisa:tion".
many (e.g. the two soils in Table 2).
 102
103

This assumption may not be valid for all clayey soils however.
The Shewell soil in Table 2 for example is a podzol and yet has high d Fe may not be totally pertinent, at least in some soils Th"
exchangeable (KCl-extractable) Al levels. It will be noted that be one reason why the criteria so far used have not been . . is mlay
Of co r t A . un1versa ly
in the E horizon KCl-extractable Al is very high and is in fact higher sfactory. . . u se no on 1y 1 is being redistributed by hydrox -
than CEC at pH 7. This suggests that although KCl-extractable the Al inium ortho~1l1cate complexes, but Si also. It is conceivabl thy
is not particularly 'available' or 'active'. The reason for this is eria involvin~ ~xtr~ctable Si could prove useful in grouping ;odz~~s
not known although one possibility is that the Al is present in polymeric ationa~ classification systems. Acid-oxalate extracts could play a
form(Hsu 1977) and not as simple Al 3 + ions. If this is so, in relation here in as_much as.they_are supposed to extract the so-called
to Petersen's assumption above, this could mean that Al in this form is phous constituents in soils. Farmer (1979) proposes that proto-
not capable of precipitating organic compounds in the topsoil and olite cou~d b~ present and be transported at a fairly early sta e
preventing podzolisation. he podzolisation process, when Al and Si would both be rel t" gl
· h · · a ive y
dant in tbel.sho~ 1 sAollutS~on ?f t~e ~ h?rizon. There is perhaps scope
FUTURE CLASSIFICATION OF NEW ZEALAND PODZOLS USING CHEMICAL CRITERIA e for e~ta is ing : i criteria indicative of an early stage of
zolisat1on. In the New Zealand context however the formatio f
It needs to be decided at which stage in the podzolisation process o-imogolite and allophane is compounded in volcanic ash soil~ ~y
it is desirable to separate soils into separate taxa. In the present fact that such compounds are present anyway. Thus the use of · d"
h ' t · · , in ices
New Zealand system, which relies on the recognition of an A2 horizon, ed on t e .pro o-1mog?lite process of podzolisation may never prove
soils are separated at a comparatively advanced stage in the process. tisfactory in these soils.
The USDA system separates Spodosols out at a much earlier stage because
it relies on the recognition of an illuvial horizon and not a very Of the ot~er methods discussed the acid-oxalate extract colour
strongly developed eluvial horizon as in the New Zealand system. The ho~ ~Daly, in pre~.~ ~oul~ prove useful. It has advantages in
Canadian and British systems, because of their lower ratios for Al +Fe / licit~, an~ sensitivity in that it enables movement of organic matter
clay,separate soils slightly earlier again. p P be easily discerned.

A strong argument can be made for separating soils into a podzol/ A further simple criteria which could prove useful is the N F H
podzolised group at the earliest stage of podzolisation that can be surement of B horizons as suggested by Brydon &Day (1970). ~ellow
recognised. In separating any soil group two of the more important own loams would of course react positively to this method but could
factors to be considered are the dominant soil process and the agronomic excluded by the low KCl extractable Al these soils have. This method
importance of this soil process. The most important agronomic feature s the ad~anta~e that it would react positively to active material in
of podzolised soils is their very low fertility due to the strong acid l/Fe fulvic acid complexes and to 'proto-imogoli te' type materials.
leaching, causing low pH, low base status and mar-type humus. These
are three of the preconditions supposedly necessary for podzolisation and It ~s.evi~ent f:om th~ di:cussi~n above that although three systems
therefore it can be argued that this is the best stage at which to f. class~fication using ob3ect1ve criteria for separating podzolised
separate a podzol/podzolised group out. The degree of podzolisation ils exist, further work is needed.
and possibly texture could be incorporated into the classification at a
lower category.

The selection of diagnostic criteria for separating podzolised soils HE GEN IC CONNECTION BETWEEN HORIZONS
at an early stage of podzolisation is a little difficult. The spodic N
horizon criteria would incorporate most New Zealand podzolised soils if L PROFILE
the limit f?r the Alp+Fe /clay ratio was set at 0.05 as in the British
system. This and the otRer criteria however require a considerable amount
of analytical work, and even allowing for the pyrophosphate/clay ratio, J .A. Pollok
there are considerable differences between the US, British and Canadian Department of Soil Science
systems, suggesting that the criteria are not yet universally satisfactory. Massey University

As mentioned previously these criteria have been developed around

the theory that podzolisation is largely the transportation of Al and Fe f P.E. M'uller was a Danish scientist working predominantly with
within a soil profile in an organically complexed form. The observation myorest . soil s a t muc h t h e same time
· that Dokuchaiev was unravelling the
by Farmer (1979) and Youn& et ell. (1980) of the presence of proto- ~~eries of the chernozems of the Russian Steppe. He is perhaps less
imogolite and allophane in pod:ols has implications in relation to the lleknown to us than his famous Russian contemporary. Yet it was
importance of organic compounds in the podzolisation process. Farmer (1979) .r (1878, 1884, 1887) who gave us the names of mull and And
nt1on of " . . mor.
for example proposes that the formation of such hydroxyaluminium ortho- llli mor or raw organic matter" immediately conjures up in our
nds the podzol profile.
silicate complexes can transport Al from eluvial horizons and deposit it
in B horizons. Organic matter may not be directly involved in this process·
Thus criteria chosen on the basis that they represent organically bound and Whereas the first two of Muller's references a~e written in Danish
lt _largely escape us, the third, a monograph, is written in German.
15
commonly referred to by its abbreviated title, "Studien iiber die
 104
105

naturlichen Humusformen" (Studies on natural humus forms), which might

lead us to believe that it was concerned solely with particular kinds CHEMISTRY BIOCHEMI
of organic matter. However, Wilde (1958) gives the full title of the
monograph as "Studien uber die nati.~.rlichen Humusformen und deren .
Einwirkung auf Vegetation und Boden" (Studies on humus forms and their
influence on vegetation and soil). Now our minds are alerted. The I OF PODZOLS
humus forms can have some influence on soil properties!
L. C. Blakemore
M'uller noted the connection between mar and the eluvial upper
mineral horizons of podzols. He also observed the lower illuvial
Soil Bureau, OSIR, Lower Hutt
horizon, commonly enriched with humus and iron. He paid particular
attention to Ortstein, recognizing three different forms of it (Joffe
1936). According to Simonson (1968) Muller's studies of Ortstein led
him to conclude that it was cemented by substances brought down from
There are comparatively few examples on Soil Bureau files of soils
the overlying eluvial horizon.
51'fied unequivocally as podzols. There are however analyses of
few podzolised yellow-brown earths (YBE), podzolised yellow-
Although Joffe argues that Muller failed to explain the actual
process responsible for the "white" sand formation in the eluvial
~ ;umice soils (YBP), and podzolised yellow-brown loams (YBL).
horizon and expresses the opinion that this had to await the relevation
In order to gain an overall impression of some of the chemical
by the Dokuchaiev School of Pedology of the genetic relationship between
perties of podzols and their relation to the podzolised gro~ps, the
soil horizons, Simonson contends that the Russians' preoccupation with
ults for key horizons have been averaged and are presented in
the upper horizons of the podzol (as of the chernozem) prevented them
rammatic form in Fig.1. This figure is based on average depths
from appreciating the significance of the illuvial horizon beneath, and
gthe lower A horizon (A2 in podzols), the horizon of accumulation
he states quite clearly (p.19) that "Muller (1887) of Denmark was the
ten designated as B2f or B2h in podzols), the lower B horizon
first to recognize the B horizon of the podzol (Spodosol) as a layer in
sually B3 ) and the wea~hered parent material (C). A1 horizons are .
which downward moving substances had accumulated."
t shown due to their extreme variability and dependence on the organic-
The important thing is that at this time the genetic connection tter status of the particular soil.
between horizons was established and that from then on it became an
article of faith among practising pedologists. Anyone who had the The properties covered by Fig.1 and the reasons for their choice
good fortune to serve under G.W. Robinson, N.H. Taylor or E. Miickenhausen e as follows:
would acknowledge that as true.

Had M'uller experienced a phase advance and been projected into the This is considered to be an important property as mobilization and
United States of America or New Zealand in the 1970's he might have e-precipitation of elements may be largely controlled by pH of the
found himself being indoctrinated into believing that the upper part of ystem.
his profile (the precious mor, A and E horizons) was ephemeral, subject
to change by the forces of erosion or the cultural activities of man,
and that he should focus his attention almost exclusively on the deeper
seated, less vulnerable, illuvial horizon.* Had he allowed this to The pattern of carbon contents within the profile is especially
happen back in 1878-87 he almost certainly would have missed the exciting useful because it indicates the degree to which organic material moves
revelation of the genetic connection between soil horizons. It is during podzolising processes.
salutary for us to reflect, as we contemplate our Spodosols and work our
way through the flow-diagram for the spodic subsurface diagnostic horizon,
that we are able to do this only because Muller, close on a hundred years
ago, first saw his podzol profile whole. However much we concentrate on This property is that measured by leaching wi~h neutral, molar
the illuvial horizon, the eluvial horizon will always be with us either ammonium acetate, washing with ethanol and displacing exchangeable
in the history of the profile prior to any disturbance or actually still ammonium ions with sodium chloride. As pointed out by many authors
present staring us in the face. (e.g. Gillman 1979· Juo et al. 1976; Bache 1976), this measurement
has severe limitatlons. This is especially so when soils contain a
significant degree of charge which is variable with the pH of the
system (variable charge). In podzols, there is a high va:iable charge
~omponent due to organic matter and poorly-~rdered clay m~nerals. It
ls unfortunate that the data at present available. do not include KCl-
extractable aluminium and hydrogen values as these, combined with
* A reference to Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff 1975)
i: bases can be used to derive "effective CEC". This property would
give a better indication of the true cation exchange properties of the
 106 107

0 0
0 0 0 0
0 l..O 0 l..O

concerned and base saturations derived from it would reflect the

15 pertaining at natural pH.
0 0
(")
(")

0 0
N N

0
This property, rather than % base saturation obtained with ammonium
0 ~
tate, is used to show the degree of leaching. As noted above, % base
........ ~uration at natural pH would have been a more effective indicator of
0
a..
0 "CQ
Vl >-
...- .......... ching.
(")
(") 0
(") N lll
""O ,.......
#. N
O·r-
N N 0..0
Q)
u... 4- !/) These are measures of the amorphous oxides and hydrous oxides
E 0 OJ
u esent in a soi+. In podzols these determinations are considered to
E Vl .,...
(1J
I- c E present the iron and aluminium which has been mobilised and redistrib-
0 ::l
d throughout the profile by podzolising processes. The iron and alum-
.....N 0..
ium extracted would however also include that from poorly-ordered clay
s.. !::

:~~-~-1-;-~-1~l~l~l~I1--~
(")
0 3:
>R: ..s::: 0 erals formed by weathering of volcanic ash. In Fig.1, a wide geo-
~ s.. aphical range is covered and comprises samples from Fiordland, Otago,
N ""O ..0
<( OJ I
E +-' 3: stland and Northland. As a consequence, considerable variation is to
·.·.· u 0
expected; however, it is also to be expected that the more important
E
~{).)(:}~?~;
OJ,......
(1J r- r -
I- o-L-=~:.:....:...:...:.:.;......___,
QJ Cl.l fects of podzolisation should be common to all and that the averaged
Vl >,
0 lues should illustrate these effects. The same number of podzolised
s.. -a
0 OJ llow-brown earths and podzols (9) were used in the averages and
4- Vl
Vl . -
.,.... mprised samples from South Auckland, Westland, Otago and Southland .
>R:
0 Ln !:: 0 ly 4 podzolised volcanic soils (YBP plus YBL) were used - all coming
Q) 0 N
..... -a om the Rotorua-Taupo area.
5 (j)

0N +-' 0
(j)
Q) "C
'°s::: 0.....J.
co
(j)
co 0 •r- ....-..>
.c 0 a.. EW
'N s.. co
OJ>-
+->~
0
(") ..... OJ (H20) pH results for podzols show little variation down the profile
-0 Ul
>R: .... dare close to 5. The pH of the A2 horizon is slightly lower than
.·::::... ····· ..!::

...
0 0 ,...- +-'

,,,&~~IMit
0
Q)
N N
'° '°s.. at of the other horizons but not to the same extent as is found between
5 0
u OJ
•r- e lower A horizon and other horizons of the podzolised YBE. This is
u 0 E
u.J
u
~

0
::<$!:fWmx{ o-L...a..;.......:.;;...,,;;.;..._--........_.....
(!)
..S:::
uo
s..
s:::
3 I
ssibly because the A2 contains less organic matter with consequently
ss organic acids. It is apparent that the greater content of organic
dicals in the lower A horizon (e.g. Ai 2 ) of the podzolised YBE has a
.......
4- ..Cl
.,, OI
eater effect on lowering pH than the severe leaching of bases which
(l)
....
......
...... Ul 0
+-' .-
:::::
found in the A2 of podzols. It will be noted that the pH of the
.- .-

t1t~f~;jf{(il
#.
<:t ...
·:· ::l <1)
~
dzolised volcanic soils is higher in the lower B and C horizons than

i~%fa,':·\ . . .
Vl

u N
(!)
s.. -0
e other podzolised soils, even though the %C is relatively high and
N

-0 Ul
<1) e base saturation is quite low. This is probably due in part to the
0
o...J....L:.::.;.::...;;:..:.>&j+~~__. (!) .,...
01.-
et that the organic matter present in the lower horizons may be
Ln )}\} '°
S.. 0
N
lexed to aluminium and iron with consequently fewer free acid

;. . .-~-f:-~.-~t-~-fi ;
LO
Ln
(!)
:> 0
-0 dicals being present.
c::( p.
0
N
Ln
rbon (%C) The movement of organic matter down the profile and its
~ sequent accumulation in the upper B horizon is evident for podzols
Ln
:r: ~
a..
Ol
nd.podzolised volcanic soils. This organic matter is bound to the
<:t_.1,_...1.:.o.:.a.:.:.:.:.:..~~..__, .,..... Ct1ve iron and aluminium which has also accumulated in the B horizon
<:t u...
·K. Daly 1980). The podzolised YBE are very different in this respect,
z
0 l~l~I ~I u I l~l~I
Q)
e:e being no such large build-up in the B horizon, the lower A
: 1zon showing the normal increase expected from the effects of over-
!::::! Q) Q)
0.
0:: a.. ~
a..
0 0.
:::i
0
- :::i
ing humus-rich topsoil. Al though there is probably some movement of
:I: &anic matter through these soils, the magnitude is not sufficient to
ow in the total carbon values and probably reflects a much lesser
 108
109

intensity of podzolisation than is found in podzols and the podzolised

volcanic soils. In the latter, there are greater amounts of carbon
throughout the profile due to the strong complexing ability of carbon EFFECT OF PODZOLISATION ON TOTAL ELEMENT LS
for the alu~iniu~ and iron which is present. Within the profile, the
upp~r B horiz~n is shown to have much higher carbon figures than the A2
J.S. Whitton
horizon, showing clearly that redistribution of organic matter is Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
active in these soils.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC NH40Ac) As discussed previously, results podzolisation is a process described in Soil Survey Method (Taylor
obtained.by thi~ metho~ will have been seriously affected by the presence hlen 1970) a~ the inverse of laterisation and occurs in soils in
of material having variable charge properties - especially organic matt
and poorly·o:de:ed clay minerals containing reactive iron and aluminium~r
regions which are subject to "acid leaching" under the influence
ganic matter. In this process residual quartz and secondary silica
In po~zol~, it is to be expected that the horizon of accumulation will me concentrated in the upper horizons while compounds of the sesqui-
contain either o: both of ~hese types of materials and consequently, the es and organic matter are transferred to lower horizons. In general,
CEC values of ~his layer will reflect a large component of variable icular tree species are associated with podzolised and podzol soils
c~arge. It w~ll be noted from ~ig.1 that the CEC in the podzol group kauri, rimu and hard beech. These trees are not only tolerant of
rise~ sharply in the upper B horizon and decreases in the lower horizons.
site conditions but produce an acid litter which accumulates above
It_w1~l ~lso be noted that %C, and Tamm Al and Fe follow similar patterns.
soil and leads to strong leaching and podzolisation.
Th~s is in contrast to the situation in the podzolised volcanic soils in
which the CEC follows the %C but not the Tamm Al and Fe pattern. It is There are three soil horizons which are characteristic of podzols
appa:e~t that, in ~hese soils, the large amount of extractable (Tamm)
Az, B2h and B2fe(h) horizons (B2fe horizons are often associated
aluminium present is in allophanic form rather than in the form of humus "h", therefore I have included h in B2fe). By definition
organic co~plexes which are present in the zone of accumulation of podzols 1or &Pohlen 1970) in podzols or podzolised soils there is always a
It ma~ be inferred from these results that podzolic material has higher ognisable A2 horizon (though in some situations these may be thin
~egative charge properties (mainly pH variable) than the allophanic mater-
discontinuous) but either or both of the B horizons may be absent.
ial in volcanic soils.
In Table 1 the average element content of Az, B2h and B2fe(h)
Sum of bases (I bases) In view of the high proportion of variable izons taken from 24 New Zealand podzols and podzolised soils is
charge in these soils it is preferable to judge the degree of leaching ented. For comparison the average element values for A, B and C
from the summation of exchangeable Ca, Mg, Kand Na (I bases), and 'zons of 54 soils described in Soils of New Zealand (Wells 1968)are
these values are shown in Fig.1. In the podzols, I bases for all
horizons i~ very low indeed, while there are slightly higher contents in
th~ podzoli~ed_YBE and podzolised volcanic soils. In the podzolised By comparing the podzol horizons with those of the average A, B and
soils (as distinct from podzols) there are sufficient bases present to of New Zealand soils three generalisations can readily be seen:
show a very slight accumulation in the B horizon.
In Az horizons, on average, all element contents are less than in
Tamm (acid-oxalate soluble) Aluminium and iron (Tamm Al and Fe) For the average A horizon, except for Si and B. The exception of B is a
sal~ of si~plicity the diagrams in Fig.1 were compiled from the data sequence of the presence of tourmaline (see Note t to Table 1).
available in such a way that both Bfe and Bh horizons were used to derive
the averages. These_values show that there is considerable build-up of In B2h horizons, on average, all element contents are less than in
both Tamm Al and Fe rn the upper B horizon of podzols and that similar e average B horizon, except B, again see Note t to Table 1).
but smaller, accumulations are found in the podzolised groups represen~ed.
The la~·ge c~ntents of Tamm Al found in the lower horizons of the podzolise In B2fe(h) horizons, on average, all element contents are less than
volcanic so1ls reflec~ the presence of allophanic weathering products the average B and C horizons, except for Fe, Mo and Ni.
:at~c~· than accumulation through podzolising processes. Study of the
i~1di v~<lual resu~ ts used to derive the averages shows that Tamm Fe is very
. By comparing the average Az horizon with the average B2h and B2fe(h)
high rn Bfe hor1zons and that Bh horizons are usually higher in Tamm Al. r~zons within podzols all element contents are less in the average Az
rizon than in the average 32h and Bzfe(h) horizons except for Si and B.
0.5 M H2S04 soluble phosphorus (0.5 M H2S0 4 sol P) The diagrams for the comparing the average Bzh horizon with the average B2fe(h) horizon
podzols and podzolised soils show that only small amounts of 0.5 M H2S04 1 e~ements in the Bzh horizon are less than those in the B2fe(h) except
soluble phosphorus are present in the upper horizons, where leaching r Si, B, Ti, Zr and loss on ignition, i.e. on average only those
processes are very strong. There is however a notable trend for the ements contained in minerals highly resistant to leaching are present
contents to :·ise in the sub-horizons. This presumably reflects a certain relatively higher amounts.
amo:-int of build up of phosp~orus in unfixed form from leaching of upper
horizons, and probably more importantly, reflects effects of parent materia r From the above comparisons it can be seen that the podzolisation
ocess is one in which all elements other than silicon are increasingly
re leached from the corresponding C, B or A horizon of the average
 110 111

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
LI') 0 0 0 t-- N LO 0
Average element composition (arithmetic mean) for A2, B2h t") 0 0 0 I'"-- I.I'! T"'"'i I")
Table 1 and B fe(h) of 24 podzols and podzolised soils, and for
N '<:!" l'I') rl T"'"'i

2 0 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 0 00 0 0 0
A, B and C horizons of 54 New Zealand soils (see Wells T"'"'i T"'"'i .-! ...-i ...-i LI') I"') 0 0 l'l')Nt--\0
v v y v N l""l N
1968) T"'"'i rl
'°
!'I') 00
T"'"'i T"'"'i N N !'I') 0 LO 0 N N N \0 00
y v N .-! rl rl

Horizon N.Z. Average Profile !") '<:!"

Podzol Soils
A B C ~ ;:::!; I'"-- N
B2h B2fe(h)
Element
25 22 28 26
0
. 0 0 0 0
Si % 34 8.6 11. 7 11. 6 v v v
3.7 4 .1 5. 8 5.1
Al " 1.5 6. 7 4.4 5.4 l.J'l 0 "<l" LI')

Fe 11 0.94 1.5 > '°

0.22 0.35 1.5 1.4 N T"'"'i
v
'<:j" '<:j" ...-i
v .-! 0
l.f')
0
0
Ca " 0.28 0.8 1. 2 1.1 rl rl
0.26 0.35
Mg " 0.20
0.45(0.34)* 0.37 0.61(0.40)* 1. 3 1.4
450
1.6 .
Na " 25 115 (71)* 430 450 N 0 N N N T"'"'i N 00
..-4
0
'<:!"
Sr p.p.m. 73 (22)* 750 870
Ba 215 (84)* 115 245 (125)* 700
50 55 59 "<l"
.
11 40 46 ,...; 0 N I"') 0 0
v
l"'l N
Li " 40 49 110 117 113
Rb " 27 27 30 35 . otj" 0 0 LI')

4.5 7.5 9 ::I

Cu "II 23 29 30 63 52 49 u ;:::!; 0 !'I') T"'"'i \0 N N N 0\

Zn 36 43 42 N LO LO N ,...; t<"l
II 10 16 18 6.5
..-i !'I')
N N
LI')
N
Cr 4.7 6.0 !'I') N N N N t.ri
3.0 7.2
Ni " 74
2.3
85 210 640 560 490 LO \0 Ll'l l.J'l N
.
Mn " 28 35 61 82 82 l.J'l N "<l" ...-i \0 N
N
\0
.-l
Cl'I otj-
...-i
v 20
1.3 1.8 1. 2 1.4 1.6
0.7
Mo "
If 26(16)t 24(5.6)t 47 24 23 25
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 t""l 0
t")

I'"-- N
B 3400 4200 4300 T"'"'i ..-i ,...; ..-i ...-i l"')rl...-irl rl .-I ..-t
1250 1800 1400 y v v v v v v v v
Ti " 110 95 200 210 220
Zr " 90 12 12 !'I') t") !'I') !'I') t") 0 !"') t") !'I') N otj- ..-t 0
11 11 9.3 v v v v v ::G v v v !"') T"'"'i .-i

Ga " 8.4 16 8.3 4.5

25 20
Loss on ign.% 9 Cl!
u
,...;
0
0
.
T"'"'i
0
0
T"'"'i
0
0
.
\C)
0
0
,...;
0
0
LI')
O'I
0
l"'l
0
l"'l
0
l""l
0 0 0
. 0
. . 0
The values in () are obtained if values for Na, Sr and B in soils v v v v v v v
* from rhyolitic pumice and soda granite e.g. Mamuku, Tihoi and ,...; ..-i N ,...; ...-i LO I.I'! T"'"'i M !"') ,...;

Hohonu are deleted from the averages because these parent rocks
0
0
0
0
. . 0
0
0
0
0
0
N
0
•
0
.
'<::!" t--
rl
t--
..-4
. 0
0
0
0
. 0
0
0
0
are unusually high in these elements and distort the average. v v v v
..-t '°
.
T"'"'i ,...; T"'"'i ..-4 I'"-- ......

t The values in () are obtained if values for B in Waikare and

~
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0 0
. 0 0
~

0
l"'l
0
..-l

0
LI')
N
0
.
\~1arekohe soils are deleted - this is because these soils contain v v v v v
tourmaline, a B-rich mineral highly resistant to weathering which
N.-!OOl'l')Cl'I
LI') 00
.
0\0rlOO
otj"

0
otj"

0
r--
N
0
O'I
has not been depleted during the podzolisation process. ..-t ..-4 ..-4 rl

Ll'l
. N
OOt"lt--t"l
0
. .
t.J'l
0 0
. 0 0
..-i

New Zc'aland soil and that within the podzol the successive leaching
sequence is A2 > B2h > B2fe(h). Consequently podzolisation can be OO"d"NOO\O
N '<d" N N
regarded as the leaching of all other elements in soils relative to
silicon.
If the B fe(h) horizon is thought of as an horizon of Fe precipit-
2 N ,.C::
ation and accltlnulation then from a comparison of the B2fe(h) horizon with 0
N
<(
N N
i:::Q u
average B and C horizons it can be seen that also Mo and >Ji are on
average higher in B2fe(h) horizons. Thus the conditions which favour the
precipitation of iron in podzols either favour the precipitation and
accumulation of l\lo and Ni, or Mo and Ni are trapped by the precipitation
of Fe and held against the leaching process.
These generalisations are illustrated by the three soils shown in
Table 2.
 112
113

THE VARIABLE CHARGE COMPONENT OF PODZOLS 1 Chemical and surface charge properties of some spodic horizons

K.W. Perrott Soil Bureau Horizon c Tamm Extract % pH NaF * PZC *

Ruakura Soil &Plant Research Station Lab. No. % Al Fe 2 min 60 min
Hamilton
8992D IIIBfe 7.5 3.1 1.6 11. 3 11.5 3.4
It has been shown that podzols and podzolised soils display con- Te Kopuru 7884F 8 6.8 11.1 11.5 3.5
2fe
siderable variable charge (Blakemore &Parfitt 1979). The variable Wairaurahiri 8981F 8 1.5 1. 0 2.2 10.4
2fe 11. 1 4 .1
charge is largest in the spodic horizon and is attributed to the
presence of amorphous materials - sesquioxides, sesquioxide-organic Wharekohe 7644G 8 1.3 0.84 1.07 9.5 9.9 none
21hg
matter complexes and aluminosilicates (Clark et al. 1966, Raman &Mort- 8857D 8 3.2 0.51 3.0 9.0
21fe 9.3 none
land 1969, Loveland &Bullock 1975, Curtin &Smillie 1979). In fact,
the laboratory identification of spodic horizons relies on the measure-
ment of pH-dependent CEC (Clark et al. 1966) or the demonstration of
the presence of these amorphous materials (Franzmeier et al. 1965, *pH NaF and PZC measurements made with soil ground to pass 100 mesh.
McKeague &Day 1966, 1969, McKeague 1967, Brydon &Day 1970, McKeague pH NaF, 1 g soil in 50 ml NaF (Fieldes &Perrott 1966)
et al. 1971) .

The accumulation of amorphous materials in spodic horizons confers be a reflection of the more rapid titration method used and the
on them electrochemical properties similar to other soils, such as treatment of the samples with NaCl before titration (Hendershot 1978).
highly weathered tropical soils and volcanic ash soils, which contain It can be seen from Table 1 that the relative importance of permanent
amorphous sesquioxides and aluminosilicates. These colloids derive charge compared with pH-dependent charge as indicated by acid-base
surface charge from the adsorption of potential determining ions, such potentiometric titration curves is what would be expected from the
as H+ and OH-, in contrast to the clay minerals which possess permanent values for Tamms Al and Tamms Fe and the pH in 1 M NaF.
negative surface charge arising from isomorphous substitutions in the
clay mineral lattice. The surface charge of the amorphous colloids The existence of variable charge material in podzol B horizons
varies with pH and electrolyte concentration. For each such colloid has implications for the method used to determine CEC. Whereas measure-
there is a pH value at which the surface charge is zero (the point of ment of CEC using ammonium acetate at pH 7, for example, may be suitable
zero charge -PZC) and this is usually determined from acid-base potentio- when the surf ace charge properties arise predominantly from permanent
metric titration curves (Gast 1977) or ion retention measurements charges in clay minerals, if variable surface charge type colloids are
(Chichester et al. 1970, Gallez et al. 1976, Perrott 1977, 1978). dominant these methods are likely to over-estimate the CEC. The
magnitude and sign of the surface charge on these colloids varies with
Laverdiere &Weaver (1977) found samples from a number of spodic pH, electrolyte concentration and the nature of the ions present. The
horizons to behave as pH-dependent surface charge colloids with the surface charge also depends on the washing method used to remove excess
magnitude of the net charge depending on electrolyte concent~ation and salt. Van Raij &Peech (1972) suggested that a more realistic CEC in
pH. PZC values were in the pH range 4.2 to 4.9. The titration curves such cases would be obtained by determining the net electrical charge
did however show evidence of the presence of small amounts of clay o~ the soil by ion retention in a dilute electrolyte with a concentration
minerals with permanent charge. Hendershot & Lavkulich (1978) found similar to that in soil solution.
that pedological development in three soils was accompanied by a decrease
in the relative significance of permanent charge and an increase in the Wann &Uehara (1978) pointed out that in contrast to soils with
significance of pH-dependent charge. This was represented by the PZC pennanent charge mineralogy, the surface charge density of soils with
becoming more clearly defined (more of the acid-base potentiometric variable surf ace charge mineralogy "can and should be treated as a
titration curves for different concentrations crossing over) and approach- mru:iagement variable". They showed that addition of phosphate to such
ing the natural pH of the soil. The B horizons of the Spodic Ferrudalf soils lowered the PZC and increased the negative charge density above
they used had PZC pll values in the range 4.5 to 5.0. the PZC. The application of lime will also increase the surface charge
density and hence the CEC. This could have some relevance for the
Acid-base potentiometric titration curves have been obtained for management of podzols.
five B horizons from New Zealand podzols (Perrott, unpubl.). Two of
these (Maungatua and Wharekohe) had no crossover point of the curves
measured at different electrolyte concentrations (no PZC defined). The
other three horizons (Te Kopuru, Mamaku and Wairaurahiri) did exhibit
crossover points in the curves for two or more concentrations and the
PZC pH values were in the range 3.5 to 4.2 (Table 1). The lower PZC
values compared with those reported by Laverdiere &Weaver (1977) could
 114 115

POTASSIUM FIXATION CHARACTERISTICS OF PODZOLS ~

100
oc. Potassium
) Th f"
was added at a rate of 1 me ~0 for th
· ·
h .
e w o 1e soil
('fable 2 : e me c~ay fraction was only 3 to 9% of the tot .
Roger Campkin tbe fixati~n of potassium was greatest for this fraction and al soil_but
Ruakura Soil &Plant Research Station decreased in the coarse clay, silt and sand fractions ev throgressively
'-were iarger amounts of these fractions present. ' en ough there
Hamilton
Potassium fixation by size fractions
Added potassium that is "fixed" by a soil is usually temporarily
converted into a less available form and will be available to plants % of size Added potassium(me.%) % added
in the future. Fixed potassium is defined as that portion of added Size fraction
fraction potassium
potassium not recovered in the exchangeable form, in this case by present Whole soil Size
basis fraction fixed
extraction with 1 M neutral ammonium acetate.
basis
Potassium fixation is usually attributed to the 2:1 layer clay
minerals in a soil, especially vermiculites and montmorillonites, which Fine clay 3.6 1. 0 27.78 25
have a high charge density (Rich 1968, Weir 1965, Sawhney 1972). Some mm)
of the interstratified clay minerals identified in A2 horizons of some Coarse clay 20.7 1.0 4.83 14
Canadian podzols fix large amounts of potassium (MacLean &Brydon 1971) Silt 52.1 1.0 1.92 7
while in other soils components of the silt fraction contribute to
Sand 13.4 1.0 7.46 3
potassium fixation (Kaila 1967).
Fixation was measured by adding 1 me.% * potassium, as 5 ml of Fine clay 9.2 1.0 10.87 38
0.01 M KCl, to 5 g air-dried soil, and then drying for 16 hours at 100°c mm)
(Campkin 1972). It ranged from 1 to 55% for several podzols, with the Coarse clay 23.6 1.0 4.24 37
highest values occurring for Hinahina s.1. and the subsoil (A23x horizon) Silt 43.3 1.0 2.31 25
of the Wharekohe si.1. from DSIR Grasslands Station at Kaikohe (Table 1).
Sand 9.5 1.0 10.53 0
Table 1 Potassium fixation by podzols

Exchangeable Added % added

Depth The fixation of potassium by the fine clay fraction of both sam les
ap~eared
Soil type potassium potassium
(:mm) potassium to be due to their content of montmorillonite and vermiculiie
(me.%) (me.%) fixed
~hi~e that of the coarse clay and silt fractions was due to their content
~ interlayered hydrous micas and possibly illite (Table 3) Th f
0.13 1. 0 1 ne perce~tage~ of_ these clay minerals accounted for 78% of.the ~a~~t~on
Wharekohe si. 0-75 potassium fixation by the size fractions If ill"t · · ·
0.10 1.0 31 hanges to 55~ h h · i e is omitted this
Wharekohe s. 0-75 ts own (Tabl; :~~n t oug there is a very low correlation for illite on
0.13 1.0 2
Te Kopuru s. 0-75
1. 26 1.0 55
Hinahina s.1 0-75 from ~n conc;usion ~here was a wide range of fixation of added potassium
0.51 1.0 15 f to t? 55~, by d1~ferent podzolic soils, and the potassium fixation '
Wharekohe si.1. 0-75 55 psoil_and ~ubsoil samples of one podzolic soil was found to be due
150-300 0.07 1. 0
(Grasslands) 0ntmontmorillonite and vermiculite in their fine clay fractions to
anderla~er~d h~drous micas and illite in their coarse clay frac~ions
Fixation by the podzols was examined in more detail by separating to illite in the silt fraction of the subsoil. '
the fine clay, coarse clay, silt and sand fractions from both topsoil
and subsoil samples of the Wharekohe si.1. from DSIR Grasslands Station a.
Kaikohe. K. fixation of a sample of each size fraction equal to its
amount in 0.5 g of the soil was determined after drying for 16 hours at

* 1 me.% = 1 m mol . / 100 g oven dried soil

charge on f ree ion
 116
117

Relationship of potassium xation to ay minerals

y (%fixation) =a+ bx(% clay mineral)

mineral a b 2
r
0 0 0 0 0 0
Cl
2:1 clays (Mt+I+IhM+V) 12.81 3.26 0.78***
0
4-1
0
i:i. 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2:1 clays except illite 17. 71 2.78 0.55*
(Mt+IhM+V)
o\"
!/)
i:i:l O'
0 Q)
. N
20.43 2.02 0.31 NS
rl L/') 20.34 2.50 0.21 NS
s::
0 20.44 2.33 0.31 NS
N 0
t.f) '° 20.36
0 rl 0 0 N 0 14.87 0.30 NS
++- ++- 22.37 1. 71 0.07 NS
00 N
.,....
-0 N 0 0 ['-.. 0 0 21.58 0.45 0.28 NS
>,
'°
S-
I 0 0 0 0 0 0
><
>,
..c
-0
L/') rl SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPY STUDIES ON SOME
(!.) 0 0 0 rl 0 0
s:: IRON- S
0 0 0 0 0 0
C.W. Ross
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
0 0 0
rl
0
'°
N 0
G.D. Walker
Ul Ul
Physics & Engineering Laboratory,DSIR,Lower Hutt
s::: (!.)
0-0
.,..... ..-
INTRODUCTION
+-> (!.) 0 0 0
U•..-
<'O 1..1...
S-
4- 4- The scanning electron microscope, combined with energy dispersive
0
(!.)
N Ul
of x-rays (EDAX), can be used for simultaneous study of the
·..- -0
Ul 0
detailed micromorphology and associated chemical transitions on a micro-
..c: scopic scale within indurated soil iron-pans (ortstein or placic horizons)
4- +->
0 (!.) found in many New Zealand podzols and gley podzols.
E
>,
en©
o.i:::
...... +->
Observations made on iron-pan material collected from three soils;
~enata (podzolised gleyed yellow-brown earth, Placaquod), a podzol
'°
s..
(!.)
en
s:: inclusion within the Belmont soil mapping unit (podzol, Placorthod) and
s:: .,....
.,....
::E: :::i
Ul Okarito (gley podzol, Typic Sideraquod) are presented here. Samples
from the first two soils were distinct wavy iron-pans within fine-textured
material, whereas those from the Okarito soil comprised iron-cementations
(!.)
of sandy matrix between gravels.
.-
..c
MATERIALS AND METHODS
'°
I-

. Samples of indurated iron-pans were washed, air-dried, fractured to

&lve maximum-sized specimens of 1 cm x 0.5 cm x 0.3 cm high, and mounted
on aluminium sample holders with rubber cement. Freshly broken surfaces
of the specimens were given conductive coatings consisting of 10 nm of
~a:bon followed by 10 nm of 60/ 40 gold/palladium, by evaporation, while
e1ng rotated. The samples were then examined in a.Cambridge Stereoscam
11
7 A operated at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV, with an attached EDAX
07 A X-ray microanalyser.
 118 119

One sample of a Renata iron-pan was impregnated with Spurr's low

viscosity resin, cured at 70°C for 8 hours and polished to give a smooth
surface to enhance element density mapping with EDAX.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

All samples, predictably, contained appreciable iron contents, but
there were no detectable chemical gradients, on a relatively gross scale,
across the indurated material. This result was surprising since some of
the samples exhibited small (approximately 1 mm wide) very dusky red
(7.5R 2.5/2) bands surrounded by reddish brown (5YR 4/4) areas merging
into strong brown (7.5YR 5/8) cemented soil . Fig.l presents a low
magnification photomicrograph and element density maps for Fe, Si and Al
which illustrate this effect using the surface-polished iron-pan from
the Renata soil. The line drawn through the photomicrograph separates
the dark red coloured material on the left, which displays a relatively
smooth morphology from the lighter coloured, m-0re roughly structured soil
on the right. However, the element density maps only show localized
concentrations of Fe, Si and Al scattered rather randomly throughout the
entire sample. These results suggest that the colour differences may be
related to the forms and/or sizes of iron minerals deposited within the
pans or to iron-organic matter complexes rather than changes in total Fe
concentrations as such.
Fe
More detailed observations at higher magnifications revealed that
the iron-rich areas were concentrated in pockets scattered throughout
the indurated material, as illustrated in Fig.2 for the Okarito soil.
These tended to exhibit a smooth surface morphology, consistent with the
deposition of amorphous iron coatings over more randomly arranged soil
particles . Fig.2, from an Okarito iron pan, shows iron to be concentrated
in the smooth area on the left whereas Si and, to a lesser degree, Al
and K are more abundant in the rougher morphology on the right . Drying
cracks (Fig.3) in the iron-rich smooth areas suggest that the coatings
probably consist of amorphous hydrated iron oxides, hydroxides or
complexes .

Other general features noted for the iron-pan materials are as follows:

1. Mn generally was not detected and, when present, was only found in
very localized areas in trace amounts. This finding is consistent with
iron movement and deposition by the podzolisation process rather than
gleying. The absence of Mn for the Okarito iron pan is of particular
significance since it supports the podzolisation rather than gleying mode
of genesis of these gley podzols.
Si Al
2. Organic matter was commonly identified within the iron pans, and the
1--1
EDAX spectra for this material were composed almost totally of iron.
(EDAX spectra exclude the low molecular weight elements found in organic 100 µm
matter) . This suggests that organic material within the pans is coated
with the iron and it illustrates a strong affinity for iron-organic matter
interactions in the soil. Fig.4 shows organic matter (possibly fungal
hyphae) coated with iron and, therefore, somewhat preserved from decompos- Figure 1. Renata iron pan photomicrograph with associated ED.AX
ition, in the Belmont iron pan. element density maps for Fe, Si and Al . The smooth
morphology to the left of the dividing line is of the
3. Approximate ratios of Si:Fe, recorded for the surface material by dark red material and the rougher morphology to the
EDAX, were 2 : 1 for areas exhibiting the rough morphology compared to 1:1 right represents the lighter-coloured cemented soil .
through to almost pure iron for the smooth areas. The ratios of Si:Al
 120 121

,_

Figure 3. Photomicrograph of an
Okarito iron pan showing
drying cracks in an iron-rich
area.

1----i
10 µm

Figure 4. Iron-coated organic

matter in the Belmont iron pan.

10 µm

Si Al

30 µm

Figure 2. Okarito iron pan photomicro-

graph with EDAX Fe, Si, Al and
K element density maps. .
Note the high concentration of Fe iJl
areas of smooth morphology but Figure 5. A microscopic cutan
reverse trend for the other e 1 ementS• of oriented, very fine
alumino-silicate clays in the
Belmont iron pan.

K
l µm
 122 123

and Al:Fe remained relatively constant in the Renata and Belmont pans
but the Al levels tended to increase with t he Fe in t he Okarito p~ns . NI TROGEN CYCLING AND THE ROLE OF NITROGEN
FERTILISER ON WHAREKOHE SILT LOAM
4. Small pockets of or iented , very fine alumino-sil~cat~ clays were
located within t he iron-pan mat erial , as i l lustrat ed in Figures 5 and
7. This supports the t heory that clay i~luviati?n may be part ?f th~ K.W. Steele
podzolisation process and demonstrates micros~opic. ci._itan formation withi~ Ruakura Soil & Plant Research Station
the pan material which probabl y would not be ident ified by other methods, Hamilton
5. Colonies of small holes of the shape and si ze (approximately
0.5 µm) for rod-shaped (bacilli) bacteria wer e located in samples rom
i
Um ~
INTRODUCTION
all three soils (Figs . 6 and 7). We speculate that the:e holes repr: sent
replica casts of iron-loving . baci~li, such as ~errobac-i Uus fe rroox-idan81 Wharekohe soils, formed mainly under kauri forest from strongly
Gallionella ferruginea or Th-iobac-il lus ferroo xidans . eathered banded sandstone and mudstone (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1954), cover
:ome 47 700 ha in the northern North Island (Soil Bureau, unpublished).
CON CL US IONS Approximately half of this ~rea is Wharekohe s~ l t loam, which occurs
on the lower slopes of rolling land, characterised by a thin poorly
The scanning elect r on microscope with EDAX h~s provided a useful structured topsoil overlying a light grey siliceous horizon which is
technique for studying the micros copi ~ nature of ir?n- pans . It ~as often cemented (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1954). Drainage i s impeded by the
used to study the micromorphology of iron- pan mc·t.erial and associated silica pan, resulting in the formation of a perched water table during
chemical composition at the microscopic l evel. The resu~ts can be used periods of heavy rai n. Water storage i s restrict ed by the shallow
in conjunction with the more traditional methods of chemica~ ~nd topsoil (often <150 mm) and periods of moisture stress frequently occur
mineralogi cal analysis to help s olve problems on t he composition and dur i ng summer. The stunted manuka and rush which covers much of the
genesis of iron pans i n podzols and gl ey podzol s . undeveloped land reflects the low natural fertility of these soils.

The information obtained f rom thi s inv estigat ory s t udy of i ron Once established, high dry matter production is obtainable from
pans from three New Zealand podzols was novel and further work on a permanent pastures, but utilisation of pasture by stock at certain
wider range of soils i s pl anned . times of the year is often difficult because of severe physical limit-
ations imposed by the soil. Although the general fertiliser requirements
of Wharekohe soils have been well documented, little attention has been
given to the nitrogen economy of the s e soils.

NITROGEN CYCLING IN GRAZED PERMANENT PASTURE

The annual turnover of nitrogen in pasture is re l ated to the prod-
uction level realised. In a mixed pasture on Wharekohe silt loam near
Kaikohe, Rumball '(1979) measured the nitrogen yield of a pasture
produci ng 11.4 t DM/ha to be 516 kg. Although thi s represents the
annual nitrogen flow, the actual amount of nitrogen involved will be
somewhat smaller because of cycling or its re - use on one or more occasions
during the year (Steele 1979). Symbiotic nitrogen fixation was estimated
~o be 392 kg N/ha or approximately double the amount of nitrogen harvested
in clover herbage (180 kg N/ha). This is consistent with the relatively
low total soil nitrogen (0.279%) and moderately nigh C:N ratio (15.9).
The rate of nitrogen fixation was found to relate closely to clover dry
matter
low. production, suggesting that rates of nitrogen mineralisation were

Fig.6 Photomicrograph of an iron- Fig .7 Close-up of the baci l li - h Net mineralisation measurements using an i n situ incubation technique
rich area of t he Renata iron shaped holes in the i ro n-ric~ Gave been made over a 4 7 week period on Wharekohe s i 1t loam, at the DSIR
pan showing a colony of holes , mat eri a1 of the Renata i ro~ rasslands Substation near Kaikohe (Steele, unpubl. data). The technique
throught t o be of bacteria pan. A1so note t he ori ente .0 ~~ed h~s been reported for nitrification studies (Steele et a l . 1980b).
ori gin very fi ne c1ays deposited 1 R e soil studied had a higher total nitrogen content than that studied by
some of the cavi t i es illlnba11 (0.31%, 0- 75 mm) but also a high C:N ratio (23.2). Mineralisation
t----f ms r eferred to as net since no account of i mmobilisation processes was
5 µm ade . Measurements were made under a mowing regime.
~

1 µm
 124
125

The pattern of net mineralisation showed a peak during late spring

and a small increase during the autumn period (Fig.I) with a mean rate r contribution to total dry matter production on the site used
over the 47 week period of 0.99 ± 0.08 kg N/ha 0-75 mm/day. Net mineral~ oveineralisation study was lower (around 10%) than in the pasture
isation for each incubation period was correlated with climatic factors be ~umball for ~he N fixation study (>30%), indicating a lower
(Table 1). aiisation rate in the latter study.

characteristic of Wharekohe soils is their inherently low

one · ·
fication ~c~1v1ty. Al t h oug h s1gn1
· · f'icant popu_at~o~s
1 · o_f ammonium
)-
5
·trite ox1d1sers are present (Table 2), the n1tr1f1cat1on activity
C:§ 4 1
resulting in the 'mineral' nitrogen fraction being dominated by
........ ~:im with little, if any, nitrate being present (Steele et al. 1980b) .
E 3
0 o~currence of nitrate is largely restricted to spring (Fig.2).
LO
~ 2 Variation in the most probable number (g- 1 dry weight soil)
• • •
!
0 of chemolithotrophic nitrifying organisms with depth in

. ..
1 Wharekohe silt loam (Steele et aZ. 1980b)
• • • • • ••••
0
1
•------ •
---------·---------------------- . soil Ammonium
oxidisers
Nitrite
oxidisers

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
25 11. 6x10 3 11.6x10 3
MONTH 5. 3x10 3 20. 7x10 3
50
75 19.5x10 3 26.9x10 3
11. 8x10 3 15. 7x10 3
Fig .1 Net mineralisation of nitrogen in the 0-75 mm 15. lx10 3 47, 9x10 3
depth of Wharekohe silt loam during a forty seven
week period 0. 6x10 3 3. lx10 3
<10 <10
Table 1 Correlation of some climatic factors with net
mineralisation of soil nitrogen in Wharekohe
soil (0-75 mm)
r
mean recorded solar radiation 0.73**
extra atmospheric radiation 0.59** 30
+
II NH
mean rainfall 0.05 4
25 II II
NO-
mean 10 cm and am soil temperature 0.27
0
3 II
"
520 " II
G
II

" ..
U1
r' II <II
II

** significant 1% b15 " .. II

II <II II
<II

0
.r:.
... ...
" <II
. II <II II
"
•
Correlations at most explained 50% of the variation in the rate of net '- 10 "
mineralisation. The highest correlation (r = 0.73, significant 1%) z <II II
<II <II
was found between net mineralisation and mean recorded solar radiation. ~5 0

Such a correlation was not unexpected since mean recorded solar radiation 0
0 0 0
reflects cyclic changes in climatic factors. 0 0 0

J F M A M J J A s 0 N D
An annual net mineralisation of 361 kg N/ha would support a grass MONTH
yield of approximately 8000 kg DM in the absence of grazing, assuming
an average nitrogen herbage content of 3.5% and an annual requirement
of 80 kg N/ha for root production. This estimate is based on an annual Fig.2 Amounts of ammonium and nitrate nitrogen in the 0-75 mm
turnover of 50% of the root mass and a total root nitrogen content depth of Wharekohe silt loam during a forty seven week
(0-15 cm) of 160 kg/ha measured in an adjacent trial (Steele 1976). period
 126
127

The importance attached to the nitrification activity of a soil is rf nitrogen fertiliser is used durin
largely a matter of the emphasis placed on each of several individual of legumes should ?e checked to makegs~;:t~~e establis~ment, nodulation
effects of nitrification. Agronomically, nitrification is considered suppressed by fertiliser nitrogen. at nodulat1on was not
of importance since it determines the form of nitrogen which is available
to plants. Ryegrass, however, appears to be able to use ammonium Grazing of newly established past
effectively and there is no yield advantage to using nitrate instead of difficu 1t b ecause severe soil phvsic 1 ures
1. . on Wharekohe
. s oi·1 s is
. often
anunonium fertilisers on Wharekohe soils. Under conditions of high soil utilisation of available pasture. by \ ~mita~~ons may result in poor
phosphorus status, uptake of phosphorus by ryegrass on Wharekohe silt cost of nitrogen fertiliser should bs oc . _Td is, along with the high
loam has been shown to be related to nitrogen uptake, supporting ' e consi ered before · .
for pasture d evelopment on Wharekohe ·1 . using iutrogen
assimilation of nitrogen in the ammonium form (Steele &Saunders 1980). drY matter produced can be effectivel~o\~i- However~ if additional
Low nitrification activity will also aid conservation of nitrogen since of nitrogen fertiliser will provide / l~r i i~ed, mul t~ple applications
it limits the amount of nitrate available in a soil for loss by denitrif- production. ge increase in early dry matter
ication or leaching. This may be particularly important in Wharekohe
soils since During (1972) has measured considerable lateral movement of
sulphate in Wharekohe silt loam. Because of the mobility of nitrate the
(ii) Nitrogen fertiliser application to established pastures
presence of nitrate in these soils could be expected to result in The seasonal pattern of pasture rowth in .
considerable lateral movement during periods of wet weather. that of most other parts of New Zeala~d in thatNorthlan~ differs from
of pasture growth occurs throughout th a rela~ively even rate
THE ROLE OF NITROGEN FERTILISERS ON WHAREKOHE SOILS early spring flush of pasture growth, :n~e:~~ There is norm~lly no
winter and early spring is often lower th . ra~e of_growth in late
(i) Nitrogen fertiliser and pasture development an in t e Waikato (During 1972).
Most research on nitrogen fertiliser a . .
Low total soil nitrogen (about 0.15%, 0-75 mm) and high C:N ratios loam has been conducted during the . t ppllcati?n to Wharekohe silt
(30) in undeveloped Wharekohe soils result in an extremely low nitrogen obJ. ect i. ve of moving forward the s win. er-early spring
. per·io d wit
. h the
status, making establishment of a vigorous legume component in developing spring flush This has b pring growth period and creating a
pasture essential. Since rhizobia are unlikely to be present in virgin · een successfully ac l" h d
matter responses to nitrogen applied d . comp is e ' and large dry
soils (Greenwood 1961) legume seed should be innoculated with a suitable consistently recorded (Steele 1976 Stur~ng this period of the year are
Rhizobium. Phosphate and potassium fertilisers are required for winter conditions are suitable f ' ee e et al. 1980a). Providing
correction of nutrient deficiencies and lime is needed to reduce soil .
during or pasture growth ni tro .
May and June will also provide s b . '. gen app 1 ications
acidity (Lambert 1961). pro?uction during June and July with re~i~tantial in:reases_ in dry matter
until early September (Tables 3 d 4· C ual_effect~ sometimes lasting
Maku lotus (Lotus pedunculatus) is a useful colonising legume for an , . During pers.comm.).
acid podzolic soils since it produces more dry matter than white clover
under conditions of low phosphorus (Brock 1973), moderate soil acidity
(Greenwood 1961) and high soil moisture (Dunne &Scott 1964). Once soil
Table 3 f~~rr~:tf~~:ogu~:i~I~~~~(6DD~/D~~~Nf~aw~:r~t~~)~,~~~t(~~)mor
or . ur1ng, unpubl.
u~~~;(G)
fertility is improved lotus may not persist in grazed pastures, being
replaced by white clover (Trifoliwn repens). This transition, however, Treatment
Date cut
is not detrimental to the overall pasture production (Steele &Dawson, 1. 7. 69 5.8.69 17.9.69 17.10.69
1980). Symbiotic nitrogen fixation by lotus has been found to be Total
Control
similar to that of white clover (Brock 1973) and the higher initial 230 et 101 D 673 c
34 kg N/ha appl. as NL, 26.5.69 448 BC 1502 D
growth rate of lotus relative to white clover should result in a greater 617 AB 213 BC 830 BC
67 kg N/ha appl. as NL, 26.5.69 471 ABC 2131 BCD
input of symbiotically fixed nitrogen. A further advantage of lotus is 34 kg N/ha 684 A 280 B 1020 BC 370 c
the development of a rapid ground cover which will reduce the possibility appl. as u, 26.5.69 2354 ABC
67 kg N/ha 426 BC 291 B 930 BC 426 BC
of surface erosion resulting from heavy rain occurring after pasture app 1. as u, 26.5.69 605 AB 2073 CD
~4 kg N/ha appl. 392 A 1155 B 583 AB 2735 AB
establishment. as NL, 6.8.69 348 c 123 CD
/ kg N/ha appl. as 1010 BC 527 ABC 2008 CD
4 kg N/ha NL, 6.8.69 270 c 78 D 930 BC 538 ABC 1816 CD
Under conditions of nitrogen stress, leguminous species predominate appl. as U, 6.8.69 269 c
following pasture establishment. Attempts have been made to circumvent r./.
6
kg N/ha appl. as u, 6.8.69 448 BC
112 D
168 CD
952 BC
1558 A
527 ABC 1860 CD
639 A
•~
clover dominance by application of nitrogen fertiliser (Steele &Dawson 2813 A
4 kg N/ha
1980). Single applications of 2S or SO kg N/ha were found to be 415 A
ineffective, but seven applications of SO kg N/ha at eight weekly ~'. kg N/ha 502 A
185
230
B 931 B
A 1166 A
488 A 2018 B
l.trolime 532 A 2429 A
intervals conunencing two weeks after pasture emergence, increased dry .Otea 480 A 174 B 948 B 477 A
matter production by -H°-o over the initial 12 months following establish- 2077 A
ment. Although nitrogen suppressed the legume content of the pasture ~rly application
437 A 241 A 1149 A 543 A 2370 A
ate application 984 A 462 B 2323 A
while applications continued, clover dominance returned when nitrogen 11i3 A 558 A
application ceased, reflecting the severe nitrogen deficiency of the soil· t 2124 A
e~nc~n's multiple range test. Values followed by
different letters
p~t~i~-~~lumns
o a i ity.
are significantly different at the 5% level of
 128
129

Table 4 Pasture production {kg OM/ha) on Wharekohe silt loam following

application of 0,34 or 67 kg N/ha as nitrolime (NL) or urea (U) ii) Nitrogen fertiliser use duri renova on
in June or August 1970 (C.During, unpubl .)
Insect pests and summer drought often result in deterioration of
Treatment Date cut nent pastures to such an extent that it becomes desirable to
11.8.70 23.9.70 16.10.70 12.11.70 Total e~m~roduce
1
high producing grass species. Nitrogen fertilisers applied
nhe correct time will increase production following sowing (Steele &
Control 288 et 561 D 1009 AB 1099 A 2957 c ton 1980). A single application of nitrogen two weeks after pasture
34 kg N/ha appl. as NL, 18.6.70 956 B 639 CD 919 B 986 ABC 3500 B wsgence was found to be the most effective when applications of
67 kg N/ha appl. as NL, 18.6.70 1153 AB 617 CD 886 B 1020 ABC 3676 AB . er ogen at sowing,
· · wee k s post emergence were compare d . By
two or six
34 kg N/ha appl. as u, 18.6.70 808 B 706 CD 964 B 964 BC 3442 B trweeks after emergence the seedlings are at a sufficiently advanced
67 kg N/ha appl. as U, 18.6.70 1382 A 751 c 919 B 897 c 3949 A •' wo ge of development to utilise the nitrogen almost immediately, there-
34 kg N/ha appl. as NL, 11. 8. 70 288 c 1177 B 1177 A 986 ABC 3628 AB ~t:e reducing the potential for loss. The effect of a single applicat-
67 kg N/ha appl. as NL, 11. 8. 70 288 c 1143 B 1076 AB 1042 AB 3549 AB .0 of 50 kg N/ha, however, was transitory with no long term effect on
10
34 kg N/ha appl. as u, 11.8.70 288 c 1087 B 1076 AB 1020 ABC 3471 B ~ture dry matter production, botanical composition or persistance of
67 kg N/ha appl. as u, 11.8. 70 288 c 1345 A 1076 AB 998 ABC 3707 AB aass species. Pasture response to subsequent nitrogen applications was
g:milar
5
in both pattern and magnitude to that expected on existing
Main effects astures in the district. Any suppression of clover growth was short
34 kg N/ha 882 B 902 A 1034 A 989 A 3510 B lived when nitrogen application ceased, and clover percentage increased
67 kg N/ha 1268 A 964 A 989 A 989 A 3720 A to a similar level to that of control.
Nitrolime 1054 A 902 B 1015 A 1009 A 3588 A
Urea 1095 A 964 A 1008 A 969 A 3642 A
Early 678 B 222 B 1017 A 3641 A
Late 1188 A 1101 A 986 A 3589 A

tDuncan's multiple range test. Values followed by different letters

within columns are significantly different at the 5% level of
S IN LS
probability
K. Tate
Soil Bureau, DSIR, lower Hutt
Large responses to nitrogen fertilisers applied in August were also
measured by During (Tables 3 and 4), 67 kg N/ha applied as urea more
than doubling control yield in the first cut following application. The striking morphology of podzols, with their often sharp horizon
Urea appeared superior to nitralime in both years, although this was colour differentiation, allows even the most inexperienced observer to
only statistically significant in some cuts. In a more recent experiment recognise their distinctive features. Development of a bleached A2
(Steele et al. 1980a) ammonium sulphate was found to be superior to horizon is explained by the removal by organic mat;~r of the_ Fe and Al
calcium nitrate when 100 or 200 kg N/ha was applied, but not when 50 kg (as metal cations and hydroxyl compounds e.g. AlOW ) as mobile
N/ha was applied. 15 N was used to study transformations of nitrogen complexes. Accumulation in the B horizon of the illuvial organic matter
following application of 100 kg N/ha. More ammonium than nitrate and its complexes with Fe and Al compounds is responsible for the
nitrogen was incorporated into the soil biomass and therefore longer distinctive dark brown to reddish brown colour of this horizon (Peterson
residual effects may be expected from urea or ammonium fertilisers 1976).
compared to nitrate fertilisers. Loss of nitrate from the soil was
rapid and only 33% of the nitrogen applied as calcium nitrate could The central role of organic matter in the podzolisation process has
be accounted for 12 weeks after application, compared with 70% of the long attracted soil scientists with a special interest in the nature and
nitrogen applied as ammonium sulphate. Because of this, the use of functions of soil organic matter. Extrapolation of information about the
nitrate fertilisers should not be considered on Wharekohe soils. chemical nature of illuvial B organic matter to organic matter formed
in situ should however be viewed with caution. The illuvial B organic
Pasture management following fertiliser application should be matter of podzols for example is easily dispersed by a wide range of
carefully controlled to preser\'e the clover component and prevent post reagents including water (Schnitzer &Desjardins 1969; Bruckert 1970)
response depression in growth. Excessive accumulation of dry matter and mineral acid (Daly 1981), reflecting a major chemical difference from
resulting from long spelling intervals should be avoided, and grazing the organic matter of litters and surface mineral horizons wh~ch are
intervals may even need to be less than 21 days (Steele et al. 1980a). usually dispersed by strong alkali or alkaline reagents (Schm. tzer 1978).
The recommended rate of application is between 25 and 50 kg N/ha and
~irect analysis by pyroly?is-gas chromatography of the organic m~tt~r
dependent on the amount of extra dry matter required. ln a number of podzol profiles has recently demonstrated these distinct
Chemical differences (Bracewell &Robertson 1977}.
 130
131

The intense colour of podzol B horizon extracts is also character-

istic. Results from a recent investigation of the chemistry of humic
acids extracted from the illuvial B horizon of a New Zealand northern
sand podzol (Te Kopuru sand - see Table 1 for brief description and some o·4
properties) have indicated that the main chromophoric groups are probably
associated with the humic acids substantially aromatic character (Tate &
Anderson 1978). Gel filtration chromatography of sodium borate extracts
(Tate, 1979) of both A1 and B2h horizons also showed that the illuvial
B organic matter has a much lower molecular size range than that from 0·3
the Ai horizon (Fig.l). A similar trend with depth has also been reported
for a Scottish podzol (Anderson &Hepburn 1977).
r,
Table l Brief description of site and environment of Te Kopuru sand,
with some chemical properties 0·2
,'
I \
I \

N.Z. Classification:
Location:
Northern sand podzol
Mititai, Hobson County, North Auckland
,
I

I
\
\
\
Grid reference: N23/465606 I \
Climate: Semi-tropical 0·1 \
.....
Parent material: Pleistocene sands
Vegetation (present):

Horizon
(past) :
Depth (cm)
Scrub
Kauri (Agathis australis) forest
pH c (%) N (%) C/N
.... .....
... -... _---
Al 0-13 5.4 4.1 0.16 26 - - decreasing molecular size

A21 15-23 5.2 0.9 0.04 22

A22 25-33 5.2 0.3 0.02 15
A23 34-38 5.5 0.1 0.10 10
g.l Gel chromatograms (Sephadex G-75) of sodium borate
8 40-45 5.0 12.7 0.36 35 (0.05 M) extracts of Te Kopuru sand A(----) and
2h
8
2Fe 45-50 5.1 0.16 43
B2h( ) horizons. Vo = exclusion volume.
6.8
BC 53-68 5.1 0.9 0.03 30
instead from scle.rotia of specific fungi, including Cenoaoaaum graniforme
c 80-95 5.2 0.3 0.01 30 (Kumada &Hurst 1967) and Alternaria tenuia (Vol'nova &Murchink 1972).
Factors such as the organic matter content, pH and moisture content are
all probably important in controlling the activity of Pg-producing fungi,
and these factors also are known to influence the Pg content of soils
The gel filtration studies of Te Kopuru sand also revealed the_presence (Sato 1976), further supporting the suggestion that Pg has fungal origins.
of green- and purple-coloured organic fractions in the B2h horizon humus.
The ultraviolet-visible spectrum of the green pigment in alkali was
. Othe~ evidence for.the persistence or even accumulation of fungal
essentially identical to the spectrum reported by Sato &Kumada (1967) pigments in the B2h horizon of Te Kopuru sand was provided by benzene
for p-type humic acids, with the following features: Amax at 275, 430 e~traction of this soil horizon, which revealed the orange-red crystalline
(inflection), 445, 565 and 610 nm (cf. Amax, p-type humic acids = 281, b1anthraquinone, chrysotalunin (Foo &Tate 1977).
430 (inflection), 448, 568 and 613 nm).

The so called Pg fraction is believed to be largely responsible for 0

the characteristic UV-visible spectrum of p-type humic acids of (mainly)
podzolic soils, and this pigment has previously been found in soils in
Japan, U.S.A., the U.S.S.R. and Western Europe (Kumada &Hurst 1967).
Detection of the Pg fraction in a New Zealand podzol has extended its
geographical distribution into the Southern Hemisphere, and suggests
that neither climate nor vegetation is a major factor affecting its
widespread occurrence. It is apparently a derivative of 4,9-dihydroxy-
perylene-3, 10-quinone (Sato &Kumada 1967), and probably originates 0
chrysotalunin
 132
133

It forms purple solutions with alkaline acetone (acetone : 1 M

sodium hydroxide= 1:1) and despite its insolubility in aqueous solvents Some chemical properties and indices of microbial
1
was probably responsible for the faint pink pigment detected during the biomass of some soils from
separation in alkali of the green Pg fraction from this soil.
sock grasslands

This first report of the occurrence of chrystolunin in a Southern

pH Organic c C/N C02 produced Biomass c Mineral ATP
(%) (pmol g - i (µg g- l -N flush (µg g-1
Hemisphere soil is also interesting because its concentration in the B2h soil s- 1 )t soil)§ (µg g-1 soil)++
horizon of the Te Kopuru sand (200 mg/kg soil) is considerably higher ++
than for most of the other soils where this pigment has been detected soil)tt
(McGrath 1972).
6.2 2.6 12 29 930 76 2.2
Levels of 120 mg/kg were, however, reported by McGrath (1972) near 5.6 3.8 15 37 1060 105 3.8
the humus B horizons of two Irish podzols. The concentration of
chrysotalunin in the A1 horizon of Te Kopuru sand was about 25% of that 4.9 4.8 16 35 1230 147 6.2
the B2h horizon, suggesting its movement into the illuvial horizon during 4.7 7.6 20 n.d. n.d. n.d. n.d.
the podzolisation process. It was however absent in Waipoua clay (0-10
cm), a non-podzolic soil also developed under kauri {Agathis australis), 4.4 20.0 28 76 2680 147 10. 7
and since it has not been detected in plant material with other 4.7 5.2 15 32 1310 167 6.7
bianthraquinones (Dutta et al. 1964, Patil et al.1970), chrysotalunin
is most likely a fungal metabolite. The extreme insolubility in water 4.4 8.5 15 52 2780 122 9.0
of this pigment probably helps to explain its accumulation in Te Kopuru 5.0 4.3 15 19 800 67 2.9
sand, where the semi-tropical climate normally favouring rapid organic
matter decomposition is balanced by the moroid conditions existing under
the kauri (Agathis australis) with its strongly acid litter. n.d. = not determined
Results are calculated here and in Table 2 on an oven-dry
Quite apart from their obvious esoteric interest, the occurrence in (105°C) soil weight basis
particular soil horizons of probable fungal pigments like the green Pg
fraction, and chrysotalunin could be useful in biological studies of Soil classification (Molloy & Blakemore 1974): Conroy shallow
podzols and podzolisation. Their detection may provide useful diagnostic sandy loam, brown-grey earth; Tima silt loam, southern yellow-
criteria for the presence of particular soil fungi, for example, and an grey earth; Tawhiti silt loam, upland yellow-brown earth;
indication of their probable microenvironments. Lammerlaw silt loam and Maungatua humic silt loam, podzolised
upland yellow-brown earths; Carrick fine sandy loam, high country
Te Kopuru sand is undoubtedly one of the richest sources of unusual yellow-brown earth; McKerrow fine sandy loam, podzolised high
soil natural products so far investigated anywhere. country yellow-brown earth; Obelisk fine sandy loam, 'alpine'
yellow-brown earth.
0
Determined at 2s c in Biometer flasks over the period when the
rate of CO production was most constant.
§ Determinations based on the method of Jenkinson &Powlson (1976).
tt Determinations based on the method of Ayanaba et ai. (1976).
CHANGES IN SOIL ORGANIC MATTER WITH INCREASING SOIL ++
++ Determined according to Jenkinson &Oades (1979).
DEVELOPMENT IN THREE PODZOLISED SOILS FROM A
CLIMOSEQUENCE IN TUSSOCK GRASSLANDS
All samples of the podzolised soils were strongly to extremely acid,
With medium to high contents of organic C, and medium to very high
D.J. Ross & L.F. Molloy C/N ratios. An account is given here of microbial and respiratory
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt activities, enzyme activities, chemical composition of the soil "light"
and "heavy" fractions, nitrogen mineralising activity, and of rates of
Over recent years, chemical and biochemical investigations have substrate decomposition at the sites.
been made at Soil Bureau of the organic matter in a climosequence of
soils in tussock grasslands. The soils examined included three Microbial activities
podzolised soils, Lammerlaw silt loam and Maungatua hwnic silt loam
from the Otago uplands, and McKerrow fine sandy loam from the slopes One of the best means of assessing the overall microbial activity
of Mt Armstrong, near Haast Pass. Descriptions of the sites and soil soil is to measure its respiratory activity. All three podzolised
profiles are given by Molloy &Blakemore (1974). A summary of some 50ils had high oxygen uptakes, compared with other soils of the climo-
chemical properties of topsoil samples (0-8 cm deep) is presented in sequence. They also had the highest dehydrogenase activity, which is
Table 1. another index of respiratory metabolism (Ross et ai. 1975). Confirmation
 134
135

of potentially high microbial activity in Maungatua and McKerrow soils

(Lammerlaw was not examined) has been provided by measurements of carbon h mical composition of the 1
light 1 and 'heavy 0
dioxide production and biochemical indices of microbial biomass (Ross r!ctions of the soils
et aZ. 1980). Values for these and other soils are given in Table 1.
All measurements, except mineral-N flush, were significantly highest The soils were mechanically separated into a 'light f t" ,
in the Maungatua and McKerrow samples. · 1 d · . rac ion
decomp~sintglp a~t an )mi(crobial debris) and a residual 'heavy fraction'
predominan ydminera 1 Molloy ~ Spe~r 1977). Of the 3 podzolised soils
Although respiratory activity was undoubtedly related positively and ungatua stan s out because of its high level of light fract· '
significantly to the amount of organic matter in the soils of the sequence, {Table 3); this reflects the high level of organic matter in ~~~s soil.
the relationship was not directly proportional. This was shown clearly
when results were calculated on an organic C basis. Values for respiratory Table 3 Yield of ligh~ fr~ction, and total carbohydrate
activity were then generally lowest in the podzolised soils, suggesting content of so1l light and heavy fractions from
that much of their organic matter was in a rather inert state (Ross et aZ. some soils from tussock grasslands
1975).
Yield of ash- Total Total
Enzyme activities Soil free light carbohydrate carbohydrate
fraction* in light fraction!
All biochemical processes are mediated by enzymes, and their activity in heavy fraction!
(% soil) (% d. w.)
in soil is essential for the cycling of plant nutrients. Soil enzyme (% d .w.)
activities depend to some extent on the contribution of living organisms,
but often to a far greater extent on "free" enzymes stabilised by organic Conroy 1. 9 16.8 0.5
and inorganic soil constituents. Enzymes studied in the 3 soils included Cluden 0.7 26.0 0.5
those by hydrolysing carbohydrates from plant material and those mineral- Tima 2.3 10.9 0.9
ising organic nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur compounds. A summary of Tawhiti 1. 7 16.7 1.4
some of the data is given in Table 2. Here again, highest activities . Lammerlaw 2.6 13.1 1.5
were generally found in the podzolised soils. The correlations of enzyme Maungatua 31. 7 7.8 1.8
activities with soil organic C and total N contents were, in fact, Carrick 1.5 14.3 1.5
generally greater than were those with any other soil or environmental McKerrow 2.6 18.0 2.5
properties (Ross 1975, unpubl. data; Speir 1977). In contrast to the other Obelisk 5.2 19.3 1.0
enzyme activities, hemicellulase activity was not consistently related to
the content of soil organic matter. Hemicellulase activity was, however, : From Molloy &Speir 1977
very variable in some of the soils at different sampling times, and it may + From Molloy et al. 1977
have been influenced appreciably by the amount of partly decomposed plant
debris present (Ross &Speir 1979).
Table 2 Some enzyme activities of some soils from Unlike the other soil light fractions, Maungatua light fraction was
tussock grasslands strongly humif~ed with low levels of structural carbohydrates and no
clearly recognisable plant fragments (Molloy & Speir 1977).
Soil Enzyme activity (pmol product formed g- 1 soil s- 1 )
Invertase Amylase Cellulase Hemicell- Urease Phosphat- Sulpha- c It is in.the le~s dyna~ic soil heavy fraction, however, that the
t + § ulase § tt ase tt tase tt _leares~ chem~cal evidence is found for organic matter differences with
+ ~~creas~ng soil development. Although the light fraction was much
Conroy 2050 95 9 93 320 1340 42 cher in carbohydrate than the heavy fraction it was only a minor
Tima 3600 280 12 223 470 2050 150 ~omponen~ of all soils except Maungatua (Table,3). The bulk of the
Tawhiti 6530 230 16 58 680 1650 240 Bhole soil carbohydrate was, therefore, found in the heavy fraction.
Maungatua 8560 380 27 84 1220 2960 710 .ecause the heavy fraction is the more stable portion of the soil
Carrick 5900 130 9 68 720 1630 480 it should best reflect the climatic variables throughout the soil'
Mc Ker row 8240 270 20 98 950 2290 640 sequence. There was, in fact, a close relationship between the total
Obelisk 4070 180 9 59 520 1450 140 ~arbohydrate contents of the heavy fraction in different soils and the
t~!re~ of soil development (Molloy et ~i. 1977). As shown in Table 3,
Results are mean values of various sampling times given in t Ross highest contents of carbohydrates in the heavy fraction were in the
(unpubl. data), t Ross (1975), §Ross &Speir (1979), and tt Speir most developed soils (such as the podzolised soils Lammerlaw Maungatua
(1977). handd McKerrow) ~· converse l y, t he lowest contents of heavy fraction
' carbo-
All activities were determined in buffers, except for invertase y rate were in the weakly developed soils (such as Conroy and Cluden).
activity which was determined in water. (When invertase was
determined in buffer (Ross 1975), no clear relationship with soil Rates of breakdown of organic substrates
organic C content was evident) .
Techniques that have been used to assess the decomposition rate of
Plant litter and chemical components at the climosequence sites include:
 136
137

weight losses from litter bags (containing litter of_t~e.snow tussock,

(Chionochloa rigida), estimates of litter enzyme activities after
exposure periods of 1 and 2 years, and wei~ht ~osses of ce~lulose pHYSI I ING.1 MI RALOGY MI
squares exposed on the soil surface or buried in the t~psoil (Molloy
et al. 1978a; Ross & Speir 1978; Ross et al. 1978; Speir & Ross 1978).
In all of these studies, the podzolised soils were indistinguishable
from other soils of the sequence. However, cellulose and hemicellulose
E pHYS I CAL PRO IES OF PODZO FROM NORTH AUCKLAND
incorporated in kaolinite pellets and buried at 5 cm soil de~th were
more slowly decomposed in McKerrow soil than in the other soils (Molloy M.W. Gradwell
et al. 1978b); this did not apply to the protein zein when buried Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
similarly (Ross &Cairns 1978b) .

Nitrogen mineralisation Apart from coarse-textured podzols formed on coastal sands the
zols of North Auckland are best seen, physically, as modifications
The three podzolised soils all produced moderate net amounts of the northern yellow-brown earths soil group. Northern. podzols have
mineral-nitrogen from soil organic N on incubation in the laboratory jor properties in common with the northern yellow-brown earths - much
(Ross &McNeilly 1975). This mineral-N was composed mainly of ammo~i~m-N ay in the profiles, rather poor drainage and a reasonable tolerance
and, as with Carrick soil (a high country yellow-brown earth), negligible drought, as observed in the field. A recognised intermediate set
amounts of nitrate-N were produced. From these results, and those of a soils, the podzolised yellow-brown earths, connects the two groups.
temperature study (Ross &Bridger 1978), it appears:that ammoniu~-N would
be the form of N mainly available for plant growth in the podzolised The most obvious visible profile feature that distinguishes the
soils in the field. dzols is a grey or white Az horizon. In some cases this includes a
ry hard white siliceous layer. Iron and humus pans are found in the
Organic matter accumulation per B horizons of some podzols.
Why has organic matter accumulated in these podzol~s~d.soils whe~ The key physical property corresponding to the bleached A2 horizons
their microbial and respiratory activities, and the activities of various s a marked coarseness of texture, by regional standards, in the A
enzymes, are potentially high? No simple answer can be given. Low rizons of podzols. Mean silt and clay contents for five podzols and
temperatures can limit the breakdown of soil organic matter because of dzolised yellow-brown earths are set out in Table 1.
the marked drop in rates of respiratory activit6, and of some enzyme
activities, that occur as conditions approach 0 C (Ross 1978; Ross & Clay and silt contents of northern soils
Cairns 1978a). However, environmental temperatures would not appear (percent, w/w, of whole soil)
to be the major factor limiting breakdown at the podzolised sites, as
compared with some other sites of the sequence; the mean annual temper-
ature at the McKerrow site was, in fact, 7.5°C (Molloy &Blakemore 1974). Soils Silt content Clay content
Local factors that could be responsible for the accumulation of organic
matter at the Maungatua site have been considered by Molloy &Speir (1977) Podzols 46
and include the nature of the precipitation and impeded drainage. 16
Yellow-brown earths 33 37
Generally, at all of the podzolised sites, high acidity would have Podzols 31 55
some inhibitory effect on biochemical processes, as could the high C/N Yellow-brown earths 31 53
ratios at the Lammerlaw and Maungatua sites. As indicated in the
respiratory results, the proportion of readily degraded to more-resis~ant
organic matter was lower in the podzolised soils than in the other soils
of the sequence. Even though microbial biomass was highest in the Figures for ten northern yellow-brown earths are given for comparison.
podzolised soils, the ability of the micro-organisms to function under e upper part of the table shows that in the A horizon the podzols
field conditions is obviously far from optimal. contain much more silt and less clay than the yellow-brown earths;
~he lower part shows that the B horizons of the two soil groups are
In these podzolised soils, the high enzyme levels could also be indistinguishable in texture.
mainlv a corollarv of the high contents of organic matter, and not
neces~arily be in~icative of high rates of biochemical activity. Rather, Gradwell (1968) has referred to a number of workers in Europe and
the high l~vels may largely result from the stabilising effect of soil
organic constituents. In the field, the actual expression of the enzyme
~merica who have noted that the capacity to store plant-available water
activities could be severely limited by the availability of appropriate
~ 0 .greatest in medium textured soils or soils containing much silt.
8

11s containing more clay store less water. On this basis the A
substrates and by other unfavourable factors.
hortzons of the northern podzols would be expected. to store more
~ailable water than the corresponding horizons of the northern yellow-
rown earths. Determinations of available-water capacity, taken as the
~ter released between tensions of 0.2 and 15.0 bar, have verified this
 138
139

prediction. Table 2 gives mean values of available-water capacity for

the soils that composed Table 1. It can be seen from Table 2 that the Some physical properties of three profiles of northern podzols
high available-water capacities of the A horizons of podzols are
compensated for by low capacities in the podzolic B horizons. Allowing
for the greater thickness of the B horizons the overall result is of Horizon Dry bulk density Available-water Air capacity
similar storage capacities in the profiles of the two soil groups; the (g/cm 3 ) capacity (percent,v/v)
podzols, however, store the water closer to the surface than the yellow- (percent, v/v)
brown earths.

Table 2 Available-water capacities of northern soils (a) A 1.07 35.6 7.1

If 1
(percent, v/v, of soil) 1.41 23.l 10.8
A 1. 33 9.9 10.7
"2 1. 20 11. 6 4.6
Podzols Yellow-brown earths B 1. 05 11.1 8.3

A horizons 29.7 22.9

B " 8.6 11. 8 (b) A21 1. 01 34.7 13.7
A22 1. 76 15.9 1.8
A23 1.42 7.9 4.6
B 1. 30 8.3 5.2
"21 1. 27 10.9 4.6
It is evident from Table 1 that the low available-water capacities c 1.35 9.6 4.6
of the B horizons of the podzols cannot be explained from textural
considerations. Gradwell (1971-Fig.2b) has shown that the podzolic
B horizons concerned were mostly denser than the B horizons of the Al 1.19 33.4 10.3
northern yellow-brown earths. In soil as dense as these horizons, 1.47 20.0
A22 18.6
available-water capacities are apt to be limited by the space available 2.12 15.6
A23 2.6
in the soil for storing the water. The greater densities of the podzolic B 1. 53 16.5
1fe 16.1
B horizons could, therefore, be the cause of their lesser available- 8 1.50 6.4
22 4.7
water capacities, compared with those of the B horizons of the yellow-
brown earths .

It was mentioned above that the northern podzols are a rather diverse
group in respect of certain profile features. The presence or absence
of siliceous layers or of iron and humus pans may be reflected in
physical measurements on profiles. Table 3 presents some results for
three profiles, the first one of which contains neither siliceous layers CORROSION IN PODZOLS
nor ironpans, the second a hard siliceous layer (A2 2 ) and the third both
a siliceous layer (A23) and an iron-humus pan (Blfe). The siliceous
layers are seen to be exceptionally dense and to contain less air than H.R. Penhale
any other horizon in the tables, but their available-water capacities Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
are not particularly small. Rooting through these hard layers was,
however, sparse which could slow the uptake of water from them. The
roots that penetrated proliferated in the softer horizons underneath. t . Wharekohe silt l~am is the only podzol in which corrosion field
The iron-humus pan had an exceptionally large content of air for the rials have been carried out. Two strongly podzolised soils, Kara
depth at which it occurred and it did not impede roots. strong~y gleyed loam and Mangatawhiri fine sandy loam are also discussed.
Corrosion rates are shown in Table 1.

The rate of corrosion in acid soils depends critically on the

level of oxygen. Oxygen is low in these soils because of the slow
~r~inage and consequent high moisture content at 1 m - the depth of bur.ial.
~is explains the low corrosion rate recorded on these samples buried in
~it~. Corrosion rates may be much higher if the soils are artificially
rained and hence aerated, as often happens when pipelines are laid.
 140
141

NO New Zealand field trials have been made, but overseas work
. ates that copper and lead are much more resistant than mild steel
5
1
~il corrosion (perhaps by a factor of ten). The acid and somewhat
ing conditions make the improvement not quite as good as in the
dtlC cOJnmon oxidising soils. In New Zealand the use of lead (and
reinium) underground is almost entirely confined to cable sheaths and
~ective coatings are always used.
Asbestos-cement
Soils with groundwaters that are high in aggressive carbon. dioxide
b.() corrosive to cement products, especially if there is ready circulation
-l< i:::::
...:.:: b.O·r-1 :;: :;: :;: groundwater such as is likely in these soils after they have been
u i::::: .µ 0 0 0
Cll
.µ
·r-1 Cll
.µ 0:::
....:i rl rl dified by trenching and drainage .
.µ .µ

-
ell ·r-1 ,.-..
0... !-I
+> >... U")
s:::
4-1
0
N
otj"
""
00 U")

~
Q)
E Q) rl
Q) .µ '-' ·r-1
u ell 0
!-I b.O Vl
Vl
0
i:::::
·r-1 Vl
·r-1
RMATI IN THE E HORI s A OF LS
+> rl
i::::: .µ
0 Cll ..c:
Vl .µ
Q) Q) ·r-1 0:::
..Cl Q) .µ
Vl
rtl
.µQ.Jellr-.
Vl b.O !-I !-!
i::::
.,..; A.W. Young &A.S. Campbell
"CJ
Cll .µ >...
"di-ta.i-......
00
.-I
N
N Vl Soil Science Department, Lincoln lege
s::: rla.ii:::::s Q)
rl
rtl ·r-1 :> Q) ;::l.
Q) Vl
~ <r; 0.. '-'
ftro
+> .-- Vl The bleached E (A 2 ) horizons of many podzols contain clay minerals
(J) ·.-
S- 0
u Vl 0 ich expand to 1.8 nm with Mg saturation and glycerol salvation. For
s:::
0-0
i:::: veral years these smectite (Brindley &Pedro 1975) clays have been
u Q) discriminately referred to as montmorillonite, although recently it
r-r-
. ·.-
Vl
>...
rl s been recognised that they correspond more closely to the beidellite
Q) 0
QJ N 0
i:::: rnber of the montmorillonite-beidellite series (Ross &Mortland 1966;
+>"CJ
Vl 0 "CJ Q) kolva et al. 1971; Campbell 1975). They are regarded as products of a
.µ
"CJ
0. Q)
H ell irnple transformation series involving
r- >, rl Q) s
•r- r-- 0 ..c: .,..;
.µ .µ
E 01
s:::
N
"CJ ro (l) Vl Mica Vermiculite - - - - - - - - ' j Smectite
S- 0 0 Q) H (l)
0 S- 0.. :;: ::l
+> Vl Vl
4-
Vl i:::: >... 0 .,..; d have thus been described as "transformation smectites" (Robert 1973)
Vl H rl 0.. o distinguish them from counterparts formed by neogenesis.
(J) "CJ Q) b.() >< Vl
+> s::: ..c:
.µ
i::::
0
(l) (l)
Vl
rtl <O
S- H H H (l)
Examination of the clay mineralogy of a catena of podzolised yellow-
Vl 0 .µ ro ..c:
s::: ...- z Vl (l)
>...
.µ
i:::: rown earth soils belonging to the Katrine set located in the upper
00 (l)
•r- N
Vl "CJ 0 H imakariri River catchment in Canterbury has yielded data which illust-
00 @ N ro ates several stages in the transformation of mica towards smectite in
S- 0. 0..
S- 0 i:::: ature. The catena occurs in a small, moraine and loess mantled ice-cut
o s::: rl 0 i::::
u ...... .,..;
"CJ ck basin. Present vegetation is dominated by mountain beech forest
(l)
(l)
Vl .µ Nothofagus soZandri var cZiffortioides) with a sparse understorey
ell ro f mountain toa toa, (PhyZZocZadus aZpinus). Shallow, well-drained iron-
..0 H
(J)
r-
Q)
..c: lllnus podzols on the summit position of slopes grade through progressively
..Q 0 -l< +- re gleyed podzol soils to a raised moor peat in the depression. (Fig.1).
rtl ...:.::
I- Q)
H
ell Five soils representing the main slope and drainage members of the
§ Catena were sampled and subjected to analysis by a wide range of chemical
~d instrumental techniques. Hereafter, they are referred to as Summit,
ackslope, Footslope, Lower Footslope and Toeslope profiles. Portions of
 143
142

<0·2µm 0·2-2µm

44m Summit profile

2 Backslope profile
3 Footslope profile
4 Lower footslope profile
5 Toeslope profile

Summit

Backslope

Fig.l Transverse section across catena showing sampling sites

the E horizons from each soil were treated with hydrogen peroxide and
citrate-dithionite-bicarbonate (Mehra &Jackson 1960) prior to being
separated into fine (<0.2 µm) and coarse (0.2-2 µm) clay fractions by
Footslope
sedimentation. Selected data from the analyses of these fractions are
presented below.

X-RAY DIFFRACTION ANALYSIS

Diffractograms for Mg saturated and glycerol solvated fine and
coarse clays are presented in Fig.2. Peaks at 2.7, 1.8 and 1.4 nm Lower
were assigned to interstratified mica-smectite, smectite, and vermiculite Footslope
respectively. Some uncertainty exists as to whether broad 1.4 nm peaks
should not more properly be designated as (002) reflections of the inter-
stratified clays. The 0. 9-1. 0 nm peak present in most diffractograms
corresponds to the composite (001) / (002) reflection for mica and smectite
respectively. The exact position of this peak can be used to estimate
the proportions of these two minerals in a two-component mixture (MacEwan
et al. 1961; Ruiz Amil et al. 1967). Specimens saturated with K+ were
also examined to confirm the absence of chlorite and 2:1-2:2 intergrade Toeslope
clays.
1·0 1·4 2·8 1·0
Both clay fractions show a marked change from dominance by smectite 1·8
in the Summit profile, to dominance by vermiculite in the Toeslope d(nm)
profile. Mixtures containing various proportions of smectite, inter-
stratified mica-smectite and vermiculite form a range of intermediates
between these two extremes. The coarse clays appear to be less altered Fig. 2 Mg ++ saturated and glycerol solvated fine (<0.2 µm)
than the corresponding fine clays as would be expected from their larger and coarse (0.2-2 µm) clays of the E horizons
particle size and the effect that this would have on weathering.
 144 145

Quantitative estimates of the various constituent clay minerals in 2: Partial Formulae for Dioctahedral Smectites
each fraction were hampered by the presence of interstratified clays and
the general complexity of the mixtures. In spite of this however,
overall trends are clearly recognisable. Mica appears to weather through
an intermediate vermiculite stage to smectite, as is generally accepted.
The presence of regularly interstratified mica-smectite combinations, Tetrahedral Exchg.
Coordination Octahedral Coordination
particularly in less weathered fractions, supports the hypothesis Ca ion
proposed by Jackson et aZ. (1952) and elaborated by Kodama &Brydon (1968),
that preferential weathering planes exist in micas. Al

CHEMICAL ANALYSES
The elemental composition of the <0.2 µm clay fraction of the Summit 3.61 0.39 1.72 0. 11 0.20 2.03 0.47
E horizon was obtained following solution of the sample by the separate 3,55 0.45 1. 71 0. 11 0.20 2.02 0.59
alkali fusion and acid digestion procedures outlined by Jackson (1958).
The CEC of the same clay fra~tion was determined using the method of trnor i 1 lon i tes
Roth et al. (1969) and its K -fixation capacity estimated by the method
of Ross (1971), modified to include two cycles of drying at 70°c. .Ros 5 & Mort l and ( 1966) 3,95 0.05 1.53 0. 16 0. 2.02 0.32
Results are presented in Table 1, and calculated structural formulae .sawhney & Jackson
together with selected formulae from the literature are shown in Table 2. (1958) 3,93 0.07 1. 26 o.43 0.29 1.98 0.34

Table 1: Percentage Chemical Composition, Cation Exchange Capacity and Mortland (1966) 3.55 o.45 1.62 o. 18 0.28 2.08 0.49
Greene-Ke] ly
K+-fixation value for<. 0.2 fm Clay of Summit E Horizon. ( 1962) 3.48 0.52 1.98 0.02 0.01 2.01 0.46

Si0 54.8
2
A1 o
2 3
28.3
3: Interlayer Cations and Charge Characteristics of Micaceous
Fe o 2. 21 Clay Minerals.
2 3
Ti0 1.86 C .E.C.: 124 me 100 g -l
2
CaO 0.00
Interlayer Cations Unit Cell
MgO 2.01 Charge;'<
K+ - f.1xat1on:
. _1
K0 1. 18
2 82.1 me 100 g Mica K+ 1.0 - 0.8
Na
2
o 3.84 Vermiculite Ca++, Mg++, Al 3+, H+ o.8 - o.6
+H o 7.00 Smee t i te;'n'' H+, Al 3+ < 0.6
2
101 . 03
After Walker (1958)
** Transformation Smectites of Podzols.
Both the X-ray data and the chemical analysis suggested minor
amounts (~10%) of mica contamination in the sample. Structural formulae
were accordingly calculated both with and without correction for this
component (Jackson 1956), and the former assumed to represent the formula
of the true smectite. rahedral substitution of Al for Si is relatively high for the smectite
P,
e . and more typical of beidellite than montmorillonite (Table 3). Indeed •
The dominance of Al in the octahedral layer, along with correspond- is a remarkable correspondence between the "uncorrected" formula and
ingly low amounts of Fe and Mg, endorse the aluminious, dioctahedral derived by Ross & Mortland (1966) for a "soil beidellite" obtained
character of the clay suggested by (060) reflections at 0.149 nm on X-ray s~/he <O. 2 µm fraction of the E horizon of a sand podzol in Michigan,
diffractograms.
 146
147

Agreement between calculated and measured CEC values falls well

~ile it i~ customary to represent these weathering transformations
within the 20% margin often observed (Mering 1975). Both values are
as being reversible~ th~ degree to which they are so will undoubtedly
somewhat higher than those normally attributed to soil smectites depend on the re~ative ~mportance of the two factors mentioned above
(~110 me 100 mg- 1 - Borchardt 1977), occupying a position intermediate
in char~e reducti~n. Simple rea~tim:s involving protons are likely to
between smectites and vermiculite. Calculations based on the "corrected" be readily reversible, but the likelihood of resubstitution of Al · t
structural formula indicate that some 83% of the charge in the smectite
under study arises from substitution of Al for Si in the tetrahedral t etrahedral sheets
. is remote at normal
- soil temperatures and pressures.
in °
After an extensive study of the relationships between vegetation and
layers. podzol o~currence, Campbell (1975) concluded that the smectite present
in E.hor~zons close to trees and decaying stumps could revert to
Fixation of K+ is a phenomenon commonly associated with smectites vermiculite once_ the source of soluble organic acids is removed.
found in podzols. When samples of the above clay were saturated with such an observation favours proton exchange as the main source of
1 M KCl and subj~cted to two cycles of drying at 70°C, 66% of the sites charge fluctuations involved in transformations between these two clay
were able to retain K+ against subsequent displacement by 1 M NH4Cl. minerals.

Weir &Greene-Kelly (1962) recommended that the term beidellite be The presence. of the aluminous smectite beidellite in the E horizons
used for: of many ~odzols might suggest it to be thermodynamically stable in the
acid environment of these horizons. However, soil solution analyses
(i) the aluminium-rich members of the dioctahedral montmorillonite- by Coen and Arnold (1972) and in this study (Table 4) indicate that this
beidellite series is not the case.
(ii) members in this sequence with more than 50% of their lattice
charge arising from tetrahedral substitutions, and Table 4: Equilibrium and Saturation Paste Ion Concentrations
~iii) ideally, only those naturally occurring specimens free of
non-exchangeable potassium.
If it is assumed that the small amount of potassium present in the
clay studied is associated with residual muscovite, the above data all
SWJl ort its classification as beidellite. pH- Si (OH)

WEATHERING REACTIONS -1 2+ M 2+ -1
pH )J9 g p Mg 1
2P 9 }-19 g pSi (OH)
4
Clay minerals in the continuous series
Mica~~~~~~~~~'' Vermiculite~~~~~~~~~/ Smectite f\
Equ i 1. So 1..-
are generally differentiated on the basis of their interlayer cations
and the magnitude of the layer charge (Table 3). Following the initial Summit E < 0. 2 Jlm 7. 9.20 3.42 5.79 44. 1 3,34
process of mica opening, the interlayer cation population is determined
Foots lope E <. 0. 2 flm 7. 2. 3,96 5.52
largely by the composition of the soil solution. Layer charge is, 25.5 3.58
however, governed by more complex variables. The oxidation states of
Fe, the presence of monovalent cations in vacant octahedral sites, Soi 1 Sol.0
protonation reactions, the degree of Al substitution for Si in the Summit E 4 .10 1.23 3.29 2.45 20.2
tetrahedral sheet and Mg for Al in the octahedral sheet, are all factors 3.68
that may be involved (Fanning &Keramidas 1977). Foots lope E 4. 10 1, 33 3.26 2.47 18.0 3.
From the CEC of a vermiculite obtained by removing hydroxy-Al inter-
layers from a 2:1-2:2 intergrade clay in the Summit B horizon, it
appears that there is a charge reduction of at least 45 me 100 g- 1 in Ion concentrations for two E horizon clays obtained after equilibration
the transformation of vermiculite to smectite in these soils. In the dist~lled.water for 360 days, lay within the stability field of
case of aluminious, dioctahedral clay minerals such as those present in montmorillonite when plotted on the phase diagram of Weaver et al.
the study it is probable that this reduction is effected by proton (1971) (Fig.3). In contrast, ion concentrations obtained from saturated
absorption and preferential removal of Al from the tetrahedral sheet. paste extracts of corresponding soil horizons fell within the kaolinite
The very acid, complexing environment in podzol E horizons produced by sta~ilit~ region,.indi~ating gross undersaturation in Mg++ for mont-
an abundant supply of water-soluble organic acids is predisposed to both morillonite or beidellite stability. As Kittrick (1973) noted for soil
these mechanisms. Certainly, if it is assumed that the original mica Vermiculite, it is clear that these derivatives of mica are unstable in
had an ideal Al:Si ratio of 1:3 in the tetrahedral sheet (Bradley &Grimm their soil environment, and that their persistence is more a function
1961), it is evident from the formula in Table 3 that a substantial loss of inherited structural characteristics and the unique way in which mica
of Al relative to Si has occurred from this sheet in the course of degrades during weathering than any conditions in the al.tering medium.
weathering.
 148 149

Summit E
• <0·2µ.m GY OF IS
RY PODZOLIS ILS
Toeslope E
<0·2 µ.m
G.J. Churchman
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
5·0

The effects of podzolisation on clay mineralogy can be deduced

rom studies of the clay mineralogies of soils in weathering sequences
mprising podzolised soils as end members. The results of studies
ich have been carried out on four sequences of this kind in Canterbury,
rth Otago and Central Otago are presented here and compared in order
0 give an indication of some mineralogical effects of podzolisation.

4·0 Kaolinite
Cl)
.....
.<ii
+ Some environmental features of the soils are given in Table 1.
.0
N
0) .0 ta are from Morris (1965), Molloy & Blakemore (1974), Wilde (1974),
~ ~ urchman (1980) and Mr K.R. Dreaver, Soil Bureau (pers.comm.). Data

-
0. the non-podzolised soils are shown in italics.
N
y-
Each sequence of soils was formed on one type of parent rock,
:r: anging from greywacke in Canterbury through very weakly argillised
0. 3·0 emi-schist in North Otago to chlorite subzone 4 schist in Central Otago.
he North Otago sequence and one of the Central Otago sequences are

..
Toeslope E soil

· Summit E soil
climosequences where the vegetation is tussock grassland throughout.
ln addition a soil under beech forest in Central Otago (Haast soil) is
compared with the McKerrow soil under tussock grassland to show the
effect of the further podzolisation brought about by the change from
tussock grassland to beech forest. The Canterbury sequence also
consists of a soil under tussock grassland (Puketeraki) and one under
beech forest (Bealey), with the change resulting in some podzolisation.
2·0
The Central Otago sites encompass a very large area, ranging from
the Maungatua soil site near the east coast to the McKerrow and Haast
soil sites on the Main Divide. The North Otago sequence is formed on
ne hillside at the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries Hill Country
~esearch Station at Tara Hills while the Canterbury sequence is
Similarly found on one hillside in the Camp Stream catchment on the
Craigieburn Range.

5·0 4·0 3·0

Clay mineTalogy was determined on clay fractions (<2 µm) of
pSi(OH)4 Selected horizons of the soils by the X-ray diffraction methods described
by Churchman (1978, 1980) except that peak heights rather than peak
areas were determined for the North Otago soils. In order to achieve
Fig.3 Stability relations of clay phases in the MgO- U~iformity in the presentation of results, abundances of minerals are
Al203-Si02-H20 system given in ranges rather than in percentages, which are however given by
Churchman (1978, 1980) for the Central Otago and Canterbury soils.
 Table 1 Soils and their environments
Soil New Zealand Parent Predominant Altitude Mean annual Mean annual Location Sequence*
genetic rock vegetation (m) precipitation temperature
classification
(mm) (oC)
Conroy shallow Brown-grey earth Schist Introduced pasture
silt loam 300 350 9.0 Central
+ tussock grass- cl
land Ota go
Cluden silt loam Southern yellow-
grey earth
II II
450 600 8.0 If ,,
Tima silt loam II II II
Tawhiti silt loam 700 700 7.0 II II
Upland yellow- II
Tussock grassland 900 ,,
brown earth 850 5.5 II

Carrick fine candy Highcountry ,,

loam yellow-brown
II
1300 1300 4.0 II ,,
earth
Obelisk fine sandy 'Alpine' yellow- ,, Tussock grassland ,,
loam 1550 1600 0.5 II
brown earth + alpine plants
Maungatua humic Podzolised upland "
silt loam yellow-brown " 870 1400 5.5 " "
earth
McKerrow fine Podzolised high .....
sandy loam country yellow-
" " 1300 5000 7.0 " Vl
cl' v 1 0
brown earth
Haast silt loam Podzolised yellow- " Beech forest 1200 II II
brown earth " v1
f>uketeraki fine High country Greywacke Tussock grassland 1400
sandy loam 1500 7.5 Canterbury
yellow-brown v2
earth
Bealey stony silt Podzolised high
loam " Beech forest 1300 "
country yellow- " II
"
brown earth
Killermont hill soil Up land yellow- Semi- Tussock grassland 500 530 9.0
grey earth schis t North Otago c2
BeI'l.Jen hill soil
Quailburn hill aoil
II II
,, II
900 610 7.5 ,, II
Up land ye Uow- II
1100 640 5.5 ,, II
brown ,,earth
Kirkliston gritty II 11
silt loam 1300 660 5.0 II II

Otamatapaio peatv High country pod-

fine san:'· " " 1500 710 3.5
zo l ised yellow-
brown earth
" "
-+ er PJ - EI ?<I
1-1
?<l,-

<
(J)
H
;::J
2:::
Ill [i :;t:I
;;-:: g:1
,_,
~I
L'
'"'i () '< o-3
s c..... ...... )> (J'.J
';>::)
'"O o-j d I-Ti (\)
II
p..::;
(J) ()
:i>
H
0
z z
...., 0'"i "'
,,;. :;i::.
(/) ..... 0 I-' z
<
(!) (/)
c
p..
::::0
ro
1-Q
0
rt CJ

I
'J)
'"'i 0
sI-'·(!)
s <
(I)
1
1--' f-' h.l f-' 1--' f-' f-' f-' 1--' f-' I-' f-'
t;:l :i> n
n o:i :i> :i> n :i> n :i> n :i> n >jo:i :i> o:i :i::--......... t;:l o:i ' N
I t;:l ......._ (7q
o:i :i>
I-' N
>
1--' VJ
o:i o:i:i>:i::-·n:i>o:i o:i n o:i o:i ::r:
--'
OJ
rt
p..
N
,....
0
0
t-h
........
::z:
-I
() (J) N f-' f-' f-' ,_. n :i> n :i> :i> n :i> n :i> 0
c..... < '"'i
:::r :i> f-' N f-' I -...._ f-' f-' I-' f-' I-' '"'i
-'•
< I-'· rt
r'1
::::0
(J) s
N 1-'h :i>
(I)
!
. ~
I-'· ro VI ::r' -0
I-'• '"'i I-'· N (j) (j) ::::0
M S 0 0 OJ p.. r'1
(J) I-'· c
..... ::; r:::r >< -I
()
+ + +, c: 'J) I ):::>
c I-'· ++++1++++++++11 +1++11 11+1 I + +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + + 3'. ::! 0 '"'i -I
.......
..... rt
t-'· (I)
+ + + + + + + + + + I I
+ + + + + +
,..-.. f-'•
:3::: ()
0..
OJ ._....,..
I-'· Ill
0
M ...__, Ill ::! 'J) ::z:
(!> (') c... (./)
n ro p; t-'·
,.-.., ::r
x(1)
I I+ I
I Cl>-'
...__, 0
Vl

0
'"'i 1-1)
(!> 1-1)
H,
'< + + 1· I I+ I 1-i -+i (J) Ill
I-'· ;::: ()
rt n () rt f-'
() ..... f-'·
I + + + I OJ 0 0
(J1
f-'
+ + ! ::t: 1--' H .J '< 'J) ;:::
+ + + I I + I + + + + + +I· I+ 2: '.~ ~ =' I (!)

:i> '"O :i>

c:r '"'i c:r <
(!)
I· I I I I + + I + + I + + + 0.. '<
I-'·
() 1-i (l>
Ill 0 >-:
rt
()
~
+<"
(l>'
'1
....
3
::!
c...
I-'· p;
p;
;:::
c C s. ro ;::: .....
(/)
(J)
(!)
VI
:::i (!) 0..
M::IPJPJ
::;i
'"'i
'<
I 'J)
0
c...
I

n""
::r (!)
• -r -s
OJ er vi
0
y

(j)

0
M ::I O"'
'"'i,.......
MC
·::I
I I+ I + I + I t I I I 11 ...... c...
0
.., (JQ
0
Vl x
(1)
VI
'J)

p;
() ,....... 0.. >-'· (D ::! '"'i
'"'i • () Ill I rt ;:::: (1)
Ill f-'•::;
I (l> f-'• (')
n
'"'i 0 rt
I
.j::.. (JQ
(J) I 0
~I,...-..
r-..00\("l + + +
+ + + + + + +II
+ II + ++ +
+
+ +
+ +
+ + + + + +
+ + + + + +
7
I
OJ
'<
I-'·
<
(D
f\ o\O 0 °
I I + + j+ I + + + + I + + + + + + + + I < -+i ;:::
() ' - ' o\O -...J (l> -s
. '-' 0 1-i OJ I-'·
f-' I s n ;:::
0 f-' rt
......
o\O 0 o--3
.._, 0
+ + '+ rt :3::: 0 p;
+ + + +
0\0
I
+ +
+ +II
+ + I+ +
+ ,+ +
+ +
+ +
+ +
,_..
rt U'l
s
I ::!
Vl
O"
.....

lJ
II + +I
I
I I (l> (!)
cT ~ro
() t._;

1~~ II _,_____,I
I, MU'l
I-'·
rt
8
(l>
(l> ()
I
 152 153

All of the soils under tussock grassland fell into three categories ·ied to give a peak at 2.6-2.8 nm in their Mg-saturated glycerated
according to their clay mineralogies. These categories were: Group 1, a.J. teS·
A completely regular 1: 1 interstratification of mica and
predominantly mica in all horizons; Group 2, predominantly mica- ta tite would give rise to a strong sharp peak at the combined spacing
vermiculite in at least the A horizon, and often also in the lower rne~he two minerals i. e. 2. 77 nm in the Mg saturated glycerated state
horizons; Group 3, predominantly mica-smectite in the A horizon and of ewan et al. 1961). In this study, therefore, the interstratification
mica-vermiculite either predominant or occurring alongside mica in the U'i:~een mica and smectite was more regular in the case of the A horizon
lower horizons. Group 1 soils are Conroy, Cluden, Tima, Killermont, e pies than in those from B horizons.
5a.JJJ
Berwen and Quailburn. Tawhiti, Carrick, Obelisk and Kirkliston are
Group 2 soils while Maungatua, McKerrow, Puketeraki and Otamatapaio comparisons between A horizon samples showed that, where mica-
soils are in Group 3. Haast and Bealey soils under beech forest differ ectites were dominant in the soils from Central Otago i.e. in the
from these soils under tussock grassland in that discrete smectite occurs ~:ungatua and McKerrow soils, the 2.6-2.8 nm peaks from Mg-saturated
in their A horizons and their B horizons are dominated by other minerals iycerated samples were both strong and sharp (Churchman 1978, 1980).
besides either mica-vermiculite or mica. ~he 2.6 nm peak from the Haast soil A horizon Mg-saturated and
iycerated clay was also sharp but the smaller proportion of mica-
All of the podzolised soils had smectitic minerals in their A !mectite in this soil than in the Maungatua or McKerrow soils led to a
horizons. The form of smectite which occurred most commonly was an 5
maller peak in this case. The 2.7 nm peaks from the Otamatapaio soil
stratification of mica and smectite i.e. mica-smectite. This was horizon Mg-saturated and glycerated clays were as sharp and as strong
identified more precisely in the relevant Central Otago and Canterbury as those from the Maungatua and McKerrow soils. However, those from
soils as a mica-beidellite (Churchman 1978, 1980) while the discrete the Puketeraki and Bealey A horizon Mg-saturated and glycerated clays
smectite which occurred was identified as beidellite. were both broad (Table 2) and quite small (Churchman 1980). This is
particularly notable in the case of the podzolised Bealey soil, where
The positions of the highest spacing peaks attributable to mica- the proportion of mica-smectite is high (Table 2).
smectite following diagnostic treatments of the samples of the approp-
riate soils are shown in Table 3. DISCUSSION

Table 3 Positions of highest spacing XRD peaks The formation of smectites has accompanied podzolisation in the
for mica-smectite phases three sequences studied. However, there was not an exact 1:1 correspond-
ence between podzolisation and smectite formation, with mica-smectite
Pretreatment: Mg-saturated, Mg-saturated, K-saturated, being measured in moderate amounts in a non-podzolised soil (Puketeraki).
air-dried glycerated air-dried
The smectites were mostly confined to the A horizons of the
Spacing (nm) podzolised soils.
Soil Horizon
The mica-smectites formed in the soils on schist and semi-schist
MAUNGATUA All 2.4 2.7 2.2 bd quite regular 1:1 interstratifications of mica and smectite while
A12 2.5 2.8 2.3 those formed in the soils on greywacke were less regular. Sand, silt
(Churchman 1978, 1980) and clay (Table 2) mineralogies showed that the
McKERROW Al 2.4 2.7 2.2 transformation of mica to smectitic phases is often complete in the soils
A2 2.4 2.6 2.2 on schist but Table 2 shows it to be incomplete in the soils on both
semi-schist and greywacke, with some mica remaining alongside the mica-
HA.AST At/A 3 2.4 2.6 2.3 bd smectite and discrete smectite phases in the clay fractions of these
B Bh 2.4 2.2 soils. This may reflect differences in the homogeneity of micas in the
parent materials, with the schist containing the most homogeneous
PUKETERAKI A 2.4 2.7 bd 2.4
B 2.3 2.2 bd
BEA LEY A? 2.4 2.8 bd 2.2 An increase in rainfall across the two climosequences under tussock
s- ...' -
,:, grassland promoted the change firstly from mica to mica-vermiculite
(i.e. from Group 1 to Group 2 soils) and then from mica-vermiculite to
OTAMATAPAIO Al n.d. 2.7 2.3 mica-smectite (i.e. from Group 2 to Group 3 soils). There was a con-
A2 n.d. 2.7 2.2 current loss of chlorite especially during the early stages of the
transformation.

Mica-smectites were the only smect1t1c phases in the soils under

It is seen that all mica-smectites in A horizons gave a peak at 2.6-2.8 nm tussock grassland but discrete smectites were fo.und in the soils under
in their Mg-saturated glycerated state. There was a peak at 2.2-2.4 nm beech forest. Discrete vermiculite also occurred in these soils, so
from all K- or Mg-saturated air-dried samples. All three samples from that the transformation of mica + vermiculite + smectite occurred along-
B hori ;:ons ,,·hich contained measurable amounts of mica-smecti te (Table 2) Side that of mica+ vermiculite+ mica-smectite in soils under beech
forest but not in soils under tussock grassland.
 155
154

Many workers (e.g. Ross &Mortland (1966) and Malcolm et aZ. (1969) podzoi morphology is dependent on the translocation of iron
in North America; Gjems (1970) in Europe, and Campbell (1975) in New lllJll
inium.
and organic
d . matter,
.
together
. d
with the formation of allo p1rnne
Zealand) have recognised a connection between podzolisation and the P 8 horizons, an is re 1 at1ve 1 y in ependent of mineralogy. ·
formation of smectitic phases. Although not all of these studies have
identified the soils containing the smectites as podzols, the essential
factors for the formation of smectites in the soils have been recognised
as a low pH and a high organic matter content. It has been concluded
that many of the mineralogical transformations are reversible with Podzols in the New Zealand genetic classification are the soils
vermiculite and smectite forming at pH ~4.5 and pedogenic chlorite at that result_ from the podzol~sing pro~ess, which acts on the primary or
secondary_mine~als present in the soil parent material. In the classic
pH ~4.5 (Campbell 1975). Measurable amounts of pedogenic chlorite
occurred in the lower horizons only of several of the soils, consistent Russian situa~io~, where th~ concept of a podzol was first developed,
with pH values for these particular horizons of ~4.5 (Churchman 1980; the characteristic feature is the bleached A2 horizon, which resembles
K.R. Dreaver pers. comm.). However, smectit~s were found in the soils a. layer of ash, hence its name. This contrasts with the layer beneath
under study at pH values as high as 4.9 (Otamatapaio soil Ai1 and Ai2 the B2, the Bfe or spodic horizon, which is a zone of accumulation of '
horizons - K.R. Dreaver pers. comm.). Nevertheless, the occurrence of ciay, iron and aluminium oxides and humus.
smectites mainly in the A horizons suggests a role for organic matter Processes leading to the formation of podzols have been the
in their formation.
subject of intensive investigation by numerous workers for many years.
In general a large number of separate processes must operate together
SUMMARY in order that a podzol may form. Initially there must be weathering of
the parent rock into the soil parent material involving the weathering
Beidellitic smectite phases formed in the A horizons of podzolised
of the primary minerals into secondary, usually clay-sized minerals,
members of three sequences of soils in the South Island. Mica-smectites which are characteristic of the parent rock of the soil and the
predominated in podzolised soils under tussock grassland. Mica was weathering regime. The nature of these mineral transformations under
transformed to mica-vermiculite and then to mica-smectite with increasing varying conditions has again been the subject of considerable investig-
rainfall in the two climosequences. Transformation of mica to mica- ation. Podzolisation may be regarded as a process superimposed on
smectite was often complete in the podzolised members of the sequences normal soil processes and its effect depends on its intensity and
on schist but never complete in those on semi-schist and greywacke. duration. Since mineralogical transformations often require more time
Interstratifications of mica and smectite were more regular in soils on than do chemical or morphological changes, soils that have the chemical
schist and semi-schist than in those on greywacke. Discrete smectite and morphological characteristics of podzols may not have had time
as well as mica-smectite was formed in podzolised soils under beech forest the mineralogical assemblage of the soil to fully respond.
This phase was probably formed from mica via vermiculite.
The podzolising processes acting on a soil are related to the slow
breakdown of organic matter on the surface of the soil, either as a
consequence of ~ cool, moist environment, which limits rapid biological
breakdown of plant litter, with the consequent formation of an acid,
partly decomposed organic layer which produces large amounts of complex
MINERALOGY OF SOME NEW ZEALAND PODZOLS organic acids, or of the presence of vegetation which can form an acid
litter in warm or even tropical environments. Thus the upper part of
the soil is subjected to leaching by an acid (pH 3-4) reducing and
G.G.C.Claridge complexing solution of organic acids. Minerals are broken down and
Soil Bureau, OSIR, Lower Hutt sesquioxides are translocated down the profile. Clay minerals may be
translocated at the same time, although they may also have moved during
SUMMARY the initial stages of soil formation if this precedes podzolisation.

The clay mineralogy of a wide range of New Zealand podzols from Further down the profile, conditions change and the complexing
Fiordland in the south to Northland was studied. The results showed compounds either cease to move or decompose, causing the deposition of
that in weakly weathering situations, micas weather to a beidellitic the translocated clay, sesquioxides and organic matter, often in
smectite in the strongly acid, complexing environment of the A2 horizon separate horizons. Thus the mineralogy of a podzol profile can vary
while allophane-like minerals are often found in the B horizon, formed c~nsiderably between the upper and lower horizons, depending on the
from aluminium and silicon released in the A2 horizon by mineral minerals or compounds being translocated and their effect on minerals
decomposition. When weathering is more severe, other constituents of already present.
the A2 horizon are broken down and in extreme cases this horizon may
consist solely of residual quartz, secondary silica and cristobalite. In recent years it has become apparent that some of the information
Anata.se, gibbsite and cristobalite may form in the B horizon, together available on the mineralogy of New Zealand podzols differs somewhat
with some amorphous minerals, although these tend to be translocated from that found in other published studies, based mainly on work on the
further, except where drainage is impeded. 50ils of northern Europe or North America. At the same time, with the
 156
157

extension of detailed surveys into forested areas of New Zealand, part- L") OC:::
icularly in the South Island, more podzols were being recognised and ON .. -1

described. Consequently a re-examination of the mineralogy of a range

of podzols from New Zealand seemed necessary. This study reports the
MMO
results of such a re-examination. aurz4do l t 'if

W?qo:is~.J'.)
SAMPLES
z:i..renb
The soils chosen comprised a wide range of soils selected from
amongst those described as podzols in terms of the New Zealand
Genetic Classification and which had been sampled during soil surveys
carried out in recent years. These soils cover a wide range of podzols
from podzolised steepland soils in Fiordland through the podzols and
gley podzols found on the West Coast to the classic northern podzols of .....
CON V1 ~N""""~N
Northland, which had been resampled recently. Some details of sample aHlll .... N OJ
!-
f"'""f..-1'1""""4,.-4'1"""'4

0
locality and soil type are contained in Table 1. tlll sno.10,\4 L:... M U"> MN
N.-< ] ~~!:!
jai\l?LJ3'.J.Ul 0
.....
..... re
oco
METHODS +t tn:> ~wJaf\I N IJ")
:;:J
.._,
N0'-0
NN<:::"
M
,..-
Ol
C:
re
O'I ......
N
.....:;:J >. ::::
tz[Ja1U ~- l V) . . . '° ..... '° Q.l 1..'°)MIJ")

Approximately 10 g of air-dry soil was acidified to remove carbonates '1'.1-~ tn::> ~tuJaf\
NCO M ...--
.-
MN-4

or exchangeable calcium, treated with H20 2 to remove organic matter and ;:qpotL() >"'
with citrate-bicarbonate-dithionite (CBD) (Mehra &Jackson 1960) to "'"' ii';'
l.OOMO<:l" s...
remove oxides of iron and aluminium. The extracts were analysed for Q.l
0 ........... t.!l
iron, aluminium.silicon and manganese by flame emission spectrometry or
atomic absorption spectrometry. The clay-sized fraction was dispersed -0
CON
o:rN "'
!- 0
M °' . . .
c: :::i w
..c
in distilled water and separated by repeated centrifugation. Clay "'
,..... ..... 11'1 NO re
.,:,!.
U N \.0
-0 .- MM !-
~ M
contents were estimated by drying and weighing an aliquot of the !-
0
(!)
>
c:i:
:::>.,
ft <O (!) Q.l
resulting suspension. Crystalline clay minerals present were identified u.. co 0
0,
MNM ii';' '<I" ("")""" ...........
!-
°' L("H::j" l.O ....... ,....,
.,:,!.
t0
'°
o ....... -4
s...
Ol .-.MO
by X-ray diffraction of magnesium/glycerol saturated and potassium >.
OOO
OOO
.-
,..- .......
00000
~
u r:)OOOO
..... .
00000
....J OOO -w
.,_,OOO
oo.-.
saturated clays. The Greene-Kelly (1953) test for the presence of <0
ro >
"' 00000 ..... OOO ,....
0
OOOQ

£::: u
beidellite was applied to a lithium-saturated clay. Infrared absorption c: ......
0 o:'.l
IJ") tj"
i:::
<O Lf) Cl'> '° '<:!" Cl'> re
S... Mr--CO -0 f',C)NC'J
s... «:r..-.cooo
spectra of clays were obtained using the KBr disc method. Differential V>

0
ONM
OOO
Cl
E
•••••
00000
Cl

C:
~ _.1

OOO
N
"' OOOC)
C:
.... ..-1 N N C)

thermal analysis (DTA) was carried out on a DuPont thermo-analyser, using 0...
0 l.O M,.....
0 Cl>
c
a 50 mg sample and a heating rate of 30°/minute. For electron micro- !-
.....
r--0000
0-...-00
,.-
0
o a
.-4
-oo
MO'l
re
°'
oooc
("'!')
OC'r:l -:-;
... -4

N !- • • . •
graphy dilute clay suspensions were sprayed onto carbon-backed collodion OOO
v
-0 OOO Q 0000

films and examined both with and without shadowing with gold/palladium. "'"' ....,w 0
0..
c::
.,..
N c: ,..._ 0 ..... r- """4N M C"J
0 tt1 ONN Cl> r-t~N0J
~,.... N !- >
The amorphous material content in the clays was estimated by shaking Vl 00000 i:::
s..
00000 oi · o o o "'
!-
0000
20 mg of clay in 40 ml of 0.3 M ammonium oxalate at pH 3.5 for 1 hour <O ~
..... <lJ
h

°'
c: u ono·co
(Higashi &Ikeda 1974). Silicon, aluminium and iron in the extract
C: OO<::tO'I,..._ 01.00'I
N
9"""'tll"""4C'J~O
• • • • •
:::i
0
-o.oo .. ,,_
,,_, N
....
c:i r-t P-1

were measured using atomic absorption spectroscopy. The content of -0

c:
0 0 ..............
"' "'
s... o ......... "fl"""
£:::
O~NO

~
amorphous material was calculated to be twice the sum of Fe203, Al203 and Q)
!- "'Cl
$,_

Si0 2 , on the assumption that allophane retains about its own weight of
water (Fieldes &Claridge 1975). Kaolin and gibbsite contents were
-0
CU
V>
ON...,ON
NM<::tOO'\
•
OOMNO
• ' ' • r--
0>
•
ooo·NN
.. .. .. •

Cl
e
!;-
c:
0
CON""'1'
M \.0 r-..
I..(")

ON..-<0
• . . .

...... ,.... z:..- ,.....

estimated from the height of the appropriate peak on the DTA curve. 0
OMO
0
CO<::t'-OO<:r
c::: o
....JN
0
N NN\CM
Quartz was estimated from the height of the X-ray diffraction peak at c-O
z:
"
0 NNM
N
-0
0
•••••
M«:r,..-r--.N
V'>-V
..... 0
-0
0
•.••
MO'IO'lt.C"J
a.
4.26~ obtained from a randomly oriented powder specimen. Layer silicates <c.. c. ..... c.
_,
VI
were estimated by distributing the minerals, in proportion to their
diffraction maxima on oriented specimens, in the residium after ......
allocating the minerals that could be determined quantitatively. :=>
0
1-
r.n
c:tON V1 O'\Mf',N\.O c:i: ......, co ,....,_CO<.C
E NM .-"INN("'I"')
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION I
0'-0N
.-<("")
I I
00
~~ 1
Nf"'ll.l'>r--
OO'IM,_N
I I I I
0
u r:! I 1
co '""'
+ 0
I I
O'l ,_
I
co
I

..... z.-
cr::
N MU">
0 !..(")
N '-'"> .-NN
Table 1 contains sample details, together with clay contents, Fe203, ....J .....
Al203 and Si0 2 extracted by H20 2 and by CBD, and the mineralogy of the =.-
I - ..... ....
clay size fraction.
Cl)
0:=> "'
V') a9-
I-
=
w•..-
I- cVJ
w
:::>.,
-0
i::: ::E:"o- :::;::~ c: c:
~ o..:::: o~ ro
uow '<- c::iuowu.. c::: n:l ~Gf'""" '<- i::::iuw t./) c:::i.ow~
0 ...... '-'- !-
:::i
'-'--= .....re ,_
N
'-'"' .....
<::"

~ ~
0
N VI <O :::0
c:n "' c:n ...J !- :::i co 0 c:;
..>« VI
re
'°
I-
0"'
Vl3 ::;:: "'
(...)
 Table l Clay 1ninerals, % of clay-size fraction (continued)
----·····-·---------------
-
l
.
QI
.µ
.,- I-
w .- Cl.I

......-.s
.µ ::I >. QJ
Soils CBO Extr. 11 0 Extr. .,... u "O u
II> "' c:
2 2 .µ
u .E w
II> "' Q)
+' ..... .µ
.,.... 1£- ..,....
1-•r-
we
>. .,., .µ
Cl!
Cl!
.µ
.,... m
QJ
c:
0
M <O
..c
~ w
QJ

.,... ....
.µ .µ
..... QJ ..-
::> .µ ::> m ..... 11'1
QJ

....
.µ .Cl w
N 0.

Depth Bori zon o o o o 11'1 >I uc:u .-:::J Cl.I c:

.,... >. N . 0 "'
..c 11'1
.-
c(
0
.-

(cm)
Clay Fe
2 3
A1
2 3 Si02 Fe
2 3
A1
2 3
Si0 2 D

"'u "'u
.µ
u
w
I-
0
...... E..-I c
.........,.. 1-0 .µ
Cl.I I- ....
+'-0 ,.... 0m
0
.-
.-
Ill
.Cl
.µ
I-
....<.!! CT"':::I
.Cl
+'
.,...
Ill
c.
0
..... "'c:
+'
..............
0
N<O

% .,..
:i;: i2 e
t/l
..c
u wc:r:: w
>--->
c: >, ......
.-...c bo-4 ~
m
:::c u
I- ..-
c( "'
c:r::
.,...
II')
c:
......

Avery silt loam podzol from strongly weathered granite Karamea

9419B 0-10 All 4
c 10-16 Al2 l 7 3 7 20 17 5 1
0 16-24 A2 14 3 2 l 36 50 2 6 0.1
E 24-25 life 11 9 9 3 20 45 3 11 0.3
f 25-50 13
31 8 5 7 5 10 50 2 21 0.6
G 50-80 Bgl 6 5 5 4 10 56 1 19 1.4
II 80-UO Bg2 2 12 7 14 5 33 1 26 1.4
......
U'I
GlEY PODZOLS, SOUTH ISLAND 00
Okari to peaty s i 1t 1oam Greymouth
9522A 0-21 ~11 +Al2g 5.8 0.02 0.01 0.16 0.002 0.014 0.004 45 15 20 13 3 14
B 21-28 21.5 0.02 0.05 0.11 0.001 0.015 0.002 40 8 24 25 2 7.6
t 213-54 639 10.7 0.05 0.46 0.17 <(). 001 0. 015 0.002 7 27 20 7 23 15 2 4.0
0 54-74 Gl2 15.9 0.07 1.47 0.38 0.001 0.047 0.007 10 3 20 25 12 22 3 2.0
E 74-96 G3 27.9 0.13 1.27 0.26 0.001 0.038 0.006 3 30 25 20 16 2 4.0
F 96-117 G4 21.5 o. 75 l.09 0.24 n.d. 0.018 0.005 11 16 21 11 30 3 2.0
G 117-138 G 16.3. 0.04 0.08 0.10 n.d. 0.013 0.003 11" 11 11 9 37 l8 9.5
I 147-149 Iiafe 3.8 1.99 1.05 0.29 n.d. 0.010 0.001 8 12 8 10 13 47 3.0
Addison humic ftne sandy loam Charleston, near Westport
9502C 3-15 A 2.8 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.001 0.003 0.001 45 50 5 4.0
0 15-32 A11 9 2.1 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.0004 0. 004 0.001 45 50 5 3.8
E 32-39 A12 9 1.6 0.01 0.01 0.03 0. 0004 0. 002 0.0003 40 60 l 1.8
f 39-48 u2219 1. 9 0.36 4.31 0.62 0.0003 0. 017 0.001 72 25 3 1.6
G 48-71 B h 5.8 0.24 4.64 1. 31 n.d. 0.019 0.003 tr 12 12 '12 l 63 1.3
H 71-116 B22 h 11.9 0.60 1.10 0.26 n.d. 0.010 0.002 tr 13 13 13 l 1 60 1.3
1 116-123 B23 h 6.0 2.46 2.52 0.26 n.d. 0.0004 0.001 5 5 5 5 1 80 1.2
J 126-14 3 BZl\fe 2.9 l. 5.5· 1.50 0.36 n .d. n.d. 0.0005 5 5 5 5 2 78 1.9
\(,, \t\~+ c.t 10.0 0.82 1.18 0.41 n.d. n.d. n.d. 30 10 12 46 1.6

______ ____________Tab~e__1_ _:_:_ay mioerals, % of clay-size fraction (continued}

NORTllERN POOZOLS
Wharekohe silt loam northern podzol frorn strongly argi11ized shales Omahuta Forest
9535A 0- 7 A21 9.3 <0.01 0.05 0.15 0.04 0.21
[3 7-14 0.04 16
l\.?2 7.9 0.01 0.04 0.12 0.02 0.22 83 tr
c iq-29 '23x \- x 0.0G 3 38
6.3 0.02 0.11 0.07 0.05 0.70 0.09 59 tr
[) 29-41 82lth 80.1 0.12 0.60 0.14 0.10 1.1 39 5 24 8 23 1 tr
E 41-54 13 22th 82. 6 0.10 42 26
1.1 0.91 0.17 0.39 1. 7 0.23 11 20 1
F 54-83 51 16 26
G 83-115
8
23th 82.3 5.1 l. 9 o. re 0.14 2.3 0.09 52 14
6 l
II 115-15·1 ~24 ts 91. 5
91. 3
3.0 2.2 0.12 <0.005 1.1 0.06 49 13
30
34
2
2
2
B25ts 4.8 1.8 0.11 <0.005 0.32 0.03 49 2
I 154+ 78.6 6.2 1.9 10 36 3 2
25ts 0.12 <0.005 0.36 0.03 50 12 32 3 3
Tc Kop4rq sand northern podzol from wind blown sands Kaitaia Airport
9534A 0- 17 /\p 2.5 <0.006 0.02 0.21 0.14 0.22
B 17-26 A 0.05 4
A21x 1.2 <0.006 <0.01 0.11 0.005 0.10 0.03 96
c 26-35 1.1 " " 0.01 2 97 l
0 35-50 /\22x
4.3 " <0.005 0.04
98 2
E 50-56 82123x "II " 0.10 <0.005 It
0.04
feh 5.5 0.02 0.08 " 0.32 0.05
F 56-69 822feh 3.9 II
0.04 0.12 94 6 .....
G 69-85 0 0.7
" 0.35 0.04
96 U1
" 0.13 0.05 II 4 c.o
II 85-90 * 23f eh i. 3 " 0.27 0.17
1.12 0.05 6 70 l
I 90-101 ** " 0.89 0.05 23
9.8 II
0.50 0.13 II
0.50 <0.01 26
J 101-119 'l<ldr 26.3 II
0.33 0.01 47 (j
K 119-130 **** 46.9 " 0.33 II

71 3
L 178-1130 ***** " 0.58 0.05 0.33 II
"
78.1 II
0.72 0.06 0.06 62 l
" " 25 1
One Tree Point peaty sand ground-water podzol from wind blown sand Marsden Point
954 lA 0-17 Allp 7.5 0.14 0.32 0.3J <0.001 1.8
B 17-28 5.6 0.19 0.14 13 6
.l\12p 0.02 0.65 0.14 " 3.5 0.20 70 7 4 4.7
c 28-51 £32 •• 2.9 0.02 6.5 1.0 3.7
<0.001 15 3 72 8 3 1. 9
0 51-62 B rn 10.1
" 0.12 " 27 9 56 4
22fe 0.03 4.8 0.31 " 0.8 0.09 4 1.9
E 62-65 823h 12.8 <0.01 37.6 " 29 7 5 59 l. 2
65-81 2.8 " 1.8 0.35 " 20
F 8 16.9 <0.09 3.4 0.22 4 4 72 1.2
G 81-89 n24fe " 0.27 0.08 " 30 7 7
B25fe 18.1 0.13 2.8 0.14 " 0.08 0.05 56 l.2
H 89-91\ 13.0 0.57 3.0 0.11 " 29 5 5 Gl 1.1
I 94-110 1Jt6Fe
0.13
" 0. 11 0.02 " 25 5 4 66
0.05 0.9 0. 24 " 0 . .;1 0.05 1.3
J 110-140 nc 0.15 0.02 0.7 0.12 <0.005
" 2 l 97 1.4
K 1~0+
1·1r
o,;-..
0.07 0.03 0.6
" 0.03 II
7 93
0.08 " " 0.04 1.6
" l l 913
--·----·- 1.5
* I I uA
2 ** Ilul32Heh *H liuB22foh ****I luC
l
***** I IuC
l
- ----------..-
 161
160

high amount ~f gibbsite may be the result of intense weathering in a

In most non-podzolised soils iron and aluminium extractable by hydro vious w~ather~ng cycle unr~lat~d to the present podzolising regime.
peroxide is associated with organic matter and restricted to the A horizo er the in~ens~ty of podzol1sat1on of the southern podzols, both
but in the podzols these elements are also extracted from lower down the olifl and pbbs1 te appear to be sta?le. Wi~de ~ Schwertmann (1977)
profile, often in quite large amounts. The largest quantities are assoc· d that in Southern Germany, kaolin and g1bbs1te are found in soils
with the horizon of accumulation (Bfe and Bh) and clearly in these horizo u~ved from weathered granite, but under strongly acid conditions.
there are quite large amounts of organic-bound aluminium and iron. ~~ the hig~ content of organic matter in podzolic soils of that
ion gibbsite was destroyed, and halloysite, present in the upper
The extremely low values of CBD-extractable iron and aluminium in t :t of no~-~odz?lised soi~s of ~he area was tr~nsformed to kaolinite.
horizons of all these soils is also apparent. In general non-podzolised podzolising influence is obviously greater in these soils than ln
soils on sedimentary rocks have values for CBD extractable Fe between 1 ~se of the Karamea district.
and 2% (Claridge 1962). Under podzolising conditions iron oxides are
reduced and complexed in a very similar manner to the CBD treatment and Traces of amorphous material are present in all of the South Island
removed from the A2 horizon. The accumulation of iron and aluminium in dzols. It is only recently that amorphous constituents have been
the B2fe horizon should be noted. In general, precipitated iron oxides i. cognised in New Zealand podzols, although there has been considerable
soil contain up to 30 mole % of aluminium oxides (Norrish &Taylor 1961) idence of their presence elsewhere. Recent work by Young et al. (1980)
but in the horizons of accumulation of these soils the proportion of 5 confirmed that allophane-like materials are formed in podzols by
aluminium to iron is very much higher. Some of the aluminium extracted b entifying this mineral in the eluvial clay of a podzol from Bealey
CBD must be in some other form and may be associated with the amorphous ur, near Arthurs Pass. They found that the gel material coating
minerals also present in many of the podzols studied. Much of the avel- and sand-sized sediments at the toe slope of an alluvial fan
aluminium may also be bonded to organic matter, resistant to decompositio which podzolised soils and podzols had developed gave infrared
by hydrogen peroxide, but which may release its aluminium to the more sorption and DTA patterns characteristic of allophanes.
strongly complexing citrate reagent. This is particularly obvious in the
horizons of the One Tree Point podzol (9541 DE &F). Loveland &Bullock (1975) found that amorphous oxides of Si, Al and
e made up a considerable part of the clay fraction of some brown
MINERALOGY OF SOUTHERN PODZOLS odzolic soils from England and Wales, especially those formed on
neous rocks. The amorphous material had some allophane-like properties.
The large amounts of smectite in most of the South Island podzols is imilarly Brydon &Shimada (1972) and Laverdiere et al. (1977) found
in agreement with the findings of other workers that the micaceous layer onsiderable quantities of amorphous material in the B and C horizons
silicates transform through vermiculites, mica-smectites and similar int f some podzols from eastern Canada. This material showed much of
mediate minerals to smectites. For example Gjems (1970) and Righi & he properties of allophane, based on X-ray diffraction, DTA, infrared
de Coninck (1977) showed that the formation of smectite occurred at the bsorption and chemical dissolution measurements. However it should be
expense of illite and hydroxy-Al interlayer minerals which probably.were ted that this material did not show a sharp exothermic in the DTA
formed initially. During podzolisation, in the acid, complexing environ attern at about 900°, in contrast to the allophane described by Young
of the A2 horizons the interlayer components are removed and the clay t al. (1980). Ross (1980) found similar material in the B horizons
minerals develop swelling properties. Churchman (1980a)studied the f some podzolic soils from British Columbia. In the electron microscope
mineralogy of a number of soil sequences of South Island high-country so his material appeared gel-like and did not show the 50~ spherical
containing podzolised soils or podzols as an end member, and found that "unit particle" characteristic of allophane (Wada 1977). Some imogolite
under tussock grassland, a moderately podzolising vegetation, micas was also seen. Infrared spectra suggested that much of the amorphous
transformed to mica-vermiculite and mica-smectite. Under more strongly was similar to the"proto-imogolite" described by Farmer et al.
podzolising beech forest litter the transformation went a stage further .
and a beidellite smectite was formed. The soils in Table 1 show the same
.
features , with mica-vermiculites and mica-smectites being found, as well ":
In these soils the presence of amorphous material was recognised
as smectites. The stronger the effect of podzolisation, or the more t1me by the amounts of aluminium and silica extracted from the clay fraction
it has had to operate, the further the transition has proceeded. All . by acid ammonium oxalate. It appears to have formed in the B horizons
of these soils have however formed under forest. Except for the podzol1 5 of the podzols and in some cases makes up the greater part of the clay
rendzina, the proportion of smectite or partially expanded minerals fraction, although because of very small clay contents this may only
decreases with depth, indicating that smectite formation is clearly represent a very small proportion of the whole soil. In electron micro-
associated with the A2 horizon. graphs it appears to be made up of aggregates of small particles,
although according to Dr R.L. Parfitt (pers. comm.) at very high
Kaolinite and gibbsite are also present, sometimes in considerable magnifications hallow spheres similar to those described by Wada (1977)
quantities in most of the soils shown in Table 1. Most of the soils have can be seen. When the clay fractions extracted after CBD treatment
a common factor in that they are formed either from granite or an ;re examined, however, they appear formless, even at magnification of
alluvium containing some granite. Kaolinite and gibbsite appear to be OOooox, similar to the material described by Ross (1980). In some
formed more readily during the weathering of granite, probably from of the soil traces of imogolite-like threads are also visible.
potash feldspars, whereas the plagioclases,more common in greywacke and d
schist, may not weather so rapidly, and remain as constituents of the saJ1
or silt-sized fractions. For example, gibbsite is the dominant mineral
in the clay fraction of the Avery podzol from Oparara, north of Karamea·
 162 163

The DTA patterns of the clays are similar to those described by

Fieldes (1955) for allophane A, which has a pronounced exothermic
reaction at between 850 and 1000°, and to those described by Young et al
(1980). DTA patterns of some clay fractions of these podzols are
shown in Fig.l. The extremely sharp nature of the high-temperature
exothermic is characteristic of such allophanes, where the transformatio
to mullite proceeds almost instantaneously because of the nature of the
allophane, whereas the better ordered and more strongly bonded 89~·'.)F
structure of kaolinite or halloysite is more resistant to transformation Moana
and the exothermic peak is correspondingly broader. 6)-90 cm

The silica/alumina.ratio of the material extracted by acid oxalate

from the clay fraction is always high. Young et aZ. (1980) report
Si0 2 /Al 2 0 3 molar ratios around 0.5 for the material extracted from the 9)0?C
Bealey podzol, whereas in the soils described here the ratio is much
higher, ranging as high as 14, with a mean value of 4. It is likely 3-15 cm
that some aluminium has been extracted from the amorphous mineral
component by the CBD reagent and that the amorphous constituent seen in
electron micrographs is the silica-rich skeleton of former allophanic 9::02c
component. On the other hand the alumina-rich material described by Ad<li ~;:;TI
Young et aZ. (1980) may contain an amorphous alumina component soluble l-t8~?1 cm
in sodium citrate. Clearly this point needs much more investigation.

Although the allophane described in this study is silica-rich and

does not show any evidence of the presence of imogolite-like structures,
either by infrared absorption or by electron microscopy, if clay-size
material is separated by ultrasonic dispersion from field-moist soils
it tends to be more aluminous and has features characteristic of "proto- 950:'.K
imogolite" allophane (Parfitt & Henmi 1980). Addison
14· ) ~)0 <:,!11
GLEY PODZOLS
Gley podzols represent a variant of the podzolising process, ·which
in these soils takes place under extremely wet conditions, where the soil
is almost always completely saturated. It may be arguable whether
these soils are in fact podzols, but nevertheless the two examples
studied, do show some similarities with other podzols.

New data for the classic gley podzol, Okarito, are shown in Table 1.
The strongly gleyed part of the profile, down to 140 cm, shows similarit- 88?4E
ies in its mineralogy to other weakly weathered podzols, with illite, Cl2.£:cO] i
vermiculite and mica-smectites being the main constituents. The 27m-28. C:.l
proportion of smectite and mica-smectite decreases and that of kaolin
increases in the G horizons. Quartz also makes up an important part
of the clay fraction of the upper part of the profile, implying that
there may have been considerable decomposition and translocation of othet
clay components, allowing quartz to accumulate. Allophane is, however,
a relatively minor constituent of this part of the profile, but becomes 898JE
the major component of the clay fraction of the gravelly layers beneath Wairaurahi.ri
the water-saturated fine-textured upper part of the profile. 52-76 em
It appears that in this soil some of the mineral components, probabl
the feldspars, are being decomposed and alumina and silica released and
transported down the profile to recombine as allophane in the gravel
beneath. This tendency is shown to an even greater degree in the Addison
soil, where in place of a metre or more of fine-textured and probably
loessial material forming the A and B horizons of the Okarito soil, there

Fig. l. Differential thermal analysis curves of selected clay fractions

t')f South Island podzols.
 164

is only a coarse sandy organic-rich layer extending to a depth of 40-SO c

over gravels. There is some field evidence that this soil was origina11ym secause previous analyses of a le from the same site c7644 )
covered with loess, which has been completely destroyed by soil processes not reveal the.presenc~ of smectite these samples were re-examined
leaving only a quartz sand. The clay fraction of these horizons consists' fotll1d to contain sm~c~ite, rather than clay-vermiculite as
of quartz, traces of allophane, and some indeterminate and disordered vious~y repo~ted . . s1m1larly a related soil, not so strongly podzol-
micaceous minerals. In the gravels beneath, quartz is no longer a (Wa1kare silty c1ay loam) was also found to contain smectite
significant component of the clay fraction, the 2:1 layer silicates becom er than clay-vermiculite, but in this case more montmorilloni~i
somewhat more ordered so that their nature can be determined, and the e her t~an beidelli~ic. S~nce the smectite is present in greater c
bulk of the clay fraction consists of allophane, with a Si0 2/Al 20 3 ratio unts 1n the B horizons o_l both profiles it was probably formed durin
after CBD extraction of between 1.2 and 1.9. thering of the soil par~nt material or was originally present in theg
ent rock. It clearly differs from some other smecti tes in not be in
In the Addison soil, therefore, the effect of the soil-forming dilY expandable with glycerol. I~ is known that the technique usedg
process has been to destroy almost the whole of the supposed fine-textured Fieldes (1968) for glycerol solution was to expose a M:g-saturated
material, leaving only a quartz gravel. The components have been taken ide to glycerol vapour, and the present author subsequently found
into solution and translocated down the profile and some of the silica t this ~reatment does not always result in complete expansion with
and alumina has crystallised to an allophanic material including some e smectites. The current technique of spraying a coated slide with
proto-imogolite allophane. lyc~rol/~ater susp~ns~on appears to be more reliable in achieving
ans1on with such difficultly expandable smectites.
Gley podzols can therefore be regarded mineralogically as soils in
which the same basic properties operate as in southern podzols, but to Allophane was not found in the Wharekohe profile, using ammonium
a much greater degree. Mineral weathering forms vermiculites, mica late soluble silica and alumina as criteria. CBD-extractable
vermiculites and smectites from micas, and probably also from feldspars minium values are all much lower than CBD-extractable but
if they are well enough ordered (deVore, 1959). Under acid conditions icate that some aluminium in excess of that coprecipitated,with iron
there is a tendency to form beidellitic smectites, especially in the A2 ides. i~ prese1:1t (Norri~h &Taylor 1961). This aluminium may however
horizons. Where potash feldspars are present, as in soils from granitic associated with organic matter, much of which is resistant to distruct-
parent materials, kaolin forms, rather than mica, and excess alumina n by H202.
crystallises as gibbsite. The strong leaching in acid environments
decomposes less well ordered feldspars (Fieldes 1966) and eventually The Te Kopuru soil.is a more strongly developed podzol, formed on
the micaceous minerals, so that in the most strongly developed gley artz sand. As shown in Table 1, the clay fractions of the A zons
podzols the A2 horizon consists almost entirely of residual quartz d the up~er part of.the B ~orizon consist almost entirely of quartz,
fragments. Silica and alumina dissolved during the decomposition of gether with some cristoballte. The upper 20 cm of the A horizon also
the minerals in the A2 horizon move down the profile and may recombine ntains some rat~er resistant organic matter which makes up about half
as the influence of the complexing organic matter decreases. In some of f th~ clay fraction as separated after H 2 0 2 treatment. This resistant
these soils allophane is formed in large amounts. game matter also appears in the Bh horizons between 56 and 85 cm which
th?ugh horizons . of accumulation with respect to organic matter, ~till '
NORTHERN PODZOLS ons1st almost entirely of quartz. Clearly any clay originally present
n these horizons has either been destroyed or translocated lower down
The "classic" northern podzol, Wharekohe, has been sampled and h~ ~rofile. Some of the quartz appears to have been derived from the
studied mineralogically several times. According to Fieldes &Taylor igrnally sai:idy ~ediment; ':'7hile the remainder may be secondary, formed
(1961), the clay fraction from a soil from Purua, near Whangarei . :ecrystallisat1on of silica from weathered silicate minerals.
(CI2673,2674), consisted of secondary quartz, quartz and metahalloysite, lm1larly the cristobalite present in small amounts in the clays of the
while according to Fieldes (1968) a similar soil from Omahuta State horizons may also be secondary. .
Forest (SB7644) contained dominant quartz in the A2 horizon with clay
vermiculite and kaolin dominant in the B horizon. A careful re-examinati Kaolinite, halloysite and smectite are the main clay minerals of the
of new samples from the same locality is reported in Table 1. The horizons. The proportion of smectite peaks at about 85-90 cm, while
clay fractions of the A horizons, as found previously, contain that of kaolinite peaks somewhat lower down. If these minerals have been
considerable quantities of quartz, some of which may be secondary. The translocated, then kaolin has a somewhat greater mobility than smectite
under
th P
_o d ~o 1 isrng
. , con d i. tions.
. In the lower part of the B horizon and in
proportion of quartz drops markedly below 40 cm. Kaolin is present
throughout the profile, even in the A2 horizon. In this horizon the e C ~orizon, some of the kaolin mineral is halloysite, as shown by
1
kaolin mineral appeared to be all kaolinite, but the proportion of bormam1d~ expansion. In this profile only traces of gibbsite are found,
halloysite, as determined by formamide expansion treatments increases b~ Claridge (1961) showed that this is a parent material effect, gibbsite
down the profile. The halloysite does not however appear to be tubular. a:lng p:esent in some of the beds of sand from which the Te Kopuru soils
Smectite makes up the remainder of the clay mineral assemblage, especiallf e derived, but not in others.
in the B and C horizons. The smectite appears to be a mixture of mont-
morillonite and beidellite, with the proportion of beidellite increasing i ~orphous constituents soluble in ammonium oxalate were not found
down the profile. h~/h1s profile, al though quite large amounts (up to 19.1 of the Bufeh
t izon at 70-85 cm) of Al 20 3 were extracted by H2 0 2 • This probably
epresents organic-bound aluminium.
 166
167

The third podzol studied in this investigation, One Tree Point,

is described as a ground-water podzol, formed on consolidated sands. The influence of podzolising processes is first t -
The clay mineralogy reported here differs considerably from a previous ·
tite m1nera 1 s to a b ei·d ellite,
· or possibly to d t o transform
_ the
.
sample from this site (SB7655). The dominant mineral in the clay fractio cnon-beidellitic portions, so that the proportiones 0 froby ~drefe:ent1ally
·
smect1te ·
increases, and at the same time ·
to pref e1
. elhte on
of the upper 50 cm is quartz, together with some vermiculite and kaolin. . · erent1ally weather
The proportion of vermiculite and kaolin increases slightly between 30 translocate h a 11 oysite, .so that the upper part of the profjle
and 50 cm, the upper part of the Bh horizon. There is a sharp break tains a greater proportion of kaolinite. At the same t' ·
in the mineralogy at this point, with allophane becoming the dominant e rals are decomposed by the acid and organic-~omplexi·ng e1nme~ clay
h · . . - ~ " vironment
constituent, and increasing in proportion until it makes up the major the Az orizon, and some of the silica so dissolved recrrsta .
component of the clay fraction below 100 cm. This allophane extracted ondary qu~rtz or cristobalite. The Az horizons of podzo~ t~lises as
from the clay fraction is silica-rich, with a Si02/Al203 ratio of between tain considerable quantities of these residual materials s Al~s h
1.1 and 1.3. Some aluminium may have been extracted from this allophane tituents of the clay fraction residual from the parent m~terialo~a~~
by CBD, as CBD-extractable Al values are high. Some of this aluminium ner been translocated down the profile or destroyed.
may be organic-bound, especially in the Bh2 horizon between 62 and 65
the clay fraction of which contains more than 30% of Al203 extractable The B horizons contain those constituents which have b
f'l d · een moved
by CBD. In the electron microscope the clay fraction has the form of n.t~e pro Tihe an wh~ch have been deposited by the changing
small spherical particles which may well be proto-imogolite allophane, 1t1ons: us smect1tes, kaolinite and halloysite may be found
similar to the material found in the Addison and other West Coast podzol of which may . have been. translocated and some of wh·1c h may h ave'
n forfme d . durfing w~ather1ng of the parent material in an earlier
The very detailed study of Parahaki sandy loam, a very strongly ge o .soi 1 or~ation. Anatase, cristobalite and gibbsite may
podzolised soil from rhyolite, carried out by Swindale &Jackson (1960) st~llise at ~his level al~o. ~ron and aluminium complexed
should also be mentioned. In this soil, formed under a high intensity ganic matter is also depos1 ted in discrete organic-ri· eh 1 ,
of weathering, the primary minerals, with the exception of quartz,were · h f th d · · · ' ay ers,
1c orm e ist1nct1ve humus and iron pans. The extremely hi h
converted principally into gibbsite and kaolin. Because the rate of unts of CBD-extractable aluminium in the B horizon of t1 0 g T
· · · pro f 1· 1 e at 62 - 65 cm is
int · an example. h2 11e ne ree
leaching was high much silica was removed, leading to the formation of
large amounts of gibbsite. The proportion of kaolin was found to
increase with depth as the weathering intensity decreased. Apart from No detailed investigation of the form of iron or aluminium in
coarse rock fragments, the only primary mineral remaining in the ese pans has been carried out. Some of the aluminium and iron is
weathering zone was quartz. racted by Hz02, and still more, especially aluminium is subseq tl
.racted by CBD: This is p:e~umably because the organic matter c~:nle~
A high degree of podzolisation was superimposed on this weathering eh.was chelating the aluminium has been partly broken down by H,Qp
process and the eluvial horizons consisted almost entirely of primary d ~i~rate presen~ i~ the CBD reagent forms a stronger complex wi~h 2 '
quartz, together with some secondary silica, which had crystallised as un11n1um so that it is ext:acted with the other CBD-extractable
a "stuffed" cristobalite. The materials transported out of the eluvial mponents. Thus the material in the Bfe and Bh pans is considered
horizon were deposited lower down the profile as the podzolising agents t to be part of the clay mineral assemblage of a podzol and lts
losttheir strength. Titanium recrystallised as anatase and was currence and prop~rties are more properly the province ~f the
deposited, together with translocated humus between 37 and 45 cm, rphology and chemistry of podzols.
aluminium and iron mobilised in the eluvial or A2 horizon had precipitat
ed as gibbsite, and unspecified iron oxides in an indurated layer thi\The:e. drainage is. impeded, as in the One Tree Point podzol, leaching
between 48 and 60 cm. Kaolin translocated from all horizons above 48 cm . e silica and alumina released by the decomposition of clay
accumulated between 60 and 100 cm. This study showed that different n:~als does not take.place so readily, and they recombine in the
components of the soil move at different rates and appear at different T part ~f the.pr~file to form allophane-like minerals. Thus the
places within the soil profile. Swindale &Jackson (1960) do not th~ee Point so~l i~ not as strongly weathered as the Te Kopuru soil,
record the presence of any amorphous material in this profile, although t some vermiculite and kaolin are present in the A h · d
the . f h or1zon an
it may not have been looked for or found, using the techniques available artz uppe1 part o .t e B horizon, as well as considerable residual
at the time of their study. d mi. T~ese constituents are formed from the weathering of feldspars
nsid cas in the sand. fraction and therefore the soil contains
The weathering process in these northern podzols can be described at erable clay, while the parent material contains very
as follows: In podzols or podzolised soils on normal siliceous parent lo ~lay the:e i~ in the lower part of the profile is, however,
material, e.g. greywacke, siltstone, etc., kaolinite, halloysite and r~k~~e, whil~ in the ~e~ter drained soils such as Te Kopuru or even
smectite minerals are formed. Vermiculite and smectite are derived nera e, alumina and.silica released during decomposit of the
from the weathering of micas, but weathering in this environment is efor ls of the A2 hor~zon are transported well out of the soil system
normally so strong that well-developed intergrades such as mica- e they can recombine.
vermiculite or mica-smectite are not present to any large extent. NCLUSIONS
Further weathering of these minerals, as well as direct weathering of
feldspars produces kaolinite, halloysite and ultimately gibbsite. From the foregoing results and discussion it will be seen that clay
~era1 formation processes are essentially similar in both southern
northern podzols, and even in gley podzols. The active processes of
 168
169

podzolisation take place throughout the profile. The dominating

process is however the formation of the acid, organic, reducing and horizon, the translocation of iron, aluminium and some clay
complexing agents in the litter horizon of the soil. The precise th 6 Az B horizon, and the formation of allophane-like minerals in the
nature of the biological processes leading to the formation of this o ~hens and below. When podzol formation takes place ?n quartz-rich
material is a topic for biologists and biochemists and is dealt with rizo ess the soil horizons may develop extremely quickly.
elsewhere in this volume. ds or 1o '
weathering is more intense, as in northern New Zealand, further
The first stage in podzolisation is reduction and complexing of l'Jhen of minerals in the A2 horizon can take place. Feldspars,
"free" iron oxides in the mineral soil beneath, and their transport kdown large number of tetrahedral Al sites available, are attacked,
further down the profile. This is the process termed cheluviation by eh h~vetaly reduced to hydrated silica, secondary quartz and cristo-
Swindale &Jackson (1956) and is the process giving rise to the ultima ~l the aluminium is leached out. Other cations within the
characteristic morphology of a podzol:- The bleached A2 horizon and the ite as a t re are released to solution as it breaks down. Micaceous
ar struc u d ·
layers of deposition of iron oxides and organic matter, the Bh, Bfe 1dsp including the smectites that may have forme ear 1 i~r,may a 1 so
horizons and even the thin iron pans (placic horizons), formed where nerals; ed. Kaolin and gibbsite may be somewhat more resistant ~ut
the organic complexes break down sufficiently to lose their mobility. destr Y 11 lso destroyed. Thus the A2 horizon of even a relatively
eventua Ya . f ·1·
e . h soil may consist almost entirely o s1 ica.
a.y-r1c~
At the same time the low pH begins to affect the crystalline
clay minerals, initially by the replacement of exchangeable cations the B horizons of such soils there may be precipitation of iron-
by H+ or Al 3 +. Subsequently there is attack of tetrahedral Al sites In inium-bound organic matter, often in considerable amounts, the
at the broken bonds of feldspars and tetrahedral sheets of micaceous d al~tion of crystalline clay minerals translocated from t~e A~
clay minerals. Al 3 + is mobilised by solution and is available for cumul d h tallisation of minerals such as anatase g1bbsite,
transport. rizo~ an b ~. ~ crys Allophane-like minerals may also be formed, al though
d cr1sto a 1 e. h . nd leaching conditions excess silica and
r stronger weat er1ng a . . b' t
In the initial stages of this process, illite and hydroxy-Al nde. b 1 h d out before it has had time to recom ine' excep
lum~na may e eac e
interlayer minerals are attached, particle size is reduced and the ere ·drainage is impeded.
clay minerals develop swelling properties. Various stages may be
detected in this process, well-ordered mica-vermiculites and mica- In summary therefore the podzolising process results in the following
smectites being formed, but the end result is a beidellitic smectite, transformations.
which appears to be somewhat more resistant to further breakdown than . culites and chlorites to beidell i tic
other 2:1 layer silicates. Iron-rich chlorites, normally relatively Transformation of micas, Vermi
stable under non-podzolising conditions also break down to form mica- smectite in the A2 horizon.
smectites and smectites (De Coninck et al. 1975; Bain 1977). ombination of silicon and aluminium released during ~he abov:
C to form allophane-like materials in the.B horizon, which
The clay minerals so formed, as well as those already present t:~~:!smore important in soils with impeded drainage.
in the soil are translocated into the B horizon, where they are deposited · · d ·ron in the B horizon,
Precipitation of organic-bound alum1n1um an i
generally at a greater depth than the iron and humus material. This
process of clay translocation was termed illimerisation by Fridland micas, smectites, kaolin from the
Translocation of clay minerals,
(1957). A to the B horizon.
Aluminium and silica released during decomposition of the clay
minerals, as well as being complexed with organic matter and deposited
(5) ~~~~~~~:n~i~~c~~~o~~~~~i~~ ~~1s:~~~~=~~b!~1~~~e:~~sc!~s~~~a~~te.
in the B horizons, may be simply taken into solution and washed out (6)
Re-crystallisation of anatase, cristobalite, etc. in the B horizon.
of the profile. Where drainage is impeded, or the soil solution held
up for an appreciable time, silica and alumina may combine to form
allophane, proto-imogolite or imogolite as described above. It is
these compounds, together with organic-bound aluminium which give the
B horizons of a podzol their 'spodic' properties. These amorphous
materials may form well down the profile as shown by the high content
of amorphous minerals in the clay fraction in the gravels at the
base of the Okarito and Addison soils (Table 1), or the observations of
Young et al. (1980) that amorphous gels could be detected in gravels
at the base of a slope, at some distance from the podzolised soils
that had formed up-slope.

Thus in weakly or moderately weathering environments, although the

morphological expression of podzols may develop, mineral transformations
need not have progressed further than the formation of smectitic minerals
 170
171

MICROMORPHOLOGICAL PROPE IES OF PODZOLS . ate or silica moder (Kubiena 1953, Barratt 1964) th .
iJ.C d h · k ese accumulations
ge from p )ell~the hum~s el to ~ellheted humicol (Barratt 1969 , table
B.C. Barratt 71
nded 19 wit t e increase in t e degree of decomposition shown
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Auckland et contents.
11
horizons show an increasing proportion of faecal pellets with d h
INTRO DUCT ION collapsed to form aggregates 1-2 mm in diameter that also coeptt.,
nY h d d . . d. n a1n
ngal hyp ae an san grains inclu ing quartz and plagioclase feldspar.
These notes are based on micromorphological studies (Barratt 1965
1971) which included three soils of the New Zealand reference set (N.z: Lower H horizons have massive microstructure but are porous a d
Soil Bureau 1968b). These are Tautuku silt loam, a podzolised southern mixed with mineral soil in places. Swollen faecal pellets (exp:nd:~e
~ell ow-brown earth on greywacke loess; Waikare silty clay loam, a podzo1-
elleted humicol (Barratt 1969)) are also present in the Tautuku profile.
ised northern yellow-brown earth on deeply weathered claystone; and
Wharekohe silt, a northern podzol on deeply weathered banded sandstone horizons have massive microstructure except where fine faecal pellets
and mudstone: Two other related soils have also been examined, and these ze preserved. Porosity is low, mainly as discrete pores and shrinkage
are Renata silt loam, a weakly podzolised central yellow-brown earth on racks. The sand is mostly quartz with a few corroded grains of mica and
weathering greywacke sandstone, and Hukerenui silt loam, a podzolised eldspar. There are fine laths of silt size. Little clay is present and
northern yellow-brown earth on deeply weathered claystone. he matrix is infilled with isotropic organic colloid (humicol). This is
oncentrated around sand grains, alongside pores and fissures, and within
The soils form two broad groupings based on morphology and related aecal pellets that are both embedded in the matrix and loose in voids.
to the climate and vegetation. Firstly the Renata and Tautuku soils, eakly birefringent organic cut ans also line the walls of major fissures.
central and southern podzolised yellow-brown earths, from cooler regions 1ant fragments in the Tautuku soil are swollen, distorted and isotropic
and secondly, the Waikare, Hukerenui and Wharekohe soils, northern ' r have been converted to strong brown streaks in the matrix.
podzolised yellow-brown earths and a podzol from warmer North Auckland.
have massive microstructure and few pores but are penetrated
The Renata and Tautuku soils occur at altitudes of 457 m and 76 m, fissures that are infilled with dark brown isotropic colloid. The
under rainfalls of 2025-2250 mm and 1275 mm, and forest vegetation of mineral skeleton is predominantly quartz and is depleted in all but a few
podocarp-beech and podocarp species respectively. Both soils support heavily corroded grains of weatherable minerals. In the matrix plasma,
kamahi, with rimu in addition near the Tautuku site. organic matter is concentrated in fine faecal pellets, partly collapsed
(massive to pelleted humicol) in the vicinity of decaying roots.
The Waikare, Hukerenui and Wharekohe soils occur at altitudes ~£
91 m, 122 m and 183 m and their respective rainfalls are 1400-1425 mm, B2fe horizons grade from black above to reddish yellow below. They have
1650 mm and 1775-2025 mm. They are developed under kauri forest and now massive microstructure. Thin sections show that the mineral skeleton is
all support manuka scrub with substories including ferns, gorse and rushe mostly quartz, with a few rounded grains of plagioclase feldspar and
hornblende. The matrix plasma ranges from isotropic reddish brown to
These soils were examined by incident light microscope and also in slightly birefringent reddish yellow, and is darkest around cavities that
thin section using a petrological microscope. are probably old root pores.

MICROMORPHOLOGY OF THE SOILS 83 horizon This is recognised only in the weakly podzolised Renata soil.
It is sharply separated from the pan by fissures infilled with fine,
The Southern and Central Podzolised Yellow-brown Earths possibly faecal, aggregates. The horizon itself has a few fine pores and
shrinkage cracks around blocky microstructure. The skeleton is mostly
These soils have thin L and F (01 and 02i) horizons over a thick quartz, other minerals being strongly weathered as in horizons above the
layered H (022) horizon. Their A2e horizons are stained with organic pan; the matrix plasma is brownish yellow, mostly isotropic, somewhat
matter, especially down blocky structure faces, and overlie B2h horizons, rough in appearance, and probably contains bacteria (as in mullicol), but
resting on a hard thin iron pan. A B3 horizon is recognised only in the also contains specks of birefringent yellow colloid (argillicol). The
Renata soil. C11 horizons in both soils are brownish vellow silt loams Plasma is more like that in horizons below than above the B3 •
with black coatings along blocky structure faces of both soils and also
on stones in the shallower Tautuku profile. c12 horizons are paler and fu_horizons Angular microstructure is mostly formed by shrinkage cracks,
stonier with depth. but fine faecal pellets also occur in pores and fissures. Irregular pores
occur in the Renata profile, and discrete, angular ones in the Tautuku.
L and_F hori~ons comprise loose leaves and twigs with droppings admixed·
I~ thin section, coarse plant fragments are weakly to moderately decompos . The mineral skeleton, in addition to quartz, in the Renata soil
with loss of birefringence and cell structure, and are associated with lncludes corroded hornblende in the sand, and muscovite in the silt.
brown fungal hyphae and bitten cavities. Within and between bitten frag~ ~n the Tautuku soil only quartz, chlorite and tourmaline persist. Stones
ments are fine (0.1 mm long) pellets of mite type. Previously named ln the Tautuku profile contain quartz, weakly weathered plagioclase and
hornblende laths in addition to alteration and weathering products such as
 172 173

A 2and A3 horizons in the Waikare soil are also mottled with few
chlorite, magnetite, and unidentified mineral residues. Grains are coated
with dark colloid, and surrounded by orange-brown birefringent plasma
~ more_podzolis~d soils with A22 and A~ horizons, 3
that contains a few fine laths. The stones are coated by a compound cutan 1atter mostly_co~sist of interlocking quartz grains (bleached sandy ·
or quartz l~thiskel). St:ucture faces a~e coated with isotropic,
with a birefringent clay skin internally, optically orientated parallel 1
yellow, striated cutans with a few adhering quartz grains and orga ·
to the surface, and a strong brown exterior associated with decaying roots. nts that have probably been inwashed. me

The brownish yellow matrix plasma in the Renata soil is somewha~ roug ~ B21hg over B22g_horizons have few pores.These contain fine to
in appearance and isotropic, with bacteria present (braunerde of Kubiena uiflsized faec~l pellets in the Waikare soil. The mineral skeleton
1954 or mullicol-argillicol intergrade of Barratt 1969). In the more udes quartz wit~ rock fragme?ts in_the_Waikare, and quartz aggregates
leached Tautuku profile it is light yellowish brown and moderately bire- he Wharekohe soil. The matrix, which includes silt-size quartz grains
fringent (braunerde-braunlehm intergrade, mullicol-argillicol intergrade). clay, is w~akly to moderately b~refringent and mottled pale greyish
Both soils contain strong brown isotropic nodules and concretions that n to browi:ish yellow (pseudoglei, or mottled argillicol) and eithe·r
range from 0.1-1.0 mm in diameter. The Tautuku soil has yellow clay ains red~ish yellow nodules and_cutans on rock faces (Waikare), or
cutans lining pores, in addition to reddish brown organic ones along t yellow1s~-brow~ cutans that line pores, and dark brown organic
structure faces and on stones. This implies that the Tautuku was a more 1oid ~hat l~nes fiss~res down 7tructure faces (Wharekohe soil). In the
leached soil prior to podzolisation than the Renata. erenui, as in the Waikare profile, material of A horizon origin (humiskel-
iskel complex) lines major fissures.
C12 horizons are similar to the C11 but are paler, have less development
of microstructure and tend to be more porous. They also contain a higher the BCg horizon develops in the weathering sandstone of the Waikare
proportion of weatherable minerals, such as plagioclase, muscovite and file, with pale ?rey an~ brownish yellow mottles concentrated along
biotite, and in the Tautuku soil, more weathering rock fragments. In bot sures (pseudoglei) but in the other two profiles more clay is present,
soils the plasmic matrix is paler in colour (argillicols). The Renata pale grey and strong brown mottles, both types in root channels, and
profile has clay cutans in this horizon in a similar manner to the C11 d~nt strong brown nodules and concretions in the matrix. Cutans on
of the Tautuku profile. ucture faces are_ layered light to dark yellowish brown, and are probably
mpound clay-org~nic cutans. :hese BCg horizons appear to have features
The Northern Podzolised Yellow-brown Earths, and Podzols both pseudoglei and stagnogle1 materials.

These have very dark brown to grey F/A 21 horizons with massive to
weak blocky structure. A22 and A3 horizons in the Waikare soil are
progressively mottled with depth, with dark greyish brown coatings on soil micromorphology indicates processes that can be explained in
blocky structure faces of the A3 • The corresponding A22 and A23 horizons the organic wasting and drift regimes of Taylor &Pohlen (1970),
in the Hukerenui and Wharekohe soils are progressively less mottled with
increased podzolisation, and are progressively paler and siltier with dep Central Podzolised Yellow-brown Earths
They have massive structure and grey coatings along vertical fissures.
~n the Rei:iata and Tautuku profiles thick mors have developed above
The B2 horizon in the Waikare, and corresponding B2 1hg and B2 2g horiz mineral soil. This shows either that conditions are unsuitable for
in the Huke~enui and Wharekohe soils, are clays that range from reddish e larger mu~l-forming soil fauna, such as earthworms, or that they have
yellow, mottled pale grey and pale brown in the Waikare soil, to predomin- t ~et been introduced. The strongly acid conditions in the Tautuku
antly grey, with reddish brown and strong brown mottles in the other two ofile (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968b)suggest the former explanation.
soils. All soils have brownish grey organic coatings on structure faces,
which range from coarse blocky to coarse prismatic. these soils plant residues are attacked by brown fungi at an early
age, accompanied, or closely followed, by rnesofauna such as mites and
BCg and Cg horizons are pale grey clays and silty clays, mottled llembola, that feed on plant residues and probably on fungal hyphae also.
reddish yellow to brownish yellow, with coarse blocky structure in the e pelleted h~micol which results seems unstable and has largely collapsed
Waikare soil and weak prismatic structure in the others, with faint grey lower H horizons. In the Tautuku profile, swollen pellets and swollen
coatings on structure faces and soft rock fragments at depth. ant fragments in lower H and A2e horizons are characteristic of mor
m~s
0
in ?le~ soils overseas (Barratt 1960; Jongerius &Schelling 1960) and
The F/A21 horizons all contain mixtures of materials, either inter- ably indicate waterlogging in the organic horizons.
penetrating, as in the Waikare soil, or thoroughly mixed. All contain
abundant strong brown, little-decomposed plant remains (humiskel) with With pellet collapse, organic colloid is mobilised and infills
associated brown fungal hyphae, charcoal and sclerotia. In the Waikare anular spaces in the A2e horizons, is deposited in the B2h horizon and
soil skeleton, minerals such as quartz, volcanic glass, chlorite and ats structure faces and stones in Bs and C horizons. In the A2 e horizon
phytoliths occur in a pale brown colloid, mottled brownish yellow to
0
~he Renata profile, where it forms intergranular floes, the colloid is
brown (weak mull humus, (Barratt 1964), argillicol (Barratt 1969, 1971))· ably more stable than it is in the Tautuku profile.
In the more podzolised Hukerenui and Wharekohe soils, there is only a
very thin particulate plasma, and skeleton grains are uncoated (bleached the Renata and Tautuku profiles, weathering and leaching are strong
sandy silt, or lithiskel). the mor humus, as shown by both the greater variety of weatherable
 174
175

minerals (such as plagioclase, hornblende and augite) with increasing

depth, and the decrease in their degree of weathering. Of the two
profiles, Renata is considered to be the more strongly weathered, becaus 6. AGRICULTURE AND
plagioclase is common to the subsoils of both profiles, but persists in
the topsoil of the Tautuku profile only. Minerals are better preserved
in the iron pan, showing that illuviated material has a protective actio uRES - LAND LOPMENT ON PODZOLISED NO
1
ow-BROWN AND PODZOLS ( GUMLANDS 1 )
Clay eluviation and illuviation are very strong in both profiles
as shown by the absence of clay from A horizons and its deposition, S.R.Hewitt, P.W. Shannon
associated with organic matter, in the hard pan. Beneath the pan, howe Ministry of Agriculture & sheries, P.B ••
clay tends to occur free of organic matter, particularly in the more i
leached Tautuku profile, with its moderately birefringent matrix, and cl &
cutans lining pores. The clay skins may represent illuviation prior to B.R. Keenan
podzolisation in a soil previously like the present moderately to strong1 Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries, Welli
leached central yellow-brown earths.

In the absence of mottles, there is no micromorphological evidence f

gleying in these soils. The presence of nodules in horizons beneath the The podzolised northern yellow-brown earths and podzols have developed
pan, resembling those in braunlehm, may indicate that pedogenesis began i deeply ~eather~d sedimentary materials. They have formed under trees
a warmer climate than at present. But the degree of flocculation and bly kauri and n~u, which were inefficient in returning nutrients to the
isotropism in horizons below the pan indicates that prior to podzolisati 1 surface. The litter of leaves, bark and twigs from these trees
the soil profiles had already reached the stage of central yellow-brown mposed slowly and a markedly acid humus tended to accumulate on the
earths. ace. Drainage from this humus leached not only the plant nutrients
als..o much of the topsoil clay. The loss of iron and aluminium, and' the
Northern Podzolised Yellow-brown Earths and Podzols ciated breakdown of clay minerals in the upper horizons of well-
eloped podzols, left them high in residual quartz and very fine secondary
In these soils under kauri forest, the humus forms were originally
thick mors, but after fire and felling, and with the influx of earthworms
massive mulls (Barratt 1964) are recognised. However, microscopic In weakly and moderately podzolised northern yellow-brown earths the
examination shows that the original raw humus or humiskel material of the s of these "active" constituents (aluminium, iron and clay minerals) has
mor humus layers has undergone little decomposition under scrub. The loo. progressed so far, and their properties are intermediate between those
fragments are mechanically mixed with mineral soil and form an unstable the podzols and the ordinary northern yellow-brown earths which are not
mixture that has washed down fissures in B and C horizons to form thick zolised.
grey coatings on peds.
The popular name "gumlands" arose from the presence of kauri resin or
Strong weathering is shown by the scarcity of weatherable minerals,
even in C horizons, except where there is possible contamination of
topsoils by volcanic ash (drift regime). Chlorite is present in the Wai
profile, but in the Hukerenui and Wharekohe profiles, weathering and
leaching are so intense that only quartz is identified, even in BC horizo .The soil~ are found on easy sloping ridges, or on the lower slopes of
1~1ng land in Northland, and the Auckland District, and on the Coromandel
Clay eluvation is strong, as shown by the uncoated skeletal grains l~sula. They occupy 200000 ha of rolling and flat land, and 120 OOO ha
in A2 horizons. Some clay is present in the weak mull humus (argillicol hilly land; particularly north of Whangarei, south of Dargaville, and
plasma) of the Waikare topsoil, but in the more podzolised soils it is th of Auckland (see Soil Map of the North Island, New Zealand: N.Z. Soil
absent from topsoils, and lower A2 horizons are almost pure quartz. eau 1968b). Included are sand podzols (sand gumlands) on 53 OOO ha
Eluviated clay and organic colloid are not redeposited in a horizontal pa easy land and 12 OOO ha of hilly country north of Kaitaia and Mangonui,
as in the southern and central podzols, but illuviation is inferred from between Hokianga and Muriwai.
the marked increase in reddish-yellow mottles and the heavier textures of
B21 horizons, as well as optically orientated clay lining pores and clay ll PATTERNS AND CLASS I FI CATION
humus complexes coating structure faces.
Because of variable parent material, degrees of weathering and
Strong gleying of pseudoglei type (which indicates periodic wetting ge~ation, soil types are complex and boundaries are ill-defined. To
and drying) is evident from the abundance of prominent mottles in B and C ~lde a more orderly description, Taylor (1952) arranged the soils in
horizons, with a few black coatings and concretions of stagnoglei charact ~tes'.', each consisting of s-0ils derived from similar parent material,
in places. In the BCg horizon of the Wharekohe profile.the_pres~nce o~ ect in sequence of their profile development.
zoned concretions probably indicates long-term waterlogg1ng in this hor1Z
either in the past or the present. ,, The principal soil suites of the Northland peninsula which are regarded
&um1ands 11 are set out in Table 1.
 176
177

<!.) ,..-...,
.µ :>-.
·14
;:::l
H
" rn U1 CS
~~<!.)
U) .-I
(I) ·rl
rn (.) ·i-4 0
rne well-developed podzols ~e.g. Whare~ohe soils) are characterised
0
H
0,)
(lj > s
;:::l ·rl
U1
H H .-I '"d ·n grey structureless topso1ls overlaying a light grey siliceous
(lj 0,) .-I 0,)
(lj U1 btn which may be cemented to form a silica pan. In places,
§~ z;O·allY
' where t h e soi'l s are sand y, sub soil
. pans of humus and iron are
0,)
.µ
c~ and drainage ~s impeded (e.g. Te Kopuru and some Wharekohe soils).
.µ
•.-4 U1 .-I pans also. restrict. the depth of. plant root~ and reduce the available
;:::l .-I ·rl
U) •rl U1 ture storing capacity of the soils, rendering them more susceptible
,..-..., 0
sUJ!llTler drought.
·rl
0,)
i-<
(lj (.)
0,)
.µ
·.-4
U1
rn §
0 H
In weakly and moderately podzolised soils (e.g. Waikare soils) the
~@
bJ) (lj H
r:::'1j ·rl
;:::l '-' 0... ;:::l 0 surface siliceous horizon is absent, or only weakly developed, and the
Vi (lj 0... .-I
(J) ~ soils contain more clay and have a somewhat better structure.
.µ
.,....
::; 0,) ,..-...,
Vi .µ 0,) At first settlement the cover on these soils ranged from low scrub
·rl ,.;,:
s::
.,.... ;:::l (.) rushes, to dense manuka.
(/) cd
::;:
-0 cd :>-. Waikare, Wharekohe and Te Kopuru soils, the most extensive of these
Cl.I ;:::l <!.)
en H H
land" soils, are considered in more detail below:
c rn bJ)
n::l ~'-'
S-
S- Vl
n::l 0,) I rn Q)
.µ '1j
.,..; r:::
U1 ro bJ) .µ
Vi .-I ;:::l r::: •rl
..- ;:::l ell ·rl H (I) ;:l
Y.~llow-brown in colour, fairly high production can be achieved without
0 U) U1 0 ;:::l >. s rn s s s" Vl
N U1 .µ ell ·rl rn ::;: ell •rl rn <!.) <!.)
@
-0 cd <!.) (!) .-1 0 0 <!.) 0 ;:::l 0 ,.c: rn ,.c:
§ (lj inage if pugging is avoided. Because they ahve a less degraded topsoil
0 H > ,..-..., ·rl ,.;,: (.) .µ .-I ,.;,: .-I r::: .-I 0 0 0 0 ;.;
0.. ·rl ·rl <!.) ;:::l ;:::l ·rl ;:::l <!.) ,.;,: .-I ,.;,: .-I p... •.-i eir moisture retention in sununer is better. Some areas of this soil
.µ U1 r::: r::: 0... :>-. .µ :>-. 0... :>-. H :>-. <!.) <!.) .µ
e can be mole-drained effectively.
-0 0 U1 0 0 '1j <!.) "d "d <!.) '1j H+->H+->,.C: 0
c .,..; cd .µ p... "Cl r::: ~ r::: "d r::: ~ r::: rn .-1 ro .-1 +-> ·.-4
s r::: :::l rn r::: rn :::l § § ~
n::l cd U1 ·rl ro rn ·rl ·rl ·rl
:s:: '--' 0::: rn U1 0... U1 ro U1 ::r:: U1 U1 U1 ::;:
They have a dark grey topsoil overlying a light yellowish brown sub-
Vi
..s:: :>-. <!.) s :>-. :>-. >.
..c:
'1j
il with many orange to yellowish red mottles. Faint to prominent
+-'
S- .µ
(I)
,..-...,
..c:
.µ
·rl "d
r:::
r::: ro ·rl "d
;:::l r:::
<!.)"Cl
,.c: r::::
<!.) "d
..c: r::: .µ §
bJ) ·rl 0
n::l ·rl 0,)
"H i:::: ro 4-1 .-I i:::: cd 0 cd 0 cd ·rl tches of light grey may occur just below the topsoil. They also have
Cl.I ;:::l r::: XO"d·.-iUl cd U1 <!.) U1 ~ U1 ~ U1 ::;: ·.-4
w phosphate fixation and seemingly low maintenance rates. Some potassium
U) "d0 ::;: r::: ;:::l .-I
<!.) H " ;:::l >. H (I) "<!.) 0
s:: .µ
0,) o:::~ ell i:::: ·rl ;:l <!.) S H "Cl <!.) <!.) s H <!.)
~ H © s "§ 'xation is possible, although they do not lose much by leaching (Mr C.During,
3: •.-i '1j U1
0 r::: "d
H ro 0 ..c:ro ·rli:::: cdo .µ;:::l roi:::: ~ i:::: ro ro r:::
§ 4-1
.,..; ro
..c:
i:::: cd r::: p.,
0 +-> ro ::;: U1 ;:::l ·rl 0 0 ·rl 0 cd
$... ,.c: 0 r::: ~ :s:: -< ~ 4-1 .-I 0 U1 ::r:: 4-1 .-I .-I :s:: 4-1 .-I p... rs. comm.).
...ci ;:::l .0 cd Q)
I 0... '--' U1 U1 .µ ..c:
3: cd" .-I .-I "' .µ .µ
0 "
<!.) ,.;,: '1j ·rl ·rl >..-I Initial pH 4.6-5.2 and optimum pH about 5.5. Deficient in molybdenum,
.....- r::: <!.)" s" .,..; s s" 4-1
..c: @ r:::
0,) cd i:::: 0 U1 cd ·rl ·rl <!.) <!.)
,..... .µ 0 ~ cti U1 .-I U1 ;:::l cti ;:::l >. cti ..c: cti 0 not always responsive. In trials at low pH, responsive to lime at
CIJ ·rl .µ r::: 0 <!.) <!.) u i::::oi::::.-10 0 0 0 cti0
>, ;:::l U1
0 ,..-..., .;:l ell H H m <!.) .-I ell .-I .-I ~ .-I ~ .-I p... avy rates (about 4 OOO kg/ha) and persisting for three years; occasionally
U) :>-. .µ <!.) "p... H cd "ro >.~ H H <!.) (!) <!.)
s:: cd U1 .-I ro ro ell ~ s ~ .µ .,..; s <!.) .µ <!.) > .µ H .µ H .µ ,.c: iving seasonal responses, autumn and spring, as well.
S- ;:::l .-I '1j (lj .µ ~ ::;: ·rl ro .,..; .-1 ro ro ~ .-1 ~ ro .-I ro .-1 ell .-1 +->
Cl.J s (.) ;:::l ,.C:
s
cd 0 ;:::l cti 0 'cU ·rl 0 +-> ;:::l ·rl ;:l i-< ·rl § .,..;U1 § .,..;U1 ·rl
..s::
.µ
0 '--' U1 ~ 0... 0... :S::.-1:S::U1Q.-I ::r:: U1 ::r:: bJ) U1 ::;:
As nitrogen loss is quite severe, application of this element in late
S-
0 0,) inter could be advantageous on intensive farms (i.e. at the end of August
s::
..µ,..; s f the ground is dry enough) .
-0 ;:::l ·rl ro ;:::l
CIJ (/) ,---., ~ "Cl 0 H (lj
V1 "d ·rl i:::: .-I ;:::l ;:::l
•r- ·14
,.;,:
r:::
(lj
+-> cd p... p... 5. On recently revised soil maps of Northland (Sutherland et al. 1979,
r- ·rl >. 0 cd U1
0 rn U1 bJ) "Cl "Cl ~ ::r:: .-1 980 and in press) some Waikare soils have been renamed and are shown as
N r::: '-' i:::: i::::
§ "Cl ·rl
-0 •rl ro (lj <!.) i:::: <!.) 0 hurangi fine sandy loam, Oturu fine sandy loam, Puketitoi sandy loam and
0 0... E-< Vl Vl E-< cd E-< Vl
Cl.. "d
<!.)
Pukewaenga sandy loam.
U1 Vl "Cl
<!.) ,..-..., ·rl <!.) Vl
..-4 "d "d
().)
cd
Vl
"d w
.-I
0
Vl .-I
•rl 0
soils
(J) Vl H i:::: N .-I N
•rl bJ) (lj
~·
r- i:o '1j 0 "Cl
...ci .-I H .-1 0 N 0 Light grey in colour with a grey silty surface soil. Because of pan
>< p... "d p...
~bJ)
n::l 0 ()) r::::
I- N .µ ;3: '1j 0 0rmations, described above, shallow surface drainage is necessary. Where
'"Cl r:::: 0 r::: :>-. "d >. p... '1j
OH H
P...'-'.O 0
(lj .-I
<!.)
<!.)
U1
.-I
()) :>-.
r:::
ro
Pans are present, effects of summer drought are accentuated.
I .µ >. +-> .,..; .µ .-I
;3: .-I cti .-1
~· Generally lower initial phosphate requirements than Wai~are soils.
>. cd 0.0
.-I w 0 U1 ,.:.:: H 0 HW r::: w
~ • .-1 >. (lj Q) N <!.) 0
cd i:o
Q)
.-1
(!) .-1
til Q)
:s:
"d "d "d o::l H i:o b0 tassium in these soils is only loosely bound to soil colloids and has
0 0 0 +->
:s:: >-- >. u
" s p... ~ >-< U) >-< een found to be rapidly lost when there is sufficient water movement through
the s 01· 1 .
 178
179

3. Under similar conditions sulphate ions are also rapidly lost, henc
applications of elemental sulphur are advantageous where there is only ood results have been obtained on sloping country from burning the
annual application of superphosphate. ~ g cover of manuka and hakea. The advantages are that cutting and
_intion costs are avoided; the total area is cleared at once, there
4. Molybdenum deficiencies only show up after a few years of farming ivaer rushes than with cultivation, and the original consolidation
and not in all situations. Suspected Mo deficiencies should be checked fe;tility is retained - thus soil conservation problems are fewer.
plant chemical analysis. Copper deficiencies occur unpredictably. fe also been found that these areas stand up to drought conditions
than cultivated areas, probably because of their better consolidat-
5. Lime is required initially to raise the pH to a minimum of 5.2,
although it seldom needs to be more than 5.8.
Drainage
6. Quite high production can be obtained provided fertility is
With the exception of some Waikare soils orthodox methods of mole
and nutrients are applied at appropriate times.
tile drains are unsatisfactory because there is little or no percol-
on through the upper soil layers.
Te Kopuru sands

1. Lower natural fertility, and hence lower production - some have

on sloping country
moderate natural drainage.
The top halves of slopes are usually reasonably drained, but surface
ers of lower slopes become saturated. Seepage springs are common.
2. They have a brownish-grey or grey topsoil overlying a white, very
leached layer which is cemented in places. Beneath this are pans of ded bank work on moderately to strongly podzolised soils in Northland,
the dual purpose of control of sheet ero5ion, and surface drainage,
humus and iron, starting 20-45 cm below the surface. Because of ~ow to
be installed on slopes of up to about 15 . The purpose of these
clay content and the presence of pans at shallow depths, these soils ha
ded banks is to lead the water off the slopes to safe outlets. The
low available moisture storage capacity and are especially susceptible
st-~equirement then is to select outlets which are unlikely to erode,
summer drought.
these may need to be 'pair-planted' with willows or poplars the winter
.eceding the construction of the graded banks (See Fig .1).
3. They are more acid (pH as low as 3.8), low in phosphate, and
potassium, nitrogen and sulphur are readily lost when there is much
movement (laterally or vertically) through the soil (Hogg 1965).
'Pair-planted_·
4. They are deficient in copper, and usually deficient in molybdenum. willow poplar 9 •

poles ----
CLIMATE
The characteristic high water rainfall, occasionally from cyclonic
storms, accentuates nutrient losses and aggravates wintering problems.
Because of flat gradients in many valleys flood rises can be very
spectacular and damage serious. Floods may.occur in any mo~th althoug
the greatest number (45%) occur during the winter months (Soil Conserva
&Rivers Control Council 1957).
Although temperature is very suitable for pasture growth, summer
moisture deficits are common.

LAND DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES

I. Clearing and cultivation ....
The predominant cover of manuka scrub is crushed with a crawler
tractor, or cut with a rotary slasher, and burnt. Where deep gum holes
present these need to be filled and given time to consolidate - up ~o 2 g. 1 Plan view of Graded Bank Drainage System
years. Past methods of cultivation have been mainly to plough or giant
disc, and fallow for up to 2 years. With thorough cultivation in the
spring and summer good seed-beds can be prepared.

From experience gained on hill country direct sowing where lack of

gum holes permits may be desirable.
 180
181

The top bank of a paddock that does not go to the top of a hill or catch~
ment becomes a diversion bank, and needs to be larger than the lower flat country
graded banks and on a lesser grade (1 in 150) so that water velocity is 011
less and excessive scouring in the channel is avoided. The banks must rne only d:ain~ge syste~ adaptable to ~lat country is the "hump and
be surveyed and should be spaced about 20 m apart. Optimum length is 11 and again, 1nstallat1on should be w1th a road grader. The first
0
240-300 m and grades vary according to length and range from 1 in 80 to ~tY is to obtain and consolidate a satisfactory outlet and then the
1 in 100 with the steeper grades being used for short banks and the tlare graded up so that the height above the hollows is approximately
flatter for longer banks. 5
cm (to allow for some consolidation) and the hollows are usually
d 10 m apart. Depending on the conditions improved drainage is
The bottom of the channel should be cut into impervious material and ~ned with little or no fall in the hollows.
the maximum height to the top of the bank on the lower side should be
40 cm after consolidation - width at this top level should be approximate1 sometimes a network of shallow surface drains put in by a spinner
270 cm (see Fig.2). This drainage work is usually done in summer in ner has been used. They are easily damaged by stock and therefore
established pasture. The uphill side of the channel must be cut down to a limited life, and because the surface between the drains remains
a similar slope to that of the hill to permit crossing of the banks by y water does not flow into them. For these reasons the system is very
tractors and other farm machines. ffective.
Irrespective of what type of drainage is used "gumland" soils are wet

I. Lime and fertiliser requirements

Slope of Hillside Fertiliser Recommendations for the Grassland Soils of the Whangarei
nty,. by J.D. Currie and J.R. Oliver, 1969, contains detailed information
fertiliser requirements for the various soil types. Table 2 is a
ry for the four most extensive types of the podzolised yellow-brown
rth and podzol soils.

Initial cut made by Upper bank cut back STURE ESTABLISHMENT

grader down to the to this line to allow for
impervious material easy crossing
Autumn sowings (March-April) after summer cultivation are normal
though there are risks of erosion. Early sowing to permit grazing
fore the land becomes wet is desirable.

carrying capacity is high, or is expected to be high a seed

Fig.2 Elevation view of a Graded Bank 25 kg Nui ryegrass
5 kg Manawa ryegrass
5 kg coated inoculated Pitau white clover or
3 kg not inoculated
The spoil bank must be consolidated and smoothed off to provide a 35 or 33 kg/ha
neat finish and minimise subsequent weed infestation, before the whole
of the disturbed area is sown back to pasture in the autumn. as proved adequate for good establishment and production where a full
opdressing policy is followed.
for drains to remain effective, maintenance is essential, as also
is accuracy in planning and installation. Proposals are prepared by Woogenellup subterranean clover inoculated, at 1 kg/ha, can be useful
the Local Catchment Authority or the Ministry of Works and Development for drier, less heavily grazed land. Paspalum is not sown in autumn
Soil Conservation Staff, who also survey the banks. Banks should be because germination then is poor. Its spread is encouraged by the feeding
0ut of hay in winter and closing areas in summer. Grasses such as timothy
.constructed with a road grader as this is the most suitable machine for
obtaining an accurate gradient. Normal farm machinery is usually not (Lambert 1967) and crested dogstail make a very small contribution to
suitable. total pasture production and should be omitted.

Graded bank work constructed over whole paddocks or catchments is On virgin country, clover seed should be inoculated and pelleted.
eligible for a $1 for $1 subsidy by the Soil Conservation and Rivers
Control Council. Subsidy rates change from time to time and Local Clovers are often dominant for 2 years or so in pastures established
Catchment Authorities have details. on new country because of the low nitrogen status.of most of these soils.
Overgrazing during this period should be avoided.
 182
183

Table 2 Lime and fertiliser requirements for Northland podzolised

soils (source - Aglink AST 11/Tech BK2/8) tMS and HS refer
to medium and high stocking rates ·t:rogen may give worthwhile responses when applied as soon as
Nlacticable in early spring.
p:r
Parent Typical Soils P reguirements Lime needs some cases lime only responds by releasing Mo - hence its
Material (kg P/ha/yr) (100 kg/ha) 1nplication is unnecessary if Mo super is used instead. Field
Initial lst 10 yr After 10 yr ~~ials are necessary to establish the requirements of both.
Sandstone Waikare 100-120 35-50 25 pH a good guide: As these soils have low phosphate fixation properties rates of
and lime to pH 5.2-5.8, this nutrient can be reduced, but because of factors discussed
Hukerenui 70 - 80 25-35 15-25
mud stone 40-50/4-5 yrs on under Wharekohe and Te Kopuru soils, K losses may be considerable
Wharekohe 60 - 70 25-35 15-25 easy country, and thus maintenance rates need to be high.
10-15/4-5 yrs on
hills copper toxicity can occur if applications of CuS04are made each
year. It is important that grazing animals are kept off copper-
S needs K requirements topdressed pastures until adequate rain has fallen to wash the
Waikare Super After a few years of farming, fertiliser into the ground. After the initial development period
Mst - 25-40 kg K/ha, further additions of copper should be assessed by levels in the
Hukerenui Super HSt - 50-76 kg K/ha herbage or deficiency symptoms in the stock. Copper is very
Super (in some persistent in the soil and actual maintenance requirements are
Wharekohe situations, the use likely to be low (or even negligible) once a pasture level of
10 ppm has been reached. The chances of excessive intake by
of chemical S may be
necessary) sqil ingestion are greatly increased if copper-topdressing is
done frequently.
Trace elements
Animals showing signs of copper deficiency can be treated by
Waikare Mo 150-300 g/ha every 3-5 yrs injections or drenches, and veterinary advice should be obtained.
Cu may be needed on Wharekohe
Hukerenui
Wharekohe J soils

P requirements Lime requirement!?

(kg P/ha/yr) (100 kg/ha)
Weeds such as gorse and rushes have proved major problems. High
Initial lst 10 yrs After 10 yrs tility, vigorous growth and high stocking limit their spread, but
Sands Te Kopuru 70-80 25-35 15-25 Lime to pH 5.5- ing or rotary slashing may be necessary. If not handled properly
25-30/4-5 yr ir control can be an expensive and recurring maintenance cost.

S needs K requirements
Te Kopuru Super, some elemental S may If K test below 8, The authors would like to acknowledge the help of B.E. Burridge
be beneficial in some Mst- 40-50 kg K/ha, rthland Catchment Commission) and J.E. Cox (Soil Survey Office, Auck-
circumstances Hst- 50-75 kg K/ha d) in updating this article which first appeared in the Research
ision, N.Z. Department of Agriculture Technical Handbook on Pastures
Trace elements 971), section P9 (c) .
Te Kopuru Mo

Notes to Table:
1. Because of heavy winter rains which may result in high rates of
sulphate leaching, spring topdressing is common on these soils.
If sulphur-fortified superphosphate is used, the time of fertiliser
application is probably not important due to the long-term effects
of the elemental sulphur. On intensive farms, where split
applications are used, sulphur-fortified superphosphate is not
necessary.
 185
184

, subsoils scour readily and

SE NIUM DEFICIENCY IN NORTHERN PODZOLS ilY blocked.by sediment, hence surface are
employed.
111
J.H. Watkinson characteristic chemical features of
Ruakura Soil & Plant Research Station, Hamilto include very low topsoil contents of clay minerals and
cations and anions is low. (1961) and
studied lime and iser requirements for
Very few animal dosing trials with selenium have been conducted on on silt loam and Greenwood (1961) has studied
Northern podzols and results have been inconclusive (Ministry of Agricu obial needs. Goold (1970) investigated iser
ure &Fisheries, unpublished data). zW,harekohe soil plus the Waiotira suite and also
iliser trials on a wider range of podzolised soils.
Topsoil samples of both Te Kopuru and Wharekohe soils have total minendations for the Northland soils, including the
selenium values ranging from 0.2-0.5 ppm (Watkinson 1962; Wells 1967; en by (1967a}.
Watkinson,unpublished data) indicating a deficient to marginal status
(Watkinson 1962). One Tree Point soil (Wells 1967) is probably similar. Wharekohe silt loam, agricultural lime at a rate of 1 will
Although selenium does not move down the profile under podzolisation as about 0.4 units. Natural :may be as low as 4.0 but white clover
much as iron (Watkinson 1962), there is some accumulation in both the to phosphate thrive at about 5,2, of
humus and iron enriched horizons (Wells 1967). The topsoil of Wharekoh low level of aluminium. For clover establishment, 3-4
retained much less added selenite (John et al. 1976), and selenate and pH can be maintained in a desirable range for
(Watkinson, unpublished data) than topsoils from any other soil group. 1 t/ha of lime every 3 years, On less podzol soils
requirement tend to be higher, although this may be
Levels of selenium in white clover from 10 farms on Te Kopuru and use of molybdenum. Clover seed should be
Wharekohe soils indicated a lack of pasture selenium for stock (<0.02 p
Se, Andrews et al. 1968) for about one third of the farms, and the medi is extremely low in the virgin soil, and
level was lower than those for other Northern yellow-brown earths kg/ha of superphosphate are recommended
(Watkinson, unpublished data). Blood samples from cattle on these period of clover il
are also low and show about one third of the herds to be deficient and after a total input of 2000 of
(A.J. Fraser, pers. comm.). few years, relatively low (200
to maintain vigorous clover. Since S retention is
a elemental S is needed (10 Potassium requirements rise
m 125 kg/ha for development to 200 kg/ha/year for maintenance
PASTURE DEVELOPMENT ON A NORTHLAND "CLAY" PODZOL rates). Pasture responses to :magnesium have not been

trace element picture is less clear. suggested that

essive liming could induce boron copper deficiency and in the
P. J . Rumba 11 ver responses to copper have been recorded at sowing down and several
Grasslands Division, DSIR, Kaikohe ars later. Molybdenum has not been shown necessary
s use may suppress the availabil of copper to 1
wn marked responses to cobalt when applied with rather
The "clay" podzols (gumlands) of Northland developed on massive but responses to selenium have been slight
sandstone (Waiotira suite - Wharekohe sandy loam), claystone (Omu suite
Wharekohe silt loam) or alluvium (Whareora suite - Kara silt loam or cla production on silt loam of
parent material under mainly mor-type vegetation. Soils were further matter/ha over 7 years (Lambert et al. 1979) which has 20
degraded by extensive vegetation burning by Maoris and gumdiggers. s/ha with satisfactory wool and lamb production levels Boyd
80). Stock production is indirectly limited by the pan
The gumland soils had both physical and chemical features which rizon in two ways. Areas of saturated soil occur in
discouraged their use for arable or pastoral farming despite the general ich pasture growth and utilisation is poor, and conversely,
favourable topography. The chemical problems have been largely resolved ter storage of the topsoil means that even during the main flush,
through research - the physical ones remain and are avoided rather than Sture growth is sensitive to spells of drying weather. Characteristic
overcome. eatures of the pasture growth curve are a relatively flat spring/early
ll.mmer peak and a relatively high autumn/winter Such a curve
Of the gumland soils, the Wharekohe silt loam (Omu suite) has been ends to be out of phase with the demand curves dairying lamb
studied the most intensively. The A1 horizon is water retentive (Gradw llterprises. High stocking rates need to be accompanied by to
1971) but generally shallow. The silica pan of the A2 horizon reflects ~imise treading damage to the pasture. When soils are wet and feed is
the original vegetation pattern, varying in occurrence, in depth (S-30 lng rationed, frequent stock shifts (probably daily) and a area
and in thickness (up to 20 cm) . The pan impedes internal drainage and or cattle, are desirable.
sloping ground causes a complex pattern of seepage. Despite being colfllll0
 186
187

Saturation of this soil in late winter is followed by acute nitroge

deficiency symptoms in September and a poor mid-spring flush. Responses~ re was a constant.need to gather and dispose of timber. The
to urea of 12.7 kg of DM/kg of N have been measured at this time by Steel n; of farmers on these soils at this time were dairy farmers who
(1976) who found very low nitrifying activity which he attributed to soil ~ a few acres each year gradually converting these rather inhospitable
overwetness. Sulphate of ammonia is generally preferred to urea becaus eto improved pasture.
of the recognised need for extra S with low superphosphate inputs.
Nitrogen additions through N-fixation by white clover have been assessed 5
the area of improved grasses increased, and perhaps also as
at 380 kg/ha/year during two good clover years (Rumball 1979). There was dence on the monthly dairy cheque decreased, cows gave way to sheep
close correspondence between N-fixation rate and clover growth which odaY sheep are dominant.
implies either bottlenecks in the mineralisation process, or the occurren
of large losses of N from the sytem. development, lack of finance and advisory information both
'ned to prevent adequate applications of fertiliser. The improvement
Pasture and stock production per unit input of lime and fertiliser 55 was slow and it was only after many years of continuous topdressing
is considerably higher for the Wharekohe silt complex than for less e gradual increase in stock density that pastures began to produce
podzolised soils in Northland. Such indices will become of increasing factorily. Time was in fact almost a development tool and patience a
importance so that what was once considered among the least desirable soi nece~~ary requirement.
could become among the more highly valued.
In the mid 1960's topdressing trials were laid down on these soils.
e trials very quickly established the need for heavy initial applications
osphate. With heavy applications pasture response enabled stock
ity to be increased dramatically and the time taken for conversion to
producing pasture shortened considerably. The recommendation for these
AGRICULTURE ON THE PODZOLS OF OTAGOJ SOUTHLAND 5 now is for an initial application of 800 kg P/ha preferably applied
split dressing half in spring and half in autumn. Lime is also
AND STEWART ISLAND ired with an initial application of 2~ tonne/ha being desirable. In
e trials a response to potash was not obtained.
A.R. Rankin Maintenance dressings of lime and fertiliser follow the general South-
Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries, Invercargill pattern of 200-250 kg/ha of superphosphate per annum and ~ tonne
/ha every three years. Copper has been shown to be deficient on the
Agricultural production on the upland podzols is limited. ier areas of the Tisbury soils while cobalt would generally be regarded
status is very low and drainage is poor. While there are some exceptions deficient over both Tisbury and Hinahina soils.
the majority of these soils are either under forest or retired from grazi
The soils were formed under rimu, rata, kamahi and beech forests on the The other important factor in development is drainage. Initially open
lower areas and alpine vegetation and snow tussock in the higher lands. ins were widely used but the main method now is clay tiles; in many
es these drain water to open drains. Mole drainage while used to some
Soil erosion (sheet, scree and gully) is common on these soils and ent has limitations. In the peatier areas timber can be an impediment
this erosion is still active in many places. Burning and overstocking the mole plough while in other cases what can best be described as a
in the past have added to the problem. The carrying capacity of these soi ented gravel strata successfully prevents mole ploughing. In many cases
is low and they are mostly too poor to respond to aerial topdressing. is this cemented gravel which aggravates the poor drainage situation.
Retirement from grazing is essential in many cases. However, the possibil
of exotic forestry should not be overlooked. These areas are well suited After development reasonably intensive farming is possible. This
to exotic forestry with an upper altitude limit of around 700-800 m. Abo eludes sheep, cattle and some dairy farming, with the growing of
this altitude protection forestry or grassland should take over. As well Plementary feed crops and fattening of livestock. Carrying capacities
as being of economic value, forests would help to regulate runoff and around 7 to 12 stock units are obtainable, although there are wide
provide protection from erosion. iations in stock carrying ability.

Like the upland podzols, the lowland podzols are also low in nutrient While the high costs of development, the need for high initial phosphate
status and also suffer from impeded drainage. A substantial proportion of Puts and the somewhat lower productivity than the rest of Southland make
these soils are covered with forest or cut-over forest which has reverted se soils less attractive, they nevertheless contribute significantly to
fern and scrub. However, two of the lowland podzols have been developed Uthland's agricultural economy.
for agricultural production. These are the Hinahina and Tisbury soils.
Both have been formed under forest, the Hinahina under rimu, kamahi and
broad-leaved forest and Tisbury under rimu, kamahi and some red tussock a
manuka scrub. Development has been slow and tedious, involving hard wor
and fairly high financial inputs. With the earlier developed areas draina
was provided by open drains, timber was hand cleared and burnt, the area
swamp ploughed, sown to winter feed crop and eventually to grass.
 188
189

SHORT COMMENTARY ON THE AGRICULTURAL USE OF PODZOLS

·n the early 1970's in an attempt to establish exotic plantations
OF THE WEST COAST1 SOUTH ISLAND 1 ·1
factor1 Y·
Immediate problems ~rose because not only was general growth poor
R. Lee, Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt stablishment_of a pine crop was.very difficult. The problem of
J.D. Morton h on poor soils, was solved during the 1950's and 1960's with research
District Agricultural Scientist, MAF, Greymouth ikare clay and other podzolised yellow brown earths, (Weston 1956,
1969, Rawson 1972). Experiments on unthrifty stands demonstrated
The agricultural practices involved in the development and use of growth could b~ boosted to econo~ic_levels by the application of
podzols of the West Coast are basically the same as those discussed fa phosphate .. This suggest~d that 1f it was possible to get a crop
gley podzols (Morton 1980a). In particular plant nutrient deficiencie rlY established and growing well, then the application of fertiliser
are very similar and both groups are treated similarly with regard to d maintain growth rates. The first step therefore was to find a way
fertiliser use and liming. Of particular relevance here are articles st growth at the time of establishment. The soil problems of poor
Morton (1980c) and Smith &Middleton (1980) discussing field trial age, ironstone pans and low fertility are repeated in many areas of the
results and plant nutrient deficiencies on gley podzols and associated ern Hemisphere. Establishment research in these areas was investig-
and techniques adapted for use in local conditions.
In terms of areal extent, podzols are of less importance for
agriculture on the West Coast than gley podzols, there being approxima
50 OOO ha of podzols suitable for agricultural use.
Information was principally gathered from the U.S.A. which showed
cultivation of poor soils, largely to improve drainage, had beneficial
cts in the establishment of plantations. Methods had been developed
h made such afforestation an economic and practical reality.
FORESTRY ON PODZOLS OF NORTH AUCKLAND Four main techniques of cultivation have been tried locally since
time. They are rotary hoeing, ripping, bedding, and ripping combined
P.J. Thode bedding. Generally rotary hoeing proved to be unsatisfactory,
N.Z. Forest Service, Kaikohe or bedding better, but not as good as a combination of the two.

HISTORY
technique employed is similar to that used in quarries and road
Until fairly recently exotic afforestation, particularly of Pinus struction except that one centrally mounted ripper on the back of a
radiata (D. Don), was not seriously contemplated on the podzol soils o ked tractor is usually employed. The ripper is sufficiently long
Northland, i.e. Wharekohe silt loam, Te Kopuru sand, Te Hapua sands, K t a rip of be.tween 75 cm and 90 cm in depth is produced.
silt loam and Parahaki fine sandy loam.
Initially a standard rock ripper was used to burst the pan to increase
Planting had taken place in the past in some areas on a limited s . penetration and ensure better drainage. As work progressed it was
but the trees were so unthrifty that any major establishment was ruled d ~hat in many cases this technique simply formed a slot in the ground
In fact even on the better soils such as Waikare clay and Hukerenui si minimal soil disturbance and pan bursting.
loam (podzolised yellow-brown earths), pines required topdressing with
superphosphate before they would grow at a reasonable rate. Tree crop To overcome this shaped wings were attached behind the ripper tip.
were uneconomic without topdressing. se wings are placed slightly above and behind the ripper tip and are
led down. Their function is to maximise soil and pan shatter by upward
Besides the problems of poor drainage, the podzols' low nitrogen A triangular shaped soil disturbance is created.
and phosphate status prevented other than stunted growth . . The use.of
southern pines (native to southern U.S.A.), particularly P~nus eii~ott This technique does not provide the best growing conditions and has
(slash pine) was mooted because in their native habitat they grow on r~nfortunate side effect of providing a deep channel. If carried out
phosphate deficient soils. They were, however, also very unthrifty. lght angles to the contour on steep slopes, or where soils are very
able, accelerated erosion can be induced.
For many years therefore, the podzol soi ls were ignored for fares
development, and even the Forest Service did not consider experiments
worthwhile.
'hThis technique comprises the formation of a mound. A bedding plough
The boom in forest development which started in the 1960' s brough c ~as opposing discs is employed. These discs throw the soil inward
attention once again to these soils, mainly because there were many l!! m either side and form a raised central bed. The dragging in of soil
areas of them idle in Northland. Research work started on State Pores m the edges also causes shallow drains to be formed at the bed edges
this assists in the draining process.
 190
191

In operation the plough works similarly to a double mouldboard sw Beside rip 3.39
plough and in fact the earliest experiments in Northland
with two opposing passes of a swamp plough. Between rip 0.52 7.24
Control 3.91 12.12* 3.81
Frequently a moulding device is also towed behind the plough. The
purpose of this is to shape and consolidate the bed. Shaping is usefu1 Rip and Bed 4.90 0.03 15.57* 20.49*
for water shedding and the consolidation process is essential to reduce
the air cavities in the bed caused by soil clodding. These moulding In rip Beside Between Control
devices come in various shapes but a sideways lying hour glass configura rip rip
ion is commonly used. * significant at 95% level

RESEARCH TRIALS ast major Forest Service trial to test site preparation was established
mpartm~nt 2~, Waipoua State Forest in_ 1975 after delivery of a bedding
The majority of research work has been carried out in a co-operativ h. T~is.trial (A479/1~ tested four different cultivation types, i.e.
manner between local research staff, and the Forest Research Institute, ripping only, bedding only and ripping and bedding. On this
f~rtiliser used was diammonium phosphate (18:20:0) which
Forest Service work on podzols has been confined mainly the nitrogen the previous trials had shown was necessary.
sands, Te Hapua sands and Ohia sands, although areas of Kara
and Wharekohe silt loam have been treated using the technique. After three years of measurements (1978) differences between the treat-
s could be described as spectacular.
The first trial (A578) was established in 1973 on a block of land
just to the south of the Parengarenga Harbour (Ballard &Mead 1976). Th of height measurements as at 1978 is shown here:
trial was a series of four Uniform Establishment Trials (a standard FRI
technique combining cultivation and fertilisers). One of these (A578/C) Rip Bed Rip/Bed
was on Te Hapua sand. Cultivation consisted of rotary hoeing followed 96.1 cm 139.2 cm
ripping to a depth of 60 cm. Rotary hoeing was detrimental in that it 123.5 cm 191. 3 cm
made the site boggy after prolonged rain.
e these figures show large differences between the treatments they tend
nderstate the case as the difference in mass of above ground foliage,
Results after 2 years showed that the addition of nitrogen ches, trunk etc. is even more pronounced.
phosphate in combination significantly increased height growth.
cultivation however, response to nutrient was not significant.
An ANOVA table comparing the site preparation methods is as follows
State Forest was used for many subsequent trials with Te Kopuru sa~d height growth:
the chosen soil type. Large areas of this soil exist in the forest.
Rip 56.9**
The next trial (A563) was established in Compartment 63 of Waipoua
State Forest. This local trial contained three major cultivation treat- Bed 11.1 ** 5.7*
ments, i.e. ripping only, ripping and bedding and control. This was the Rip and Bed 163.2**
first trial to incorporate bedding and a swamp plough was utilised. 27.4** 44. 5**
Within the ripping treatment trees were planted in three different locat
i.e. within the rip, beside the rip, and midway between the rips. Super Control Rip Bed
phosphate at 112 g/tree was applied after planting. * Significant at 95% level
** Significant at 99% level
Rotary hoeing which had been used previously (A578) was discontinue
because of the poor drainage it induced, and the concept of raising a be
a result of the achievements from these research trials and other local
was introduced.
s, it has been accepted that cultivation of this type and topdressing
h NP fertilisers will ensure satisfactory initial establishment of
Trial results are not as spectacular as those achieved subsequently, pine on podzols in Northland.
but the control and the between rip plantings were markedly inferior to
the others in terms of height growth. There was not the anticipated RENT ESTABLISHMENT TECHNIQUES
difference between bedding and no bedding and this has been attributed t
the rolling nature of the site improving drainage, the poorness of the b
The results of the trial work have now been applied in practice over
structure, and the use of superphosphate where nitrogen should have been
included. ~iderable areas in Northland.
1
The Forest Service has established
ata pine on approximately 1000 ha of Te Kopuru sand and on limited
An ANOVA table of height growth from the trial is reproduced here:
e~s of Kara and Wharekohe soils. Private industry has planted approxim-
y double that area on Te Kopuru, Te Hapua and Wharekohe soils.

n Because large areas of these very poor soils are commonly in single
hership, their acquisition for forestry is somewhat easier than would
erwise be experienced, and afforestation is proceeding apace.
 192
193

The normal procedure to establish a tree crop is as follows:

(a) Crushing and burning t this stage it appears the first aerial application will be required
e trees are four yea:s.old ~nd based on previous experience every
It has been found that if the vegetation clothing the site before ars the:eaft~r. Fert1l1ser_is_expected to be superphosphate except
planting is larger than approximately 0.5 m high, then the crushing and 5 that immediately after thinning an NP fertiliser could be usefull
burning of it will be essential. Bedding ploughs produce a better bed ed· Th~ trees should :e~pond significantly since the site will no~
clear ground and the height and form of the beds is critical to early lY 0 cc~p1ed by the remaining trees and they will also be responding
growth. Burning reduces the available nitrogen and phosphate by volati e thinning.
ation which unfortunate in soils where there is so little available
initially. However the advantages of a clear site and the addition of E GROWTH RATES
fertiliser are found to outweigh the disadvantages.
old unfertilised plantings on podzol soils in Northland are very
(b) Ripping and Bedding iftY and it is doubtful if site indices of even 15 m have been achieved
index is defined as the height of a tree at 20 years of age).
This operation, which is carried out in one pass, is a summer time
operation as the sites are normally so wet as to preclude machine opera proviping growth rates are maintained at the levels currently being
during the winter. Beds are normally 3.0 m to 3.6 m apart, but in some ienced there should be little difficulty obtaining site indices of
cases very large tractors (D9 equivalent) are used with two rippers and
ploughs.
With the shattering of the pan to depths of 75-90 cm, the consequent
A further advantage of doing this work during summer is that any disturbance, better drainage and the application of fertilisers
clods of earth in the bed (which produce air pocJ<ets) are broken down b icient nutrients should be available for good growth during the first
settling and rain before planting occurs which is essential if an hour tion. After clearfelling the slash remaining will return nutrients to
glass moulder is not used. soil and the presence of the stumps and roots should help the so
cture (Ballard 1972).
(c) Planting
Studies of second rotation radiata pine growth rates on Waikare clays
Hand planting, irrespective of topography appears essential when Riverhead State Forest (Berg 1975) have shown that better growth is
bedding is used because any further machine interference tends to destr ng achieved during the second rotation than the first with the addition
the bed shape. Planting is however very rapid and cheap because the fertiliser at planting and ripping of the heavy clay.
planting lines are well defined, clean and the soil quite friable.
It is possible that there may be similar responses on Northland podzols.
(d) Hand topdressing
The addition of NP fertilisers by hand is carried out after
is completed. Normally the fertiliser is placed in a spade slit Satisfactory establishment of radiata pine forest has been achieved on
15 cm of the seedling. zol soils of N?rthland. The cultivation technique of ripping and bedding
proved essential and now is widely applied. The addition of fertilisers
Mechanisation of this process has been considered through the use o t~i~ing nitrogen and phosphate is also necessary to promote early growth.
a fertiliser box mounted on the front of a tractor. This method is viding the rate of early growth can be maintained over the rotation
employed in the U.S.A. at the same time as the ripping and bedding. forestation will be an economic venture on these poor soils. '
constant stream of fertiliser is laid on the ground and then incorporat
into the bed. Early trials indicate that subsequent rotations may fare even better
soil structure and nutrient content appear to be improving on poor soils
It may not be suitable where NP fertilisers are in use because the other places.
nitrogen may be leached out before the trees are able to utilise it.

Most early trial work and normal planting used superphosphate at

rates of 113 g or 170 g/tree. The Uniform Establishment Trials with
their combinations of N and P proved conclusively that nitrogen was
beneficial on these soils.

Currently diammonium phosphate 18:20:0 or Ammophos 10:18:8 is used·

(e) Aerial topdressing during the rotation
Because the planting of podzols on a major scale is a relatively new
phenomenon there has been little aerial topdressing after planting.
 195
194

offer any
FORESTRY ON PODZOLISED SOILS IN OTAGO AND SOUTHLAND associated with
or waterlogging on , but do e
for roading or logging with tractors.
J.R. Purey-Cust
N.Z. Forest Service, Invercargill of a r~tation .300 years) makes any
management on a commercial scale of that species unl
of indigenous forest to exotic
Apart from some high altitude soils above the tree line, all the Forest Policy of the New Zealand Forest
podzolised soils in Otago and Southland appear to have been under
indigenous forest at the time of the European arrival, and to a large
degree they still are, though in many places logged.

On the mainland there are two predominant forest types - either

HI D
principally kamahi (Weinmannia racemosa) and rimu (Dacrydium cupressin UTH IS
with a lesser occurrence of rata (Metrosiderous umbellata) and miro
(Podocarpus ferrugineus), over a variety of smaller shrubs and ferns_ G.P.S. lan
or a varying combination of silver (Nothofagus menziesii) and mountain N. Z. Forest
beech (N. solanclri var. cliffortioides), mostly west of the Waiau Rive

On Stewart Island, the forest cover is similar, except that there

no beech, and high forest is generally found only at low altitude. Th
vegetation is an impenetrable scrub above 300 m altitude in sheltered current ~oil classification, hill and steepland on
places and to sea level on exposed aspects. are considerably less extensive. wet-land soils
earths, so the amount of exotic forest on them is relatively
From the point of view of production forestry, podzols are regard further the interpretation of how exotic
as "mucky". They occur in a cold wet climate and lack structure, and · . podzols frequently occur as
consequence road construction and tractor logging may be expensive and with yellow-brown earths and/or wet- ised
messy operations. Traditionally, road lines are cleared wider than that assessment of the performance on
necessary and the formation left for a year to dry out before final and podzols has been restricted to less than 200 ha of
metalling and use. hill soils and Waiuta rolling soil in the of
The suitability of podzols for exotic forestry depends on elevati
and topography. The upper limit for planting is 600 m and thus the ·hi
altitude podzols of the Lammerlaws and surrounding hills have no fores
potential. At the other extreme, flat lowland soils like the Matauira
soils are liable to water-logging.
Problems with exotic afforestation are a consequence of these
characteristics. The most commonly used species, radiata pine (Pinus
radiata), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), and a variety of eucaly
are all very susceptible to problems associated with poor soil drainag
In general there do not appear to be nutrient problems, at least with
radiata pine, if soil drainage is adequate, but the needs of the eucal
have not yet been properly determined. With them, the success of
establishment and subsequent growth are both highly variable.

Apart from the physical difficulty of site clearance in a cold we

climate, the only other significant problem on these sites is a fungal
infection, Armillaria sp., which attacks and kills individual radiata 1t that between 1500 and 2000 trees per ha to be planted
pine in the first few years of their growth, on cold damp sites recent 10 g N 15 g P supplied to each seedling to boost establish-
cleared from indigenous forest. Mortality can reach a significant 1ev and assist successful competition weed , By age five or
but usually doesn't. . trees per ha can be low pruned and retained as crop trees after
1i.ng th e remain · d er. On some sites
· ·
topdressing with N and P may be
Indigenous forest management to date has consisted simply of logg es
andsary t 0 mai~tain growth so that final crop thinning to 300 trees peT
· ·
the podocarps and awaiting regeneration, which appears in 30-70 years 0 'nnin pruning.to 6 m can take place at age 9-11. At final crop
depending on the proximity of seed sources. A more positive process g a topdressing of 200 kg/ha N and 100 kg/ha P is required to
soil scarification is used in the Rowallan State Forest to obtain beec
regeneration, but generally the soils there are not podzols.
 196
197

sustain the early rate of growth. Whether further applications of

fertiliser will be needed cannot be predicted with confidence at this s

DESIRABILITY FOR EXOTIC FORESTRY

Hill and steepland podzols compare very favourably with the best
on the West Coast for growing exotic pine forests. In providing a
deeper rooting medium for trees than wet~land podzolised soils, hill a
steepland podzols lessen the risk of windthrow. Their free drainage
obviates any need for mechanical drain digging. Generally occurring in
intimate association with yellow-brown earths, the hill and steepland
podzols can be treated similarly to provide a high quality and high
yielding harvest of sawlogs and veneer logs.

B. GLEY PODZOLS
 199

7. IN IT I IFI I

CLASSIFICATION AND BOUNDARIES

SO I
J.D. Cowie
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt

GleY podzols were early recognised in New Zealand as a distinctive

f soil, and the earliest issue of the N. Z. Journal of Agriculture
a~ned an article by Aston (1910) on the pakihi soils of Westland as
were then known.

(1936) first classed these soils of the West Coast of the

as podzols and mentioned that they had groundwater at the
to the presence of an underlying hard iron pan. However,
e soils still tended to be called pakihi soils as evidenced by the
rt on the soil survey of the Westport district (Harris &Harris 1939)
e they were called pakihi soils and subdivided into several series
differing morphologies. However, not all the pakihi soils
ibed would now be regarded as true gley podzols. The common feature
st of the pakihi soils was the presence of a pale-coloured silty
ive subsurface horizon overlying cemented stony gravels and boulders.
mostly very poor and the soils are waterlogged for most of

Grange (1946) referred to the mature podzols of the West Coast and
den Bay districts as groundwater podzols and described them as occurr-
in high rainfall areas (2000 to 3800 nun) and consisting of dark brown
ty silt loam A horizons overlying grey silt loams resting at 45 to 90 cm
coarse shingle cemented by iron to form an impermeable pan which is
onsible for permanent waterlogging of the soils. This classification
followed by Gibbs et al. (1950), who followed the definition of
inson (1936).

In the 1948 Soil Map of New Zealand (Taylor 1948) these soils were
ssed as gley podzols and they were regarded as a zonal group; the
erlogged counterparts of the podzolised yellow-brown earths and podzols.
Y occurred in superhumid climates where the rainfall is in excess of
mm (Taylor &Cox 1956; Ruscoe 1975). The old term of groundwater
zol was restricted to intrazonal soils with a high groundwater table
by implication, the gley podzols are restricted to soils with a perched
ertable.

The gley podzols could thus be defined as follows:

"Gley podzols are a zonal group of very strongly leached soils

curring in superhumid areas where rainfall is above 2000 mm. They con-
t of A horizons which are often peaty, overlying pale grey coloured
massive subsurface horizons which rest in iron or iron/humus cemented
rse textured materials, generally gravels. The structureless and
ermeable subsurface horizon and the underlying cemented materials hold
the downward movement of rainwater so that a perched watertable is
esent and the soils are waterlogged for most of the year."
 200
201

However the elevation of the gley podzols to a zonal group has n

been consistent. In the 1968 Soil Map of New Zealand (N.Z. Soil Bure OTHER SOILS
1968b) they are classed as a strongly gleyed subgroup of the podzo1s
and in the Soil Map of the South Island (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a) they
are included in with the hydrous lowland podzolised yellow-brown ear The boundaries of the gley podzols with oth ·
formally defined. They differ from gley s ~~ soil groups have never
and podzols. In the Technical Classification (Taylor & Pohlen 1970) ving a perched watertable rather than a higo~ s or dgroundwater podzols
they are included in the podiform class at Category I and separated 0 d groun water table
as hydrous podic soils at Category III on the basis of their soil moi ciate d po zo 1s are better drained with little or no . ·
class. Further subdivision at Category IV is made on the basis of de ow~sh brown ( cl:romas 4 or above) horizons below the r!~~)~g and have
of gleying and on the degree of humus or iron illuviation. Further s differ from high country gley soils in occurrin at 1 umus pan.
ow 600 m) and having warmer temperature regimes.g ower altitudes
division can be made at Category VI on the basis of parent material.

Thus it appears that while the common name of gley podzols shour More formal morphological and chemical criteria
are yet to be defined.
be retained as a convenient term in referring to these soils, in a mo
detailed classification system they would best be included in a podzo
group and then further subdivided on the basis of other characterist'
such as gleying. This would follow overseas trends in the classifica
of similar soils but adequate criteria for the definition and classi
ion of these soils have yet to be set up in New Zealand. SIFIC I OF AND SOCI SOI
TERMS II IL TAXONOMY"
From the literature it is evident that most workers have regard
these soils primarily as podzols in which the podzolisation process
accompanied by intense gleying caused by blocking of through drainag J .A. Pollok
by the formation of thick structureless layers in the soil and Department of Soil Science
ion of underlying gravelly sediments (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a). Massey University
However, Ross & Mew (1975) have proposed that in some of the
occurring in low-lying positions on the West Coast now classed as gl
podzols, their morphological features are due to gley processes rath l
For 001 Taxonomy" (Soil Survey Staff 1975) th
l!C •

than podzol processes, and they should be classed as humic gley soil ·
h 1 d . e question as to
In this case, if gleying is due to a high groundwater level then, by er g ey po zols were first podzols and then gleys ·
th th d or vice versa
definition, they are not included in the gley podzol group but may b e er. ey eveloped concurrently as gleys and podzols is a d '·
better classed as groundwater podzols. e~ree it has ~ro~laimed that all wet soils are to be relegat~~ ~~ic.
r er status within prescribed orders Thus 1·f · h ·
he bl f · • we wis to be rJ.d
Those soils which have been through a podzol stage, but which, l T~~~noi~;n~· the classification of gley podzols, we should adopt
because of their impermeable nature and lack of downward movement of
water, can no longer be subject to active podzolisation, Ross & Mew WORKING GROUP
(1975) would like to see called relict podzol gleys. For the soils
which are still under an active podzolising regime, the term podzoli
gley is proposed by Ross &Mew implying that gleying is more importa Following upon the establishment of an informal working
! ems associated with 1 d group on
than podzolisation. However in the New Zealand classification, the held . h . . . g ey po zols, two most informative workshops
common name of the group does not necessarily have any great genetic the i~ t.e ;icinity of Greymouth in 1977 and 1978. In the first
significance (e.g. brown granular loam, yellow-grey earth etc.) irst ~:~~ai, ~u~arehre,fMawhe:a and Okarito soil series were studied
especially in regard to what process is more important, and there is 1eston and• Add·an in t e ollowing year the Kumara Flagstaff
· · ' '
little advantage in changing a well established name to accommodate soil . ison. Duplicate soil profile pits were opened up for
theory which may itself change as more facts are established. lt was series and full analyses made by Soil Bureau staff
8 x 2 - 16 d t . 1 d . .
Th·e
ne
t
sific t. - e a~ e soil descriptions and analyses ripe for
Soils classed as high country gley soils (Park 19721:),Leamy & dditi~nion (Thomas &_Gibs~n. 1979; see also this issue - Lee, 1980).
Fieldes 1976) could also be included in the gley podzol group accor ry Dr Guy D. ~mith visited the first four soil sites in
19 8
to the definition given above. These soils are associated with high spot { • ~ 0 .tha~ ro: these we have the benefit of his personal on-
country podzols and occur at altitudes above 600 m and under rainfal e ass1f1cat1on in terms of "Soil Taxonomy".
above 2000 mm in the rnages of the southern part of North Island an.
Otago, Stewart Island, the western flanks of the Southern Alps and
Fiordland. Confronted with the task
est . f. . of writing this article, the author decided
In view of their occurrence at high altitudes with low soil te 1 Taxono~ 1~ssi ic~tion of all 8 soils (16 profiles) according to
atures, it would be preferable to separate these soils from the 1ow order Y . for himse~f. The results are recorded in Table 1, in
varieties as a new soil group or a subgroup of the gley podzols. which the soils were examined in the field.
 202
203

u
•..-1
t/)
<!) following recent surveys the fol class according
s e NeW Zeala~d Genetic Classification have been proposed: Kumara,
ra and Okarito - gley podzols; Flagstaff and Maimai - gley soils;
son - strongly gleyed podzol; ~ukarere - podzolised gley; Charleston_
ratelY gleyed podz~l. The Addison and Charleston soils were class-
d as gley podzols in early surveys.

FI CATION

N The first problem in adopting "Soil Taxonomy" is to decide to

h order the soils belong. Since there is no soil order of "gleys"
~ no such diagnostic horizon as "gleyic", we are forced from the
0 ·nning to try for the spodic subsurface diagnostic horizon and the
s:::
0 er Spodosols. As can be seen from Table 1, all but one of the
x
'°
I- teen profiles qualified for entry into this soil order. This does
mean that for some it was not a close-run thing. This was partic-
.,.... .rlY so for the two Flagstaff profiles,
0
Vl

4- To test for a spodic horizon it is necessary to pass a position

0 e and a colour gate and then a choice of three multiple or gates,
herortstein >2. 5 cm thick or coatings/pellets where the particle
e class is sandy/coarse loamy or a succession of three chemical tests
are designed to show whether~here is an accumulation of amorphous
...... er'i'al, notably aluminium/iron complexed with organic matter .
111
..-
.,.... For some of the soils the decision would have been made easier had
0
111 re been specific mention in the profile descriptions of coatings or
-0 llets in the coarse textured horizons. True there was common reference
Q)
+> humus and iron stainings but this was not definitive enough to allow
.'°,.... ry through the coatings/pellets gate .
u t/)
0
111 ;::l
111 0
<!)
An important point to remember is that, while some subhorizon may
-0
'° .-4
ctl
.µ
u
•..-1
obvious spodic (e.g. orstein in the Okarito soil) and will allow
ry into the Spodosol order, it is necessary to test all possible sub-
s::: <!)
.-4
•.-1
'°
111
.-4
<!)
t/) izons to establish the full extent of the complete spodic horizon.
s the Okarito soil not only has an obvious orstein subhorizon in both
..- u
•..-1
~
t/)
0
N t/) ofiles, but also in profile 1 an underlying subhorizon that passes
-0 <!) 0 >-.
0 s 0 "O spodic on the chemical tests and in profile 2 an overlying sub-
0. :::i i::
O' ctl that qualified as spodic on the same grounds.
>, <!'. t/)
Q) ...:i
.-- 0.. 1--<
0 one profile (Charleston 2) which failed to gain into the
:ii ~0
O'l t/)
0 ;::l
4-
,....., :::i 0 dosols is of interest. It is formed in sandstone, reputedly of
0 O' <!)
u >-.
~ .~ :-Terangian (upper Pleistocene) age, and possesses a thin iron-pan
s::: H .µ
0
.,... 0.. .-4 [..Ll .-4 ich, however, is so thin that it cannot muster a sufficient index of
>- •..-1 0·..-1
+> E-<
......., t/) H
Cl)
t/) cumulation of amorphous material to pass as spodic. As the profile is
ttS
u
..... edominantly coarse sandy, it cannot anywhere claim a cambic horizon
.....
4- d therefore is excluded from Inceptisols. In the end it finds a home
111 the Entisols as a Spodic Psammaquent. Clearly it is intergrading to
111
s companion profile 1, which, by virtue of its thicker iron-pan, just
.-
u'° ages to squeeze into the Entic Sideraquods. On the assumption that
e sandstone comprising the parent material of the Charleston soil is
mposed essentially of resistant minerals, this is quite a satisfactory
z assification. Save that we should now think less in terms of a single
0
Cl) il series and more in terms of a soil association (if the distribution
~ern of Entic Sideraquods and Spodic Psammaquents is predictable) or a
H
0
0 01
<!'. 1 complex (if it is not).
 205
204

free iron to organic carbon ratio of <0.2 (0.11 and 0.9

SUBORDER CLASSIFICATION iv). This profile therefore clearly belongs to the Haplaquods.
ie z
ve' comp 1ete spo a·ic h. ori· zon co~1sists
· of the ortstein sub-
Once entry has b~en obtained into the appropriate soil order
(Spodos~ls) then cognizance can be taken of two other important (IIBzzfeh) and t_he overl~rng subhor1zon (IIBz ih). In this case
. for the ortstern subhon zon exceeds 0. 2 (O. 39), but that for the
properties of gley podzols, notably their universal wetness and th 0
subhorizon falls below 0.2 (0.07). Since the requirement for
common occurrence of a bleached horizon immediately above the s :
h · I · . podic gs is simply that some subhorizon of the spodic horizon has a
orizon: . n som~ soi~s, e.g. Ok~rito, the bleached horizon is thic f free iron to organic carbon of <0.2, this profile must also be
and striking and immediately qualifies as an albic diagnostic ho · k
In ot~er_soils, e.g. Maimai, it is thin or intermittent. Thus p~~~~n1 red to belong to the Haplaquods.
of Maimai manages a thin albic horizon whereas profile 2 can onl soil to which it was unnecessary to apply the above test was the
muster a few patc~es of light grey soil at the base of the A horizon This presented itself in the field as a problem soil for
In yet another ~oil, the Hukarere, the presence of greyish brown or · ~ation purposes and without Dr Guy Smith's help it probably would
brown humus stains renders the albic horizon less obvious but i't . roained one. But careful examination of the horizon immediately below
qua 1 i· f ies
· ·
in terms of overall colour value and chroma. ' st1
die zon reveals it as a fragipan. Evidence lies in the
the consistency for this horizon as extremely firm for
. While it is perf~c~ly possible to have albic horizons developed as firm in situ, friable and brittle when crushed for
in podzols under conditions of free-drainage in the case of gle well as in the figures for bulk density which are noticeably
. h · · ' Y pod
th is oriz~n is clearly_associat~d with wetness. While we might wel the horizons above in each profile. The presence
wish ~o cli~g to established notions of gleying, it is clear that the the Hukarere soil off as a Fragiaquod.
question which
h . "Soil
. Taxonomy"
. poses for us is whether .or not the soi·
ave an aquic moi:ture regim~? With a rainfall universally greater t e single profile which lay outside the Spodosols, Charleston 2,
2000 ~ and so~etimes exceeding 3000 mm, this might seem to be an tomatically into the Great Group category of Psammaquents.
academic question. However we need to remind ourselves that we t
so~
· 1 f ree- d r~ining,
· · re
such a p:ecipitat~on would simply give us ' a perud ION
moi:ture regime . . To be aquic something more is required - a reducin
re?ime must prevail. With so much organic matter present in the the soils at the subgroup level turns largely on the
~pipedons an~ t~e soil temperature regime mesic (well above the biolo of the epipedon or the presence of a placic horizon. Both the
ic~l zero), it is apparent that any water accumulating from the high re (Fragiaquod) and Mawhera (Haplaquod) have histic epipedons for
rainfall and perc~ed above the spodic horizon and often quasi-cemente neither great group makes adequate provision. The New Zealand
grav~ls_beneath wil~ be ~eoxygenated. Add to this the common experie ence would clearly indicate that there should be a Histic subgroup
of ~inding the profile pits full to the brim with water and we need agiaquods and Haplaquods.
seriously doubt that an aquic soil moisture regime prevails. All th
profiles fell into Aquic suborders, 15 Aquods and 1 Aquent. . nother problem arises with Okarito profile 1 and Addison profile 2
Haplaquods). The epipedons of these two profiles are not
GREAT GROUP CLASSIFICATION iently organic to be histic. Nevertheless they contain consider-
rganic matter and their base status and thickness are appropriate
A~ G:eat G:oup level, a common question requiring decision is wh ric, However they fail to qualify as such because their colour
th~ s~il is a Side:aquod (iron-rich) or Haplaquod (organic carbon-ric is half a unit too high (4 as against 3.5), due to the presence of
T~is_is_neatly deci~ed by calculating the ratio of free iron by citra ed sand grains among the organic matter. This forces the epipedons
dithionite to org~nic carbon for each subhorizon of the spodic horizo ruously into ochric and places the two profiles into the Aerie
If th~ value_obt~ined falls below 0.2 (i.e. if organic carbon in the up. However "Soil Taxonomy" (p 337) states that Aerie Haplaquods
den~minator is high relative to free iron in the numerator) in any s n ochric epipedon and are not quite so wet as Typic Haploquods
horizon, t~en the Aquod is classed as a Haplaquod. By contrast:--rf t have an umbric epipedon). But clearly Okarito, profile 1 and
val':e obtained equals or.exceeds 0.2 in all subhorizons of the spodic n, profile 2 are wetter than Typic due to the aquic moisture regime,
horizon, then the Aquod is a Sideraquod. It takes the breath away to ~ted with podzolisation, reaching right up into the epipedon and
how much this decision turns on the accuracy of chemical analyses per ing the sand grains. Here the New Zealand pakihi catches "Soil
by the "Labormadchen"! my" out and there needs to be some revision of the definitions.
interesting to reflect that the companion profiles of the two
. Wh~re this test was applied to 13 out of the 16 profiles, it res e~cape problems with their epipedons by virtue of the presence of
in 9 being classed as Haplaquods and 4 as Sideraquods. A surprise re n iron-pan, which siphons them off as Placic Haplaquods.
was that of the Okarito. This soil has such a massive ortstein that
has until now been assumed to be a Sideraquod. But tests on both the The Flagstaff soil (both profiles) also presents a problem at sub-
profiles (on the basis of analyses available to the author) have ciea ~evel. This arises from the presence of a histic epipedon under
classed them as Haplaquods. rion 4 on pp 17-18 of "Soil Taxonomy". This prevents it from being
and none of the other subgroups provided can accommodate it
In profile 1 the total spodic horizon consists of the orstein
horizon (IIB22feh) and the underlying transition subhorizon (IIB3)
 206 207

satisfactorily. When it is remembered that the Flagstaff is a border,

line Spodosol in the first place, and that the his tic epipedon is obta.
only after mixing the overlying organic horizon with the A horizon benl
it might be considered best to classify the soil as Entic and modify th
definition of that subgroup to accommodate a histic epipedon where
necessary. It is possibly a clue that the author's field notebook has
the entry "Typic bordering on Entic" .. The unsuspected histic epipedon
eliminates Typic. Subject to modification of the definition, Entic
would appear to be the best fit.

FAMILY CLASSIFICATION
There are some difficulties with the classification of
the family level due to inadequacies in the available data.
analyses are presented in terms of the former International System, ..-1 N ,..; N
,..; N
whereas the particle size classes in "Soil Taxonomy" are based upon siz
grades obtained in the USDA system. Furthermore no published data on t
sand and silt mineralogy are presented. These two facts introduce an
element of uncertainty into the family classification. In particular,
author finds that one or two of his mineralogy classes differ from thos
hitherto accepted. It is possible that this arises from the fact that
the majority of profiles we are dealing with strongiy contrasting parti
size classes. In this situation, "Soil Taxonomy" (p 386) states that t
mineralogy class of the upper part of the control section is definitive
The author cannot believe that the albic horizon of the Okarito soil,
which falls within the upper part of the control section, is anything
other than siliceous, al though elsewhere the particle size class for th·
soil has been unofficially reported as mixed. The author has cheG~ed h'
contention with the microscope and should like to have the opportunity
to examine the Addison soil in a similar way, for he strongly suspects
that the "sugar sandli of the upper part of that soil is pure quartz.

The control section of the Hukarere soil is interesting. Since

soil possesses a fragipan, the control section stops short at the top o ,..; N
rl N
this impediment ("Soil Taxonomy", p 385). Thus, even though gravels an
stones appear at depth beneath the fragipan, the particle size class is
recorded simply as coarse silty. At the same time the mineralogy is
reported as mixed (Dr Guy Smith's visit), but there is no way of checkin
this until the sand and silt mineralogy are available.

Fortunately there is one family criterion that is trouble free,

namely the soil temperature regime. It is me sic for all profiles.

RELATIONSHIPS AMONG THE SOILS

In order to bring out certain relationships among the different
series, they have been regrouped according to age and particle size ,.....,
,..-.. Ul
distribution in Table 2.
~
Ul

0 ~
From the table it can be seen that all of the Sideraquods are form 0 +
0 + 0
0
0
on coarse parent materials that are essentially non-contrasting in tJ") 0 0
N 0
particle size class. Three of the Sideraquods, Maimai 1 and Flagstaff :: "'
and 2, fall within the youngest age grouping while the fourth, Charlest 0 0
N
,..;
lies within the oldest age grouping. This distinction in age does not ......,
present a problem, provided the parent material of the Charleston is
revealed as consisting largely of resistant minerals.
 208 209

In contradistinction, the Haplaquods all occur on strongly cont LAssIFICATION OF GLEY PODZOLS IN RMS
ing parent materials. They are spread right across the age categor·
from youngest to oldest. However reference to the profile descript~
clearly shows a greater degree of profile development with age. 1 R.B. Miller
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
It is of interest to note that the soil which has the greatest
of silt loam material over gravels and stones, the Hukarere (Pl 87 c
P2 71 cm, x
79 cm), is the one in which a fragipan has developed, so 0
classify the New Zealand gley podzols in the FAO/Unesco system
y to Soil Units in Volume I of the Soil Map of the World texts
it is distinguished as a Fragiaquod.
~g74) is followed.
It is apparent that "Soil Taxonomy", allied with stratigraphy,
able to bring out certain relationships among the gley podzols. The The key starts with Histosols (organic soils) and continues with
no longer a disparate muddle. 50 15 , Vertisols, Fluvisols (on recent alluvial deposits),
chaks (salty soils), Gley sols, Andosols, Arenosols (sandy soils),
GENETIC CONNECTIONS BETWEEN HORIZONS sols, Rankers, Rendzinas and then comes to Podzols. Most of these
be eliminated at once, but the Podzols and Gleysols must be considered.
Elsewhere in this publication (Pollok 1980) the author has refe
to the genetic connection between soil horizons in podzols proper.
same argument applies with even greater force to gley podzols. Whi
"Soil Taxonomy" is able to identify an epipedon, an albic horizon an The Podzols are soils which do not fall into any of the preceding
spodic horizon in these soils it fails to spell out the genetic conn s and which have a spodic B horizon.
that exist between all three diagnostic horizons. Such connections
be hidden in the "infra-structure" of "Soil Taxonomy" but only the
experienced pedologist, himself well trained in soil genesis, is in
position to draw them out. The connections are vital to our under- This is defined as follows and is clearly close to the spodic
standing of the soils. Suffice to say that without its albic horizo izon of the U.S. Soil Taxonomy"
intimately connected to its spodic horizon, the Okaritq soil could b
said to be emasculated. B horizon meets one or more of the following requirements
of 12.5 cm, or, when present, below an Ap horizon:
CONCLUSION
1. A subhorizon more than 2.5 cm thick that is continuously
The gley podzols are able to be accommodated within "Soil cemented by a combination of organic matter with iron or
but only after searching analysis and appraisal. "Soil Taxonomy" is aluminium or with both.
able to bring more than a semblance of order to this complicated grou
of soils. The gley podzols, for their part test "Soil Taxonomy" 2. A sandy or coarse-loamy texture with distinct dark pellets
pointing out certain deficiencies that exist in the definitions of of coarse silt size or with sand grains covered with cracked
epipedons and subgroups, and in the nomenclature employed for particl coatings.
size classes. They demonstrate that all horizons in their profiles
genetically related, and are not simply to be stacked one upon the ot 3. One or more subhorizons in which:
On balance we can be grateful for the rigour which "Soil Taxonomy" ha (a) if there is 0.1 percent or more extractable iron, the
imposed upon our field descriptions and analytical work, and for the ratio of iron plus aluminium (elemental) extractable
manner in which it has welded these two together. If Dr Guy Smith h by pyrophosphate at pH 10 to percentage of clay is 0.2 or
put us through the hoop with the gley podzols, it has been to our more, or if there is less than 0.1 percent extractable
advantage. iron, the ratio of aluminium plus carbon to clay is 0.2
or more; and
ACKNOWL EDGMENTS
(b) the sum of pyrophosphate-extractable iron plus aluminium
The author is grateful for the opportunity afforded by the Worki if half or more of the sum of dithionite-citrate
Group on Gley Podzols to participate in two field excursions to the W extractable iron plus aluminium; and
Coast, South Island, which enabled him to encounter the soils at firs (c) the thickness is such that the index of accumulation of
hand. He is also appreciative of the data made available by officers amorphous material (CEC at pH 8.2 minus one half the clay
of the N.Z. Soil Bureau, particularly G. Mew, R. Lee, L.C. Blakemore percentage multiplied by the thickness in centimetres)
and R.F. Thomas. Finally he acknowledges the contribution made to in the horizons that meet the preceding requirements is
pedology by Dr Guy Smith, the principal architect of "Soil Taxonomy" 65 or more." ·
. Within the Podzol unit six subunits are defined. The first is the
1
ac1c Podzol with a thin iron pan in or over the spodic B horizon.
 210
21

The second is the Gleyic Podzol which shows hydromorphic properties

within 50 cm of the surface. The others are Humic, Ferric, Leptic an
Orthic Podzols.

Hydromorphic properties AJ!lOng the New ey Podzols the soils without a spodic
·zon as defined above will 1 fall into the Gleysols:
The definitions as they apply to Podzols are as follows:
''Soils showing ies 50 cm of the
surface; having no ic hoxizons other than (unless buried
"A distinction is made between soils which are strongly influenc by 50 cm or more new material) an A zon, -an H horizon, a
by groundwater, the Gleysols, and the soils of whi7h only the cambic B horizon, a calcic or a ic horizon."
lower horizons are influenced by groundwater or which have a
seasonally perched watertable within the profile, the "gleyic" The Gleysol subunits are Gelic, Pl , Mollie, Humic, Calcaric,
groups. The Gleysols have a reducing moisture regime virtually tric and Eutric, of only the Humic and Dystric need concern
free of dissolved oxygen due to saturation by groundwater or The Humic Gleysol has an umbric A horizon or a dystric histic
its capillary fringe. Since hydromorphic processes are domina rizon. The Dystric Gleysol has a base saturation (by NH 4 0Ac) of
the occurrence of argillic, natric, spodic and oxic B horizons 5 than 50% at least in some of the soil between 20 and 50 cm
is excluded from Gley sols by definition. 111 the surface.
The morphological characteristics which reflect waterlogging
differ widely in relation to other soil properties. GLEY PODZOLS
For the sake of brevity, the expression "hydromorphic propertie
is used in the definition of Gleysols and gleyic groups. This The New Zealand gley podzols as general understood and as described
term refers to one or more of the following properties: Cowie (1980a) in a previous paper in this volume meet the requirements
the spodic B horizon and properties of the Gleyic
1. Saturation by groundwater, that is, when water stands in a zol. Associated soils spodic horizon fit with Dystric
deep unlined bore hole at such a depth that the capillary wls. In the Soil of the World 1978) the West Coast region
fringe reaches the soil surface; the water in the bore hole re the gley podzols are best rep:cesented is shown as dominantly
is stagnant and remains coloured when a dye is added to it. tric Cambisols, with Gleyic Podzols and Dystric Gleysols as associated
ls in the association.
2. Occurrence of a histic H horizon.
3. Dominant hues that are neutral N, or bluer than lOY.
4. Saturation with water at some period of the year, or
artificially drained, with evidence of reduction processes
or of reduction and segregation of iron reflected by: 8. DI R I
4. 1 in soi is having a spodic B horizon, one or more of the
foUowing:
(a) mottling in an albic E horizon or in the top of the T COAST,, SO IS
spodic B horizpn;
(b) a duripan in the albic E horizon;
(c) if free iron and manganese are lacking, or if moist u, IR, Nelson
colour values are less than 4 in the upper part of the
spodic B horizon, either:
(i) no coatings of iron oxides on the individual grains
of silt and sand in the materials in or immediately belo
Soils of the flat, wet pakihi lands of the West Coast have been
the spodic horizon wherever the moist values are 4 o: mo &nised as problem soils since the first years of this century
and, unless an Ap horizon rests directly on th~ spod1c ton 1910). Early clearance of forest appeared to lead to an increase
horizon, there is a transition between the alb1c E and surface water, and this, coupled with generally low fertility,
spodic B horizons at least 1 cm in thickness, or Vented effective utilisation until new methods of development were
(ii) fine or medium mottles of iron or manganese in the ed in the last decade. The cleared forest (pakihi; a clearing) did
materials immediately below the spodic B horizon; regenerate under the influence of repeated burning and the land
~ :ted only a rush/fern/moss association. Such land extends,
0
{d) a thin iron pan that rests on a fragipan or on a spodiC hlly, from near Karamea in the north to Jacksons Bay in the south.
horizon, or occurs in an albic E horizon underlain by $
erlying soils fall within several major soil groups, mainly Gley soils,
spodic B horizon." Podzols, Podzols and Organic soils (Mew &Leamy 1977).
 212 213

MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF WEST COAST GLEY PODZOLS

The Gley Podzols have been broadly defined by Cowie in an accompany,
ing article as soils with A horizons which are frequently peaty, over-
lying pale-coloured and massive subsurface horizons. These merge into
iron or iron/humus cemented coarse-textured materials. A perched water
table is present and the soils are waterlogged for most of the year.

The following soils broadly meet this definition: Kongahu, Charles,

ton, Addison, Okarito, Mawhera, Rutherglen and Kumara. All have a
certain number of site characteristics in common. Profile features
that distinguish individuals are considered in the brief descriptions
that follow this section.

1. Site characteristics
(1) Landforms: Mainly intermediate and high terrace remnants;
some alluvial (glacial outwash) and some marine
benches.

(2) Slopes: In most instances, flat, but gley podzols do

occur on rolling slopes where surfaces have been
weakly dissected.
FIG . 1 Unlogged indigenous forest still covers some wet land soils.
(3) Altitude: 30 - 700 m High surface near Grey River, Browns Creek sawmill area, West
Coast, with Mawhera series soils under kaikawaka, mountain
( 4) Rainfall: 1500 - 5000 mm, however most gley podzols fall beech , dense shrubs and Gleichenia sp.
within the 2200 - 3800 mm range.
(Photo: Q.R. Christie)
(5) Soil drainage: Imperfectly to very poorly drained; most are
poorly drained .

(6) Vegetation: Much of the less accessible high, wet terrace land
is under pakihi vegeta~ion; wire rush, tangle fern,
sphagnum moss and patchy manuka. Some soils
classed as gley podzols, such as Mawhera, certain
areas of Addison and also Kongahu, remain under
native forest, usually with rimu, yellow-silver
pine and mountain beech. The more accessible
terraces have been developed to pasture, often
rushy, or are being used for exotic forestry.
Forest cover and pakihi vegetation are illustrated
in Figs. 1 and 2.

2. Profile features
Kongahu, Charleston, Addison, Okarito and Kumara soils were
recognised in the course of the general survey of the soils of the South
Island (N. Z. Soil Bureau 1968a). All have been further defined in
subsequent surveys as detailed below. Mawhera and Rutherglen series
have been newly defined. Photographs in Fig.3 show comparitive profile
forms of some gley podzols and associated soils. Fig. 4 shows
generalised profile features of the series involved.

FIG. 2 Often regarded as typical vegetation of , West Coast wet land soils,
pakihi vegetation on high level surfa8e near Greymouth. Sedge
clumps , wire rush and tangle fern occur over Okarito series soils.
(Photo : G. Mew)
 L:J.4

215
FIG . 3 : Gley podzo ls a n d a ssociated soils

a;
·c:
..
~
E
> ai
-0c
c 0
: .-o
1ii
.. c
..
-g :
I/)
~
0

<O
1.n

ca>i:::t
E c
s::."'
oo Oo
CJ ..

. .,
·~ >
c ·c;;

0 0 O<J c"' "C

--.
o E
-~ ~-0 (1)
I/)
Q)
(') •
"'
<O .. c -c
0 .,
.. :J ..
I/)
:::I
c CT E
A. Mawhera series under forest. B. Okarito series under pakihi u
~~~ I/)
Note surface organic accumulation. vegetation . Note humus and i ron ......

D•
"C
enrichment , 135-145 cm. 0 I/)

C. Addison series under second-growth D. Maimai series under pakihi 0 0 C1'

......
~
forest. Water perches above bouldery vegetation . Note stones to iii
C1'
I/)
;;:
layer. surface . '6 . ......
iii . 0 c
......
~~ E
> ·c
2 0
-o E
.,s::. .,~ s::.
0 I/)

- CJ
~ ·~
-0>
3 c 4-
....
E
CJ :J
§ E
~ 0"'
.0 0
0.;
0
I/)

.. :J ~~ C1'
.,_
~ s::. 0
I-/ ) .Q.
Q. ~
:::I
a:: 0 ,

•
+'
tCj
C1'
4-
cu
......
4-
0
~
c..
"C
C1'
I/)
......
;,.·. :!:)
0 C:J \"\ 0 ·.: . . ,= ,.:
D O v ··:-J?-P
···=·
Q)
O>

0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 N
N
I
(')
I
~
I
0
"'I
0
co
I
....0
. I
Q)
I
Cl)
I I
Cl
.,....
LL.

A, B & C are currently regarded as gley podzols ; D is classified as a gleY

soi l. All profiles show marked colour differences . A & B have loess over
outwash grav el; no loess is thought to be present in profiles C & D.
(Photos : A, C & D - Q . R . Christie; B - G. Mew)
 216
217

Kongahu
greyish brown humus and/or dark reddish brown iron pans underlie
Kongahu soils have brown or greyish brown humic silt loam topsails or iayers in approximately 50% of the soils observed, and only
sometimes with a bleached layer beneath. This overlies a thin very eYe strictly gley podzols according to Cowie's definition.
dusky red iron pan on a yellowish brown clay loam subsoil containing arthe gley layers, and pans if they occur, are gravels with a
bands of humus. At about 60 cm the subsoil passes into brown granite h 11owish brown sandy matrix, very tightly packed and often with
sands and gravels. Parent materials are alluvial and include sandston Y:ing iron pans to great depth. Profiles are usually about 70 cm
mudstone, greywacke and schist as well as granite. This definition has arange 55 to 100 cm) and frequently very wet, with water flowing
1~ts from upper horizons. The parent material is thought to be
been modified slightly from that given by N.Z. Soil Bureau (1968a)
following the work of O'Byrne (1978 unpublished) in the Karamea distric ver glacial outwash silts, sands and gravels. Rock types include
0
e, greywacke and some schist.
Charleston

Charleston soils are generally shallow (average 45 cm) over hard

cemented Pleistocene marine and dune sands derived mainly from granite }le Mawhera series has been newly defined in recent West Coast
and gneiss. Some Coal Measure sandstones are also included in the par
5 (Mew in press a) in the Grey Valley and Greymouth-Hokitika
materials. The soils have thin dark grey loamy sand or sand topsails It tends to occur under renmant indigenous forest and hence
over about an equal thickness of often waterlogged dark brown humic loa dusky red moroid 0 horizon, averaging 15 cm. The topsoil is
sand or sand with very weakly developed structure. A few grey mottles dark brown friable silt loam. Beneath are up to 3 olive,
may be present in the subsoil. This overlies the humus/iron cemented or yellow gleyed horizons, usually wet, with a characteristic
top of the firm and massive olive brown sands beneath. The pan at the rous smell on first being exposed to the atmosphere. These silt
interface may vary from 0.5 to 15 cm in thickness. More detailed or silt layers are usually firm and massive. A weakly developed
definitions and information on variability than those available from th of humus and/or iron accumulation is commonly present above the
1:253 440 mapping have resulted from surveys and follow-up work in the face with the underlying silty or sandy gravels at about 90 cm
Charleston-Punakaiki region (Laffan &Adams 1977; Laffan 1980; e'59 to 126 cm). Iron pans are often present in the gravels.
Mew &Lee 1981). t materials are considered to be the same as those of the Okarito

Addison

Addison soils tend to be comparatively deep but, because of the

extremely bouldery and cemented nature of lower subsoil horizons, have The Rutherglen series has also been defined in the course of recent
only rarely been investigated to their full depth (thought to extend to Coast surveys in the Greymouth area (Mew in press b). The soils
a maximum of about 150 cm). Mean soil thickness has been estimated at confined to old marine benches and are derived from marine sands and
around 50 cm (M.D. Laffan pers. comm.) with a range given from 21 to els, mainly greywacke but with some granite and schist also.
104 cm. Profiles are derived chiefly from granite and gneiss alluvium.
Characteristically the soils have a moderately thick dark reddish brown Main profile features are dark greyish brown silty or fine sandy
humic silt loam or fine sandy loam A horizon (sometimes overlain by topsoils over wet, strongly gleyed grey or olive grey, massive,
L, F and H layers) on a coarse sand or loamy sand layer which tends to Y fine sand subsoil layers. These are succeeded by dark brown humic
be single grain. This latter horizon is frequently saturated with water Y sand zones of humus accumulation on iron pans. Beneath, at about
It may vary in colour from light brownish grey to dark brown and contain m (range 70 to 118 cm) is sand or coarse sand which may be iron-
a few weatheredgranite stones. Beneath are a series of humus and iron 'ned or cemented, often containing gravel bands.
cemented layers, dark brown or dark reddish brown in colour, from 35 to
80 cm thick in total. These consist commonly of bouldery sand or coars
sand and are very firm and massive. Humus and iron coatings are present
on stones and, in lower horizons, silty clay coatings also. Horizons Kumara series has been more strictly defined in updated survey
beneath tend to be brownish yellow stony or bouldery sand, firm and k on the West Coast (Mew in press a, in contrast to N.Z. Soil Bureau
massive. They become paler with depth as little-altered parent material a). Characteristic features used in recognition are as follows.
is approached. in brown to dark brown silt loam topsoil overlies a firm, massive
or light olive grey gleyed silt loam layer (G) which does not
Okarito eed 35 cm in thickness. This layer may be mottled and contain a
humus cutans. In many instances the G horizon overlies either a
The central concept of the Okarito series defined as a result of s pan or an iron pan, or both. The Bh, if present, is usually stony
recent surveys (Mew et al. 1975; Mew in press a), is of a soil with a merges into an extremely stony or bouldery C horizon at about 50 cm
thin brown to dark brown silt loam topsoil, sometimes peaty, overlying. n?e 22-100 cm). Parent material is thought to be thin loess_over
up to 3 gley horizons. These are commonly light grey to grey, often w~t ac:a1 outwash gravels, sands and silts, the main rock types berng
a few yellowish or strong brown mottles. The layers are firm and mass1V nite, greywacke and schist.
with dominantly silt loam textures. Humus coatings may occur down crac~
 218

DISTRIBUTION OF THE GLEY PODZOLS

Kongahu series
Kumara series in the course
The Kongahu series is found on flat, wet intermediate level terra the 1:50 OOO Grey Valley
near the coast in the northern part of Buller County around Karamea. distribution of the series
Originally mapped at a scale of 1:253 440 (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a), shown to occur in the Inangahua
distribution of the series is now in part recorded at 1:63 360 (O'Byrn of low to medium level outwash terraces
1978, unpublished). area in the Greymouth-
is in complexes with
Charleston and Addison series occurs in pure units.
series is 1:253 440 mapping
Both Charleston and Addison series occur on coastal high flat are
and, in the case of Charleston, also on rolling country, between Westp
and the Punakaiki River. Addison series also extends north to the Ka
area. More detailed patterns of distribution than those shown by the
1:253 440 mapping have resulted from surveys at 1:50 OOO between the geographically and
Big Totara River and Punakaiki (Laffan &Adams 1977), and also between Omanu and Maimai both occur
the Mokihinui and Buller Rivers (Heine et al. 1977). Charleston serie
occurs on Pre-Terangian marine benches and old dunes; Addison series high terrace
is found both on marine benches and on the higher river terraces some hardwoods. The
way inland from the coast. on rolling moraine and is forest
above or rushy pasture. Rainfall and other features
Okarito series
The Okarito series is one of the most widespread gley podzols and Omanu soils thin sandy loam
was the soil on which original definitions of the group were based. It opsoils over grey, , subsoils which
has been shown by 1:253 440 mapping to extend from just south of Granit ed cm of sandy loam
near Westport to Gillespies Point in South Westland, chiefly on inter- beneath. Parent material is
mediate and high level glacial outwash terraces. For the purpose of th e. As no iron pan is mentioned
later 1:50 OOO surveys intermediate and high level terraces have been Soil Bureau 1968a), these soils
taken to be those which date from earlier than 22 300 yrs BP, that· is ey podzols, closer
the start of the K22 glacial advance (Mew in press a). The series also
occurs in some inland valleys, such as the Grey /Inangahua valley system
More detail on its distribution has been obtained in the course of Maimai profiles to moderately dark brown to dark
1:63 360 and 1:50 OOO surveys between Inangahua Junction and the Hokiti brown.topsails on wet, gleyed layers which vary from greyish
River (Mew et al. 1975; Adams &Mew 1976a,b). About 4000 ha are locat yellowish brown to bluish grey. Textures are humic silt
in the Inangahua Depression, more than 11 OOO ha in the Grey Valley,. an fine sandy loam and stones are present in many instances. A
over 2500 ha in the Greymouth-Hokitika region, excluding areas in which iron pan gleyed layers, amongst granite,
the series is complexed with others. In the Grey Valley and Gre~mouth reywacke and some s in which the sandy becomes more
Hokitika region, rolling phases of Okarito soils have been recognised live depth. les are generally shallow (average 40 cm, range
on slightly dissected terrace country. 14 - 70 cm). Maimai series is classed gley soils because of its
extreme wetness, the lack a distinct eluviated the presence
Mawher>a ser>ies Of strongly weathered stones in the profile and the fact that under-
lying iron pans are not £ea tures,
Mawhera series occurs much less widely than does Okari~o in basic-
ally similar parts of the landscape. At present its distribution is The Hukarere series is similar to the series in many profile
only known between Reefton and Hokitika; in that region it is patchy attributes, but in having a zone of humus or iron
and discontinuous, occurring chiefly on high level terrace remnants enrichment (or fine- in the upper part
which still carry a forest cover. of the profile. It is currently classified as a podzolised gley soil,
although the origin of enriched layers is not known at present.
Ruther>glen series
Flagstaff profiles are stony to the surface but are also extremely
The Rutherglen series is confined to an area of about 640 ha of most horizons above the packed granite, greywacke and
·
high level old marine benches between Greymouth and the Taramakau R·ver·
i Schist moraine, They have surface organic layers over moderately thick
These benches probably date from the Terangi interglacial (Nathan 197S)· brown to dark brown silt loam topsoils. Beneath is a moderate thickness
In places they are slightly dissected and rolling phases are mapped on of greyish brown or grey to firm gleyed silt loam,
them. merging light olive bro~m or olive at 35 cm (range
 220
221

16 - 68 cm). In some instances zones of humus and/or iron are pres

at the soil/moraine interface. These soils are also classed as glee
soils on account of their overall pale colours and high water tables~
J. G.
Soil , DSIR,

GleY podzols and associated s account for 40 SOO ha of

GOLDEN BAY AREA) NELSON 50me occurrence in Fiordland, major areas
1and (Fig.1). coastal

G. Mew
Soil Bureau, OSIR, Nelson

INTROOUCTI ON
Little work on characterisation or distribution of the gley
podzols of Golden Bay has been carried out since the 1:253 440 survey
of the South Island (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a). A brief field trip in
,_
1977 to the eastern part of the Aorere Valley produced some additional
information (Mew, Campbell and Laffan, unpublished 1977). I
I
\,,
MAIN SOILS AND THEIR EXTENT
The main gley podzols are Onahau soi fa and Kotinga soils~ site
features for which were quoted in a previous Soil News article (Vucet'
1960).

Onahau soils have thin dark grey sandy loam topsoils on pale bro
massive loamy sand layers. Beneath is a zone of humus accumulation;
massive, and of sandy clay loam or sandy loam texture, over gravels
which may be cemented and contain iron pans at depth. An additional
description to that given by N.Z. Soil Bureau (1968a) is quoted by
Chittenden (1964).

Kotinga soils have similar topsoils, but subsoils are thinner and
mottled. Base colours are pale brown, mottled reddish brown and
textures are silt loams. Lower subsoils are yellowish brown, mottled
red, firm and possibly cemented, over greywacke gravels. The soils a
stony in places.

Distribution of the soils is such that Onahau soils predominate

and are found mainly on gently sloping terraces and fans close to the
coast from Collingwood to Takaka. (A few small patches are however
located up the Aorere and Takaka valleys). Kotinga soils are much leS
widely distributed, mainly south-west of Kotinga near Takaka, and also
south of Rockville near Collingwood. They tend to occur on alluvial
terraces and fans.

The soils examined by Mew, Campbell and Laffan (unpublished 1977) on of areas gley s in Southl
on high and intermediate sloping terraces and dissected country sout~­
east of the Aorere River and south of Bainham resembled the descript 10
given for Onahau soils. However they are from a variety of parent mat
ials (schist, quartz gravels, granitic and greywacke colluvium) not in G!~~ podzo~s in ~he Fiordland area cover 6800 ha and all are referred
included in the definition, and hence would be separately named in anY 1eve1 Matauira
detailed survey. In most instances water was perched in horizons aboV B' B soil set.. They occur on terraces up to 200 m above
lut· ig ay near Milford Sound, on Five Finger Peninsula
the pan. Many of the soils had iron pans below a zone of humus accumul ion Island, and near Cape Providence. A number of smaller patches
with an average depth of 45 cm to the former.
 2
222

altitude range c.800 m to c.1500

including
occur on lower terraces at the heads of fiords and on rivers drainin beech and cedar st, and tussock grassland.
into the lakes. In these latter areas they are usually closely e North Island gley podzols s known in the Tararua
associated with recent soils in valley floors. Matauira soils are where a small compl is the accumulation of
developed on terrace gravels derived from fiordland rocks under a mi ;ne age tephra.
vegetation dominated by silver beech. Profiles are variable and in
many places the characteristic gley horizon has been obliterated. ''High altitude gley zol" soil are in fact quite limited.
Gravels may also extend to the surface. Where this occurs the ·es of causal relationships between cific closed tussock comrnun-
table is also at or near the surface and vegetation is stunted. ·~ and "soil maturity" sequences the importance of poor
nage coupled with low calcium-bound in the poorly drained
COASTAL SOUTHLAND e soils. In view of the definitive role now being placed on tussock
·es in relation to soil maturity at altitudes (Williams et al.
Gley podzols and associated soils include Tisbury (14 250 ha) a ) most emphasis in account is on this type of work.
Matauira (19 480 ha) soils. taile~ s~u~y of Maung~tua humic silt loam Molloy & Blakemore c1974 )
1so significant. This ey podzol has been considered the "end
Tisbury soils occur on dissected terraces near Invercargill and e:r" of a climosequence on schist parent material.
Waituna Lagoon, and near Pahia in western Southland. They have deve1
oped on deep silty material over quartz gravels under podocarp-
dicotylous forest with kahikatea as well as patches of red tussock.
Tisbury soils have been included with the gley podzols because of Tonkin ~t.a~. (1977a,b) .discuss.the importance of a natural develop-
their generally high water table and.characteristic deep peaty surfa from oxidising to reducing conditions the lower parts of
horizon (up to 30 cm) and underlying patchy accumulations of iron. slopes in relation to high country soil catenas. With their
However the majority of these soils are only weakly gleyed. A consi l~ing, gley ~odzol~ were ident~fied with the "transluvial" midslope
able part of the area, mainly to the east, has been or is being devel in the Katrine soil set. An important role in such modelling is
at higher altitude, whereby the chronology of Holocene glacial
Matauira soils occur on coastal terraces from the Fiordland ances as studied in Canterbury (Chinn 1977) may be applied in context
boundary to Te Waewae Bay. Over the whole area they are closely the comprehensive "land upl erosion model" (Adams 1978).
associated with Hauroko soils, and in addition are associated with
Kaka hill soils near Te Waewae Bay. The whole region has been T~e Ma~ngat~~ silt loam pedon selected by Molloy & Blakemore (1974)
extensively logged witn much of the eastern area near Te Waewae clear their cllmoseq1),ence study provides reference data for an upland tall-
for farming. sock gley podzol, located at 870 m on the Maungatua schist plateau
Otago, with an annual rainfall of 1400 mm. The authors have classified
s pedon as a "moderately developed podzolised upland yellow-brown
W' but t~eir des~riptio~ of A2 g horizons, and of the placic horizon,
ly ~n.acti~e gleying regime, and chemical data clearly express a
zol1sing history. Thei~ description of this soil profile, on a 5
HIGH ITUDE GLEY PODZOLS ree SE slope, under a Chionochloa rigida dominant community, is:

C.G. Vucetich 2-0 cm dark brown (1.SYR 3/2) peaty silt loam; friable;
Geology Dept., Victoria University, Wellington distinct boundary,
0-8 cm very dark greyish (lOYR 3/2) heavy silt loam;
very ; weak to moderately developed coarse nut
INTRODUCTION structure; with weak and medium crumb; profuse
r~ot~, few casts; A /A 21 cr boundary marked by a thin
The distribution of upland and high country gley podzols in distinct layer of cfiarcoal flecks; indistinct
the South Island is implied from Soil Bureau Bulletin 27 (N.Z. Soil boundary,
Bureau 1968a) within extensive areas of a large number of soil sets
8-16 cm dark (lOYR 4/2) silt loam; friable
classified as upland and high country podzolised yellow-brown earths
(podzols and gley soils). The definitive Maungatua peat silt loam, P (tending_ firm); moderately developed coarse nut
described under tall tussock on the Maungatua schist plateau, demon- with some fine nut structure; few to many roots;
strates similarities with lowland gley podzols but lacks a humic rick few casts; few fine stones; indistinct boundary,
B horizon. At higher altitudes and under high precipitation, within 16-25 cm brown (lOYR 4/3) slightly gritty heavy silt loam;
the 'alpine' environment, gley podzols are less well documented, apar friable moderately developed coarse nut with some
from specific ecological studies. Clearly, however, these soils are weak fine nut structure; few roots; many casts; few
very extensive, occupying, under lower rainfall, small local areas an fine stones; sharp wavy boundary,
under higher rainfall, much more extensive areas of greater relief.
Their range in rainfall ,precipitation is 300 mm to over 5000 mm and
 LL4

B21fe 25-26 cm yellowish red (SYR 4/6); very iron pan; sharp
wavy boundary, a
• C.arassiusaula
B22fe 26-28 cm yel sh red 6/8) iron pan; firm; indistinct , C.paUens
boundary, ck on
~ith Burrows I
Bs 24-40 cm olive yellow (2.SYR 6/6) gritty silt loam; friable. Basin the
es vary appreciably stones and
very weak blocky structure; abundant medium stones~ fficult to
Mn (humus ?) infilling relict root channels. ' of stepped
is intricate. relief.
o:rphology for
This pedon characterises a stable site as evidenced by minor
accretion (A1 material appreciable clay). The At Lewis Pass more
loessial character of pedon is here taken to imply appreciable lY contrasting soil profiles, on a to
soil age. Appreciable oxalate-extractable (Tamm) Al values for A and basin under C. oreophila is:
B horizons, with minimal Al translocation, confirms a history of
podzolisation, and of gleying in A horizons apparently stabilising Al. dark brown (lOYR ) peaty friable; weakly
High dithionite-extractable Fe the B horizons, particularly the developed crumb structure; roots; distinct boundary,
placic horizon, appears to confirm a podzolising history. Ca-bound
greyish weathered
phosphorus is particularly low the A horizons. Williams et al, stones; many
(1978c) at a nearby site, classed as Madenti-eldepodic (their Drainage mottles; firm;
almost structureless boundary,
Class 1), on a 3 degree slope with a Chionochloa rigida. dominant
community, confirm very low Ca-phosphate status. C. rigida very dark brown on small
leaf blades from this site yielded very low element levels. stones (that friable to firm; very
abundant roots;
Williams et al. (1978b, c), in their study of the macro-element
olive (SYR 5/3) coarse sandy loam to sand; massive;
content of tall tussocks in rel to soil chemical properties in coherent, few roots,
the South Island, made correlations between the weight of phosphorus
in the shoots of each species soil inorganic P fractions. These This site was
correlations reflect the degree of leaching and weathering at the sites tussock
ity. It the B horizon
the various species are generally associated with, e.g. C.flavescens parently
and C.pallens are correlated with Ca-P (HCl fraction) characteristicall
on young soils; C. rigida is correlated with Fe-P (lst NaOH fraction) On a 29
and Al-P more usual on mature soils, Detailed soil studies by convex site, C. austraZis
ant, gleying grained soil emphasises the significance
Williams et al. (1976) and Burrows (1969) relate members of soil wer soil permeabil
maturity sequences in context of dominant tussock species.
cm dense dark
Williams et al. (1976) examined soils from a range of sites,
over amphibole and granite/granodiorite. For Murchsion Mountains, 7 cm dark brown (lOYR · friable; fine crumb and
ude 900 to 1300 m, 1 2000 mm, coarse well drained A/C profiles granular flecks; distinct boundary,
under C.paUens are linked with intermediate sites with A/B profiles to 10 cm grey (SY
poorly drained fine textured profiles under C.crassiuscula. Although flecked sh yellow; few
distinct mottles; slightly firm;
the poorly drained soils do not conform to the ideal gley podzol weakly
morphology, the evidence of local soil maturity is clear from the loss structure breaking to
crumb;
of primary phosphate (organic phosphate dominates) . The study
emphasises element composition of the Chionochloa shoots. High concent 25 cm olive · friable,
rations and weights of all elements (apart from sodium and sulphur) for 20 cm+
C. paUens and low equivalent values for C, crass foscula obviously do not distinct medium
demonstrate gley 1 for the latter site. However, from roots,
description and illustration of the latter sites, it appears that This profile
C. crassiuscula is dominant on wet sites with through water movement history for the C
Zon, an evident buried soil data apart g
(transluvial); it occurs with other species in peaty soils in PH are not available to
hollows. gley podzol character. As
sised by Burrows (1976, alpine grassland habitat is
lex, reflecting ice associated erosional processes and
Burrows (1969, 1977) in his studies of alpine grasslands and t Colonisation (perhaps
their habitats in Avalanche Peak Basin, Pass, and near Lewis c.3000 yrs
has emphasised the role of processes occurred during
glaciation (glacial advances indirectly dated from weathered rock rind
thicknesses by Chinn (1977)). Soil maturity have been inter~
 226
227

NORTH ISLAND
Soil sequence data are available for the southern Tararua Range 9. VEGETATION AND
(Williams 1975a)where a tall-tussock soil system was studied within th
"Denham slump" at 1350 m altitude; in a cool almost continuously wind
environment with well distributed high rainfall. An intricate soil y
pattern was interpreted within three major slope components (slump fa
LATIONSHIP OF INDIGENOUS PODZOLS
slumped ridge and trench bottom). Young and immature soils are c KIHI LANDSCAPES ON THE WEST COAS SOUTH ISLAND
associated with coarse textured or weakly weathered deposits - usually
with Chionochtoa pattens the dominant species; mature soils are associ
with fine-textured deposits and/or relatively more strongly weathered G. N. Park
deposits in association with poor drainage, dominant species usually Botany Division, DSIR, Nelson
Chionochtoa fl,avescens and Carpha atpina~ with other low growing plant
Soil parameters used to qualify the maturity sequence were partic
size and weathered character of stones, nature and distribution of org
matter through the profile, soil and litter pH, cation levels (quick t is article.r~fers only to the natural vegetation and soils of
and soil phosphorus fractionation. All soils are acid to very acid, t, wet pak1h1 landscapes of the plains and terrace lands of th
strongly leached, with low levels of exchangeable bases, and low inorg ast (Mew 1980a, this issue). e
phosphorus levels. A trend to increasing C % and N % with decreasing
soil pH and soil drainage is apparent. This trend is substantiated by he colloquial
· l' dterm "pakihi" strictly means an open clear·ing in
·
decrease in inorganic phosphorus and increases in occluded phosphorus. an d is app ie to vegetation dominated by shrubs of heath
Occluded phosphorus was noted to be generally high, in keeping with th s and manuka, pakihi fern, sedges, restiads, grasses and herbs
incorporation of pre-weathered fine soil material, possibly aeolean in 1951). The terms "semi-pakihi forest" (Hughes 1975) or "b _
origin. The latter observation relates well to periodic slump movemen ."(Burrows et at. ~979) apply to the low open forest: oftenog
along bedding planes (a gravitational adjustment to oversteepening) - al~y logged and.variably dominated by the conifer species silver
with locally accelerating colluvial movement and soil erosion. The 7imu, yellow-silver pine, pink pine, kaikawaka and toatoa, with
occurrence of other similar slumped ridges on the Tararua Range was in beech (absent from most of central Westland) and manuka A
reported but with varying detailed form and soil pattern. Several lt of man's activities these forests are commoniy coverted ~o s
the mature soils with iron pans have a gley podzol morphology, e.g.
PEg 6, which has fine textured (loessial?) A gleyed horizons over a
thin intermittent laminated iron pan. term natural pakihi is applied collectively to a broad vege-
and landscape type that appears to have developed in at least
Subsequently, Williams et at. (1978b) in a more general study, ys.
related the macro-element composition of C.pattens and C.ftavescens
to topsoil properties throughout the North Island. Their high altitude Succession and pedogenesis on terraces of loess and gravel and
sites on the Kaweka Range and near the East Cape are excluded as gley flat surfaces have lead, in 10-20 OOO years, to local conditions
podzols on Drainage Class and evident skelic or highly amorphic nature xcessive water-logging and/or excessive nutrient impoverishment.
(tephra contribution). Similarly, in a Ruahine Range peaty depression, sts have degenerated to a semi-pakihi or boa0 forest community over
a very humic soil, without complete profile description, is excluded. . podzol soi·1 s. Further degeneration
. on extremely wet or impoverish-
For the Tararua Range (incl. Denham Slump) high levels of Al- P 1~~s lead to the.characteristic scrub-sedge-fern-restiad natural pakihi
relative to Fe-P within wet soils are apparently tolerated by C.ftavese ity, usually with humic or peaty gley podzols.
but not by C.pattens. For the Kaweka Range soils with relatively high
Al-P relative to Fe-P are seen in context of weathered tephra but with The widespread pakihis throughout the lowland plain of South
1
appreciably high Apatite-P. tand are mires that were probably originally shallow moraine lakes
harns, old river meanders, coastal lagoons and inter-dune lakes
An additional Tararua vegetation/soil sequence at 850 m and 3000 hO!lows'. They have deep peats, underlain by gravels and sands in
rainfall on the Maymorn Ridge, Tararua Range, described by Park (1972b) -f eep iron.pans impede drainage. These sites support a short shrub-
emphasises again the critical aspect of soil drainage, this time for . ern-restiad community that is almost identical to many terrace
an unusual silver beech forest. In a repeating sequence along a ridge is, and they adjoin semi-pakihi or bog forest. The pollen history
ars t 0 in
· d·
icate advance and retreat of these marginal forests
crest, the low closed beech canopy (Steady-state) is characterised by a rent1 d . drier
. '
humic gley podzol 35 cm in depth to bedrock with open sedge mossland . B Y uring and wetter periods respectively (Mark &Smith
(Post Steady-state) characterised by a peaty gley podzol 15 cm in depth, 't.urrows et at. 1979). Wardle (1980) describes the invasion of
All soils have an extremely low nutrient status. The author has demon' lle swamps (with pakihi vegetation) by forest of rimu and silver
strated within this vegetation/soil system structural change of the for ea~~ mentions l~cal ~ycle~ of_regenera~ion ~n the ?karito area in
with associated changes in vegetation composition, organic matter level g forests, in which rimu is replacing silver pine and vice versa.
soil physical properties and in particular the quantities of water and a:
in non-capillary pores. Polynesian and European settlement, pakihi occupied
non-forest clearings, in sites that are apparently too
 228
229

infertile and wet to support the tall forest that covered all other Sl·milar Tertiary rocks in the Charleston di"st ·
available sites. · ·
z Josef and Fox River; on ul trabasic moraines
rict· on mora·
ct' • .
b
ines :tween
.
ea.sea d e region o f Sout h Westland; on aranite slan i-n si-t·1'· rock in
Pakihi is usually a feature of level or gentle topography, on re plat f orms in
. .
Fiordland o opes and some old
(P.Wardle, pers.comm.).
landforms ranging from terraces of glacial outwash or river alluvium,
often with loess capping, to moraines, raised marine platforms with In Fiordland, Wright &Miller (1952) stated that d
un er an annual
beach gravels, dunes and estuarine deposits, dissected hill country and ·nfall o f 38 00 mm or more, the normal processes of soil d
plateaux formed on hard bedrock (Burrows et al. 1979). The soils are duce podzols' gley podzols or zonal peat They found ~dve 1 opment
always strongly gleyed and usually very infertile and there may be no d l h . . · evi ence of
eierate eac ing under species, such as silver beech ·
peat or a thin to deep peat cover over mineral soil. Most present-day · t h at in
hl, · ot h er parts of New Zealand maintain more , ofrimu, and.
pakihi has developed following man's destruction of the forest and sh · wh"ic h t h e soil
in · does not deteriorate markedly.
- a nutrient
lands under which the gley podzols developed.
Wrig~t- (195~p) demonstrated a relationship between deteriorating
PAKIHI VEGETATION AND GLEY PODZOLS IN WESTLAND 1 conditions in gley podzols and failure of beech regeneration ·
sil~er beech and mountain beech forests of western Southland.' in
Extensive pakihi vegetation is restricted to the lowlands of the ght inferred a sequence of forest 'deterioration' on terraces with
Westland and West Nelson region because only here do we find a super- 1s from loess-like material, in which the water table is rarely more
humid climate landscape in which flat or very gentle slopes are predomf n 30 cm from the surface.
ant. A widespread landform type is the plains and terraces, formed fr
alluvium, beach gravels and glacial outwash overlain by loess. These The gl~y podzols occurred on all terrace levels of the coastal
landforms are still young enough to remain flat and undissected, yet u If and river terraces ~nder forests dominated by apparently young,
the influence of an annual rainfall of more than 3000 mm and in a fore very u~healthy mountain b~ech. Th~ poorer drained and peaty gley
environment dominated by acid litter forming species, their soils, in zol variants of th~ extensive flattish surfaces resembled the pakihi
early stages of development, are a virtual leaching column. In this the West ~oast r~gion. The wet conditions led to the development of
environment even young coastal sands show advanced features of podzolis forest with dominant Dacrydiwn spp. and the burial of the mineral
ation (Campbell 1977). . Whilst these gley podzols are usually young 1 under an accumulation of peat.
soils if we consider the age of their parent materials, they are very
advanced ("Senescent") in age, in an ecological and pedogenetic sense Cutler (1960) distinguished the gley podzols of the poorly drained
due to their leaching regime and homogeneity of texture in the surface r~ces from_ the podzolised yellow-brown earths of the better drained
horizons. ling and h~lly land, ~c~ording to the degree of soil development.
ler accordingly classified these soils and natural vegetation as
Stevens (1968a)studied a chronosequence of moraine and terrace' si llows:
aged from 22 OOO yrs BP (Okarito soils) to the present in South Westla
He considered that well differentiated gley podzols formed from virgin Rimu/rata/kamahi forest-podzolised yellow-brown earths on
parent material in 5000 years. Soils were first podzolised, then gley rolling to hilly slopes.
the course of soil development being 'directly and completely correlat
with the advent and growth of various vegetation types'. Each soil co Rimu/kamahi forest-gleyed, podzolised yellow-brown earths on
appeared to attain equilibrium at different rates and within different undulating and concave slopes.
periods of time. Organic carbon, nitrogen and CEC increased rapidly f Rimu forest-gley podzols on higher flats.
12 OOO years and then slowly declined. There were also losses in exch
able Ca and Mg, organic P and non-occluded inorganic P after this time. Rimu/silver pine forest and manuka scrub-peaty gley podzols,
on lower flats.
Stevens interpreted these changes as a trend towards 'ultimate soil
degradation after 12 OOO years'. Twelve thousand years was considered Open sp~agnum and rushland-peats and gley on low-lying
the appropriate date of final physical comminution of stones and gravel depressions.
whereupon no further materials from fresh rock could enter the system
(see also Walker &Adams 1959; Walker 1965). These soils developed on terraces formed of 60 to 75 cm of loess
er gravels.
However vegetation shows no decline at Stevens' 12 OOO year site
(P.Wardle, pers. comm.) and there is some uncertainty as to the dating Most of the pakihi vegetation that we associate with podzols is
of Stevens' surface and the contribution of loess to pedogenesis. result
Paki . o f mo d"f' ·
i i~ation · ·
by repeated firing, and now consists mainly
Wardle (1980) refers to the difficulties of dating the older glacial . . h~ fern, restiads, sedges and manuka (Rigg 1962). This vegetat-
surfaces, the anomalies that occur in correlating sequences of vegetatl w~:hwidespread over extensive areas of marine terraces and glacial
development and terrace age in Westland and warns against assuming a terraces formed between 20 OOO and 200 OOO years ago (Mew 1973) .
0
general simple pattern throughout the region. ~h!o the_ land cl~aring ~or gold mining, early attempts at agriculture
logging of silver pine that commenced in the 1960's these
Extensive pakihi and semi-pakihi forest also occur: on loess over~ aces '
eh f appe~r to_have_supported ~et and open, but stable, podocarp/
lying coal measures and quartzit_es (Denniston and Stockton coal platea e ko:est in which rimu, mountain beech, yellow-silver pine, silver
' aikawaka and toatoa were the main species.
 231
230

e system deeply incised into soft Tertiary rocks. Semi-pakihi

Similar forests with shallow gley podzol soils and similar p ~gnas developed on shallow soils from calcareous sandstone.
vegetation on modified areas occur on the coal measures in the Sto
Denniston and Charleston districts. Throughout the natural and man-induced pakihis of western Nelson,
st coast and Fiordland there is a striking similarity in the pool
In the upper Tiropahi catchment in the Western Paparoas ther lllPonent ~l~nt species, in particular the dominant ~pecies. The
an impressive sequence of Pleistocene outwash and alluvial terra e . communities developed on the oldest lowland glacial surfaces in
showing increasing development of gley podzol profiles under a r~~s ~nd are as depauperate as any in New Zealand, or indeed the world,
forest types, and their humification under non-forest vegetation. numid temperate climate on a well-developed soil profile (Wardle
Whilst some species are also found in the subalpine zone in the
The great majority of the vegetation on these terraces, and t ~nd and Nelson mountains, the constant nature of this group of
extensive marine terraces throughout the Charleston-Westport dist . es does suggest a continuous presence of natural pakihi in the West
is man-modified with few, if any, remnants of the original forestri lowlands throughout post-glacial times, and a high selection for
which to build a chronology of soil and vegetation development. species suited to extreme low fertility and wetness of these sites.
An approximate sequence of the vegetation on terrace surfaces A paleo-climatic view of pakihi formation was that of Holloway
the Tiropahi river flats to the highest Pleistocene outwash terrace 4) who postulated that the open 'natural' pakihis were more extensive
is as follows: ng a warm wet period about 1200-1300 A.D. He suggested that the
his were subsequently invaded by silver pine (Dacrydium colensoi),
(a) Rimu-red beech-silver beech forest; on recent alluvial terrace by rimu, whilst progressively 'drying out'. He concedes, however,
(b) Rimu-yellow-silver pine-mountain beech-hard beech. forest; on the more open pakihis may be stable or at best represent a very
younger (lower) Pleistocene terraces (outwash?). succession because of recalcitrant soil conditions. In terms of the
itude of climatic change envisaged by Lamb (1965) the precipitation
(c) Rimu-yellow-silver pine-mountain beech-silver pine-kaikawaka erences influencing soil water levels were not as great in the last
forest; on most Pleistocene terraces. years as Holloway (1954) implied. Holloway claimed that the present
(d) Yellow-silver pine-silver pine-mountain beech-manuka forest; ate is unfavourable for rimu regeneration on higher land. Cutler
on oldest (highest) Pleistocene terraces. 0) stated that the soils at sites of current and active rimu regener-
on (gley podzols) and non-regeneration (gleyed and podzolised yellow-
with natural non-forest clearings dominated by Epacris pauciflora- wn earths and peats) are very different, but that climatically the sites
Dracophyllum filifolum-manuka-bog pine/Baumea spp., vine rush too similar to justify the assumption of climatic change. Mew (1975),
Caforophus minor-Gleichenia circinata : shrub/rush-fernland. ed that a straight-forward developmental sequence can be established
orth Westland to explain the present distribution of soils and
The development of non-forest vegetation in the centre of the etation without necessarily invoking recent climatic change.
highest terraces (Porikan? : Suggate 1965) appears to be a local
function of imperfect drainage, poor aeration and an extremely low Rigg (1962) considers that pakihis occupying glacial and inter-
nutrient status (cf. Park 1980, this issue). There is no evidence cial terraces in the vicinity of Westport, north Westland, have
of charcoal or human modification in these clearings which are a gr eloped largely from forest, due either to soil deterioration under
distance from any other man-modified pakihi. A very similar exampl est or to climatic change, or both. Further, she suggests the
only 50 m in diameter occurs on a small terrace remnant 170 m above sibility of several cycles of succession and retrogression since most
Henniker Creek Fox Catchment, Western Paparoas, separated by kilome the larger pakihis contain buried timbers. However, she admits that
of forested hill country from any man-modified vegetation. successional phase is now widespread and has been "for many centuries",
hough recent burning together with increased waterlogging due to
The remnants of unmodified terrace vegetation are so few that t uced water consumption following logging, have counteracted this
may in fact be atypical of the originally predominant vegetation; dency, at least in the Westport area.
the differences in vegetation may be local functions of site, other
than relative age.

The vegetation of the terrace faces and toe slopes in Very little is known of the inter-relationships of podzols, gley
includes rirnu-silver beech-hard beech forest and kahikatea forest dzo1s, peaty gley podzols and peats, and forest growth. Cutler (1960)
5 described litter mineralisation as at a minimum in drier podzol sites
respectively, reflecting the far higher fertility of these sites.
d at a maximum in the gley podzol-peaty gley podzol sites. Incorporat-
The man modified pakihi vegetation on the treads of the Tiropah n of humus within the mineral soil decreases from the drier to the
terraces is much as described by Rigg (1962). Mountain flax, manuka tter sites (cf. Kononova 1951). As Cutler said, there is a need for
Coprosma shrub species are major elements of the secondary vegetati 0 reful chemical and physical analysis of such a soil sequence.
the more fertile terrace faces.
In general, gley podzols and their associated vegetation exhibit
1os~ relationships between deteriorating forest structure, a diminished
G:avel ~erraces are absent from the flat country south of Tir0 P
Tectonic uplift has isolated broad flat surfaces from a meandering tr1ent pool and increasingly wetter, less aerated and more organic soiJ
 232
233

The understanding of the processes involved requires the sampling of

many ecosystem parameters from a wide range of accurately dated sit . antlY distinct from the better known gley podzols of the wet
of different age from a newly formed geomorphic surface to sites whe ~~ands of.the.West Coa~t of the South Island (Mew 1980a,this issue)
heathland and herbaceous vegetation have replaced forest, as well a: neir dist1nct1ve B horizons.
sites where forest is replacing non-forest vegetation.
e:x:tremely low nutrient status is a unifying factor of forest/
11
The ecological reserves that have been created on the West Coas dzol* systems in both these mountain environments and the West
include areas of pakihi, but much of it in a man-modified state. It ~errace lands. Available nutrients appear to be organically
may be that in future the full range of sites representing the natur to the extent that when deforestation occurs a threshold of nutrient
development of these landscapes, particularly in one locality, will bilitY is exceeded to the extent that re-establishment of forest
longer be available. t possible. This paper summarises a study (Park 1970) which
ned the inter-relationships between soils and vegetation on the
PLANT SPECIES MENTIONED IN TEXT Ridge, southern Tararua Range, where natural deforestation was
ding.
bog pine Dacrydium bidJ.»illii
hard beech Nothofagus truncata Here the gley podzols are associated with close-canopied silver
kahikatea Dacrycarpus dacrydioides forest between 750 m a.s.L and the tree line. In the main, this
kaikawaka Libocedrus bidwillii ation/:soil system is stable, according to the two elements of
kamahi Weinmannia racemosa stem stability:
manuka Leptospermum scoparium
mountain beech Nothofagus solandri var. a capacity of the system to resist change or disturbance (Bormann
mountain flax Phormium cookianum et al. 1969; Park 1970);
pakihi fern Gleichenia circinata a capacity of the system to recover from disturbance, once the
pine pine Dacrydium biforme limits to resistance have been exceeded (Marks 1974).
red beech Nothofagus fusca
rimu Dacrydium cupressinum In some localities, however, the net effect of natural stresses
silver beech Nothofagus menziesii is system is instability leading to the development of non-forest
silver pine Dacrydium colensoi with a fern/sedgeland/humic gley podzol system. All field and
to a to a Phyllocladus alpinus ytical evidence suggests that the process of natural deforestation
yellow-silver pine Dacrydium intermedium net function of a gradual build-up of internal stresses, i.e.
restiads include, Calorophus minor emely low nutrient levels (Table 1), drainage impedence and poor
Bawnea spp. tion, magnified by the external stresses of wind-damage to the
Lepidosperma australe st canopy and the browsing of introduced animals. Animal browsing,
ell as fire, has led to forest openings in these mountains but the
ltant plant cover is quite distinct from the natural forest clearings.
process of natural deforestation is an active one but there is no
et evidence of the rate or history of deforestation. Stumps and
roots of silver beech trees a.re common in the area of non-forest
GLEY PODZOLS AND VEGETATION CHANGE - ings, but there is no evidence of charcoal. However, the distinctive
A STUDY IN THE TARARUA RANGE of dominant species in the forest clearings are typical of pakihi
etation in Westland and West Nelson (see Park 1980, this issue).
ir presence in only a very few distinctive areas in the southern
G.N. Park h Island suggests that the forest clearings have a very long history,
Botany Division, DSIR, Nelson tainly well preceding the influence of European man and his agents.

ENVIRONMENT
INTRODUCTION
· 1a . The critical factors in the formation of this particular vegetation/
Gley podzols occur throughout the New Zealand mountains part1cu 1 system are:
in the wetter montane-subalpine forest, scrub and grassland zones· 111
these environments gley podzols are usually shallow wet soils of lo~ t the very wet (c. 3000 mm per annum) and windy climate;
extremely low nutrient status with highly organic A horizons overlY111 g a soil forming material of shallow (less than 35 cm) severely
pale, massive subsurface horizons. If not retained in the biomass,_
nutrients are apparently completely leached from the solum. B. hor~Z
features can occur in some very shallow soils but are usually rest:ic Refers to parallel development of the vegetative and soil
to the few situations where the soil mantle is deeper or where so11fl h components of the system.
gravels are present. The high altitude (alpine?) gley podzols are t
 234

leached redeposited loess over occasional solifluctual gravel (typical humic gley podzol under Gleichenia circinata -
or massive greywacke; Calorophus minor - Rhacomitrium lanuginoswn : fern - sedge -
(iii) a predominantly low-relief topography of broad flat inter- moss land)
fluves, meandering streams and gentle swales.
cm dark reddish brown (SYR 3/2) peaty loam; very friable;
THE SOILS structureless; diffuse boundary,

The soils are formed entirely from redeposited loess .. In a g~olog~ cm dark brown (7.5YR 3/3) slightly peaty silt loam; friable;
ical sense these soils are formed from recent parent materials, whilst structureless to massive; slightly sticky; fibrous roots
common; diffuse boundary,
ecologically and pedogenetically they are advanced in age due to their
leaching regime, shallow depth and homogeneity of texture. The gley ~32 cm brown (7 .5YR 4/3) to dull brown (7 .5YR 5/3) silt loam;
podzol and humic gley podzol variants are as follows: friable to firm; massive; slightly sticky; fine quartz
sand grains throughout; fibrous roots less common with
Ridge site (typical gley podzol profile, under close-canopied silver depth; cutans common around old root traces and around the
beech forest) few cracks; sharp boundary,
on massive greywacke.
L 8-7 cm loose leaves,
H 7-2 cm dark reddish brown (2.SYR 3/2) peaty loam; springy Chemical Data
surface crust; fibrous to weakly granular structure;
numerous roots; sharp smooth boundary; separates into
Depth PH Tamm Extractable P retention
L, H and F layers, (cm) Fe (%) Al (%)
F 2-0 cm brownish black (7.SYR 3/2) silty peat loam; loose to
friable; structureless to slightly granular; slightly 0-5 4.56
sticky; abundant coarse and fine roots; distinct
5-10 4.73 0.07 0.15 29
boundary,
10-15 4.85
0-4 cm greyish yellow brown (lOYR 4/2) silt loam; firm to
friable; massive; numerous fine roots; some brownish 15-20 4.92
black (lOYR 3/1) humus staining; indistinct boundary, 20-25 4.93
4-13 cm greyish yellow brown (lOYR 5/2-6/2) silt loam; very 25-30
firm; massive; slightly sticky; some brownish black 5.00 0.00 0.20 33
(lOYR 3/1) humus staining and "krotovina" £· 15 mm
diameter; numerous roots; spot gleying abundant
throughout, particularly towards base and around roots; amm extractable Fe and Al and P retention, courtesy
oil Bureau, DSIR
sharp boundary with greywacke surface,
* - 4* = Soil Bureau Lab Nos. 74/1, 74/2, 74/3, 74/4.
on unweathered massive greywacke.
SOIL/VEGETATION INTER-RELATIONSHIPS
Soil Chemical Data
The organic matter and physical parameters for eight stands in a
vegetation/soil sequence are summarised in Table 1.
Depth pH Tamm Extractable P retention
(cm) Fe (%) Al (%) Highly significant linear relationships have been demonstrated
between the quantity of organic matter and most soil physical properties.
0-5 4.31 As well as being important in the initial development of a soil under
cool, super-humid conditions (Crocker &Dickson, 1957) the gradual
1* 5-10 4.48 0.07 0.10 19 accretion of organic matter to the mineral soil is a major process
10-15 4.62 associated with decreasing soil bulk densities and specific gravities
and increases in shrinkage between saturation and oven dry weight,
2* 15-20 4.81 0.19 0.14 21 t?tal porosity, soil depth, water contents and the amount of air-
20-25 4.82 filled non-capillary soil pores (Table 1). The linear relationships
between the various soil physical properties, particularly between the
W~ter contents and the air-filled non-capillary pores contents are also
h~ghly significant. Most changes in soil moisture retention and the
distribution of air-filled pores occurring as a result of structural
deterioration of the forest vegetation take place in the non-capillary
 236 237

i.e. when the ~oils are above field capacity. At all moisture
5
the volumetric water content and the amount of air-filled pores
nnumic gley podz?l.are_greater than_ in the gley podzol under closed
The overall similarity of the moisture retention and pore
distrib~tion (Park 1972b)in the~e soil variants reflects their
N N neous silt loam texture and their common pedogenesis from re-
0.-iO.-il'--N ,..., (".1
0
,..., ted 1oess.
N \0 N

he slight increases in pH, organic C, total N, Tamm Fe and Al and

ntion between the gley podzol and humic gley podzols (Table 1
>... eil profile data) would suggest that whilst the deforestation
(J)
,...; ,...;
b.O 0 5
has led to a great net loss from the nutrient pool of the eco-
()'"cl
·.-! 0
N
00 0 0
tj
0 \0
\0
00
N
N N
\0
~
~
\0
~
tj I'-- ~ .-i
~
tj , there has been some retention in the soil component.
3 p..
A consistently close correlation was demonstrated between para-
,.c.:
...c: c s qu~ntifying soil wet ness and poor aeration, and parameters
..µ 0 >...
0-•r-
(!) ..µ
(J)
,...; .-i N ~ ~ ifying deforestation.
N N ~ \0 .-i I'-- N 0 \0 tj .-i ~ I'-- ~ !'--
-o ..µ
ro b.O 0
N
()'"cl !'-- 0 ~ 0 N I'-- N N 00 ~ 0 ~ \0 ~ ~
E
u C'l
(!)
•.-1 0 ~ I'-- ~ I'-- \0 \0 N A close correlation was demonstrated between parameters quantifying
O>
(I)
] p.. organic matter, wetness and poor aeration and parameters
...-!
I ..µ
ifying the density of foliage, and relative volume of vegetation
LO Vl >...
(J) 1 m, particularly below 30 cm.
(I)
(I) s... .-i .-i
...c: 0 b.O 0
..µ 4-
s...
()'"cl
N
o m
~
o tj
\0
~
N
N r-.
~
'°
~
~
~
'° r-. m o
~
~ For example, the relative amounts of the woody species, silver
(I) ·.-1 0 hand Hall's totara in the vegetation are significantly related
0 r-
4- ..0
5 p..
/N ratio, total porosity %, shrinkage loss %, bulk density, soil
ro ,.c.:
Vl
s...
..µ
Vl >... h and water content % at tensions less than 100 cm, and the relative
(I)
..µ s...
(J)
,...; ,...; \0 N 00 ts of the non-woody species, Gleichenia circinata and Lycopodium
r-. ,..., ~ m m r-. tj ~ r-. N tj ~ m ~ tj
(I)
E
(I)
-o
b.O 0
N 'osum are significantly related to litter depth, nitrogen %, organic
()'"cl t-- O 00 0 N I'-- N 0 00 \0 N tj \0 00 00
ro c
s... ::l •.-! 0 tj '° ,. ., '° ~ ~ ,. ., on % and the amount of air-filled pores greater than 120 µm diameter.
ro
0- C'l
3 p..
c ,.c.: Results suggest that species are not organised into groups with
r- .....
ro u .µ
ciding distributions along the structural gradient, but appear to
UC Ul
..... (I) (J)
~ 'ndependently distributed.
Vl
>, E
E 1-1
0 m ,..., ~
N
o m m
0
~ N ~ m oo '° o N N
...c: 0 N 4.;
0 ~ ...-i 00 0 N tj ~ .-i tj ~ !'-- m \0
0-U ~ ~ .-i ~ ~ ~ N
i::::
"'O (I) (J)
c u p..
ro c 0 The extremely low nutrient status of gley podzol soils developed
(I)
s...::l m loess in the wetter New Zealand mountains is likely to be the most
(I) 0-
.µ Q)
..µ Vl rtant factor in the long-term stability of many mountain forest
m oo
ro
E.--
.....
o o m ,..., ~ tj
~
~ N m tj ~ '° ,. ., r-. .-i systems. The great bulk of the nutrient pool is bound within the
uo tj 0 ~
tj
.-i I'--
tj
00 N \0
tj
tj
tj
~
tj
.-i N tj ~
N
tj
...-i
mass, and soil nutrient levels are negligible. When the internal
.,.... Vl
c- esses on the nutrient balance of these ecosystems are magnified by
ro c ere climatic events or the browsing of introduced animals, the
C'>O
s... ...... systems do not have the capacity to recover from the progressive de-
0 ..µ
4- ..µ
fO
e7tation that eventuates, and must be regarded as very unstable and
0 Q) &lle.
C'l
>, Q)
s... >
fO
E ro
E
::l c
VJ.,....
 239
238

GLEY PODZOLS - SOIL PROCESSES AND CLASSIFICATION TABLE 1. A COMPARISON OF SOME FEATURES OF PODZOLS
AND GLEY OR GLEYED SOILS
G. Mew
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Nelson Features shown
Podzols by Gley or gleyed soils

INTRODUCTION Gley podzols *

Generally wet and cold ,/ Excess water in profile
The term 'gley podzol' was first used in New Zealand on the 1948 due to climate and/or
Soil Map of New Zealand (Taylor 1948). It is derived from Great Britain topography. High water
where what were then thought to be comparable soils were described, content for long periods
using examples, by Robinson (1932). of time.

Gley podzol, then and now, appears to represent a contradiction Usually coniferous or I Usually hydrophilous
in terms. A gley is generally regarded (Bunting 1969; Rijkse 1978) heath-like vegetation, vegetation; restricted
giving acid litter drainage will often lead to
as a soil with most of its profile waterlogged for long periods of time bog vegetation and peat
and as having relatively simple profile features which reflect this. A formation.
podzol on the other hand consists of a relatively well drained complex
assemblage of horizons resulting from the leaching of upper layers Best developed on level I Best developed in
through the medium of downward-moving solutions and the re-precipitation or only slightly-sloping "receiving" sites and/or
of humus and/or iron and aluminium at lower levels. As the word 'gley' ground where water table approaches
is not used as an adjective (gleyed), both words in the name "Gley surface. Receiving sites
Podzol" must be regarded as of equal weight. The contradiction has been may show accumulation of
noted by several workers, including Franklin (1962), Stevens (1968a) accretion-gley.
and Ross &Mew (1975). While this might appear to many a semantic
argument of little practical significance there is clearly a scientific Usually require acidic, I I Developed from most parent
need for a term to express succinctly the features of the soils in quartz-rich, base-poor materials but rarely
question which should reflect, in a genetic classification, not just the parent materials of calcareous deposits.
profile characteristics but a condensed summary of how the soils origin- coarse texture.
ated.
Mature soils (Zonal) . Gley features may be
superimposed on Zonal,
In attempts to resolve some of the contradictions an extensive· study
Intrazonal or Azonal
into the morphological, chemical, physical, micromorphological, mineralog soils.
ical and hydrological properties of a selection of gley podzols and
associated soils, commenced in 1976 and is now nearing completion.
Will have eluvial and I Gley features may be found
FEATURES REFLECTING SOIL PROCESSES illuvial horizons in upper or lower parts of
attributable to rapid profile according to mode
Immediately it is found that profiles have characteristics which passage of water through of formation. Profile
the profile. Most or usually less differentiated.
apparently are evidence of more than one process, debate begins on the
relative importance of each process involved. The grouping of a soil int all of L, FH, Al, A2
B1 (Bh), B2 (Bf) and
a particular classification category must result from a 'best fit' of
B (Bal) horiz6ns will be
its features, with those defined as applicable for the category as a whol 3
present.
Intergrade categories are inevitably hard to define and gley podzols are
exception. Grey A or E with sharp ,/ I Drab olive, blue-grey, blue-
2 green or grey colours where
boundary to reddish-
Stevens (1968a) has examined the literature relating to gley and yellow, black or dark gleyed (chromas of 2 or less),
podzol features up to the date of his thesis and presents a table brown B horizons, or ochreous or reddish mottles
comparing them. Subsequent definitions by Canadians (Canada Department combinations of these. where intermittently oxidised.
of Agriculture 1974), English (Avery 1973 and pers. comm.), Germans No colour change on Permanently gleyed soils
(Pollok in Rijkse 1978) and the FAO (1974) allow some addition to this exposure to air. change colour on exposure to
table which is hence presented here in modified form (Table 1). The air, frequently contain
U.S.D.A. no longer recognises gley soils as such (Soil Survey Staff 1975) sulphides.

Soil series defined as gley podzols on the West Coast and described e~emplified by the Okarito series
by Mew in an accompanying article in this volume have certain features
apparently of both podzols and gleys. For example, an eluvial horizon
 240
241
TABLE 1. (continued)

Features shown (continued)

Parameter Podzols Gley or gleyed soils
by
Gle podzols *
Texture Often sands or sandy ./ May be silt loams, san Podzols Features shown
loams. Some lessivage loams or clay loams. by Gley or gleyed soils
(clay-shift) to lower Lessivage Gley podzols *
horizons. evident. High in A2 , low in B Constant down profile.
horizon .
Structure Often weak in upper ./ Often structureless
horizons, may be strong rarely cemented.
cementation in B horizons
Usually low at least in Gleyed horizons may have
Permeability Moderate ./ Frequently low upper horizons. May high proportion of Al-bound
have high proportion of forms of inorganic P .
Drainage Free; usually low water ..; Impeded; high water inorganic P in Fe-bound
content content forms, especially in B
horizon .
Aeration Well-aerated ..; Poorly aerated or anae
usually low oxygen tens Despite cold temperatures, ..; Gleying may enhance weathering,
minerals usually exhibit especially under warmer
pH Usually lowest in A or ..; No particular pattern, extreme weathering, climates. Montmorillonite
2 especially in A .
E and increases down although usually only 2 may be found.
profile mildly acid where gley Production of vermiculites
and illites, and possibly
Exchangeable CEC usually moderately ..; Often moderate CEC and kaolinites .
Bases high in A (FH) and often quite high %BS - less
0
low to very low in A and leached than podzols.
1
A . %BS is low in A and Exchangeable Mg++ often
2 0
A , and very low in A . high proportion of exc
2
B1horizons have low CEC complex, and may of very variable thickness is generally waterlogged for a large part
and low %BS. exceed ea++. of each year and may exhibit some mottling as well as base colours
of low c~roma.. In many instances there is a build-up of organic matter
Organic High in Al' very low in ..; May be high in upper h above this horizon. Zones of humus and/or iron enrichment are variable
matter and A , and high in B due
2 1 but generally very low in thickne~s, degree of development and especially in their relationship
loss-on- to translocation aown gleyed horizons unless to underlying layers. Thin bands of iron are found at considerable
igni tion profile. depths (10 m or more) in outwash gravels beneath many West Coast profiles
where cuttings provide exposures.
Iron oxides Reach a maximum in B and
1
I In reduced state and us
B2 1 with the formation of constant in amount down In detail the series may be considered in terms of podzol or gley
concretions and/or iron profile. If largely re features under several headings.
pans ("ortstein") in some from profile the soil
soils. Iron is in oxidised termed "pseudogley" (Mu Site
state. haiisen 1963) . May occ
iron concretions in anY Sites are frequently level or very gently sloping; they are seldom
of the profile if the basin or receiving sites said to be the best positions for gley
ently oxidised. formation. Offsetting this is in all cases an excess of water from the
~uperhumid climate. Vegetation growing on sites is in almost all
1
Aluminium Maximum in B3 . Cannot be reduced ns~ances hydrophilic but on many sites now (and more in the past) is also
oxides eluviated down profile coniferous, hence pointing to both gleying and podzolisation.
pH is very low.
Organic layers
Silica A high in Si0 2 . Only Constant down profile·
sfightly eluviated down . Organic layers tend to have built up on the soil series where
profile. ~sturbance by man ha~ not been a major part of their recent history.
e use of frequent fires as a tool for clearing much of the pakihi land
that covers gley podzols means that the situation today is to a large
~Xtent artificial. In still-forested areas covering South Westland
karito soils, and other gley podzols further north there is usualiy a
~d . '
erate build-up of surface organic matter (averaging 10-30 cm).
 242 243

for humus: in topsoils which are

3. Topsails ly buried by material
such as loess and become eosols. This could also apply to
subsoil iron accumulation in relict soils.
Topsails are frequently fine-textured (~ilt loams), may.be peaty
and are sometimes finely mottled. Mottles, if present, consist of
vertical streaks of low chroma, usually /1 or /2, in the high value for iron: by precipitation from vertically or horizontall
moving groundwater, possibly bacteriologically (Schwertmann & y
range. Bleached quartz grains may be present and the horizons are Fischer 197 3) .
often extremely wet and spongy. Total porosity is high.
Marked texture contrast can cause precipitation of material
4. Immediate subsoils regardless of pedological process, assuming that material is
moving through a system. Such texture contrast occurs in Kumara
Horizons in this category have been variously designated A2, A2G okarito and Mawhera series, also in some Rutherglen profiles. '
or G (Eg or Bg in FAO terms) as their mode of origin remains imperfectly
understood and may vary between and in some instances within the Material transitional to parent material
currently recognised series. In terms of the total thickness of the
profiles these horizons commonly form a considerable part (up to two
Horizons towards the base of the gley podzols generally reflect
thirds) of the overall profile. They are generally pale-coloured racteristics indicative of better drainage than those above them.
(chromas of /1 and /2 common, and never greater than/~), yellowish
ours tend to be yellowish brown or in rare instances, strong brown,
mottled in about half the profiles described, and of silt loam tex~ure
mottl~s are absent or rare. In many instances these basal layers
(also slightly lighter or heavier-textur~d). They tend.to be massive,
relatively coarse-textured, usually gravels with varying proportions
of high bulk density and low total porosity. The Charl~st~n and fines amongst them. Some coatings of iron and/or humus may occur.
Addison series are exceptions to the two last characteristics h~wever, erials are often alluvial in origin but may also be marine. With
being more sandy in composition. These horizons in all the ~eries are reasing ~epth they ~end to become paler in colour (light grey,
wet for much of the year especially under forest where organic surface ght, brownish grey, light yellowish brown, etc.). Anastomosing iron
layers are better developed. Some drying may occur in summer an~ . ns do occur at these depths, generally greater than 2 m, but the
probably takes place more quickly for those series.under.low pakihi terial on the whole appears pedologically unaltered. No evidence
vegetation, from field observations . . cur:ent studies.using~ neutron where the true water table is in these gravels has been presented
probe for moisture assessment should in time substantiate this. .date. The ~ellowish brown material immediately below the pans
eh are considered part of the solum is similar to that found as
From the rather limited total analyses done on these soils the ansitional to parent material in many podzols.
bulk of the material in these horizons is quartz, up to 90% in some
instances (Mew et al. 1975). Amorphous materials, interlayered From the above features it is not possible to determine precisely
hydrous micas, vermiculite, feldspar and montmorillonite occur in processes are currently operating or, necessarily, what processes
decreasing amounts, between about 10 and 2%. e operated in the past. Until recently the inference has been
t initial podzolisation tended to restrict through drainage, which
Both thin section work (B.C.Barratt pers. comm.) and sand grain to.subsequent gleying. Alternatively, gleying may have been an
mineralogy (S.M. Robertson pers. comm.) show presence of weath~rable rative process from the start, but the leached state of substantial
minerals in these horizons where they are silt loams, unusual in rts of the profiles shows that there has been movement of exchangeable
podzol A2 horizons where the only surviving minerals are usually the ses, mainly off-site, as little accumulation of bases is seen low in
most resistant ones. files •. This is not generally regarded as a gley feature. (But
5. Zones of humus and/or iron enrichment e material may have been very low in bases to begin with).

Zones of humus enrichment vary considerably among the series, However when an overview of the soil series currently classed as
being diffuse and poorly developed in Mawhera profiles, thick.and ey podzols is taken there are certain points which must be considered:
dominating in Addison series. Iron pans are best developed in the
Addison Okarito and Rutherglen series and are poorly developed or Parent material differences
absent from Mawhera profiles (the group of Mawhera profiles wi~h pans
in upper layers, of which a profile in Ross &Mew (1975) was given as 0 ~he series with the most marked both gley and podzol features
an example of Mawhera soil, was subsequently split o~f as a sepa~ate ~arito, Kumara in North Westland for example) are those in which a
group named Hukarere series and classified as podzolised gley soils Jor texture contrast is evident. Young (1967) demonstrated the
by Mew & Ross (unpublished 1978)). Kongahu, Charleston and Kumara esence of loess over outwash gravels and subsequent work has tended
series have relatively thin pans; zones of humus enrichment may be confirm this by establishing the presence of volcanic ash in the
present, patchy, or absent. ~e-textured material (Robertson &Mew 1981). Young (1967) made the
nt t~at the low permeability of the loess, with close packing of
1

Zones of humus and/or iron enrichment are generally regarded as ~ grains, contributed significantly to the poor drainage of the
providing evidence of accumulation, especially if they are o~erlain alls whether or not an iron pan was present beneath. (Soils without
by horizons which are low in the substances concerned. Possible ns are not classified as gley podzols). Stevens (1968b) pointed out
alternative forms of enrichment are:
 244 245

that Okarito profiles in the Franz Josef region differed from those ·is in the Hu k arere se rl.cs
v ,
subcii'vided from Mawhera series on the
further north by being derived from moraine lacking a loess cover 0~
and by showing stone pseudomorphs in upper horizons. Pans however 0 evidence of humus or iron enrichment high in the loessic material
the bulk of the profile, are regarded as podzolised gley :oils.
did seem to occur where less cemented material overlay more compact for~~stances soils within the series are found on forested rolling
basal tills. The Rutherglen series in the Greymouth-Hokitika region Y . t to Mawhera soils on flat terrace remnants. Reasons for
from marine sands and gravels, shows similar characteristics. Other' rY adJacen d · h h dd. ·
differences are not fu~l~ understoo.; .e~t erd t e a iti on of
f
gley podzols, derived directly from alluvial materials or old dune ~e elY fresh loessic material may have init~ate a newf eye e ho 1 .
sands, have generally thinner, less distinct gleyed layers. :tV . · perfect rather than poor drainage may avour t e main-
. ation or im . . d
1:1 5 · ti' ng state Detailed catenary studies are require to
(b) Vegetation differences ce of an exis ·
fy this.
In the Grey Valley there is evidence to suggest that the change ff series soils are regarded chiefly as gleys but with some
from forest to low pakihi vegetation since European logging and terra flagstda . t. Profiles within the series are generally shallow,
'ble po zo 1 isa ion. . h
clearance may have affected soil profile form. Gley podzol profiles 1 ale-coloured and show major signs of waterlo~ging. T ey occ~r
(such as Mawhera series) remaining under forest show thicker organic y, P · times with a pan at the profile/parent material
accumulation at the surface, more olive subsoil colours (which have l ling moraine,
h
some . .
the latter is extremely compact and impervious.
wea th ering
·
a sulphide smell on first being exposed to air) and less well-develo face w ere d morphs te~d to occur in upper horizons and give a
es or stone pseu o
zones of humus and iron accumulation at the interface with underlying omottled appearance.
gravels. McDonald's (1955) work on the possible soil moisture
changes after deforestation was inconclusive, but suggested that · · ·
significance o f pro f'le
i form of these three series
. in
. the context
f. l s
surface water was more a feature on cleared land than under forest. d ls is thought to be as follows. Maimai series pro i e
His observations and measurements were not made at frequent enough he gley po zo l · 1 ley podzols
d indicate how a precursor of the.deeper, oessia g.
intervals to show what changes occurred in the course of a year. d . the considerable time period between the laying down of_
More recent survey observations indicate cleared land dries out more eare in in outwash gravels and the deposition of loess on top. . Burial
rapidly and to greater depths under dry conditions in summer than does :~~h p;ofiles would provide wha~ 1:1ow appear ~o be hu~u~ an~d~~o~sp~~!
forested land, even, in exceptionally dry years, leading to cracking within the gravels. Some additional material woul e ~
in loessic material. Hence it is postulated that mo\·ement of some ~s weathered but most would be lost latera~ly in percolating ground
humus and to a lesser extent iron has speeded up considerably followin er before the loess became almost totally impermeable.
deforestation. Conditions under 'natural' pakihi and flat forested
terraces in South Westland, where rainfall is considerably higher, The Hukarere series offers good possibilities for additional ~tudies
have not so far been studied in any detail. General observations loess stratigraphy and the effects of podzol~sation ver~u~ gl~yi~g:
recorded in the literature appear to show that both kinds of profile developed (or absent) pans at the loess interface w:t un er ying
1
(similar to Okarito and Mawhera as defined above) occur under higb. eis :in both these and Hawhera series suggests process diff~:~i:ces
forest on flat sites, and that peat is the main material underlying pared with the more conven~ional gley podzols under low pa i i vege-
low pakihi vegetation. Detailed soil catenary investigations are ion in the Grey Valley region.
necessary along the lines of the vegetation sequence studies reported
by Mark &Smith (1975). Flagstaff series profiles have certain · ·f eature~ in common with the
· t from moraine south to near
ey podzols but occur on rolling coun ry i . d l d/or
SOILS RELATED TO GLEY PODZOLS kitika. In several areas they are complexed with. tru~ ho zo ~ ~~ll
llow-brown earths, but they become more fr~quen~ in hig er rain b"l't
A limited number of soil series defined in recent West Coast soil nes (above 3200 mm). Some links between microsite and t~e.permea ihi y
surveys show certain characteristics which link them with the gley 'k l Th oils appear similar to t ose
the underlying moraine seem ll e Y· e s )
podzols, although their ultimate classification differs. Interpretati scribed as gley podzols in the Franz Josef region by Stevens h0968 . ta
of their features can be used as an aid towards a possible understandi 1 podzols as a pan at t e in er-
t are currently excluded f rom t h e g ey '. . ·d d an
of the processes operative in the gley podzols. ce between the profile and the underlying moraine is not consi ere
ssential feature, nor is its origin fully understood.
Soils in the Maimai series, considered with the gley podzols in
an article by Ross &Mew (1975) are currently regarded as gley soils,
as the thin iron pan (or pans) of uncertain origin within them is not
IL CLASSIFICATION
considered an essential feature, while almost permanent waterlogging Similar soils overseas
predominant. The soils occur on Loopline Formation terraces in the
· · · of
Grey Valley and elsewhere, and are derived from outwash gravels with ·
Attention drawn in the introduction to the early b ringing in
little or no loess. Waterlogging can be shovm to be due almost entire was . there by
term 'Gley Podzol' from Great Britain after its use. . . b the
to increases in rainfall from 1900 mm to 2800 mm, as identical terraces t · soil classification Y
binson (1932). Subsequent developmen sin l" "t d their 'Gley-
at the lower end of the rainfall gradient carry yellow-brown earths il Survey of England and Wales (Aver~ 1973) have imi e le ed
(Mew & Leamy 1977). dzols' to soils with "continuous albic E and/or Bh or Bhs, g dyno
tizon directly below the podzolic B or at less than 50 cm, an
 40
7

continuous thin iron pan or bleached hard pan.n This excludes the
majority of New Zealand gley podzols, where iron or iron/humus cement-
ation is a prominent subsoil feature and gleyed horizons do not occur 1oess is alternative modes
below the zones of enrichment. A better fit seems to be with Avery's origin have
"ironpan stagnopodzols". Many of the characteristics used to define
such soils by Avery et al. (1977) match closely the main features of
the North Westland gley podzols. Detailed comparison is limited by
differing climatic factors, parent materials and vegetation types. is a pre-
However, Avery (pers. comm.) definitely equates New Zealand gley podzoi requisite. The current classification of Maimai ~nd Flagstaff
with stagnopodzols. The chief difference pointed out by him is that series as gley soil an that :non pans in
the iron pans tend to be much thinner in examples from upland Britain. wet soils may have modes of formation,

The French recognise that it is possible to produce what they call At the present for modifying current
a podzolised pseudogley through a mechanism termed pseudopodzolisation 1assification as gley podzols i although soil survey
under extremely wet, acid conditions where more humus is present and ' eport publications which some of the soils formerly grouped
much aluminium is mobilised (Duchaufour 1977). Pans can also be ith the gley podzols are press or in preparation.
within stagnogley soils, which largely result from surface water
gleying. Russian experiments have tended to confirm this (Kanivets In terms of the New Zealand Classification, which
1973). attempts to define soils more the end result of processes,
the gley podzols have been as at
In the soil classification system of West Germany (Miickenhausen category I, and as A-gleyed soils at Category IV.
1965) much emphasis is put on impeded drainage in upper layers, using he is not brought or detailed
the terms pseudogley and stagnogley. Pans at depth, where the origin level the classification, term based
is not definitely known, have their presence denoted by modifier terms. on soil moisture, "hydrous", can be used at Category III, e.g. hydrous
podic soils. In view of the in this discussion
Similar soils to the New Zealand gley podzols do not appear paper, it is suggested both the properties and the
widespread in Canada. Surface water and groundwater gleying are not processes operating in the wet s of the West Coast better,
separated within their gleyed podzol groups which appear to be the revision the above class necessary. Many if not all
closest equivalents to the New Zealand West Coast soils. Comparable of the soil properties can be in terms of varying degree of
soils in the United Sates are recognised as Aquic suborders of the aterlogging from the surface downwards and some consideration should
orders and hence many of the West Coast soils would be regarded as be given to the provision made in the classification for use
either Spodosols or Inceptisols. of t~e term "pseudomadentiform" at Category I. General names such
as 11 ir01:ipan. pseudogley" or p could be employed until
2. Classification in New Zealand the d~riva~ion of layers iron enrichment are properly
~xplained in terms.of ~heir overriding
Classification of soils with wet, pale-coloured, massive,
importance of gleying in horizons has been amply demonstrated in
status upper horizons over zones of humus and/or iron enrichment on
attempts to re-afforest wet terrace lands in Westl with exotic
moderately to well drained coarse-textured materials in New Zealand
has been mainly on the basis of static studies of individual profiles, species (Washbourn 1972).
or by inference from presumed similar soils overseas in the past. Mor
recently there have been attempts to adopt a more gynamic approach
through partial or full sequence studies, or by examining catenary
relationships with soils of other groups (e.g. Tonkin et al. (1977a)). Obviously there are many of these soils which require
A number of observations resulting from all these studies indicate tha further investigation before a better of soil processes,
thought should be given to a re-interpretation of the formerly propose leading to more precise class arrived at. Both static
pathways for reaching the profile form classified as a gley podzol. st1;1dies here as, of individual horizons
The chief of these can be summarized as follows: using new studies. example,
lysimeter Further fields
(a) The features of approximately two thirds of the profiles currentl of being looked at)
classed as gley podzols are to a large extent those of surface
water gley soils. es
(b) Zones of humus and/or iron enrichment have not been proved to h~V Analyses of iron pans older terraces
come from overlying horizons. Where more than one parent mater~a s to "age"
is present, for example loess over gravels, this pathway, implyin
"Budget" type analyses to evaluate
primary podzolisation followed later by gleying, appears unlikely
iron and zones were likely to
especially for the older terraces where gravels have been buried
been directly derived weathered minerals
horizons above.
Microprobe analysis for mottles in gleyed horizons.
d measurement of at intervals.
 248
249

2. Dynamic studies
CHEM I
Attempted simulation of processes thought to have led to gley
podzol formation, in the laboratory.
PROPERTIES OF W PODZOLIS SOILS
Lysimeter studies to assess rates of movement of different WEST COASTY so ISLAND
compounds through the soils; possible use also of radioactive
isotopes and/or dyes in small, very carefully controlled
experimental catchments.
R. Lee
3. Combined static and dynamic studies Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt

Investigation of catenary relationships over both short and

relatively long distances.
Over the past three years eight type localities have been establish-
AC KNOWL EDGMEN T d on wet, podzolised soils on the West Coast of the South Island
Mew &Lee 1981). The soils involved are the Addison loamy sand,
I am indebted to Mrs J.E. Davin, Librarian, Soil Bureau, for arleston sand (rolling phase), Flagstaff silt loam, Hukarere silt loam,
research into the origins of the term 'gley podzol'. umara silt loam, Maimai silt loam, Mawhera silt loam and Okarito peaty
ilt loam. At establishment two soil profiles were described and
ampled at each locality. This paper discusses the major chemical
roperties exhibited by the samples taken from those profiles.

Brief site and parent material details for each type locality are
given in Table 1, with approximate average rainfall figures and field
classifications of surface run-off and soil dra1nage (Taylor &Pohlen
1970) given in Table 2. Following recent soil surveys the Kumara,
Mawhera and Okarito soils have been provisionally classified as gley
podzols, the Flagstaff and Maimai soils as gley soils, the Addison soil
.as a strongly gleyed podzol, the Hukarere as a podzolised gley and the
Charleston as a moderately gleyed podzol (J.D. Cowie, pers. comm.).
These classifications are discussed by Mew (1980a,b) in this issue.
The Addison and Charleston soils were originally classified as gley
podzols in early surveys.

The Hukarere, Kumara, Mawhera and Okarito soils are characterised

by having variable thicknesses of fine-textured material covering
glacial outwash gravels. The profiles discussed here had the following
thicknesses of fine-textured material; the Hukarere profiles 90 and
70 cm, the Kumara profiles 30 and 40 cm, the Mawhera profiles 60 cm and
the Okarito profiles SO and 80 cm. Alternative modes of origin have
been proposed for this material. Young (1967) considered it to be
loess. Campbell (1974) has suggested however that, at least in some
places, this material could have derived from in situ weathering of the
Underlying gravels. Alluvial origins for the material have also been
Proposed (G. Mew pers.comm.).

Recent observations, reported in this issue (Robertson 1980), on

the sand grain mineralogy of certain of these type profiles, have led
to the recognition of small, or trace quantities of volcanic glass
(possibly Aokautere) in a number of horizons.

The compact, massive and often cemented nature of the subsoils of

these soils, coupled with a high rainfall, is the basic reason for
their wetness. With the exception of the Charleston soil the downward
movement of water through the soil profile is severely restricted and
 250 251

Brief site and parent material details Estimated average annual rainfall, surface run-off
Table 1 and soil drainage classes

Altitude Vegetation /
Soil Landform
(m)
Estimated Site surface
annual site run-off class Soil drainage class
Addison Terrace 300 Beech/podocarp forest Glacial outwash rainfal 1 (mm)
gravels; granit
gneiss 3600 Slow Very poorly drained

Iron-cemented 2500 Medium Imperfectly drained

Charleston Rolling 215 Pakihi; wire-rush,
country moss, manuka, gorse sands
2800 Medium Imperfectly drained

2020 Slow Very poorly drained

Flagstaff Rolling 160 Regenerating podocarp/ Moraine; greyw
country hardwood forest and schist
3200 Slow Poorly drained

2500 Slow Poorly drained

Hukarere Terrace 275 Beech/podocarp forest Loess over glac
outwash gravels
2500 Very slow Poorly drained
greywacke, gran
and some schist
2000 Slow Poorly drained

Kumara Terrace 250 Rushes, moss, grasses, Loess over glac

bracken, CoFrosma outwash gravels
greywacke, gran
and some schist e assumes that most water movement would have to take place laterally
her on the soil surface or in surface horizons (During 1972). The
ent to which such movement may occur with the soils of the wet
Maimai Terrace 267 Bracken, Coprosma Glacial race lands on the West Coast has recently been indicated by Lee et al.
sedge gravels; greywa 979), who estimated run-off on a Maimai silt loam used for agriculture
granite and som be approximately 80% of precipitation.
schist and sand
At the time of sampling all sites were under predominantly native
getation, although most showed some modification due to man's activity.
Mawhera Terrace 275 Beech/podocarp Loess over glaci e forested areas had all been cut-over at some stage and attempts
forest outwash gravels; pasture development had been made in the past on the Charleston,
greywacke, grani ara, Okarito and Maimai sites. The Charleston and Kurnara sites were
and some schist bject to some sheep and cattle grazing. As far as could be determined
fertiliser additions had been made to these sites.

Okari to Terrace 335 Pakihi; umbrella Loess over glaci

fern, sedge, rushes, outwash gravels~
manuka greywacke, gran 1 Samples were air-dried, ground to <2 mm and stored for analysis.
and some schist st analyses were carried out by methods described by Blakemore et al.
1972), with the following exceptions.

Iron and Al extractable by sodium citrate/sodium dithionite and by

0
~ium pyrophosphate were determined following methods given by
1 1 Conservation Service (1972). KCl-extractable Al and Hand
Xtractable acidity were determined using methods developed by Blakemore
Pers. comm.) based upon those given by USDA (1972). Aluminium and H
ere extracted by standing 10 g of soil overnight (16 h) in SO ml
f 1 M KCl. Following filtration, the residue was washed with 50 ml of
 252

1 M KCl and the Al and H content of the combined filtrate and washi
determined by titration (Yuan 1959). Extractable acidity was deter~·
by shaking 2.5 g soil overnight with 25 ml of BaC1 2 /triethanolamine 1
"<t'O"lo:l<.O-
~8~ ONMU"IO ~~~~g U"lU"IMo:l,......r"'l
o-U"l-OO
«:r"'1NM--Ll"I
0000000 88003g
00000000 000~0 00000 000000 0000000 000000
buffer solution, rather than by leaching (USDA 1972). MC""'JMOOM\01.0\0
ooo--o<d"N
U"la')U"l<d"
OON- 8C5~::;g: -0-000
,..........,U"IOOM ooo-oa>
.....,Nf'--1..0NO r--CO.eyr-.""°NCO
,......IDl.OCONMr-
o;)O'l...ONC::Hn
,......ONl.0--
0000_.;...:oo c:::)c)OQ 00000 00000 000000 c)c)c:)c:)....:~o c:)c)c:)c)....:....:

The surface charge characteristics of soils containing appreciah c;8og:g~~~

000000...;o
°""-Nr---1.0
OMU"l~<t:T

ciciciMci
f'-.O"IO"\«lf'"'I
OON\O....,
00000
~~tgg~~
OOO~Oci
-N-NMMO
000000- g5c;8og:::
0000000 000000
amounts of Fe and Al oxides, and organic matter, e.g. podzols, are N0.::TCO-<:r
88::C~::?:
MN-NO..O-COO'I Nr-..o:::tNO..O'd' Mf"oo.0\0MMCO l.00\'<:f"M.-.M
different to those containing predominantly 2:1 type clay minerals OOONr-t>.Of"oo.\O
ciOOOMt.ti..;N 00000
.-..-tl.f')MM
COON....;
--MOa:lo..o
OO~Mcici
f'"I \0 f"oo. CO C:O ID lfl
OOOO...:;N...:;
....,OM\0-U"I
0000...:...:;
(Blakemore &Parfitt 1979; Coleman &Thomas 1967; Gast 1977). In the MCONN,.....\OOO"I
o-oo-MO'IO'I
1.0NO'I
OONO'l..-4
<..O O'l\ON,..._U"I
0-'<:f"CTIN
\O.-.lC)..-4'<::1'1.0
.-.O)O"INMN
<a-\0....,.-10..0.-.co
0--0000
OM,..._,....._O
.-.ooO.-.N
soils, surface charge, and hence CEC, varies with pH. Consequently t 000000...:;o o...:;...:;~...:; 00000 000...:;oo 0000000 ciciciOcici

determination of CEC in such soils using a standard method such as ~8~~~~~~

0000...:;ooo
''"''~
O<O
oOcici
...
i'"'o.COM ..... '-0
OOo;t\O'<:f"
000...:;o
U"I .q a:> O'I
ON-NN.-.
oo...:;~oo
r-.. co MU"IN..,,,.O'IM\O
.-.,..._lO,.....IDOl""'I
Ocic:>O...:;N...:;
O..OO">a:>O'l!..... U"I
-oNi.nOU"I
0000...:;o
leaching with 1 M NH40Ac at pH 7, may bear little relationship to the
CEC which exists at the natural pH of the soil in the field. Also s
factors as salt concentration and the use of an alcohol wash in leac
may also contribute to an over-estimation of CEC (Bache 1976), Recent
several alternative methods for the determination of CEC at natural
have been proposed (Bache 1976; Juo et aZ. 1976; Gillman 1979). It C"">N-'""'-o:>OO- N..-1>.r!NO"IO"l~<d' -L(}NU'>....., ,..._N.-1Qu;
r-:':o::i:~r;~
,..._a:>r-..MOU"IU"I --o-<oTa.

has been estimated here as the "Effective Cation Exchange Capacity ..;NeO..;a)ci...:;Q
-- -<d'MNN
:i....:M~~~~~ 00'° ~2....: o:i..O~cO~
o::l".-!NM.-< ~~~g,j"'<..O
...:;...:;,....;~~...:;o:)
<:2"0">'""'-l.0\0\0M
No:>ro....:o~
U"l-M>.rl\OU"J
s..
~

(ECEC)" (Juo et aZ. 1976) which is the sum of exchangeable bases plus MNON<d'U"l\Of'. ~r;':o::i:~r:r-:~ C!~~~~
r-.. ....... Nca-r-.. O"l..n_..,,.,.....\001 \.OCOIDO"ICO,.._
0
~

KCl-extractable H and Al. This estimate has been shown to agree well ui<7.,;~~c0~..; ,....M ..... CO.-!LnO'>CO
N ~
~O'l~~·U'I ~~::::::MN M.;.;_;~~....:
Nl.O<a-o::l"NN- g8~~gg :i
in many soils with direct estimates of CEC at natural pH using so-cal IDCO-ID0N'<$'N O'l<Q"O'llON-MN ":~~~~
MMU"IMMN a..-.\OU"IOM\O -=2"'""'-MO'l<a-0 ~
N...;~N...:;ooo ~...:;ONN...:;oo ~U"l<d'-0 cO~NOOO ....:~~:i~.;M ...:.n~...:~~
'compulsive' exchange methods (Galley et aZ. 1976; Juo et aZ. 1976;
\I\

Gillman 1979). Exchangeable bases, and for the purposes of comparis ~~~~g~~~
'""'-<d"NO)o::l"O'>NC">
C7\U"IMM _ _ _ 0
l'--OU"IO"I
\OU"IMO
-OO'l.-IM
ll'IMM.....,0 ~2~~~
f'.f'.O'IM.,,,.M
a.r----oo ~~~~~:!~ CONIJ"/Ni'"'o.U"I
COON<oT..00'> "'w
00000000 0000 00000 M...:;ooo ...:;00000 NN...;oooo ...:;...:;...:;ooo
CEC at pH 7, were determined using a semi-micro leaching method (Blak ciciciciciciOci
CO.-tlJ"lO\-MY"I MOOOM"<:i"'<:f" 0)0'>0,..... ,...,t.OCOU) l'-U"IU"lr-...-1
~::;;:;~2~
\,() l.O Y"I \.0 l'-U"I co Nf'.MCOr-..M
c
0
MNMCOU"l-0
u:~~';~~ ~
more et aZ. 1972) employing 1 g of soil, 2 g of acid-washed sand and c:tl.Q<crO'>COOO
000...;oooo
MU"IMOO'\COO
oooN...;ooo ...: . . ~ ...;o
..... or--.o Ci'll'-.-1-
ciO...;oo
Ol-r--..ON
NMM...:;Q Mi....;NOc:iO i.n~~~..n..;M <:ii
..,
70 ml of 1 M NH 4 0Ac adjusted to pH 7. ::!g~n=~~c;~~
<d'N_M,....NNN
..... 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00 0
f'.o-OU"l-N
00000
ciOciOO
Or-..r--.
<.OOO
c:iOcioci
N
0 ~~~::S80
000000
......0...,..\01.n-O'>
--0000-
ciOciOcicici
~~~~~~ w
OciciciOOcici ciciOOciOcici ciOoci 000000

.,
~

Extractable acidity plus exchangeable bases can be used as an Q)-U"l-1.nNMN

,..._M.-<..-10000
<d'CQ,....,..._U"IMM<o:I'"
.-!N.-100000
Mr-..f'.N
NOOO
N-l.n-=r«:!"
N.....,N<d'O
OLnOMM
\ON-00 M~g;gg::g
..o-OU"IN--
NM.....,0000 ~~:=.~g;::! :=
ciciOOciOOci ...;0000000 c:i c:i c:i ci ci ci 0 ci ci Ncicicici ...:;00000 0000000 ciOOOOci ~
estimate of CEC at pH 8.2 (USDA 1972). The amount of variable charge .-.O\l.00'\COU"l<d'f"".. l'o--Q)Mo.n\.00'>
M-.-100000 ~'8S-:!~
0\.0t-..<d'O'I
\,()U'H'0")-0
'-OMU"I
O"l-0
.....,
0
U"INY"IOU"INO'>
--NU"l-00
Y"IU"l\DM.....,U"I
Mooo-o
"'
r">o-000-0
associated with going from field pH to pH 8.2 can therefore be deter- ciciciOOOOO 00000000 00000 Ncicicici OOOoOo ciOOOciciO ciciOOOci

mined by subtracting the two relevant CEC values, which in fact reduc ~f',Q)U"IO'\r--.O)NN.-0
co"'".-0.-1000000 ~~~~g~~t'.)85
-MU"IN
--oo
Nr---O"IM-
-oOOO
OCOO'IU"IMU"l
N0::-.....,.....,.-10 ~g:~~~~~
O'l0.-...:::t"""C:00)0f'Ht"/
Y"IMf'.-N00.-1-0
0....:00000000
Og::SS~~O
...;000000
Ocici ci 0 ci 0 0 ci ci OciciOcicicicicici ciOcici ciciciOci ....:00000 o...;000000
to subtracting KCl-extractable Al and H from the extractable acidity ]~o::i:~~':o::t; \.O<d"C:OON<i:;t\.O<d' -NOCOU"IMCOCOq-Ol U"l..-40\N,..._U"ICO

value (Blakemore &Parfitt 1979).

\,()U"l~<d'U"IO'>r--.1.r"IO'l<::I"
~~cnMNNOO ,...:....:...:;o\Mr--:..;..nu)N ~iM~i.ni.n..;
...
..,.;~..,.;N...;o..o..;...:;o
~
0.<.0 M Mr"I M -
~""'"-
VVM ,....

.µ 4- ·I· 4- 4- 4-
+-
N N .-. N <d' M 0'> .-1 N M
!~~: :~: ::~:~~~: ~~~~~~~::~ ~~:~:~~
CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS .,;..;..;..;...;..;..;..n..nt.ti
O)NOOO'>NCO«:!"U"IM O<d'l.ON.-1,....<d'
~OU"JNOU"ICOO~~ f'.0"'3'"'<:f"M<d'0
7~.~~7~~~~ .~~~~~~ ~
I I '7!("7"f'f~'7'7
I I '77'f"?~ """CONOOO'INQ)~U"J U"IO~~N--

The horizons sampled, their depths and the results of the chemic o:tt<'>Ol.nNOU"ICOO<d'
-M~<$'1.00'I::
~r-..O~;:;!;!i:3 ~M- NNM<::l"U"lf'. N .-!N<o;!'U"ll"'-· +

determinations are given in Table 3. Horizon designations are

FAO (1974), with surface organic horizons described as L, F and H I.I..
+
.-IN en-NM VJ.-!
..c.s::..c:..c..c:..c: E J:
(Taylor &Pohlen 1970). .....1::.:c:o:r:<<C:OcoCOC:OC:O

pH, carbon and nitrogen

All the profiles were extremely acid and although pH increased
with depth, the deepest horizons sampled still recorded very acid pHS·
With the exception of the Okarito profiles, which had surface litter
.u
w
u

horizons comprised of manuka leaves and twigs, only those profiles

developed under forest had accumulations of organic matter above miner
soil material. The extent of these accumulations was variable however
with for example both Addison profiles only having a 4 cm thick organi
surface layer as compared with the 25 and 44 cm accumulations of the
Hukarere profiles. Percentage C levels in the upper A horizons of
most profiles were medium to high. Levels in underlying horizons fell
sharply and there was a general trend for percentage C to decrease
with depth, except for increases associated with Bh and Bms horizons.
Total N levels were also generally medium to high in upper A horizons
and likewise decreased sharply with depth to very low levels.
 254 255

entage C and total N contents in the two Charleston profiles were

to very low. C/N ratios were variable anJ very high in all
__ ,.... ___ co
izons·
l,OU')..-1 ....•11"•") NNr--M- U'IO.q--<:tN- NU"lNO"IC"I
ONU'>MO -OOMO 0..-1-.-;Q,....O 8~~:-ggc:~ )g)g~~t;~~~
00000 000....;o 0000....;oo
OON«:t..-1
00000 OOc:iciOOO 00000000
00000-0
0000000 cations
1-nO<"NO Nl.nCOOO c:to.o,..... ..... cocnMcn
~:;~~::;;N8
U"IO"IOMr-... «:t,...._0-=t'Oc:tr--.
-<d"Nl'.-1 M.-IOC'\.-1 OOa:>O'lc:t .-1,...._-=t'-=t'..:tMN _,....MMNc:t«:tM ~g~~r;;g~
oo....;oo oo....;oo 000...:....;oo 00000 c:iOOc:iOOci OOOciciciOc:i 00000.....;o
Levels of exchangeable C~, Mg and K in the mineral horizons were
\O\OU"l ....... \O
ONr--.o;t-
c:)c)c)c)c)
COM...,.0'<1"
..-10..-1-d'"-
ciciciMci
~~~~~~~
OOOOc:icici
c:tMNr-...«:t
0.-1..:t\Oc:t
00000
-«:tO'IO'IN.-1.-1
Q.-1N0.-1.-1.-1
0000000
U'l M ,...._c:tU1\0 U"lU"l
OOMN.-!N,....,....
cicicic:iciOc:iO
-----coco
00000--
0000000
allY low and decreased with depth. Exchangeable Al and H (KCl-
!ctable) were the dominant exchangeable cations in most of these
~~::g~~ C'\Ui<d"NU'I
N--\ON
MM.-10\<:tU"l
0M.-1Mr--N 8a~gg:: \OU")N-=t'O'ICOO
-0\0-CONM
NNMN\0.-1.-00\
.-1.-10'\,...._l'"--MNO'I
MN,.....N\O\Qln
0 . - 1 0 ..... c:tro«:t
oo...;oo oo....;,.;o 000....;....;oo 000.....;o oo.....;~.....;N.....: OOciOONN.....; OOOOO.....;N
l.000\11,....\J) a::iU')«:f"l,,Of""o., \O<:t<"JO'lo;t-01.() r-...c:tl.OCOr-... \00\..-INN..-IU") r-..\0-.:tN-NO'I,...._ qCX)_N,.....,...._
OM.-ll'<:t .-10Nt.t"l...,. OMMMO'ICOO'I --1,(')01,(') 0-Ln..:t'N_ ..... OO..nCOc:tM..-1..-1 OOOMMN
oo....;oo 000..,;o 0000~....;o OOONO 0000000 Ocicicicicicici 0000000 Exchangeable Al levels varied widely, from 0.33 to 5.36 me.% in
«:f"O'INIJ"l-
-MMl"--\0
No:>M,..._O'I
MOO'd'"- ~:::~~~G~
NMO\\O\OM..-1
,....,..._,...._l.OCO«:tM
OM\Or-.MC"l\ON
.-1.-\QU"lU"IOOl.(')<:t"
N\OOON"'-O"l..n
o o o .... c:tMU1 er A horizons, and from 0 to 16. 3 me.% in lower horizons. Al though
oo....;oo c)c)....;....;c) 0000....;oo 0000000 c:iciciOcic:iOO 00000.....;...:
is generally considered that exchangeable Al decreases with
.-NNOLn..-IMO
reasing pH, reaching minimal levels at pHs above 5.5 (Kamprath &Foy
..... .-\0\0U"IO'IO'ICO
1; Pearson 1975), only the Mawhera and Flagstaff profiles showed
5 trend to any degree. With the exception of the upper A horizons
the Charleston profiles which had levels of 0.51 and 0.67 me.%,
hangeable H levels varied from 0.92 to 3.54 me.% in upper A horizons
U"IM\01.nO
MO~.;'°
NN«:tN
<'-!0:<"-!~~
M\OU")O'lln
U") -\OM
"""!0-:C::"'!~~--:
a:> co ...... a:>
N..-1No::1"M-
f ' l.01.tl
~"'!!X!O-:C::
~~~~~
OOM.-ICO«:ta:>M
.....;Na).....:M~M
N-=t".-1 ..... NN..-1
C"IC"l.-1COCX)J-...\O,....
~cO~NNr-:a:ir--:
M..-1.-.-1.-INN,....
,..._M\0,.....\000
.,;r-:.....;N~ .....;c0 generally decreased steadily with depth and increasing pH to
N---NLn<::f"

U"INMOM o ..... O"l\O .....

atively low levels.
""':""!~~~i;c; <d" Cl'ICl'l - \ 0 OOU"lO'ICOaJM <.OOC0.-1.;tOCOU"I "<d'" <.0\0\0 M O'I O'I

~~i ~~~OON ~m~gjN ~~~~~<::l"M ~~~ia5 ~~a5.Dm~~ ~~Sr-:'°~;::oo ~o\~r-:cO~i

u • tion exchange capacity

""''"'
>W
....-.'+-
u
CO<:tU")O'd'
:::r--:mMci .......
..... ,....,....<:t\001""'- CX)U")MN-=t".-ICO
..OOOMN.....:.....:o
U"ICl'lU"lc:tr--MCJ'IOO
cOu-i..;N.....;.....;oo
t.n co,..... en
oe:tN.d~MNN
u:> m,.....

i;
~'+-· ... ,...._<:tr--\ONr-10

-01.nNU"l
i-...-0--
MOMCOM MN0..-11.l'lU")o;t r-.r.nl.(')MO MCOO'lc:t-=t",...._r-. M<::to:t"c:t,.....-01..00 MOOMMNU"l\O With the exception of the Hukarere profiles, ECEC, representing
~ ~
~~
:c
MO\U"lN.-1
.....:0000 ---00 N\OCOl.llN,.....M
....:oOciciciO
.-Or-.LnM
...;....;coo
co
\OCONNMN.-!
.....;000000
c:tMMMN.-o0..-1
N.....;000000
\0-<:;f'U"IM--
...;.....;ooooo tion exchange capacity at field pH, was generally low in all mineral
.,... ~[;" ~ rizons and ranged from 0.2 to 12.5 me.%. Upper A horizons generally
ONl.Or--.O'I
::C:~::iS?:j~~~ ~~::6~gg~
l,OU')r-.C"")U") .q Cl'I"' U') U"li..nr-.OU"l\OMN \01'"--,....c:tNOM
<::t"C0\0\0- \OCXl<:t\CN
~r--;~a:.::: c:tOCJ'IO'IMCO\OU"l O'IONNN,..._..:1"

+-' N.dM.....:o Mi.nc:ONci o....;~~~oo ..;r-:N....;.....:oo M.;M.....;.....;ooo o.....;..;u-iMNN

~~
ONl.(')MN

c C:OM_U'l_
d the highest ECEC and the general trend within profiles was for ECEC
0 ::::82;8 MO OOO ~~8~~8~
LnMU"IM
.-1000
U"lMU"INN.-1.-1
0000000 ~~~~g::!~ K:~88ci 5 ~~c;~g
u ~ "" OOOc:io Ocicicici ciOciciOcici OOcicio 0000000 00000000 OOOciOoci 0000000 decrease witr depth, although in most profiles there were horizons
"
.a ich went against this trend, giving higher ECEC values. These were
j
\0 Cl'I c:tN ...Oo::>COO'ILONN c:71.-NN- ,..._t.n.-1 N.-0-N MON.-N.--
!:2;88~~~
O'IO'l<:tM-
O'l0000 ,..._N..-10000
c::~~"""!C::
,..... ..... o 0000

~
1.t'>OOO 0..:1"00000
00000 OOOcici OOcicicicici .-0000 0000000 00000000 .....;000000 ually, but not exclusively, horizons of humus accumulation. Of the
~N8~ie~:8 f5g::~~;:!;~~~ ~~8~~~~
r--.o::iO'INI.(')
oo-N OLt'lM\O
~~~
~ ~
..-1.q.-o
MO OOo
OM<:tO
~ciciOo ~e-.:;,....;oooo
O"l\O<d"l.0..-1
M.....;.....:oo OciOociOO
8)gg5
....:0000000 0000000 ofiles examined, the Charleston and Addison profiles exhibited the
Nr-.,.....t.nN 00'\-MCX)N..-1 c:tN,......-IU"I
~~~g88g8~
west ECEC levels and the Hukarere profiles the highest. In the last
M0-00 Rg5~~g M..-1.-1.-1000 N.-1--0 ~~~!:1~c;~g~~ g::e~8g~:g
00000 ciciciOci 0000000 00000 .....;.....;00000000 ...;00000000
-;:;-
0000000 se, subsoil horizons gave much higher ECEC levels than those of the
rO
--01,oM
:£Nm.,;o
\OC:O\J'JMMO«:t
....:..;M~M.....:O
00000,.....U"ICOc:t.-10
r-:MMMM.....;o.....;.....;.....;
.., ... N
0U1ot;!'U")Nr--.OJ..nN

.,._
o\.....;M.....;.....;o.....;.....;.....; ,!~~~"'?""':°!-:
O.C0U1 - - . - ! N M
permost A horizons, reaching 18.6 me.% in the Hukarere 1 profile.
...c::~ ese high ECEC levels correspond with much higher levels of exchange-
u
....\ Q \ O O r - - . - O N - -
''E Or-.o;tr-.0'\-«:t
.;..;..;...;...;.~~
+-,.....+-M U"l O'l N
MMMM..;.u-i~~u-iu\
0 ..... 0 N ..-1
MM..;..;~i.nu-iu-iu-i
OCOO'lc:t'<:t\OOOC"I
•••••••
-MM..:1"..:1"'d'c:tc:t
61.00'IMLtla)ON
..S.MM..;..;..;u->ui le Al in these profiles and may, at least in part, be a reflection of
Cl.J
.s:::.
u "" higher carbon contents of subsoil horizons in the Hukarere profiles .
\OO"I0..-1\0
"";"~~if"! ~~~~~ ~~~~t?~'f ~
LtlO'<:t'\OCOU"ll.O'd'
'+- O\OO"I0..-1
-Nc:tl.(')
01.00IDM
.-INc:t\O,..._O'I
0
.-4Mc:t\O
... CEC, as measured at pH 7 by NH 4 0Ac, was higher in all cases than
V1
+-' -N
EC. This was especially so in the uppermost A horizons and in those
::i
EEoi..i:: 3:
c:CC:CCCIC:lCOCOU
VI horizons of humus and sesquoxide accumulation. Extractable
V1
Cl.J
was also higher in these horizons, but was also high in many
a:: ... ... With a high extractable acidity and a low ECEC, many horizons
~

i'.;'
~

i'.;'
had an appreciable variable charge component associated with
"'~::;-.J:"' "'~~o:l::"'
Cl.J
.--
..0
rO
.s-~
-
~'0
"
EU">
"'"'
a-«>
...
,,.. SY">
~ 0
..
-
"'"' and P retention
I- 5.-~ 0~~"'
V>

With the exception of the Hukarere 2 profile, the remaining profiles

showed a characteristic distribution of acid-extractable P, with low
~Vels in upper A horizons, which remained low and relatively constant
lth depth, but then increased markedly in horizons of humus and
;esquioxide accumulation, and remained high in underlying horizons. .
1~e ~Xtent of the increase varied between profile pairs. Lev~ls rema~ned
h w in the Hukarere 2 profile, presumably because the appropriate hor1 zons
ad not been reached.
 257
256

1980 - this issue) on the Addison, and more recently by Smith

P retention in upper A horizons was low and reached a maximum in 970i~ (1976) on the Addison, Kumara, Maimai, Okarito and Waiuta soils
horizons of humus and sesquioxide accumulation. In some profiles, e a also this issue, Smith &Middleton 1980).
Addison, the increase in P retention was sudden, in others like the .g. ee
Hukarere, the increase was more gradual. Horizons underlying the hum
and sesquioxide accumulations all had lower P retention values. Over
all profiles P retention was found to be significantly correlated with The very acid nature of the profiles was reflected in high exchange-
oxalate-extractable Al, as expected from the work of Saunders (1965). ! Al levels, although the relationship between exchangeable Al and
:as poor. This was largely because upper A horizons, although the
Citrate/dithionite, oxalate and pyrophosphate extractable Fe and Al t acid, contained relatively lower levels of exchangeable Al than
~erlying horizons, particularly Bh horizons, which were less acid.
Generally Fe and Al extractable by all three methods reached e 1ow A horizon levels may have been due to the fact that much of
maximum levels in those subsoil horizons identified as having humus e acidity in these horizons was reflected in high exchangeable H values,
and sesquioxide accumulations. In the Flagstaff 1 profile, where no "th the high subsoil levels reflecting increases in exchange capacity
such horizon was identified in the field, the Cwl horizon gave the ~sultant upon the accumulation of humic material and associated Fe and
largest extractable Fe and Al levels, not too dissimilar to those in 1 complexes.
the Bms horizon of the Flatstaff 2 profile. In some cases higher level
were given by horizons either immediately above or below those identifi are other factors to be considered however which could have
as humus or sesquioxide accumulations. For example, in the Okarito 1 the results. Firstly some, at least, of the KCl-extractable
profile the 2BC horizon gave higher citrate/dithionite and oxalate arisen through the hydrolysis of difficultly exchangeable Al
extractable Al levels than the overlying 2Bms horizon and in the Mawhera oleman &Thomas 1967; Dewar &Rich 1970). Secondly the Al extracted
1 profile the 2BC horizon gave higher oxalate Al levels than the over- y not have all represented an exchange quantity (Bache &Sharp 1976a;
lying 2Bh horizon. There were also quite_ large differences between abrera &Talibudeen 1978), and thirdly,~the extracted Al in solution
some profile pairs in the maximum amount of Fe and Al extracted, with, ay'not have all been in the form of Al 3 ' , as assume~, Some may have
for example, the Bms horizons of the two Charleston profiles giving xisted in a partially hydrolysed form or as polymeric species (Bache &
citrate/dithionite extractable Fe levels of 5.14 and 12.9%. harp 1976b; Cabrera &Talibudeen 1978; Noir &Prenzel 1978).

The pattern of distribution of extractable Fe and Al varied between ation exchange capacity
profile pairs. In some, like those of the Addison and Okarito, levels
remained low with increasing depth and increased suddenly in subsoil The potential sources of error in the determination of KCl-Al and
horizons of humus and sesquioxide accumulations. In others, for example H also have implications for the determination of ECEC. However the
the Hukarere and Mawhera profiles, the increase was more gradual, with fact that estimates of ECEC have been found to agree with direct methods
higher levels in horizons overlying the humus and sesquioxide accumulat- for the determination of CEC at field pH (Gallez et al. 1976; Juo et al.
ions. (In the case of Hukarere profiles, however, this only applies 1976; Gillman 1979) indicates that the errors involved may not be large.
to Al, as extractable Fe levels in these profiles, as determined by Certainly comparing ECEC with CEC at pH 7, it is obvious that leaching
all three methods, were negligible.) The pattern of distribution of with 1 M NH 4 0Ac greatly overestimated exchange capacity in many
and Al in the profiles was generally the same for all three extraction horizons. The low ECEC and high rainfall would not favour the retention
methods, although the levels obtained were quite different. of applied cations. This supposition is supported by the work of Lee
et al. (1979), who showed that 28% of the potassium applied to a Maimai
In most cases, particularly in the deeper horizons, much more Al silt loam, was lost in surface run-off within 3 to S months of fertiliser
than Fe was extracted by all three methods. This difference was not so application.
marked with citrate/dithionite extraction. In some horizons, for example
in the Bms horizons of the Maimai profiles, more Fe than Al was extracte .fxtractable Fe and Al
by citrate/dithionite, but more Al than Fe by oxalate. Fe predominated
in the Charleston profiles, as would be expected with Fe-cemented marine The accumulation of exchangeable Fe and Al at depth in the profiles
sands as the parent material. In all cases the amounts of Fe extracted indicates that podzolisation has been involved at some stage in their
decreased in the order citrate/dithionite > oxalate > pyrophosphate. development. Whether it is currently active is open to question however
This was not the case with extractable Al however where the order was (Ross &Mew 1975) and, indeed, in the light of comments made previously
more generally oxalate > citrate/dithionite ~ pyrophosphate, with many concerning the impervious nature of the subsoils, it is difficult to .
horizons of humus and sesquioxide accumulation giving much higher envisage much downward movement of material currently taking place, with
oxalate extractable Al levels than citrate/dithionite. the exception of the Charleston soil. The low Al levels in the upper
horizons of the Okarito and Addison profiles, followed by sharp increases
DISCUSSION at depth, may indicate that the podzolisation process has reached its
Fertility maximum expression in these soils. The somewhat greater levels of
extractable Al found in the upper horizons of the Mawhera and Hukarere
The high acidity and low nutrient content exhibited by the profiles Profiles, for example, could indicate more scope for podzolisation to
is a feature of the soils that is apparent from the work of Dunne & continue.
Scott (1964), During et al. (1964), McNaught & During (1970) and O'Connor
 259
258

0
0 m
However, whether or not podzolisation is currently active, it is
known that the soils are waterlogged for appreciable periods of time
and under such conditions one would expect gley processes to operate'
Wetness, pale colours (often with slight mottling) and lack of struc~u
in horizons above zones of humus and sesquioxide accumulation tend to r
indicate gleying. However chemical analyses show these horizons to be
strongly leached, and there is little evidence from extractable Fe
figures of a redistribution of Fe within the profiles that can be
attributed solely to gleying, for accumulations of Fe were found togethe
with those of Al and could therefore result from podzolisation and not on II"; in

gleying. However the nature of these soils is such that iron deposit- IN N <N-~-----
ion as a result of a fluctuating water table cannot be discounted. It
has also been suggested (Mew &Lee 1980) that the low percentage Fe 0 0 0
levels shown by several of the profiles could be the result of the
upward diffusion of Fe under waterlogged conditions and its loss by
lateral water movement in surface horizons. The possible role of £
·i::
on I.!")
r:.
<I:! i.:..
ferrolysis (Brinkman 1979) in the formation of these soils must also -"'
0
be considered. rci"
'- on
ii) U!'l
..c
The Charleston profiles are somewhat exceptional in relation to 3:
<I:! N

the other profiles studied, in that they have developed from iron-rich :!! ID c0 on
"4
comented marine sands and are characterised by thin Bms horizons with ~ N <I)
(IJ 'ii
E "O
very high extractable Fe levels. s.
-
:I
::..:: 0 0 V1
0N <IJ
0 0 .......
CLASS IF I CATION "O «:> ..c
<O
0
a. '° (,)
m
(!)

Fig.1 shows averaged chemical values for the profiles examined N

<t <t '<!"
(with the exception of the Charleston profiles) grouped according to -0 Ill
.!!1
<ll
provisional classifications of the soils involved. Overall it would .!!? ;;:::

appear that the chemical properties exhibited by the profiles were very 0N
IN
e
Q. Ill
similar irrespective of their classification, although certain small "" -0
0
IJ..
~ <IJ
:::>
,......
~
specific differences can be found. ·5
0 0 0
>
'°>
Ill

<ll ..-
ID a '° u
·.-
E
(!)
0 J::.
u
-0
(!)
01
rcl
s...
<IJ
>
<t:

,....,
01
·..-
LL
 260
261
E
2- 0 0
i=o ~
0
a:> ~ 0 ~ 0
00 ~ 0 ;f 0
00
a..
UJ
Cl
I IN
N IS G IS

# ~-
©
u..
~

R. & E.J.
Soil Bureau,
0 0 0

.Si "' "' "'

"'
iii
)(
0 '<t
The wet, podzolised soils on the higher glacial outwash terraces,
on moraine, on the West Coast of the South Is identified
ng recent surveys.have been variously classified as gleys, gley
olS, gleyed podzols and podzolised gleys (J.D. Cow pers. comm.).
& Mew (1975) have previously commented on the classification of
Westland gley podzols and the classification of wet podzolised
s in general in this region is further discussed in this issue
ew (1980a,b).
o-'----"=..~;.:.,.;,.:..:..;:.;,,;i w
0
Ross &Mew (1975) suggested that the current dominant process in
N ....----~~~-... ~ N-.----- gley podzols is gleying and that as such the soils would be better
~ e w
ro Q. Q)
ssified as gleys, with appropriate qualifying terms to elucidate
Q)
~
0
© ~
E
:l
:..::
N
c· ~a. e fully their mode of formation. For example, for the Mawhera
..... u..
c: c.t::. Sl N Okarito soils, both currently classified as gley podzols, classifi-
'i5
.2 -0 ~ ions of podzolised gley and relict-podzol gley were suggested, the
:e 0
(.)
ro
Q)
...L.--li~:.:.:.:.:~.:..:.:..;::.£.:11 ~ o-b:=:i:::i:::i::a:::~~ ~
ro
Cl 0
N-.-----
~ hors considering that whereas the Mawhera soil was still actively
~ N ~~-------. N N...,....-------, ~ :l

~ 0
a.
~ zolising, the Okarito soil had passed through a podzol stage and
u->?. ~ no longer subject to active podzolisation. Lee (1980 - this
al>
0

<( ~
Q) °'
-0
Q)
ue) Mew &Lee (1981), examining typical profiles of a number of
°'
>
.~
0N podzolised soils in this region, however, found little chemical
0
0-'-----"..,_..,"-""'~.......~ °'ec 0 _........_,,~:...=,;,;.u -g
a..
idence of a redistribution of Fe in the profiles that could be
0 £.....-------..... U5 £------ tributed solely to gleying, as accumulations of extractable Fe were
"' eral found together with high levels of extractable Al, and may
·:
0
:- erefore have resulted largely from podzolisation and not gleying.
'<t was proposed however that the low extractable Fe figures given by
.... ~. •.
y of the profiles could be due to gley processes, indicating perhaps
#Q)

.sr-- "'0 0 0
loss of Fe under waterlogged conditions through its upward diffusion
"' ·.:~.
"' d subsequent loss in lateral water movement (Mew &Lee 1978). It is
I
Q.
.....
ro 0
N
0
N
0
N
:2 •;.·;. 0
N
wn that the soils are waterlogged for appreciable periods of time
u ·:.··: one would expect gley processes to operate. With the impermeable
UJ
u
ture of the subsoil horizons in these soils, the upward diffusion of
s and its loss by lateral movement would appear one of the simplest
hanisms that could be postulated.
0

0
N
The movement of Fe under waterlogged conditions is dependent upon
#Q,) e presence of reducing conditions, sufficient to cause ferric ions,
E ich form relatively insoluble compounds in soils, to be converted to
u s
UJ
u errous ions, which exist in relatively soluble form and are therefore
LU
apable of movement in water. A measure of the oxidation (or reduction)
0
tate of a system is its redox potential (Eh). Many oxidation/reduction
reactions are however not only Eh dependent but also pH dependent
11
(L~ngmuir 1971), and in many instances, to attempt to determine the
.s::. .t::.
<l'. Ol co
.t::.
<l'. oxidation state of an element in a natural system it is necessary to
me~sure not only the Eh of the system, but also its pH. A number of
workers have examined Eh-pH conditions in soils in relation to the
0 X1'dation state of Fe (Jeffery 1960; Ponnamperuma et at. 1967;
 262 263

dB primar~ly ~o determine whe~her reasonable results could be obtained

Collins & Buol 1970; Bohn 1971; Van Schuylenborgh 1973). In doing so th the soils involved: The sites were visited only once and the
they have used Eh-pH stability diagrams, such as that shown in Fig.1, ts sho1;1ld riot be misco~strued as representing the 'normal r condition
501
which, given eH and pH, enable an estimate to be made of the dominant these so~ls. They are simply measurements taken at one moment in time
ionic species present. n the soils were waterlogged. Clearly to obtain a reasonable
elitative estimate of the redox regime of most soils it is necessary
amake a s~r~e~. o f measurements each year for several years. To
1200 offer definitive comment on the basis of one set of readings is hardly
alistic.
1000 Fe0H+ 2 aq

Fe(OH)~aq
800
The soils involved were the Hukarere silt loam, Mawhera silt loam
d Okarito peaty silt loam. The former is currently provisionally
iassified as a podzolised gley soil and the latter two are classified
600 5 gleY podzols. Type localities for these soils have been established
y Me~ &L~e (1981) - see als~ Lee (1980), this issue - and these were
ed rn th~s study. Two profiles were examined when each type locality
400 s established (Lee 1980; Mew &Lee 1981), and one of each of these
+2 FelOHl3 5 re-visited for the redox measurements. Total C figures and the
Fe aq rcentages of Al and Fe extractable by citrate/dithionite, oxalate and
>
E. 200 yrophosphate are given in Table 1 for the three profiles involved .
.i:;
LU urther details concerning the chemistry of these profiles are given in
his.issue by Lee (1980).
0
TERIALS AND METHODS
-200 Redox measurements were taken using an Orion portable specific ion
ter (model 407 A/F) with a platinum electrode and an Orion double-
unction reference electrode (model 90-02), with characteristics matching
-400
hose of the standard calomel electrode. Two platinum electrodes were
sed over the course of the determinations; they were both similar,
eing made of Pt wire fused to mild steel rod; insulated with plastic
-600
tubing and sealed with epoxy resin. Both gave the same standard potential
when tested against the reference electrode in Zobell solution (Langmuir
12
1971). This is a solution 06 potassium ferro- and ferricyanides in KCl,
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 g1v1ng an Eh of 429 mv at 25 C. Against the reference electrode, the
pH two platinum electrodes gave readings of 190 ± 5 mv, which when corrected
for the reference electrode potential (245 mv), matched the correct
solution Eh of 429 mv.
Fig. 1 Eh-pH stabilit~ diagram for the iron-water syst5m with
an aqueous Fe 2 activity of one millimole at 25 C - taken
from Ponnamperuma et al. (1967). (Boundary conditions The soils were waterlogged at the time of measurement and the three
vary relative to soluble species activity used) Profile pits all contained standing water close to the ground surface.
The Eh and pH of the surface layer of this water were measured and the
Water then pumped or baled out of the profile. Strong filter paper
Although it is often possible to measure field pHs that are stable and W~s wrapped around the reference electrode and thoroughly wetted with
reproducible, this is seldom the case with Eh measurements. Coupled distilled water and the reference electrode and surrounding filter paper
with this fact is the problem that in natural environments the then pushed into a surface horizon until a firm stable position was
fo un d . The platinum
· ' least 10 to 15 cm into
electrode was then pushed at
measured Eh is often a mixed potential as a result of several redox
reactions. Consequently Langmuir (1971) advised that Eh measurements the horizon of interest and the potential reading immediately taken.
should be considered primarily as a descriptive tool. Readings were then taken at five minute intervals until they had
stabilised. Commonly this required three or four readings, but occasion-
This article reports the results of Eh and pH measurements carried ally as many as six had to be taken. Four different sets of readings
out in the field on three wet podzolised soils, under waterlogged Were taken for each horizon examined. The two platinum electrodes were
conditions, on glacial outwash terraces on the West Coast, and, using Used simultaneously and connected to the meter when readings were required.
the stability diagram in Fig.l, suggests whether conditions would PB Was measured directly in the field by gently inserting a combination
favour the presence of ferrous or ferric ions. The measurements were e~ectrode into the horizon of interest. The values obtained agreed well
With those previously determined in the laboratory (Lee 1980).
 KEY
Upon the completion of a set of readings, the platinum electrode
was removed, washed and cleaned with distilled water and the platinum ____IOrganic Silt loam , firm and
massive, except Bh
wire polished gently with fine emery paper. The electrode was then re- nut
inserted for a further set of readings. The electrodes were spot-
checked in Zobell solution and checked again whenever apparently
anomalous readings were obtained. Seldom was the potential found to
be in error, and when it was, a thorough sanding with emery paper
restored the correct potential. The readings obtained proved to be
very sensitive to even slight movements of the platinum electrode
and several sets of readings had to be discarded for this reason.
Fig.2 Hukarere profile : Horizon designations, major profile
RESULTS features and results of Eh-pH measurements
Horizon designations (after FAO 1974), major profile features
and the results of the redox measurements are given in Figs 2, 3 and 4
for the Hukarere, fllawhera and Okari to profiles respectively.
 266

HORIZONS
MAJOR
Depth (FAQ)
(cm) PROFILE
FEATURES HORIZONS MAJOR
REDOX POTENTIAL
20 (m.v.) pH (FAO) PROFILE
L+F
H1 INITIAL FINAL REOOX POTENTIAL Fe +
FEATURES (m.v.) pH or
H2
609±12 736±14 3·5 INITIAL FINAL Fe3+
0 L ---+-----_.,""17l"""'rmt---t------r-----,---..,..----i
Ahg 487±22 514±27 3·8
Ah 620 ± 40 583 ± 66 3·8

20 Bwg1 552 ± 92 570±115 4·0

Ahg 489 ±48 4 76 ± 55 4·0 2+;3+

40 Bwg2 500 ± 53 611 ± 51 4·1
iiliiililllii
:::::::::::::
60 2Bwg3 Eg 1 342 ± 38 366 ± 1 9 4·3 2+
337 :t 22 436 ± 37 4·4

2Bh Standing water 1Ocm below ground

80 surface: pH 4·1, redox potential at Standing water 4cm below ground
2BC 2Eg2
surface 595 m.v. surface: pH 4·2, redox potential at
surface 625 m.v.
100 2Cw
KEY
2Bh Silt loam,
DOrganic very firm,
120 KEY ------ massive

D Organic
......... ··· S1"lt loam
• • • • • • • • It • • •

....... ·.•....
... f"1rm, wea k bi ock
............
• • • • • • • • • • • •

··•····
I 2Bms
2Cw
- Silt loam, friable, weak nut

Silt loam, friable, /f>0.4 9 ..; 0 Glacia_I ou~w ~~~/6,i12§:.~\i Glacial outwas~
0
weak nut ~.~0~2 ° material, f1rrn ~9:;,0-.,//~:§J material, very firm
-

Fig.3 Mawhera profile : Horizon designations, major profile

features and results of Eh-pH measurements Fig.4 Okarito profile : Horizon designations, major profile
features and results of Eh-pH measurements
 268 269

The three profiles are charcterised by a surface covering of organi . ios t by upward diffusion and loss by lateral movement in surf ace
5
material, overlying an appreciable thickness of fine-textured mater~ 1 izons. Furthermore, extractable Fe levels in the measured horizons
(possibl y loess), which in turn overlies glacial outwash gravels. ~al h~rthe other two profiles are of the same order as those in the Hukarere
0 file and at the time of measurement these appeared to be largely
most instances it was not pos sible to insert the platinum electrode n
into stable positions in either the surface organic material or thes ~~~ric in nature, although close to the ferrous-ferric boundary.
glacial outwash material and consequently, in all but the Mawhera
profile, measurements were restricted to the lower organic horizons It must be kept in mind, however, that these redox measurements
and the fine-textured horizons. In the Mawhera profile it was possibl lY relate to one moment in time and that we have little idea how the
to measure potentials within the top horizon in the glacial outwash e on. 15 behave throughout the year. The results do show tha t it is
50
material . ~sible to measure redox conditions in these soils with reasonable
ponfidence for qualitative purposes. They also indicate that under
The potential readings obtained were those with respect to the co terlogged conditions in these soils redox levels can fall to a level
reference electrode potential of 245 mv . The potentials given in the wa
where ·
ferrous ions coul d pre domina
· t e.
figures have been converted to true Eh by the addition of this referen
potential. The Eh levels shown are the means of the four readings made
on each horizon , together with their standard deviations ; both initia~
and final Eh levels are given . Standard deviations are generally high
but a high variability appears to be a common situation with redox ' TOTAL ELEMENT LEVELS IN GLEY PODZOLS
measurements in natural systems (Langmuir 19 71). Generally there were
few marked differences between initial and final values, with the
exception of the Mawhera profile, where three of the five hori zons J.S. Whitton
measured gave final Eh values 100 mv or more in excess of those origin- Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
a lly recorded . These increases may well have been caused by oxygen
diffusion along the hole made by the platinum electrode. If this was
so, however, it is difficult to explain why such differences did not Gley podzols,according to Soil Survey Method (Taylor &Pohlen 1970) ,
occur in the other two profiles, whose physical characteristics appeared are podzols in which the A2 horizon is gleyed, they also generally have
similar to those of the Mawhera profile . an iron pan which is indurated and high in Fe.

With the exception of the uppermost horizon measured, the Hukarere In Soil Groups of New Zealand, Part 3 (Gley So ils), in the section
profile gave the lowest Eh and pH readings, indicating that at the on Geobiochemistry (Whitton 1978), it was shown that in G (gley)
time of measurement it was the most reduced of the three profiles hori zons very little influence on element levels can be attributed to
examined. With reference to Fig.l, the initial and final Eh levels, "gleying". Podzolisation on the other hand is the leaching of all
and pH, appeared to favour the presence of ferrous ions in all but the elements in soils relative to silicon and is more clearly expressed
uppermost horizon, where conditions appeared to favour the ferric ion. in the A2 horizon. It is therefore to be expected that the element
Of the other two profiles, the Okarito gave marginally lower Eh readings content of gley podzols, in particular in A2G horizons arising from a
than the Mawhera, al though pH levels were s.imilar . In both of these combination of the above processes will be more closely similar to that
profiles conditions appeared to favour the ferric ion over ferrous ions of A2 horizons of podzols than to G horizons of gley soils.
in all but the lowest horizons measured (which appeared ferrous in
nature). Unlike the situation with the Hukarere profile however, where Table 1 gives the average element content of A, A2, A2(G or g),
Eh and pH conditions appeared to place most horizons well into the and G horizons for New Zealand soils, from which the following general-
ferrous zone in Fig . 1, conditions in the Mawhera and Okarito profiles isations can be seen.
placed most horizons close to the ferrous-ferric boundary . The suggest-
ions as to the ionic species present in these profiles are therefore (1) In A2 (G or g) horizons on average all element contents are less
that much l e ss reliable. than in A horizons except for Si and B. This is exactly the same
as for comparisons of average A2 horizons with average A horizons.
DISCUSSION
(2) In A2 (G or g) horizons, on average, all element contents are less
The measur ed horizons in the Hukarere profile had much higher total C than in G hori zons, except for Si and loss on ignition.
fi gures than the measured horizons of the other two profiles (Table ll·.
Redox reactions, both microbial and non-microbial, involving this organic (3) In A2 (G or g) horizons, on average, element contents are higher.than
material could well have been the significant factor leadin g to th e in A2 horizons , except for Al, Ca, Na, Cu and Zn. These exceptions
lower Eh values in this profile. Table 1 shows that extra ctable Fe are in part explained by the fact that the pa:ent materia~s of
levels in th e Hukarere profile were negligible and this would follow if gley podzols are dominated by quartz-rich schist and gra~ite
a ferrou s r e gime l asted for a considerable period and there wa s a means whereas the parent materials for podzols are much more diverse.
of removal of the soluble Fe. The ferric nature of the uppermost
horizon in this profile however would not support the proposal that Fe In Table 2 the element contents of three gley podzol s are given to
illustrate these generalisations.
 270 271

Table 1 Average element composition (arithmetic mean) for A2 (G 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 c

horizons of 7 gley or podzol or gleyed and podzolised so;~ OL/lL/lOOL/lO
('I
N f'- 0\ l"1 0 Cl
0
..... 0
-J::J
L/l
-J::J
L/l L/l
L/l
'°
co 0
~
0
t""--
0
'°
0 0

and for comparison average A , A2 and G horizons.** s _. _. """"'4 ,....-! r.( ..... ,..... L')
,..... N .....-1
0
N
...0
C"'·I

r-.•'l L/l ..... \() l"1 Cl() L/l

,-<N\()00!"11"1r-- 0
......
NL/10000\0
Horizon A;.i;(G or g) A A2

Element

Si '/c 36 28 3J.t 29
Al 3.0 8.6 3.7 l0 , 3 l"1
Fe 1. 0 4.4 0 , 94 0 0 0 0
3.s v v v
Ca 0.18 1. 5 0.28 0.6 L/l .....
Mg 0.24 0.8 0.20 O. S co ......
Na 0.27 1. 3 0. 45 (. 34) * 1.2
0 y
Sr ppm so 430 73 (22)* 120
r--

Ba 100 700 215(84)* 570

L/l 0
,...,
N
N
r---

Li 7 50 11 66 N f'- N 0 t.r. co
NL/lNOO
Rb 25 110 27 154 ...... 0 tj-
N '<J' -.C Ol
Cu 3.7 27 4.5 11
Zn 15 63 23 47 l"1 0 0
::l
Cr 12 36 10 42 u N 00 N
N
\()
l"1
l"1

Ni 2.5 4.7 2.3 12

Mn " 76 640 74 350 N
N
v 38 61 20 46
Mo 0.87 1. 2 0,7 1. 2 N 00 0 0 0 0 0
B 33 24 26(16)t 45 tj- L/l N CO N N t'I
N N N
Ti ,, 1800 3400 1250 2400
rl)

Zr 130 200 90 130 L/l If) Lfl 0

L/l L/l L/l L/l
Ga 9.2 9.3 8.4 12
NL/10\C
_. t-"I ~ C"l L/l Ol
,.... r--
tj-
.....
Loss on Ign. % 10 16 9 7
tr. l"1 l"1
'°
L'') LI') 0 r-- 0 N L/l N 0 Cl() L/l L/l L/l L/l LI')
y y y ..... N N ...... N l"1 00 l"1 N N 0 N 0\ LI')
..... ...... .....
** The average A horizon is of 54 soils (Wells 1965) ,.-< ,..... ,..... ,.-< N l"1 \() L/l ..... 00 ,..... '° tj-
ell 0 0 0 c c c 0 o o o o o ,-;
u
The average A'J. horizon is of 24 podzols and podzolised soils (Whitton 1 0000000 0 0 c 0
v
(.) c
v
..........
o· 0
o.r--r--1"10
0 ,..... N l"1 <:l-
l"1
.-1
o6 tj- 0\ L/l
.-tN<:l-\0
L/l r-- 0 l"1
OOL/l,...,L/l-.0
'°
0 c 0 0 0 c c 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
The average G horizon is of 15 gley soils (Whitton 1978) co r---
,.-< N ,..... N C 0 l"1 N f'- OOO N 00
ell 0000,.-<Ntj- 0 0 t'I ...... ...., tj-
z o o o o o c::i
O 0 0 0 0 C C
* The values in ( ) are obtained if values for Na, Sr and Ba in soils fr~ .,. v
0 LI')
rhyolitic pumice and soda granite e.g. Mamuku, Tihoi and Hohonu are N N l/l l"1 N l"1 tj-
deleted from the averages because their parent materials are unusually O O,.... N 1"11'0 <:l-

hig~ in these elements and distort the average.

c
L/l
.....
00
......
r--
l"1 tj- '°cc O'I tj-
l"1
tj-
......
L/l
tj-
L/l 00 Cl()

t The value in t ) is obtained if values for B in Waikare and Wharekohe s 00000 ..... N 0 OOL/l,...,

are deleted - this is because these soils contain Tourmaline, a B-rich

•rl 0 000\0\L/l
mineral, highly resistant to weathering, which has not been depleted d C.f) l"1 l"1 N N l"1
the podzolisation process.

LI') l"1 N r-. 0\ L/l ..... 0 L/l L/l 0

.......... N l"1 ..... ...... ......

..c: ..c:
Cl)
Cl)
e c.:/ ..c: 4-1 ..c: 4-1
ell
0
N
N
,.-<
N
N
N .-1
E
<1l
,-;
N
N
N ,...., .....
...... <!'. a:i C!l u 0 C!l a:i u u
H H
.µ H H 'fl
.....
.....
Vl .... u.l
I
'f• <!'.
0
.µ 0
•rl .....
H L/l
ell Ol
..><:: a:i
0 C.f)
 272 273

POTASSIUM FIXATION CHARACTERISTICS OF A GLEY PODZOL

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cl Q)
.µ
.... •r-i
Roger Campk in .-4 00
,.......
N .0
t/)

Ruakura Soil & Plant Research Station, Hamilton 0 0 -.:!"

'-' .0
·r-1
0 0
Q) l:J
.µ
N .-4 0 . ...; ~

.-4 l:J
"Fixation" of added potassium by a soil is usually regarded as 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ['-... ::s
temporary conversion into a non-exchangeable form which becomes avail- N u
•r-1 If)

able to plants at_ a later date . Mo:e specifically it will be defined S H

H Cl!
here as that portion of added potassium not recovered from a soil by
exchange with 1 M neutral ammonium acetate. 0 0
. 0
.-4

0
t"'l

0 0
.-4

0
t"'l
0 0 0 Cl 0
Q)
>If)
0..
'"O
Q) ~ .-4
.µ ,....... Q)
•.-IN i:i..,
Potassium fixation is generally due to the 2:1 layer clay minerals 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cl Cl Cl .-4 ' - '
.-4 > ~
in a soil , especially vermiculites and montmorillonites with a high H i:i..,

charge densit y (Weir 1965; Rich 1968; Sawhney 1972) . Some clay 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ Q)
.-4 .µ N
minerals in the silt fraction may also fix potassium (Kaila 1967). .-4 •r-1 .µ
H H H
Potassium fixation was measured by adding 1 . 0 me.% potassium (as 5 ml
of 0 . 01 M KCl) to 5 g air-dried soil, then drying at l00°C for 16 hours 0 0
. 0 0 0 0 0 0
. 0 0 0 Cl •• ..c::
0
.-4
Cl!
::s
O'
and measuring the increase in exchangeable potassium and subtracting ,....... u
00 I ~

from 1 . 0 me .% (Campkin 1972). It was low for all samples of the ,.......
N
'°
Cl) .µ Q) O'

Addison soil examined , ranging from 4 to 8% (Table 1). '-' 0 0 0

1"""'"'I . .........
' - ' .-4 <!)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
> 0 .-4 .µ
U') H •r-1
Table 1 Potassium fixation by Addison silt loam Cl)
'"O
i::
~ •r-1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
.-4 ..c:: .-4
Cl) u 0
% Added potassium •r-1 H cO
i:i... ::,..:
Fixed after 16 hours at l00°c N LI) N \0 t"'l -.:!"
Soil Depth Exchangeable 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cl 0,....... ~
0 0 0 .µ .-4 ::,..:
Cod e (mm) potassium ...__,
Whole Coarse Silt Sand
(me .% ) ,....... blJ
soil clay N
i::
•.-i .µ .µ
Cl) <!)
'-' '"O •.-i •..;
0 0 0 0 0 Cl
> 0 0 0 0 0 0
H .-t i::
U2(A)l 0-38 0.66 8 8 3
0
u u ......
::s 0
0
u
U3(C)l 38-75 0.18 6 not determined '°0 LI)
.-4
N

0
Cl)

0
0

.-4
Cl!
·.-i .-4
s
H H
·.-i

i:: Cl) 0
UA 150-300 0.16 4 not determined 0
•r-1
>I .µs
.µ <!) i::
UC 150-300 0.06 8 not determined u .µ 0
ro ....; ~
H .-t
4-1 .-4
4.; H .µ
N Cl) ['-...
.
-.:!" LI) '°
Cl
00
.-4
.
-.:!"
Cl)
·r-1
'"O ~
,.......
~
...
The fixation of the topsoil (0-38 mm) was examined in more detail and .-4 N 0 N LI)
>. .-4
was determined on the coarse clay, silt and sand fractions (there was
N .-4
ro ,_, .µ(1)
H > ·.-t
Cl) o\O
N
insufficient fine clay available for this test). Fixation by the •r-1 V)
I H H
<IS >< 0
individual fractions was also low, ranging from 0 to 8% (Table 1).
V)
'-' s ·~
,....._,.c::
......
0 NU
>. H '-'
Low potassium fixation by the whole soil samples was believed to i:: <IS 4-1
..c::
~
>. .-4 (1)
be due to their low contents of clay (Table 2). The low fixation for Cl) ·r-1
0 <IS u '"O .µ u
.-4 (1) • ...;
N .µ
the coarse clay can be explained by the small amounts of vermiculites u Q) u Q) •M .....-t • .._

and illite-vermiculites in this fraction (Table 2) . The even smaller

•r-1
Cl) <IS
Cl)
V) V) V) 4-1
....; u
::s ,.......
.-4
.µ H .µ Cl) H .µ
amount of fixation for the silt fraction may have been due to its
H
4-1 ~ .-4 <IS .-4 i:: <IS .-4 .µ ·r-1 ' - '

illite content (Table 2) .

0 ·r-1
u
0 ·r-1
en
. ...;
i:i... u
0 . ...;
en § ~ (1)
u Cl)
'"O <!) .µ
•.-i > ...;
0 I .-4
0
The samples of the Addison soil examined here had negligible K 00 LI) 0 0 t/)
.-4
(1)
.µ u
::s
t"'l ['-... t"'l t"'l
fixation due to their low clay content and in particular to their very I I I I Cl! •..; •.-t
H .-t S
0 0 0
l ow content of expand i ng 2 :1 layer clays. Lower potassium fixation may 00
t"'l LI) LI') Cl) .-t H
.-4 i::H (1)
not be a general property of gl ey podzols, as Campbell (1974) found .-4
....; >
appreciable vermiculite and montmori lloni te in the clay fractions of the s ,....... ~

upp er hori:ons of a Kumara soil from a chrono sequence of soils near ReeftoO· >.N,.......
<IS '-' .-4
Such soils should have a greater capacity to fix potassium than the ...... Cl)
.-4 > '-'
• r-1 "'O
UH>
Addison soil . 0 0
Cl) u +-
 274 275

VARIABLE CHARGE FOR THE BMS HORIZON OF AN OKARITO

Titration in
R. L. Parfitt
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt 1M NaCl

Variable charge arises from the reactions of surface AlOH, FeOH

and organic groups in soils. The variable charge properties are
observed when the pH of the soil is changed. Thus as the soil pH is
increased (e.g. by liming or in the laboratory using ammonium acetat
at pH 7) the negative charge is increased. If the pH is decreased e
to low values the soil may become positively charged. When the soil
is at a pH value where it has no net charge it is said to be at the
point of zero charge (pzc). e.g. -5
Na+ adsorbed
Al-0 -4 /o negative charge
positive pzc negative /
charge charge / Titration in
(low pH) (high pH) / 0·01 M NC1CI
/
The negative charge on a soil can be measured by determining Na+ /
+ /0
(or Cs ) adsorption at different pH values and the positive charge
/
from Cl- (or N03-) adsorption. The results vary with the concentration
of the NaCl solution but the optimum concentration is 0.005 M NaCl 0/ ()
(or CsCl). -1
/
In podzols the Al, Fe and organic matter with active surface Na+ 0-- o.-cr
pzc
Cl-adsorbed
positive charge
groups are concentrated in the illuvial (spodic) horizons. There are O--l-~~~..flt:.~~-l----:-=;::.--r-::::v.:~~:""C::-=-:z==,..._....__..:.=-~-;__,:;-KT-~~~-
very few published results for variable charge on podzols, but tbe
... + - 7
paper by Laverdiere and Weaver (1977) gives results for Na and Cl
adsorption from 0.1 M NaCl solutions on an Aerie Haplaquod (Fig.l). pH
The negative charge increases from 0.4 me./100 g at pH 3.7 to 4.0 me./1 +1
g at pH 7 while the positive charge is only developed weakly (0.5 me./1
g) below pH 4.5. The pzc from NaCl adsorption occurs at pH 3.9.
+2 %Al % Fe
The pzc can also be determined from titration curves, and this
occurs at pH 4.2 (Fig.1), in reasonable agreement with the NaCl Pyrophosphate 0·66 0·18
adsorption method.
Tamm 1·02 0·34
Titration curves for the 2Bms horizon of an Okarito silt loam 0·79 1 ·16
(SB 9516F) are given in Fig.2. The result is similar to that in Fig.1, 5·07
with the pzc occurring at pH 4.45. The charge may be related to Tamm
Fe and Al, which indicate the amount of active Fe and Al which are 4•33
present, including the organic Fe and Al.

The 6pH value for the Okarito 2Bms is pHKCl - pHH 2 o = -0.5.
negative value indicates that the soil (in situ) has a small net Fig .I.
negative charge.
Titratiori curves and NaCl adsorption against pH for the
Bir horizon of an Aerie Haploquod (Laverdiere &Weaver 1977)
The pzc and the pHKCl for the Okarito 2Bms are both close to 4,S.
When these two values are close together the soil is in a steady state
pedogenic development is thought to be at a maximum (Hendershot et aZ ·
1979).
 276
277

ssaAUER SPECTRA FOR TWO IRON PAN SAMPLES

C.W. Childs
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt

-7 1 M NaCl The mineralogical nature of iron pans in podzols and related soils
mething we know very little about. X-ray diffraction typically
:~ no peaks attributable to secondary iron minerals, and the material
-6 iabelled "a~orphous". In other ~ases, bec~use of the presence of
uvial organic matter, the term "iron-organic complex" is invoked.
1 is a vague term and it is usually unclear whether it refers to an
~-organic com~ound or an iron-oxide-hydroxide framework intimately
-5 ed with organic matter .

Modern instrumental techniques, such as nuclear magnetic resonance

r), electron paramagnetic resonance (epr), high resolution electron
C') -4 croscopy and electron diffraction, are being used increasingly in
0 udies of soil materials, and they have the potential for providing
0
.-- siderably more information on the atomic and molecular arrangements
......... materials previously labelled "amorphous". The recent advances in
a) -3 owledge of the structure of allophane and imogolite, based largely on
E 0·01M NaCl
(1) ectron microscopy (Wada 1977), and the identification of copper-
r.n
,_ rphyrin complexes in soil humic acids by epr (Goodman &Cheshire 1976),
2 -2 vide good examples.
(.)

Moessbauer spectroscopy (or nuclear gamma resonance) is another such

echnique and it is relevant here because it is a particularly valuable
-1 thod for studying the oxidation state and environment of iron atoms in
lid samples. In this note the Moessbauer spectra of two iron pan
amples at 77 K (liquid nitrogen temperature) and 295 K (room temperature)
e discussed. These very limited spectra were obtained while the author
as on study leave at the Macaulay Institute for Soil Research in
berdeen , and the data and conclusions should be regarded as 'preliminary'
4 5 6 7 pH t this stage.
pzc %Al %Fe
1 titration
Pyrophosphate 0·7 0·1
This is the name given to a technique for studying the absorption
Tamm 2·04 0·9 Of Y-rays by the nuclei of atoms. In the study of iron the y-rays are
2 COB 1·35 1 ·12 emitted by excited 57 Fe nuclei formed in a 57 Co radioactive source.
The Y-rays are directed at an absorber (sample) and the number passing
pH H20 5·0 through the sample, while the source is moved alternately towards and
pHKCI 4·5 away from the sample, are measured. The purpose of the movement is to
vary the energy of the emitted y-ray (by the Doppler effect). This
Variation is necessary for resonant absorption to occur because the 5 :i'Fe
ground state atoms in the sample will exist in different environments
:nd t~us have different y-ray absorption energies from the y-ray emission
Fig. 2 Titration curves for the 2Bms horizon of an Okarito nergies of the source. Although these energy differences are very small
silt loam (SB 9516F) eof the order of 1 part in 10 10 ) they can be measured conveniently and
~ccurately as the velocity of the source relative to the absorber.
The active Al and Fe in horizons of sesquioxide accumulation has 1(n~ llUn/s)
obtaining a spectrum, the velocity range scanned (usually within ±
is divided into a number of segments or channels, and ~aunts
the p~tential to react with phosphate and other anions, but the
reactions may not be significant if the spodic horizon occurs at AUmbers of y-rays passing through the sample) are accumulated in each.
depths greater than 20-30 cm. i~ the end of the run the spectum is shown by ~he plot of total_co~nts
each channel versus velocity . The interactions of the nuclei with
 278
279

electric field gradients and magnetic fields within the sample can
produce splitting of the nuclear energy levels and usually two or six
absorption lines are observed for each type of site for iron.
. ..
57
Fe Moessbauer spectroscopy is relatively sensitive - samples
containing as little as 1% iron (0 . 02% 57 Fe) may be easily studied;
.. ~-
1 ' . . : . . .. • -
- ---Y
...
......
•• .I ,,.
,,,,
I I
... :- -1:. 'I'" •
\\•":'·
" I I #
...
_._ ··-~"'-":<.o -· ~
......... ~ ~.-:,..-...:
I
,.,-.,. ..,,,-;:
1 1
I
I I I
., · ..
I 'II

it is specific for Fe - no interference arises from other elements or ~

.t
from minerals which do not contain iron (this makes sample preparation
very simple); and short range order, over as little as 1-1.5 nm, is
adequate to provide sharp spectra . Further information on the method
can be obtained from Bancroft (1973).

SAMPLES (a)
Sample 1 is iron pan material from Maimai fine sandy loam, Bell ..
Hill Farm Settlement (Lee et al. 1979). The sample was carefully
selected by scraping a piece of intact pan with a small spatula. The
pan was provided by Dr H.K.J.Powell, Chemistry Department, University of
Cant erbury.
..
Sample 2 was of the Bfe horizon of Okarito silt loam (Lee 1980),
. ..
and has N.Z. Soil Bureau sample number 9516F. It was obtained during
the sampling of the full profile, horizon by horizon, in a routine
manner, and no special attempt was made to exclude soil material closely
associated with, but not part of, the iron pan.
.. . , . ..:·I.: -. .. .. ...
These two different methods of sampling a+e reflected strongly in
':.
\-·II·~:
.~
~I
~
•a' ... ..· -.. ... .....:· .....·-;..~ :: . . :... .. ·.··"'.·
I I Ci I ,. -: I I

.,,,.:••
I

..
I •, • I# "'II I I I

.... .·: ·: .·· ···.,".• ... ·: .. ,......

• : :••• • • • • '• •• .,,,. • • I ·:-. • •-.: ..... ,.- •,
the spectra.
. ,,. , ·....... .. ..
I • • • • • • • • • \. •• : · · -·. ':. •• • :,~ . . • • • • : I I •• • I II I I I II I II I I I - ..

.. '·...·..
• • I ~· • • ,,• • • • '• •

MOESSBAUER SPECTRA
• t/'

..:
: 11111 • • • ·.. • • ••

... : . ;.
...
Figure 1 shows the spectra for both samples at 77 K over a velocity .
range of about± 10 mm/s. Each spectrum was ' accumulated over a period of

.. '
1-2 days in a 512-channel analyser. (b)
~

The spectrum for sample 1 is simple. It shows a quadrupole-split

doublet (labelled I) attributable to Fe 3 + in octahedral co-ordination
sites. The spectrum for sample 2 is more complex and shows at least
.. ..
three spectral components: a quadrupole-split doublet (I) attributabl~
to Fe 3 + as before, a quadrupole-split doublet (II) attributable to Fe 2 ,
and a 6-line magnetically-split component (III) due to iron atoms in a
third type of environment. 8·53
At 295 K the spectra, over the same velocity range, were similar to
those at 77 K, apart from small difference~ in the areas of the peaks nr
associated with each component of sample 2 .
-10 -5 0 5 10
Velocity/mm s-1

* In some cases the spectrum for a sample at 295 K can be significantlY Fi g.1
different from that at 77 k, and these differences, or lack of them, Moessbauer spectra for (a) sample 1 and (b} sample 2
are useful in characterising the environments of the iron atoms in at 77 K. The labelled spectral components are discussed
the sample.
in the text.
 280
281

The Fe 3 + doublet of sample 1 was examined in detail over a s

velocity range at 295 K (Fig.2). Computed Moes a e
of Mai ma i iron
1· 21 Inner doublet Outer doublet

/;, 0.52 (1) 0.90 (2)

cS 0.35 (1) 0.35 (1)
r 0.32 (1) 0.50 (1)
% 35 ( 4) 65 (6)

Quadrupole splitting, /;,, isomer shift, cS, and

peak width, r, are given in mm/s with cS relative
to iron metal. The % line gives the relative
doublet areas. Numbers in brackets indicate the
computed standard deviations on last significant
figures.

1·12 rihydrite. However the relationship, in a mineralogical sense,

tween iron atoms and organic matter is still uncertain and this
oblem requires some further work.

Sample 2 (Fig.lb) has spectral components which suggest that

-1 0 1. her than pan material is included in the sample. Component I is
nsistent with the spectrum for sample 1 and probably represents +
Velocity/mm s -1 e pan material in the sample. Component II is probably due to Fe 2
Fig. 2 Moessbauer spectrum for sample 1 at 295 K. The points form silicate minerals (e.g. chlorite, biotite) in the soil material
the experimental spectrum. The two pairs of matching peaks osely associated with the pan. Component III is typical of
(solid lines) are the two computer-fitted spectral componen gnetite and this is supported by the occurrence of magnetite in
which give rise to the calculated spectrum (solid line) e underlying horizon (S.M.Robertson pers.comm.).
closely matchi~g the points
The contrast between the spectra for samples 1 and 2 emphasises
The experimental doublet (defined by the points) was found e need for careful sampling in the study of pans by the Moessbauer
larger peak widths than expected for a single well defined site: thod (and probably by other methods as well).
Computer-fitting, using established techniques, showed that a s1ngl
pair of peaks, with the: required shape (Lorentzian), could not
satisfactorily represent the experimental spectrum. Two doublets
(Fig.2) gave a much better fit to the points, and ~he.par~meters
obtained are shown in Table 1. The quadrupole splitting is the STS I D FE I 0 IC
separation of the two peaks of a doublet, the isomer shift is ~he MPLEXES IN S w I
velocity at the midpoint between the two peaks, and the pe~k widths
are given for half maximum absorption. As is usual, the fitted .
peaks of each doublet were constrained to have equal areas and w1dt c.w.
Soil IR
DISCUSSION
Recently, we reported on simple field tests for exchangeable
Sample 1 (Figs la,2) gives a spectrum identical with those sho d Water-soluble ferrous iron, and for soluble reducible ferric-
by Goodman & Berrow (1976) for iron pan material from Scottish podz 0 ganic complexes, in soils (Childs &Anderson 1980).
soils. Spectra for synthetic ferrihydrites (Childs &Johnston 1980)
and natural siliceous ferrihydrite (Henmi et al. 1980) also match t The tests are based on the red colour of complexes formed by Fe
2+
for sample 1, and it is tempting to describe the iron pan material a,a'-dipyridyl in solution. A background+electrolyte,
ammonium acetate, is used to displace Fe 2 ions from exchange
 282

sites. Either a pinch of soil is placed in a small glass vial contai

the reagent, or the reagent may be applied directly to a freshly-cut . no.
profile with a small pneumatic spray. )'

The test for soluble ferric-organic complexes in the soil takes Test resul Interpretation
advantage of the reduction of ferric iron to ferrous iron in the pres
of some organic complexors and of light. Thus a positive test for F in light
ions in a vial held in the light, a few minutes after adding soil, bu~
a negative test when the vial is kept in the dark, indicates the pres
of ferric-organic complexes. If the soil contained Fe 2 + ions, then ae Ah -ve -Ve no Fe 2 + ions or ferric-
positive test would be observed in both vials. organic complexes evident
weak +ve -ve small amount of ferric-
As part of trials with these tests, we examined some West Coast organic complexes
soils in the field, between 11-13 February 1980. These days were fine weak +ve weak +ve
but followed several days of rain, and the soils were wetter than usua
Egl small amount of Fe 2 + ions
+
at this time of the year. 2Eg2 -ve -ve no Fe 2 ions or ferric-
organic complexes evident
Two soils were examined in detail at Soil Bureau reference 2Bh -ve -ve no Fe 2 + ions or ferric-
organic complexes evident
(1) Mawhera silt loam (gley podzol; ref .no. SB9513; see Lee 1980)
FAO Three other soils were examined in less detail:
horizon Test result using vials Interpretation
designation in light in dark Waiuta silt loam (sli y · similar to SB8870)
Hl weak +ve -ve small amount of ferric- This soil was tested at a face at a roadside.
organic complexes Small amounts of Fe 2 + ions were evident in E horizon. A strong
positive test for ferric-organic s was obtained below the E
H2 weak +ve -ve' small amount of ferric- horizon. This confirmed the location of Bs horizon of accumulation,
organic complexes which was not clearly evident to the eye at site. Below the Bs
Ahg weak +ve weak +ve small amount of Fe 2 + ions horizon, tests suggested that the soil contained both Fe 2 + ions and
ferric-organic complexes.
Bwgl weak +ve weak +ve small amount of Fe 2 + ions
Bwg2 weak +ve -ve small amount of ferric- ~amaka silty clay loam si lar SB9078)
organic complexes
The soil was sampled with an auger down to about 1 m. Over a
2Bwg3 -ve -ve no Fe 2 + ions or ferric- widespread area, abundant Fe 2 +
organic complexes evident were evident from topsoil down to
1 m. At one site, about 3 m from a drain, the soil was not as wet as
2Bh weak +ve not done small amount of Fe 2 + ions elsewhere, and posit tests for complexes down to
or ferric-organic complexes about 20 cm were obtained, below this no ferric-organic complexes
present Fe 2+ ions
. were evi"d ent.

Spray test: weak positive tests for Fe 2 + ions in the pseudomottles 1 & or 1980a)
(weathered gravel) in the 2B horizon and also near the
boundary between the A and B horizons. Several topsoil s were tested at the Department of Lands
and Survey Ruru Block at Bell Hill. All s showed the presence
of abundant Fe 2 + ions.

?+
The small quan1t1es of Fe- or ferric-organic complexes
observed in the Mawhera and soils are consistent with the
relatively low extractable-iron values obtained by Lee (1980). It
appears that most of the secondary iron has been lost from these soils,
Presumably in drainage water. The forms of iron observed, however,
are in general consistent Eh measurements made on the same
Profiles on the same day by Dr R. Lee, Soil Bureau. These Eh values
Were similar to those measured &Gibson 1980).
 284 285

The observation of abundant Fe 2+ ions in the topsoils of the tua (0-6 cm~ younger_v~riant, 14 OOO years old) s~ils were used.
Kamaka and Maimai soils tested is of interest in relation to the ere air-dried and visible plant roots removed prior to the
fertility of these soils, and the estimation of properties from wtion of soil organic matter. The soils were then sieved
laboratory measurements. It appears that Fe 2+ may well be a+signific ach
exchangeable cation in the field. However, exchangeable Fe 2 ions Wi~ ug a 2 mm sieve to remove
. finer plant roots and finally ground
pas s through a 0.16 mm sieve.
not be ap~arent in air-dried, oxidised, samples in the laboratory.
These Fe 2 ions will have oxidised, probably to hydrous iron oxides of Each soil was pretreated with 0.1 M HCl and then extracted
short range order. Consequently, cation exchange properties may be austively with 0.1 M Na4P201 at pH 7.0. Extracts from acid-
incorrectly assessed. Other properties measured in the laboratory, treatment and Na4P201 were combined (termed 'total pp' or 'pp
such as P-retention and pH, may also differ considerably from those t') The soil was subsequently extracted with 0.5 M NaOH
pertaining in the field. ra~d 'NaOH' extract). All extracts were purified and five different
:mal molecular weight (MW) fractions (>200 OOO, 200 000-100 OOO,
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ~00-50 OOO, 50 000-10 OOO and <10 OOO) wer~ determined using_
dex gel filtration chromatography. Details of the extraction
I am grateful to H.K.J.Powell, R.Lee, and G. Mew, for their h:ique and the gel ~iltration method ~se~ are available elsewhere
interest and comments. h &~eid 1975; Williams 1978; Goh &Williams 1979).

To obtain greater details on the nature of the extracted organic

ter, two MW fractions (>SO OOO and <SO_OOO) were isolated in
ficient quantities for chemical analysis. Tota~ ~arbon (C),
trogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), total acidity, and COOH
CHEMICAL NATURE OF THE SOIL ORGANIC MATTER EXTRACTED idity were determined for each extract and for the >SO OOO and
FROM A GLEY PODZOL SOIL (OKARITO) o OOO MW fractions.
SULTS AND DISCUSSION
M.R. Williams & K.M. Goh lecular weight distribution of soil organic matter
Department of Soil Science,
Lincoln College, Canterbury The percentage distrd;butiom·of organic matter between the five
minal MW fractions separated from the pp and NaOH extracts is
own in Table 1, along with weighted mean figures combining the data
INTRODUCTION r the pp and NaOH extracts in proportion to their total organic
rbon contents. An overall mean MW figure for each soil is also given.
The present-day concept .of soil organic matter is that it consists
of a diverse mixture of organic compounds which can be grouped as humic
In the pp extract the proportion of organic matter in the >200 OOO
and non-humic substances (Kononova 1966; Schnitzer &Khan 1972; Flaig range decreases from the Hokitika to the Ikamatua soil but increases
et al. 1975). The former constitute the major portion of organic rkedly in the Okarito soil (54.7%). On the other hand, organic
matter in most soils and are considered to represent a polymeric tter in the <H) OOO MW range increases with soil development to a high
system which shows systematic variation in elemental composition, oportion (40.7%) in the Okarito soil. However, a very small
acidity, degree of polymerisation and molecular weight. This concept oportion (4.6%) of intermediate size(200 000-10 OOO) MW fraction is
has led to the isolation of organic matter from soils in homogeneous esent in the Okarito soil although this fraction increases from
molecular weight fractions (Goh &Reid 1975; Anderson &Hepburn 1977; kitika to Ikamatua. Thus the organic matter in the Okarito soil
Tan 1977). pears to be less polydispersed.
The objective of the present study is to apply the molecular The subsequent NaOH treatment extracted a larger proportion of
weight fractionation technique to study the organic matter extracted rganic matter in the >200 OOO MW range than the pp extracts. More
from the Okarito gley podzol soil. This soil formed the oldest han 79% of the NaOH extracts from the three soils is in this MW size
member of the Reefton chronosequence, which has been described and ange. There is a small increase in the proportion of organic matter
studied by other workers (Suggate 1965; Tan 1971; Campbell 1975). ~ the <10 OOO MW range, while the intermediate size fraction decreases
The results are compared with those obtained from two younger members lth soil development. Thus changes in MW distributions of soil
(Hokitika and Ikamatua) of the same sequence, since studies of soil rganic matter are more evident.in the mild pp extracts than in
chronosequences provide a better understanding of soil genetic Subsequent NaOH extracts.
processes and soil development (Jenny et al. 1949; Stevens &Walker
1970). Colour differences were also observed between these two extracts,
MATERIALS AND METHODS and between MW fractions. On the whole, pp extracts were reddish-
brown while NaOH extracts were dark brown. Higher MW fractions of
Soils under native vegetation and from A horizons of Okarito both extracts were yellow, while lower molecular weight fractions were
(0-15 cm, >22 OOO years old), Hokitika (0-10 cm, 300 years old) and reddish-brown.
 286
287

0
0
0
lfl
..-t
0
N
00
..-t 0
. 00 N The extremely we~ cond~tions present in the A horizon of the
0
..-t
..-t ..-t ..-t "1" ..-t N
weathered Okar1to soil (Adams &Mew 1975) together with its
v 1
~ (4.2) would favour the slow formation of humic substances from
osed plant and animal remains. These conditions would also
0
0 m~ct the breakdown and mineralisation of newly formed humic
0
rinces. Thus, in the Okarito soil, the humification process is
0
~~ed and a very small proportion of intermediate size molecules
..-t
I
!"-- 00

'°
. 0 \0 N
. .
\0
0
0 0 "1" ..-t 0 0
111ates.
0
0 ;cal nature of molecular weight fractions (>50 OOO
lfl
<50 OOO fractions)
...c::

-
(.) 0
ro o fotal C, N, P, and S in pp and NaOH extracts
(i) 0
0
lfl
I
"1" 0 0
00 0
0
lfl
N
0
0
. '°0
LI)

0
These results are shown in Figs.1 to 4. The amount of organic C
0 "1" 0 N
tl')
"1" ..-t considerably higher in the >50 OOO MW fraction than the <50 OOO
0
0 fraction. In the Okarito soil this difference is not present.
0 ·1ar trends are shown by total N, P and S. The Hokitika soil
0
..-t 5 the highest combined weight of S in the <SO OOO MW fraction .
5 possible that coal from the mine upstream of the Hokitika site
0 ributed to the high S content, since periodic floodings of the
0
0 tahu River, a tributary of the Inangahua River adds fresh alluvium
0 the surface of these soils (Williams, 1978).
0
..-t
'° 0 00 0 0 ..-t 0 0 0
.
I "1" 0 lfl ..-t 0 tl') 0 0 0
0 tl') ..-t ..-t Ratios of N, P and S relative to C
0
0
0 Since C is the major constituent of soil organic matter and the
0
N cent C in soil humic compounds is reported to be relatively constant
Cl)
-0 u nonova 1966), the C content of soil organic matter can be considered
cc the framework of humic compounds to which elements of N, P and S
Ct$ Cl) 0
:::i 0
0.. O" 0 00 N '<:I" e bonded. Therefore, the N, P and S relative to C ratios should
0.. Cl)

'+- 0
l/) 0
0
00 ..-t '°'° vide valuable(.information on the nature of organic matter extracted
oc N
"1" 00 different extractants and its changes with soil development.
0 A
c S-
o ..c:
.,.... u Results of these ratios are plotted against soil age and are shown
..µ
:::i c Figs.S,6 and 7. Most N/C, P/C and S/C ratios in the <SO OOO MW
..Cl 0
.,.... ..µ actions from the three soils studied are higher than those in the
S- '+-
..µ Q) 0 OOO MW fractions. Exceptions are found in the Okarito soil which
l/) Cl)
•r- 0::: .-1 00 ows higher P/C and S/C ratios in the >50 OOO MW fraction of the pp
-0 ..-t N
..µ ..c:
Cl) tract. In addition N/C ratios are higher in the <SO OOO MW fraction
..c: ..µ the NaOH extract than in that of the pp extract. On the whole, N/C,
01
...... '+- C and S/C ratios in <SO OOO MW fractions decrease with soil age
Q) 0
3: l/)
. ereas these changes are small or undetectable in the >50 OOO MW
S- . -
et$ .,....
raction.
.- 0
:::i l/)
u Ratios of total acidity and COOH acidity relative to C
OJ E
c;e'+-
::E On the whole the total acidity and COOH acidity are higher in the
0 OOO than in the >SO OOO MW fraction in the three soils studied
illiams 1978). These remain unchanged when the results are
)(pressed in ratios relative to C (Figs. 8 and 9) but these differences
Cl)
..- ,....;
e not apparent in Okarito soil. The ratios increase in the <SO OOO MW
..Cl
Ct$
•r-1
0
raction in the Ikamatua but they decrease in the Okarito .
I- Cf)
ONCLUSIONS
It is apparent from the results presented that the organic matter
n the gley podzol soil (Okarito) is different from that present in the
 288
289

<SO.OOO Reel ton

e pp ex1racts o
<5 • NaOH extracts a
e pp extractable carbon o Reelton 24 >50,000 < 50,000 5
a NcOH extnx:toble carbon a
e pp extractable r ~ i troy.?n o " Combined extracts A
I. Toto I extractable carbon f!.
25J • NaOH extroctable nitrogen O
lu " Total extractable nitrogen ll
4

200
16

"'S? 3
c
_g 150 ..
c

8 ff12
z
~~ 8
N
'e

"'

~L-~--"4~~~e~~~a~~~~~~~~::-~~~
4 8 12 16 20
e 12 1s 20 24 8 12 16 20
To me (years • 103 I Time I years • 10J I
24 Ti me I years • 103 I Tim• !years 1ci1 )
Fig 1 Fig~ Fig 5 Fig 6

150 >50.000 <SO.OOO Reelton >50.QOO <SO.OOO Reef ton

• pp extractable phosphoru:. o • pp extractable sulphur o
"! ~°a!)H extractabl~ sulphur a
• Total extractable sulphur I!.
R~cflon >so.OOO <SO.OOO
•PP eictructs o
..
2
lJO • NaOI-' extracts D
.l Combin~d <?xtracts A

i
tf 75

\2
'
'e 50
u

""e
"' 25

o ~~--'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 0

0 e 12 16 20 4 12 16 20 ~
Fig 3 1a3 I Fig 4 Time (years 1a3 I

Figs 1-4 Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur contents of the

<50 OOO and >50 OOO molecular weight fractions in the pp 4 8 12 16 20 2t.
and NaOH extracts of the Hokitika, Ikamatua and Okarito Time (years • 1o'3 I
soils (400, 14000 and >22000 years old respectively) Fig 7

Figs 5-7 N/C, P/C and SIC ratios in the <50 OOO and >50 OOO
molecular weight fractions in the pp and NaOH extracts
of the Hokitika, Ikamatua and Okarito soils (400, 14000
and >22000 years old respectively)
 290 291

embers of the chronosequence. This is probably due to the

et m wet conditions present in the Okarito soil, restricting
~el~ion of plant residues and the mineralisation of newly formed
1cabstances. The net effect is less polydispersion of organic
5 ~ this soil. Furthermore, differences in N, P, S, total
r innd COOH acidity relative to C between the two MW fr~ctions
it~oaand <SO OOO) are less evident in the organic matter of the
0 ·1
itO sol .

400r-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

>60,000 <SOOOO Reel ton

e pp extrac Is o
• NaOH extracts a
• Combined extracts lJ.
300

.~100

8 12 16 20
Time (years • 10J I
Fig 8

4 0 >SO.OOO <SO.OOO Reeflon

• pp ~xtrocts o
• NaOH ~•t;~:t~acts ~ ~
•Combined///

30~

oc=~~
0 8 12 16
. L__ .

20 24
Fig 9 Time (years 1cf J

Figs 8-9 Total acidity/C and COOH/C ratios

in the <50 OOO and >50 OOO molecular
weight fractions in the pp and NaOH
extracts of the Hokitika, Ikamatua
and Okarito soils (400, 14000 and
>22000 years old respectively)
 29:L
293

PHYSICS I RING
Physical
I p RTIES OF WETLAND SOILS; WEST COAST; horizons

Horizon Depth Dry Large Available water K

R.J. Jackson (cm) bulk pores at tension (bar) (ms )
N.Z. 1 Bureau, D.S.I.R., Lower Hutt density 0.05-1 1-15
(tm - 3 ) (%) (%) (%)
INTRODUCTION
Ahl 4-19 0.89 17 20 23
The physical properties of the gley podzols and other soils on the Ah2 19-36 1. 31 7 22 17
wet lands of the West Coast, South Island, have received little attenti Ahg 36-44 1.56 25 7 9
although their drainage problems are well known. Data for a single Bhl 44-49 1.66
profile of Okarito peaty loam in "Soils of New Zealand" (N.Z. Soil Bure
1968b)and work by McDonald (1955) and Young (1967) constitute the only H 1- 4 0.22
published information for these soils. Recent soil surveys and the Ahl 4-16 0.61 19 20 31
increased interest in land development for agriculture and forestry hav Ah2 16-33 1. 32 6 23 19
shown the need for more work on the physical properties of the soils. Ahg 33-40 1.56 4 16 17
Mew & Lee (1981; see also Lee 1980 this volume) have established type
localities for several soils and have described their morphology and RLESTON sand, Aul 0-18 1. 32 11 17 14
chemical characteristics. Seven of these sites have been sampled for lling phase (1) Au2 18-33 1.53 5 16 11
measurements of physical properties and three are the subject of field Cw 37-70 1.40
studies of moisture regimes. This paper describes the results obtained
to date. RLESTON sand, Au 0-19 1. 35 5 20 16
lling phase (2) Ag 19-39 1.48 8 12 16
SOILS AND METHODS
silt H 3-10 0.18 45 12 21
The profiles at each site are composed of three broad classes of Ah 10-24 0.94 9 20 22
materials: surface organic (L,F and H) horizons, fine-textured mineral
horizons, and the underlying stony horizons. While conventional core- silt H 3- 6 0.17 43 16 21
sampling methods can be used in the organic and fine-textured horizons, Ah 6-14 0.75 16 17 19
they are not appropriate in stony materials. However, some information
available from volume-weight sampling by the excavation method (R.Lee pe Ahgl 0-- 3 0.51 30 23 18
comm.) and this, together with particle-size analyses (R.F. Thomas pers. Ahg2 9-14 0.88 12 14 29
comm.), provides some insight into the characteristics of the stony mate
ials. Core samples of fine-textured materials have been used for measu Hl 6- 9 0.30 19 36 19
ments of density, water retention and saturated hydraulic conductivity. H2 9-20 0.78 7 17 30
Ahg 20-37 1.08 5 20 19
The field studies of soil water conditions have involved measure- Bwgl 37-47 1. 21 2 6 22
ments of soil water content with a neutron probe and measurement of the Bwg2 47-74 1. 26 2 5 22
depth to the water table(s). These methods can only be used in the
with deep fine-textured materials (Hukarere, Mawhera and Okarito). L+f 1- 3 0.16 47 14 20
H 3- 7 0.43 16 21 36
RESULTS Ah 7-17 0.94 7 17 28
Agh 17-28 1.33 3 8 23
Data for the horizons from which core samples were obtained are . Bwgl 28-53 1. 29 1 6 14
summarised in Table 1. Most physical properties show very large variatl Bwg2 53-68 1. 26 3 5 18
within profiles, mainly associated with the organic matter content. 2Bwg3 68-75 1.43 2 4 13

Dry bulk density (t m- 3 ) ranges from O.1

in some H horizons to almost O~RITO peaty Ah 0-14 0.63 14 25 24
1.7 in the Egl horizon in one Okarito profile. 5llt loam (1) Ahg 14-26 1. 34 4 31 10
Egl 26-48 1.44 3 8 22
Large pore contents (the pores drained at a tension of 50 cm of wat
expressed as a percentage of sample volume) range from over 40% v/v in Ol<ARITO peaty Ah 0-27 0.20 23 28 29
some H horizons to 1-3% in the lower horizons of the profiles with deep Silt loam (2) Ahg 27-45 0.65 13 42 12
fine-textured material (the Mawhera, Okarito and Hukarere profiles). Egl 45-78 1.66 3 8 15
 294
295

Table 1 (continued)
olume-weight data for stony s may be used to show the
. ~ the stones and the fine is often found
Soil name Horizon Depth Dry Large Available water ~le 2) depth in the the stone content es
(with profile (cm) bulk pores at tension (bar) fine amongst the stones b~comes les~ dense and the texture
number) density 0.05-1 1-15 ·ne earth becomes coarse~ trending from silt loam to coarse sandy
(tm - 3 ) (%) (%) (%) ~us it seems likely that the permeability of the material
with depth the lowest permeability in the whole le
6-32 0.12 41 18 22 cur in upper part of the stony e.g. the 2Eg2 horizon
HUKARERE silt Hl
32-44 0.32 12 31 27 J<a.rito profile.
loam (1) H2
Ag 44-64 0.87 6 14 34
0.58 2 15 26 work on field water regimes of the Hukarere Mawhera and Okarito
Bh 64-76
2 2 13 together with a second Okarito site on the Craigieburn pakihi has
Bwg 76-92 1.42
Bwgbl 92-98 0.65 6 5 29 00 recently for more than very tentative interpretation. At present
rs that the Hukarere has a fluctuating perched-water system above
19 28 31 horizon, the Mawhera has a widely fluctuating water table, which is
HUKARERE silt H 5-25 0.19
0.28 19 33 26 fine-textured material but not perched on any of the fine-textured
loam (2) Ahl 25-33 s and Okarito may have transient perching above the Egl
Ah2 33-39 0.32
' The combination of water-level observations and neutron
Bg 39-51 o. 72 8 27 28
ents on the Mawhera site has shown that change of water level from
Bwgl 51-67 0.99 5 18 32
11 25 to 15 cm below ground surface is accompanied by water content changes
Bh 67-76 0.99 3
2 6 10 Ahg, Bwgl and Bwg2 horizons of only about 2% by volume, i.e. there
Bwg2 76-96 1.17
little drainable pore space (cf. large pore contents Table

Saturated hyd.:raulic conductivity (K sat,- sms- 1 ) follows

-a
the same major conclusions from these results are as follows:
trend as large pore content, ranging from 10 to 10 .
H and Ah are extremely important because have the desirable
Available water (% by volume) is divided into readily available wa ies of a high content of large pores, which permit water
(released between 0.05 and 1 bar) and less readily available (1 to 15 b t and good aeration, and an excellent capacity to readi
Values are usually very high although some of the deeper horizons in th ble water. These horizons are easily destroyed careless land
Mawhera, Okari to and Hukarere soils have low amounts of readily availabl repeated burning.
water. tness is the result of a combination of a large excess (about
Physical properties of stony horizons /year) of rainfall over evaporation and abil to transmit
Table 2 through the soil. Poor vertical transmission may have several
s - the properties of the deeper fine-textured horizons, of the upper
Dry bulk density (t m ) Stones f the stony materials, or iron pans may each be important. Poor
Horizon Depth from
surf ace Whole soil Stones Fine earth Vol. l movement in the soil may reflect the low gradient. The Hand Ah
(cm) * * t ns have high permeabilities, and careful use the natural drainage
and of cut-off drains should allow full advantage to be taken of
Okarito peaty silt loam (2) horizons. But the low permeability and low large-pore content of
0.26 0 eper fine-textured horizons will result slow lateral movement in
Ah 0-27 0.26 horizons and even when the water-table falls le is
Ahg 27-45 0.92 0.92 0
1.57 2 ble. Thus, if the H and Ah horizons do not provide adequate rooting
Egl 45-78 1.62 0.06
1.57 40 ' modification of the structure of the deeper horizons well-
2Eg2 78-91 2.01 1.07 Vation (ripping, bedding, V-blading etc.) may be necessary.
2Bh 91-126 1. 86 1.43 0.93 54
2Bms 126-129 1. 79 1.54 0.60 58

Mawhera silt loam (1) RTIES OF SOME LS AND IN

Bwgl 37-47 1. 21 1. 21 0
1. 26 1.26 0 WITH REFER E E NEW SIT I
Bwg2 47-74
2Bwg3 74-89 1. 79 0.29 1.69 11
2Bh 89-99 1.51 0.92 0.91 35
0.88 38 R.J. Jackson
2BC 99-113 1.55 1.01 Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt

* Mass of soil/total volume of sample 80 ils of the podzol and stagnopodzol groups, as defined by Avery
t Mass of fine earth (<2 mm)/(total volume of sample - volume of stones 3
), are common in the uplands of Scotland, Wales and northern and
ern England. Because these areas are being planted for production
 296
297

forestry to an increasing extent, there has been a lot of work on them

in recent years, with an emphasis on physical factors affecting root n from a Lands &Survey farm at et al. 1980) and
~evelopm~nt and st~bil~ty ?f t:ees. Soil surveys (Pyatt 1970) provided ,/ forest Service Craigieburn forest in the Grey Valley, Westland.
information on their distribution and morphology, and their water
relations and aeration have been intensively studied by staff of the The samples were taken in a 60 mm stainless steel sampling
U.K. Forestry Commission under Dr D.G. Pyatt. Brief accounts of this be pushed.into the g:ound, and were the~ transferred to 60 mm diameter
work appeared in recent issues of the Annual Report on Forest Research 25 . 4 mm high brass rings. All the testrng was done directly on
of the Forestry Commission. Detailed accounts are given by Pyatt & disturbed" samples in the brass rings. Permeability was either
Craven (1979) and Pyatt et al. (1980) and further papers should soon sured using a constant-head technique or calculated those samples
appear. sted for compressibility. Rapid one-dimensional consolidation tests
re done to measure the compressibility. The coefficient of consolid-
The work on podzols has shown that they are genuinely freely draine ion and the compression index were calculated from the compressibility
and that they have moderate to high contents of large pores, which ta and pressure/voids ratio curves.
remain air-filled as the soils are subject to neither ground-water nor
perched water systems. Aeration throughout the profile, as shown by The Okarito soils have been described (Mew 1980aj as having a thin
the oxygen content of the soil atmosphere, remains high throughout the wn to dark brown silt loam topsoil, , Ahg horizons) sometimes
year. aty, overlying light grey to grey gley horizons (Eg and Bwg horizons)
'th a silt loam texture. Brown or greyish brown humus and/or dark
The stagnopodzols (Avery 1973 E ironpan soils (Pyatt 1970) = peaty ddish brown ironpans underlie the gley zons. Underneath this
rizon there are dense gravels with yellowish brown sandy matrix.
gleyed podzols (Crompton 1956) are characterised by 10-30 cm of peat
over a grey mineral Eg horizon with eluvial and gley features, and a
thin ironpan. Beneath the ironpan the B horizon is brown and friable. Samples at Mawheraiti were taken from the Ah, Ahg and Bwg
The measurements by Pyatt have shown a low content of large pores above rizons and at Craigieburn from the Ahg and Bwg horizons. Other
the ironpan but moderate values beneath the pan. Soil moisture and soil pling at both sites has shown the thickness of horizons to be
atmosphere measurements have shown that while the soil above the ironpan riable; however, at the sites selected testing the Ah horizon
is saturated with water and has low oxygen concentrations (1-7% by s 11 cm thick, the Ahg 10 cm thick and Bwg horizon greater than
volume) for much of the year, beneath the ironpan matric potentials (Horizon designations are after FAQ 1974).
are about -50 m bar so that large pores are drained, and soil oxygen
levels are close to those of the free atmosphere (20% by volume). The Okarito soil profile described in the general survey of soils
the South Island (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968a) and Soils of New Zealand
The results of Pyatt (1970) on stagnopodzols are similar to those t 3 (N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968b), may no longer be representative of the
of Stahr (1973) on similar soils in Germany. Stahr suggested that, rito series as currently defined (G. Mew pers. comm.), and therefore
rather than water perching above an impermeable ironpan, the pore-size direct comparison of results is made.
distribution in the Eg horizon itself causes slow permeability and
poor aeration in that horizon. The practical conclusion from this is Horizon Water Content Dry Density Coefficient Coefficient Compress-
that to improve drainage and aeration it is essential to modify the (%) (t/m 3 ) of permeab- of Consolid-ion Index
structure of the Eg horizon, as disruption of the ironpan (e.g. by ility at ion
spaced ripping) would not solve the real problem. k (m/s) Cv (m 2 /yr) Cc

The work in Britain on podzols and stagnopodzols has relevance to

similar soils in New Zealand i.e. to podzols and associated soils with Ah 120 x 9
gleyed A horizons (e.g. gley podzols) which occur in many of the wetter Ahg 200 0.39 50 x 10- 9
15 3
and cooler parts of the country. The approach used, a combination of Ahg 125 0.56 4.2 x 9
laboratory characterisation of soils and field monitoring of moisture Bwg 28.5 1.47 0.9 x 9
and aeration, could have many applications in New Zealand. Bwg 27.0 1. 53 2.3 x 10-9
70 0.2

A NOTE ON SOME MEASUREMENTS OF PERMEABILI AND COMPRESSIBILl Ahg 164 0.48 25 x 10- 9 15 2*
ON OKARITO SOILS Bwg 31. 9 1.42 1.9 x 10- 9
Bwg 33.9 1. 39 4.2 x 10- 9 70 0.2
P.R. Barker
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt Initial slope is 0.3 then abruptly changes to approx. 3 at 0.7 bar
Pressure, changing to an average slope of 2 at higher pressures
As part of a long term project on the development of Pakihi soils,
measurements of permeability and compressibility were made to provide
some basic physical data on the Okarito silt loam series. Samples were
 298
299

The results show that the materials tested from both sites
essentially similar properties. Although there is a rapid change i
permeability with depth at both sites, permeabilities are low and t~
soils are very poorly drained. These soils are generally on flat Mawheraiti
terraces which further hinders the problems of drainage. All the 11-13 cm

permeabilities were measured in the vertical direction. Because of 4

the structureless nature of the Bwg horizon, its horizontal permeabil

ity would not be expected to be very different, although the A horiz
may have higher horizontal values because of their structure and roo~ Craigieburn
16-19cm
pattern.
The A horizons are highly compressible, although from the
available it would appear that the A horizon from Craigieburn is
moderately compressible (8% change in volume) under loads up to
approximately 0.7 bar, then the material rapidly changes volume for a
small increase in load as shown in Fig.1. Above 5 bar the two soils
show similar load/volume change relationships. The A horizon at
2
Mawheraiti shows a 24% change in volume under 0.7 bar.

For shallow soils it is usual to look at load/volume relation-

ships in the range of present overburden to present overburden plus
1 bar. The present overburden pressure on the Bwg horizons is only
about 0.03 bar. The Bwg horizons have low-medium compressibility and
show small volume changes (2-4%) for loads up to 1 bar, as shown in I
, " ,I t1u111 ' I
Fig.2. The sample from Mawheraiti appears to be "over saturated", r*•'i0·1 1 10 50
0·05
shown by a larger change in water content than change in volume. Pressure (Bar)

It is anticipated further work will be undertaken on these fig. 1 Pressure/voids-ratio curves for Ahg horizons
soils, in particular an investigation of the volume change relationshi
and a comparison of these with the water holding ability of the variou
horizons.

1·0
Craigieburn
33-36 cm

0·9

_ O·S
.!!.
0
.,
·::;
a:
{l 0·7
«5
>
Mawheraiti
30-33 cm
0·6

0·5

0·4

o·3 J.-...--.'""91"""!.............---,---r--i--rrmr--,---r-rrrTT1rr--r--r-r:i.
0·03 0·1
Pressure (Bar)

Fig. 2 Pressure/voids-ratio curves for Bwg horizons

 300
301

CORROSION IN GLEY PODZOLS

MI MIC
H.R. Penhale
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt INFLUENCING OF
IN R
. Okarito fine sandy loam is the only ~ley ~odzol included in the 36
sites selected for the New Zealand corrosion field trials. Corrosion A.S. Campbell &A.W. ung
rates for this soil are shown in Table 1. Soil Science Department n Coll
Table 1 Corrosion in a Gley Podzol

Mild Steel * In any study that aims to unravel some aspects of soil or clay
Soil Classification Locality Rate of attack ·neral genesis, the adoption of a soil sequence approach has obvious
Av. penetration Pitting vantages. The ideal sequence for such a study would be one in which
(µm/yr) rating (µm/yr) nlY one of the five soil forming factors of climate, organisms,
opography, parent material and time has effectively varied throughout
Okarito fine Southern gley Greymouth 6 very 23 very e sequence. In discussing the clay mineralogy of podzols and gley
sandy loam podzol low low odzols from the Reefton area we have not considered such two soils
n isolation, but have presented information obtained from sequence
Okari to fine Southern gley Hokitika 6 very 20 very tudies in which they have occurred.
sandy loam podzol low low
The river flats and terrace systems in the Reefton area carry a
evelopment sequence of soils ranging from recent soils through yellow-
* based on 20 years exposure rown earths, podzolised yellow-brown and podzols to gley
podzols. The relationships of some of these soils to the five soil-
<forming factors are shown in Table 1. Podzolised yellow-brown earths
MILD STEEL and podzols occur on the low glacial outwash terraces and to a lesser
extent on the main post-glacial river terrace. On these surfaces,
The lack of oxygen and slow movement of groundwater has resulted sequences of soils whose morphological, chemical and physical
a very low rate of corrosion. The samples were buried in a pit at 1 m. properties alter from those of podzols to those of yellow-brown earths
If burial conditions were markedly different e.g. faster drainage and may be found along transects only a few metres in length leading away
drier conditions, corrosion could be much more rapid. from the trunks of the larger living red beech trees and decaying beech
stumps (Campbell 1974, 1975).
COPPER AND LEAD
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS
No New Zealand field trials have been made, but overseas work
indicates that copper and lead are much more resistant than mild steel ical Analyses:
to soil corrosion (around a factor of ten). The acid and somewhat
reducing conditions make the improvement not quite as good as in the Soil samples were prepared for X-ray and thermal examination by
more common oxidising soils. In New Zealand the use of lead (and methods essentially similar to those described by Jackson (1956).
aluminium) underground is almost entirely restricted to cable sheaths Preferentially oriented Mg- and K- saturated samples of fine (<0.2 µm)
and protective coatings are always used. and coarse (0.2-2 µm) clay fractions were prepared by drying 1% suspen-
sions on glass slides. The glass slides were replaced by ceramic tiles
CONCRETE AND ASBESTOS-CEMENT When carrying out the test devised by Greene-Kelly (1953) to differ-
entiate between various smectite species. Selected X-ray diffractograms
No field trials involving these materials have been carried out are shown in Figs 1-4.
in this soil, and the following comment is based on experience with
other soils. Where trenches are dug for pipes - the usual use of Gibbsite was determined quantitatively by differential thermal
concrete and asbestos-cement underground - movement of groundwater analysis. Semi-quantitative estimates of the other crystalline clay
(usually extremely slow in this soil) is greatly increased and corrosion m~nerals were based upon relative peak areas of diagnostic X-ray
could be moderate to high. If samples could be buried with little diffraction reflections. The approach used followed that proposed by
change in the soil, attack would be fairly slow in spite of the acid Johns et al. (1954). The values obtained are shown in Table 2. By
soil conditions. expressing the data in grams of each mineral per kilogram of inorganic
material (<2 mm) present in the horizon it is possible to allow for
changes in clay content as well as those in clay composition.
 302
303

Table 1 Soil-forming factors influencing a development sequence

of soils near Reefton

Soil Okarito
Hokitika Ikamatua Ahaura
Series (younger)

Classifi- Southern Southern yellow-brown Southern gley podzo1

cation recent earth
(common soil

Topography River flat Flat. Main Flat. Low Flat. Inter- Slightly
post-glacial glacial out- mediate level undulatin
river terrace wash terrace glacial out- high leve
wash terrace glacial 0
wash ter

Altitude (m) 190 194 210 250 390

Parent Recent silty alluvium Silty Silty alluvium (or loes
Material over gravels from alluvium over gravels from grani
granite (dominant) and over granite (dominant) and indurate
indurated sandstone (dominant) sandstone
and indurated
sandstone 16

Native Red and Red beech (dominant), rimu Silver pine Stunted
.
A
@

A
7 10 14 2!1

Vegetation silver kamahi, matai, quintinia and mountain

beech, and kahikitea beech Fig. 1 g. 2 Fig. 3
totara, (dominant). manuka,
matai, and Stunted rimu, bog pine,
kahikitea kamahi and pink pine,
quintinia yellow-
sil ver pi Figs 1-4 X-ray diffractograms the
and mount fine clay fraction from:
ain beech Fig.l - E1 horizon of Ahaura (podzolised)
Estimated 1000 14,000 18,000 ~ 70,000 Fig.2 - Ah horizon of Ahaura (yellow-
Age (years) brown earth)
Fig.3 - Bs horizon of Ahaura (podzolised)
Climate Mean annual rainfall (1904-71): 1919 mm
(at Reefton) Mean annual temperature (1960-70): l0.9°C Fig.4 - Brh ho zon of younger Okarito
(Treatments: Mg-saturation and g16cerol
solvation, MG; K-saturation at 25 C, K25;
after heating for two hours at 3So 0 c K350·
Poorly-ordered (X-ray amorphous) aluminium- and iron- containing and after heating for one hour at 55o 0 c, '
mineral species were determined by oxalate extraction (McKeague &Day K550).
1966). The results obtained are shown in Figs. 5 and 6.

Changes in the relative amounts of quartz and plagioclase feldspar

in the silt fraction (2-20 µm) were followed by the X-ray diffraction of
randomly oriented specimens. Intensity ratios of the quartz (100)
reflection to the plagioclase (002) reflection are listed in Table 3.
18
10 14 28
Chemical and Physical Measurements:
Clay contents were determined by the pipette method of Robinson &
Richardson (1933). g. 4
 304

Table 2 Weight (g) of clay-sized ( <2 µm) minerals per kg

inorganic material (<2 mm) in a development sequence
of soils near Reefton
Soil Mineral *
and Qtz M/I Chl(T) Vm Chl(D) Bei M/V/B
Horizon (g kg -1)

Hokitika
A1n 5 55 15 15 5 0 g 15
Ah2 5 35 10 10 5 0 0 10
c 5 15 5 1 1 0 9 5
Ikamatua
Ah 1 35 45 65 5 0 0 25
Ah/Bw 5 25 40 40 45 0 0 25
Bw1 5 15 15 35 45 0 0 15
Bw2 5 20 15 15 20 0 0 15
c 2 10 5 5 5 0 0 5 0 10 20
Ahaura (YBE)** WEIGHT Al EXTRACTED

Ah 10 0 25 155 15 0 0 30
Ah/Bs 10 0 10 80 60 0 0 15
Bs1 10 0 20 30 75 0 0 20
Bs2 10 10 so 15 50 0 0 20
Bs3 s 15 50 10 35 0 0 25 Fig. 5 Oxalate - extractable depth ons
C1 5 15 35 5 25 0 0 10
C2 1 10 5 1 5 0 0 5
Ahaura (POD)
E1 15 0 0 0 0 105 0 15
E2 15 0 0 0 0 145 0 35
Bs 10 1 15 35 105 0 0 25
Okarito (Y)
Ah 30 0 0 0 0 0 105 15
Eri 25 10 0 0 0 0 80 10
Er2 35 0 0 0 0 0 145 25
Brh 40 0 0 0 0 0 185 35
Br1 30 15 5 40 s 0 0 25
Br2 55 25 10 40 25 0 0 45 E
u
Cr 35 35 15 30 20 0 0 30
Okarito (0)
Ah 40 0 0 0 0 0 5 2
Ah/Er 50 10 0 2 0 2 15 10 Ok (0)
Er 30 0 0 0 0 0 40 15
Br1 40 25 1 5 1 0 0 15 80 Ok(Y)
Br2 30 35 5 20 5 0 0 20
2Cr 20 30 5 15 10 0 0 10 0

* Qtz,Quartz; M/I,Mica or Illite; Chl(T), Trioctahedral chlorite; Vm, ver WEIGHT Fe EXTRACTED
iculite; Chl(D), Dioctahredral chlorite, a 2:1-2:2 Hydroxy-Al intergrad
Bei, Beidellite; M/V/B, Interstratified clay containing Mica, Verrnicull
and/or Beidellite layers; Kao, Kaolinite and Halloysite; Gib, Gibbsite
** The Ahaura (YBE) and (POD) profiles are located 7 rn apart. The latter, a g. 6 Oxalate -
podzol, is located at the base of a large, decaying beech stump (1.8 m,
diam. at breast height), whereas the former, a yellow-brown earth, has Ji
mature living red beech tree or large stump within a distance of 7 m.
Okarito (Y) and (0) represent younger and older variants of a gley podi
The former is located on the intermediate, and the latter on the high t
glacial outwash terraces.
 306 307

Soil pH measurements were made with air-dry soil. A soil:soluti 0

ratio of 1:2.5 was used for the measurements made in distilled water. Chemical and physi soils from a devel
ratio of 1:10 being used With 1.0 molar KCl. ' sequence of soils near
Loss on ignition values are used as an indication of the organic Horizon Clay pH pH Loss Si/Al Quartz
matter content. thickness content (H20) (Molar on elemental plagioclase
(cm) (%) KCl) Ignition ratio ratio *
Aluminium and silicon were determined gravimetrically as aluminium (%) (weight) for silt
oxinate and quinoline silicomolybdate respectively following fusion of •
samples (<53 µrn) with AR sodium hydroxide in platinum crucibles (Bennet
& Reed 1971) . 18 11 4.5 3.8 11.0 4.1 1. 2
20 8 4.5 4.1 6.0 3.9 1. 2
The results obtained in the above analyses are listed in Table 3. 3 5.4 4.5 1.2 4.8 1.4
CLAY MINERALOGY
7 18 4.5 3.7 15.4 3.8 1.4
The dominant mineral species in the soil parent materials are mica 18 4.9 4.1 9.0 3.8 1.2
9
trioctahedral chlorite, feldspar and quartz. The minerals in the clay ' 12 5.1 4.2 5.7 3.9 1.2
13
fractions of the soils have come from the conuninution of these minerals 12 9 5.1 4.3 3.5 4.3 1.3
and from the products of their weathering reactions. The amount of clay 3 5.2 4.7 1.0 4.7 1.0
present increases throughout the sequence to a maximum in the younger
Okarito soil (Table 3). The lower clay content of the older Okarito
soil is probably the result of clay destruction caused by extensive 24 4.6 4.0 27.6 5.0 1.8
8
leaching at low pH. 10 17 4.7 4.2 17.6 5.1 1.4
14 16 4.9 4.5 10.l 4.2 1.3
The only minerals identified in the clay fractions not included in 16 5.2 4.8 6.0 4.3 1. 2
19
Table 2 are small quantities of amphiboles and feldspars. Arnphiboles 16 5.1 4.7 5.5 4.0 1.1
15
were present in the coarse clay fraction of all horizons of the recent 5.1 4.6 4A 4.1 1.0
15 9
soil and both yellow-brown earths. Feldspars were present in the fine 3 5.0 4.8 2.3 0.8
clay fraction of the Ah 2 and C horizons of the Hokitika soil, and in the
coarse clay fraction of all horizons of all soils except the Ah/Er
horizon of the older Okarito soil. 13 3.6 2.9 13.7 7.4
8
4 19 3.8 3.2 23.3 6.3
Quartz 16 20 4.7 4.3 13.8 3.9
The quartz content of the clay fraction increases throughout the
sequence (Table 2). As quartz is resistant to weathering it tends to 15 15 4.4 3.5 12.8 14.2 11.3
accumulate as less resistant minerals disappear from the weathering 10 13 4.5 3.5 6.5 13.5 10.0
environment. A similar accumulation of quartz with increasing soil devel 21 20 4.7 3.4 4.7 9.3 10.5
opment is observed in the silt fraction (Table 3). In both gley podzol 11 26 4.5 3.6 8.7 10.0 11.5
profiles the silt fraction of all horizons was composed largely of quartz 12 4.7 3.8 3.6 11.6 11.1
4
15 20 4.8 4.1 2.5 12.0 11.5
Mica 10 16 4.7 4.1 5.3 8.0
The amount of clay-sized mica present decreases with profile depth i (O)
the Hokitika and Ikamatua soils. The mica content of the sand and silt 5 4.1 3.2 12.6 63.0 117
14
fractions of these soils shows that this trend is caused by the more 9 4.3 3.4 6.5 38.1 110
6
active comminution of the mineral in the upper horizons. The decrease 8 4.4 3.6 2.0 23.8 67
12
in mica content towards the surface in the older soils shows that its 10 4.6 4.1 2.7 25.8 85
19
loss by weathering to vermiculite is proceeding more rapidly in these 12 4.6 4.1 1.5 16.9 82
11
horizons than is the addition of clay-sized mica from the comminution of 10 4.7 4.3 1.6 13.3 51
10
coarser fractions.
Quartz (100)/Plagioclase (002) intensity ratio obtained from X-ray
For simplicity, interstratifications involving only mica and vermic- dif fractograms of random samples
ulite layers (i.e. containing no smectite) are not listed separately in
Table 2, but are allocated between mica and vermiculite.
 308
309

The occurrence in X-ray dif fractograrns of regular and rando .

stratifications involving mica, vermiculite, smectite and diocta~ ln soil· The X-ray ~iffractogram of the fine from the E
chlorite indicates that formation of the latter minerals has occ edr n contains reflections at ~8, 17.9, 9.25, 6.01, 4.53 and 3.01 R
directly from mica. urred 0 turation/glycerol solvation) as those kaolinite at
5
~ 3 .58 R (Fig.1). The intense 17.9 and the
The mica content of the silt fraction decreased progressively anl series of higher orders su~gests a of beidellite
with increasing time of soil development, and tended to increase
· na but the presence of the 28 X reflection indicates some
With
profile depth. !~ratification with mica. The P?si~ion of th~ unresolved smectite
nd mica (001) peaks at 9.25 R
indicates a mica contribution
Chlorite (trioctahedral) aawhen fitted to the peak migration curves of MacEwan et al. (1961),
o:ooh higher order re f lections
. . d.icate a 1 ower (40°)
in ?a .
mica content.
The chlorite content of the silt fraction showed similar trends t tb:ence at the podzol site of any evidence of the presence of
~ ulite layers, which dominate both clay fractions of the Ah horizon
those observed for mica, but chlorite tended to be depleted more rapid
ic Ahaura (YBE) site some 7 m away (Fig.2) suggest that any vermic-
than mica.
ethat may have been present has to beidell and that
The ~bsence of trioctahedral chlo.rite from the clay fractions of enow weathers directly to beidellite. A possible mechanism for
the E hori~ons of the podzolised Ahaura soil, and both gley podzols a reaction would be:
+ +
(Table 2) indicates its low stability in extremely acid environments. +H :::;. Beidelli te
-K ) Vermiculite faster
slower
Kodama & Schnitz~r (1~73) hav~ shown that ferro-magnesian chlorite
are.decomposed b~ humi~ acid solutions. Soil pH values (H 20) in the E
Formation of beidellite from vermiculite results in a decrease
horizon: from which trioctahedral chlorite is absent range from 3.6 to
4.7, while the value in 1 molar KCl fall as low as 2.9 (Table 3). layer charge. This could se from the protonation surface
roxyl groups as the pH falls, or through the loss of structural Al
Vermiculite and 2:1-2:2 hydroxy-Al intergrade m the tetrahedral sheets.

The amount of vermiculite present in the two yellow-brown earth Three additional sites were sampled (data not shown) along a
nsect between the two Ahaura profiles (cf. footnote to Table 2).
soils increases towards the surface, while the greatest amount of the se sites showed that with increasing distance from the decaying stump
inte:gra~e is found in the B horizons (Table 2). It is likely that the
combination of lower pH and higher organic matter content of the Ah
dzolised Ahaura soil) the 18 R
reflection of the smectite decreased
~orizons has inhibi~ed the accumulation of hydroxy-Al species in the
intensity and broadened towards 10 The 9-10 R. R
reflection also
interlayers of vermiculite and thus prevented the development of the
oadened and moved towards 10 R,
until for the sample at a distance of
m from the stump it was no longer a separate peak but had become a
intergrade. The increasing accumulation of hydroxy-Al interlayers with
profile depth is shown by an increasing resistance of K+ saturated R shoulder on a broad 18 R
peak. Migration of the 9-10 peak R
cla~s to collapse on heating. The fine and coarse clays from the Ah dicates an increasing mica content (MacEwan et al. , while the
horizon. of the Ah~ura {YBE) soil collapse to give sharp 10. 3 R peaks
ss in intensity and broadening of the 18 R
peak shows a change towards
on heating at 350 C, but those from the Bs 1 horizon hield broad peaks more random interstratification of mica and smectite layers.
with a maximum intensity of 11.3 R. An abrupt change in the clay mineralogy occurs between the E.horizons
d the Bs horizon at the podzolised Ahaura site. The latter horizon
Smectite ntains an appreciable amount of a 2:1-2:2 hydroxy-Al intergrade (Table
Both the fine and coarse clay fractions from the E horizon of the ,Fig.3).
podzolised Ahaura soil are dominated by the smectite mineral, beidellite.
Interstratified clays containing beidellite layers occur in all
Its presence was confirmed by the Greene-Kelly test. Beidellite which orizons down to the Brh in the younger Okarito soil (Fig.4), and in the
has its layer charge arising mainly from substitution of alumini:un for Ah and Ah/Er horizons of the older variant. Vermiculite and mica appear
silicon in t~e tetrahed7a1 ~heets i~, unlike montmorillonite, a logical to be the dominant layers of the interstratif ied clays from the Er
product of mica weathering if the mica layers remain largely intact. horizon of the older soil. The 18 R reflections given by clays from
the gley podzols (particularly those from the coarse fraction) tended
. The pH (H20) of the two ~haura E horizons are 3.6 and 3.8 respect- to be broader and less intense than those obtained from the E horizons
1v~ly. Se~eral overseas studies have shown that in the presence of high
soil org~nic matter leve~s and pH values less than 4.5 smectite clays of the Ahaura soil.
have dominated the E horizons of podzolised soils (Brydon et al. 1968;
Malcolm et al. 1969; Gjems 1970; Kapoor 1973).
The ratio of height of the 18 R
peak (p) above to the
depth of the "valley" (v) on its low angle side has been used as a
measure of the crystal order of a smectite (Biscaye 1965). A well-ord~red
Gjems (1970) also considered that in the presence of high levels of smectite has a v/p ratio of about 1.0. The and coarse clay fracti?ns
organic matter and soil pH values less than 4.5 smectites would form from the Ei and E2 horizons of the podzolised Ahaura soil yield v/p ratio:
directly from mica. This appears to have occurred in the podzolised of approximately O 9· those obtained from the smectites in the Okarito soils
· ' · the older
range from 0.3 to 0.5 in younger soil, and from 0.2 to 0.4 in ·
 310

AND SOIL GEN

Kaol inite
It is concluded from the results discussed above the weathering
~he proportion ?f kaol~nite and/or.halloysi~e ~rese~t i~ the clay
fractions of the various soils showed little variation with increasing 0
f phyllosilicate minerals is both dynamic and reversibl and that it
follows t h e f ollowing
· pat h ways: e,
soil development. The changes in the amounts present as shown in Table
appear to follow changes in the amount of clay present (Table 3). Thus
the greatest quantities of kaolinite are found in the younger Okarito
soil. No relationships are apparent in Table 2 that would suggest that
any particular phyllo-silicate mineral has altered to kaolinite.
Kaolinite may be a product of feldspar weathering. -------..::i. Vermiculite~ Bel[el lite
Gibbsite ~2:1-2:2 Hydroxy-Al
Inter grade
Only small quantities of gibbsite are present in the soils. The
amount present increases with increasing soil development to reach a Beidellite app~ars to be at l~ast metastable at pH values (HzO)
maximum value in the Ahaura (YBE) soil. In both yellow-brown earth eloW 4.5, and the intergrade at higher pH values, The intergrade ·
profiles the maximum gibbsite content occurs in the lower part of the nable to survive in the E horizons of the podzol and gley podzols is
B horizon. This indicates that the gibbsite is probably of pedogenic s the combination of low pH and the presence of water soluble orga ·
· ld . nic
origin rather than inherited from the parent material. spec7es wou r~sul t rn. the solution of the hydroxy-Al inter layers,
and its conversion to either vermiculite or beidellite.
Poorly-ordered aluminium- and iron-containing
mineral species Mokma et aZ. (1973) reported that in contrast to a number of over-
seas studies montmorillonite showed no tendency to become concentrated
Poorly-ordered forms of aluminium and iron as determined by oxalate in the E horizon of podzolised soils in a chronosequence of soils from
extraction (Figs 5 and 6) increase with increasing age of the soil to South Westland. It seems probable that the smectite mineral found in
reach a maximum in the Ahaura soil, then decrease markedly. In the thei7 sti.:dy was b~idellite and not montmorillonite. Their failure to
Ahaura (YBE) profile the maximum occurrence of poorly-orderei aluminium obtain.high smectite levels in the E horizons of the podzolised members
species occurs lower in the profile than the corresponding iron compounds of th~ir s~quence may be explained in part by the siting of their
s~pll1:1g pi~s and by their failure to recognise the considerable vari-
Graphs of the percentages of total soil aluminium and iron that ation in soil chemical and mineralogical properties that could occur
are present in poorly-ordered forms (not shown) follow similar trends ver very short distances through the influence of individual trees.
to those shown in Figs 5 and 6. The maximum values of total aluminium Stevens (19~3, 1968g,) indicates that the sampling sites were located as
and iron that are extracted by oxalate are 35 and 51% respectively. far as possible from the existing trees.
Both values were obtained from the Bs horizon at the podzolised Ahaura
site. The pedogenic formation of gibbsite in the subsoils of the yellow-
brown ea:ths and the podzol may have occurred through the rapid
Along the transect joining the two Ahaura profiles,. the amount of hydrolysis.of feldspars releasing aluminium to solution at a faster
oxalate-extractable aluminium and iron present in the surface horizon ra~e th~n it could be assimilated in the interlayer spaces of the weath-
increased with increasing distance from the decaying beech stump. The ering. micas, complexed by water soluble organic species or lost by
percentages of the total elements extracted also increased. ie~ching. This could result in the solubility product of gibbsite
h~ing exceeded, particularly in the lower horizons where the pH is
If it is assumed that all the aluminium extracted by oxalate from igher and microbial action may release further aluminium from organic
the Bs horizon of the podzolised Ahaura soil comes from the dissolution ~~~plexes. Van Reeuwi~k & de Villiers (1970) have shown that poorly-
of allophane, and that the Si0 2 /Al 2 0 3 (mole) ratio of the allophane is e7e~ Al(OH)g that yielded crystalline bayerite on dialysis was
of the order of 1.0, it is possible to calculate an allophane content precipitated
( · a dd"t·
in i ion to X-ray amorphous aluminosilicate gels
of some 9% for the horizon. Since the oxalate may have attacked other Sallophane) from solutions rich in aluminium relative to silicon.
species, and the Si0 2 /Al 2 0 3 ratio of the allophane is likely to be less i=g~~en (1971) has indicated that, at pH values less than 4.2, aluminium
than 1.0, this figure of 9% should be considered as a maximum value. gibbi~ble to move over short distances, but would precipitate and form
It is difficult to accept the values of 40% for "amorphous minerals site under leaching conditions when pH exceeded 4.2
include allophane" quoted for the A horizon of an Ahaura stony silt loam,
and the B horizon of an Okarito peaty silt loam by Mew et al. (1975), th Mew &Lee (1979) have reported the presence of volcanic glass
particularly when the corresponding oxalate-extractable aluminium values 8 at appea~s to be visually similar to that in the Ao.kautere Ash in the
were given as 0.65 and 1.3% respectively! It is also doubtful that the Wand fractions of a range of soils (including the Okarito) from the
clay content of either soil would equal 40%. 0 ;s~ Coast. ~luminosilicate gels, with properties similar to those
by ~t~ral_soil a~lophanes have readily been prepared in the laboratory
mixing inorganic salts of aluminium and silicon (Van Reeuwijk &
 ·-'-'·"'
313

de Villiers 1968). If a similar precipitation mechanism occurs in

nature, the presence of an amorphous parent material is not essential £the su:face horizons ~irs~ to drop below 4.5, During this period
to account for the presence of allophanic gels in the B horizons of aterisation, not podzolisation would be the process operating.
yellow-brown earths and podzols.
It is considered that given ~ufficient time the dynamic processes
Vegetation has played an is playing an important role in both nat can now be seen to be operating the podzolised Ahaura soil
soil and mineral genesis. It is concluded that on terrace surfaces uld ultimately produce. the soil chemical and mineralogical properties
in the Reefton area, at distances. greater than about 7 m from exist·ing that today are observed in the gley podzols. As aluminium (and iron)
mature red beech trees and decaying beech stumps, where soil pH values are gra~ually depleted through the cumulative effects of successive
generations of beech (and_perhaps podocarps) the ability of the soil
exceed 4.5 and organic matter le~els are (co~parably) lower, the stable
products formed from the weathering of the mica, trioctahedral chlorite to recover from the localised podzolisation occurring around individual
and ~e~dspar of the parent material are 2:1-2:2 hydroxy-Al intergrade trees would be reduced, and "egg-cup" podzols indicating the sites of
kaolinite, allophane and gibbsite. These products all contain or c s, trees from a previous generation would persist. Eventually these
.
contain, a h"igh level of aluminium relative to silicon. In this
' an would coalesce to form a uniformly podzolised surface. Loss of
environment, which leads to the formation of a yellow-brown earth aluminium from the upper horizons would coincide with the disappearance
silicon is being lost from the upper soil horizons at a faster ra~e of allophane, gibbsite and 2:1-2:2 hydroxy-Al intergrades, and the
persis~ence of e~anding 2:1 ~ype phyllosili~a~es. Mica reduced to
than aluminium (Table 3) or iron. This is shown by the increase in
the Si/Al elemental ratio with depth in the recent soil and the two claY size by physical weathering of the remaining sand would now alter
towards beidellite. Loss of the poorly-ordered forms of aluminium and
yellow-brown earth profiles. These soils are moving, albeit slowly
towards a lateritic end product. ' iron and a reduction in organic matter production as soil fertility
declined would lead to the collapse of soil structure. Clay destruction,
the presence of expanding clays, particularly if periodic drying of
/,It isfurt~er concl~ded that the onset of extremely acid conditions
the soil occurred, and an increase in the silt content at the expense
~pH_~~.4) and high organic matter levels associated with the growth of
of the coarse sand would all contribute to the formation of the massive •
indivi~ual :ed beec~ ~rees in~tiates a second, but localised, weathering
relatively impermeable horizons now found in the gley podzols. The
cyc~e in which_a~uminium and iron are now readily lost from the upper
chemical and mineralogical properties of these soils are consistent
horizons and silicon accumulates. At the podzolised Ahaura site the
with a period of extensive leaching under extremely acid conditions
Si/Al element~l ratio now increases towards the surface (Table 3).
Allophane, trioctahedral chlorite and gibbsite are now lost from the before their drainage became impeded.
environment, while the loss of the aluminous interlayers from the
Young (1967) has postulated that the presence of loess with a
2:1-2:2 hydroxy-Al intergrade results in its transformation first to
high silt content may be responsible for the impermeable nature of
vermiculite and eventually to beidellite. These changes will occur
the gley podzols. However, the high levels of quartz found in the sand,
during the life of a single tree. The direction of weathering has now
silt and clay fractions of the upper horizons of the older Okarito soil
changed and the soil is altering towards a podzol end product. Under
indicate that this soil either had a more siliceous parent material,
these conditions beidellite, which has a higher ratio of silicon to
or has undergone weathering and leaching that were more intense and/or
aluminium than have 1:1 or 2:2 type phyllosilicate clay minerals tends
of longer duration than have the younger soils. Some 95% of the
to dominate the clay fraction. The maximum expression of the se~ond inorganic material in the top 38 cm of the older Okarito soil consists
weathering cycle is observed in the upper horizons close to the trunks of Si02 (93% to a depth of 76 cm). Loess of low permeability derived
of the larger living beech trees and decaying beech stumps where stem from a granite or indurated sandstone (greywacke) source deposited
flow effects are greatest and have operated longest. The occurrence of at or since the time of formation of the low glacial outwash terrace
beidellite under lower pH conditions than vermiculite may be related to is unlikely to have altered to a product that is essentially silica
a decrease in the layer charge of beidellite allowing its greater
~u:i~g the same period that freely-draining material of comparable
expansion, or to the more complete removal of interlayer alumina.
initial chemical composition has produced ~ yellow-brown earth
containing 71% Si02 (to 38 cm) on the lower terrace. The Si0 2 content
At other sites on the low outwash terrace located at least 7 m
from any mature red beech, decaying stump, fallen log or other accumulat- of the younger Okarito soil (88% to 38 cm) is intermediate between
the values of the Ahaura and older Okarito soils, It is therefore
ion of organic litter, soil pH (H 20) was found to be within the range
concluded that the Okarito soils represent more advanced stages of
4.6-5.0, and smectite minerals were not detected in the clay fraction.
weathering than the Ahaura soil, and that they had undergone extensive
This sugges~s that followi~g the death, decay and eventual disappearance
of any particular tree, soil pH rises above 4.5 and smectites revert leaching at low pH before gleying occurred.
to vermiculite or perhaps to 2:1-2:2 hydroxy-Al intergrades.

. The Si/A~ ratios shown by the Okarito soils (Table 3) are consistent
with the continuation of the above processes for a very considerable
period of time, and with the contention expressed by Rode in Joffe (1949.
p.350) a~d by Franzrneier et al. C1?63) that a conditioning period of base
removal is necessary before podzolisation is initiated. In the present
context "conditioning" would represent the time necessary for the soil pfl
 14
315

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON E CLAY MINERALOGY OF WEST COAST

MINERALOGY OF WET PODZOLISED SOILS FROM
PODZOLS ST COASTJ SOUTH ISLAND
·G.J. Churchman
Soil Bureau, OSIR, Lower Hutt S. M. Robertson
Soil Bureau, OSIR, Lower Hutt
X-ray diffraction analyses were carried out on the clay fractions
of several of the A horizons and some lower horizons of each of four INTRODUCTION
wet podzolised soils (Okarito silt loam, Hukarere silt loam, Mawhera
silt loam and Maimai loamy fine sand) from the higher glacial outwash An optical study has been made of the mineralogy of the sand
terraces of the West Coast, South Island. The important minerals in fractions (63-355 µm) of eight West Coast soils. The majority of
the clay fractions of these soils included mica, chlorite, chlorite- profiles concerned are the same as those discussed in this issue by
vermiculite, interlayered hydrous mica, mica-vermiculite, mica- Lee (1980), and invol~e the following soils: Addison loamy sand,
smecti te, discrete smectite and kaolin. Changes down the profiles Charleston sand (rolling phase), Flagstaff silt loam, Hukarere silt
suggested that mica was transformed to mica-vermiculite and then to loam, Kumara silt loam, Maimai silt loam and Mawhera silt loam.
mica-smectite. Mica and mica-vermiculite were dominant in the lower Data for an Okarito silt loam from a separate locality is also incl d d
horizons of the soils. Chlorite was transformed concurrently into Site locations are shown in Fig.1. u e ·
interlayered hydrous mica and chlorite-vermiculite. Koalin percentages
were variable.

The formation of smectitic phases appeared to occur in all soils.

Generally, this was indicated bX the presence of high spacing (£. 24 R)
peaks which expanded (to c. 28 A) on glyceration. Such behaviour is
typical of an interstratification of mica and smectite in an approxi-
mately 1:1 ratio and with an appreciable degree of regularity in the
0 10km
order of interstratification of the two types of layer. There were I I

also indications of a discrete smectite phase in some samples. Since

there appears to be a correspondence between podzolisation and smectite
formation (Churchman 1980a - this issue) these results are consistent
with chemical indications of podzolisation in these soils (Lee 1980,
TASMAN SEA
this issue) .

A horizons of the Maimai and Mawhera soils showed the highest

proportion of smectite phases. Furthermore, the primary minerals, mica
and chlorite, were less prominent in the clay fractions of the Maimai
SOIL
soil A horizons than in those of the Mawhera soils, suggesting that the
Maimai soil had undergone the most clay mineralogical development of Okarito
the four soils in the sets. This may be attributed to the relative lack Mawhera
of loessial inputs to this soil by comparison with the other soils GREYMOUTH
Hukarere
studied.
5 •• 4
The Hukarere soil showed less clay mineralogical development than
the Okarito soil. Flagstaff
Charleston

Fig. l Location of West Coast soil sites from which samples

were taken for sand mineralogy
 316 317

Morphologically the Hukarere, Kumara, Mawhera and Okarito soils Mineral species present .
are characterised by having a variable thickness of fine-textured in terms of sual estim~~ West Coast soils,
e percentages
material overlying glacial outwash gravels, which at the sites sampled
consisted largely of greywacke, with granite and some schist. It has
been variously proposed that the fine-textured material is loess, that Accessory Minerals
it developed in situ, or that it is alluvial in origin. The Maimai Major minerals
Minor
and Addison soils do not have this covering of fine-textured material, Rare Very Rare
having developed largely in glacial outwash gravels, consisting at the 10-29% 5-9%
Maimai site largely of greywacke with granite and some schist, and at 1-4% < 1% 1 grain
the Addison site largely of granite and gneiss. The Flagstaff soil has Alkali observed
Plagioclase Augite
developed on moraine, with greywacke and schist predominating at the Feldspar Feldspar Tourmaline Olivine
Epidote Garnet
sampling site. The Charleston soil has developed on iron-cemented Muscovite Diop side
marine sands. Hornblende Sphene
Biotite Ortho- Monazite
Magnetite Staurolite Ilmenite
The sand fractions examined have a complex mineralogy, a fact pyroxene Ru tile
Chlorite Zircon Actinolite
easily explained by the intimate mixing of sedimentary, metamorphic Plant opal Sillimanite Aegirine
Volcanic Riebeckite
and igneous material from sources both within and outside the region. glass
Profiles of six of the soils were found to contain volcanic glass. In Clinozoisite
decreasing order of abundance of glass, the profiles are Hukarere,
Kumara, Okarito, Mawhera, Addison and Flagstaff.
re~Cambrian rocks _ the Tahua
GENERAL MINERALOGY erived from granitic rocks. Granite, and Waiuta beds - sediments
Mokma et al. (1973) demonstrated, in a mineralogical study of a Influence from the axial
chronosequence of soils from greywacke and mica-schist alluvium in mposit ranges has been mi · 1
e quartz, well-weathered feld nima . Grains of
Westland, that mica, chlorite, quartz and alkali feldspars were the om the Tertiary greywackes S ~par_ and terrigenous grains may be
dominant component minerals found. A similar assemblage and mineral so be attributed to the gr;ywac~me etrital chlorite, and epidote can
proportions have been found in this study. s~ones and sandstones. The met=~o:s ~ell as to the younger Wanganui
ticularly the Haast S h" t phic rocks of the region
All slides studied contain lithic fragments (metamorphic) terri- 1ess common minerals csuch
is group have
a ,
d b •
_no out contributed some of
genous detritalgrains (sedimentary) and plant opal with grains of tamorphic hornblende) b" t.s crystalline chlorite, riebeckite
quartz, feldspar (alkali. >> plagioclase), muscovite, biotite, and • io ite and garnet (chiefly almandine)
magnetite. Minor amounts of augite, green-brown hornblende,
orthopyroxene (chiefly hypersthene), chlorite and epidote are usually
URCE ANO IDENTIFICATION OF THE GLASS SHARDS
present with rare zircon being observed. Rare accessory minerals noted The 'rhyolitic' shards fou
are tourmaline, garnet, sphene, staurolite, rutile, diopside, canic Zone (TVZ), as there and are assumed to be from the Tau o
sillimanite, riebeckite and clinozoisite. the South Island. re no known Quaternary rhyolitic ~entres
Some slides contained rhyolitic glass shards. The shards are Characterisation and os . . . .
fresh, little weathered and possess good form. They are predominantly tt~e shards is difficu1i s~~;e ~dent1f1cation of a parent tephra
rhyolitic, being platey and 'Y'-shaped. A few pumiceous shards are fil~ the soil mineral as~emblag! as~ appears only as a minor constit-
present. dc~ently abundant to be regarded enc~· the shards are not nearly
Si ave been introduced into the s~~la ~screte layer. The shards
A more complete inventory of mineral species present in the West t e.g. alluvium/colluvium b s e~ther by reworking of a
Coast soils can be seen in Table 1, where unusual and less common trace c~uld represent direct airfa~~ ty ~eolian activity, but equally
minerals such as monazite, are noted. he h~ough the profiles by soil f ep_ra that has subsequently been
ides_ards suggests that they areo~rn1ng processes. The freshness
Mineral abundance is expressed as a visual estimate of frequency ring rates of weathering on therWomesta Crelatively young eruption
classes as cited by N.Z. Soil Bureau (1968b). A representative profile p · oast. •
of each soil type is shown in Table 2, where all mineral species present rom the terrace strati h
are detailed. te for the soils ~ap y of the region and the
be th . • eruptions from the TVZ . present age
s er e mos~ likely contributor of las in the last 40 OOO years
SOURCE OF MAJOR MINERAL SPECIES t upted in the last 40 OOO g s shards. Of the known
o have reached the South Isiea~s, three were of sufficient
The dominance of quartz, feldspar, biotite, and muscovite in the an . They are the Taupo Pumice
soil mineral assemblages indicates the importance of granitic rocks in
the region as the major contributors to soil mineralogy. These are
 318 319

Table 2 Frequency of mineral species in sand fraction (63-355 um)

Frequency of mineral species in sand fraction
(63-355 i.im)
Ml\IHAI (Sii 9512) AOOISON (SB 9501) HUl<ARERE (SB 9507) MAWHERA (SB 9513)

Depth (cm) 0-16 16-30 30- 46- 46.3+ 0-15 15- 32- 40- 45- 68- 90- 114- 0- 20- 29- 32- 54-75 75- 0- 18- 27- 54-69 69- 79- 93-
46 46.3 32 40 45 68 90 114 138+ 20 29 32 54 83+ 18 27 54 79 93 109+
Horizon Ahgl Ahg2 Bh Bms Bw Ahl Ah2 Ahg Bh~ 8h2 Bms Bwl llw2 Ah Bh Bh/ Bwg Bwghl 2Bwg Ahg Bwgl Bwg2 2Bwg3 2Bh 2BC 2Cw
Quartz 60 70 45 40 60 50 55 55 35 8 10 20 <10 Bwg
Feldspars rtz 50 55 50 55 60 60 55 50 55 55 55 60 55
Alkali 35 30 25 20 30 30 30 35 10 3 5 3
dspars
Pl agioc:l ase <1 <l <1 tr tr 5 5 5 <l 30 <30 30 30 30 30 25 30 30 30
<l <l Alkali 35 30 30
Glass tr pJagiocl ase 10 10 8 5 5 5 4 8 3 4 <l 3
Micas ass <5 3 l <l <l tr 2 1 <l
Muscovite <l 4 l <l <l <l <1 15 20 10 <20 4
2 <l 30 65 70 60 75 cas
Biot1te tr 10 15 3 ~scovite 2 2 2 2 3 <5 4 3 3 3 6
Chlorite <l <l tr 4 tr giotite 1 l <l tr 3 3 5 3 3 3
Amphiboles ite tr <l <l tr
Hornb1ende A Jes
Hornblende 8 rnblende A tr
Glaucophane) Hornblende B
Actinolite ) Glaucophane)
Riebeckite tr tr Actinol ite )
Pyroxenes Riebeckj te tr tr tr
Augite tr roxenes
Diopside <1 Augite tr tr
Hypersthene tr Oiopside ? tr
Epidotes Hypersthene tr <l <l
Epidote tr <l tr tr ;dotes
Zoisite <l Epidote
Sericitic aggregates <l 3 3 tr zoisite
Quartz aggregates 2 5 10 <l tr <l <l <l citic aggregates 1 2 l tr tr
Chert z aggregates 2 2 3 2 2 tr <l tr
Plant opal <l tr <l <l ? tr
Apatite opal <l <l <l <l <l <l <l
Accessory oxides te tr
Rutil e tr tr tr cessory oxides
Ilmenite tr Rutile
Magnetite <1 tr 2 tr tr <1 <l Ilmenite
Accessory silicates Magnetite 2 <l <1 <l <l <l <l <l <1 <l tr tr
Zircon tr tr tr tr tr tr cessory silicates
Tourmaline tr tr Zircon <l tr <l tr
Sphene tr tr <l Tounnal ine tr
Garnet tr tr Sphene 1 tr
Kaol inite Garnet <l <l <l tr <l tr
Rock fragments 2 3 2 3 tr tr tr tr tr Kaol i ni te
ck fragments <l <l 2 3 2 2 <1 <l 2 <1 <l <l
FLAGSTAFF (SB 9506) CHARLESTON (SB 9504)
KUMARA (SB 9510) Ol<ARITO (SB 9522)*
Depth (cm) 0-8 8-31 31- 43- 45- 53- 0- 19- 29-39- 39.5+
43 45 53 75+ 19 29 39 39.5 0- 17- 68- 0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50 50-60 60- 70 70-80 80-90 90-100 100-llO
Horizon Ah Bwgl Bwg2 Bms Bw Cw Au Ag Bh Bms Cw 17 40 88+
70 65 50 60 65 70 60 50 55 Ahg Eg 2Cw
Quartz 80 55
Feldspars 55 48 60 65 45 50 40 45 45 35 38 55 65 55
Alkali 12 15 15 20 15 5 25 25 30 35 25
Plagioclase 4 <l 2 <l ? 2 30 35 30 15 15 15 12 15 15 15 15 15 12 12
Glass tr tr 3 !1 tr 5 8 <10 10 10 10 10 12 15 15 15 10 12
Micas 2 2 2 1 tr
Muscovite l 2 2 l l cas
Bioti te <l 2 tr 2 3 4 Muscovite 15 15 12 15 15 15 15 15 10 10
Chlorite tr <l tr Biotite 3 3 8 3 9 3 2 3 <l <1 2
llmphi bo 1es hlorite <1 tr 1 tr <l
Hornblende A tr Phi boles
Hornblende B Hornblende A tr tr tr tr tr tr
Gl aucophane) Hornblende B
Actinolite ) Gl aucophane)
Riebecki te tr tr Actinol i te )
Pyroxenes Riebeckite
Augite Pyroxenes
Diopside <l tr Augite
Hypersthene tr Diopside tr <l tr tr
Epidotes Hypersthene tr
Epidote EPi dotes
Zoisite tr Epidote tr
Seric1tic aggregates tr 2 1 2 3 2 Zoisite tr <l <l tr <l
Quartz aggregates <l 3 3 5 8 3 tr tr tr Sericitic aggregates <l l l l 3 3 l
Chert ? Quartz aggregates 2 2 <l 2 2 2 3 4 4 2 3 3
Plant opal 3 · tr Chert
Apatite tr tr Plant opal 2 3 2 2
Accessory oxides Apatite
Rutile tr tr Accessory oxides
Ilmenite <l <l <1 <l Rutile tr
Magnetite tr tr tr tr 4 2 2 5 5 Ilmenite tr tr tr
Accessory silicates ·~Magnetite 2 <l 2 l 1 <l <l <l <l
Zircon tr cc~ssory silicates
Tourmaline Zircon <l tr <l 1 tr <l
Sphene tr tr Tourmai ine tr tr
Garnet tr tr <l <1 tr Sphene
Kaolinite Garnet tr tr tr tr <l
Rock f1"111gme11ts tr 10 10 10 10 35 <l <l 3 4 ._ l<aolinite
""Ck <l <1 <l <l 5 5 3 3 2 5 4 3 3

Profile consists of 10 cm increment samples of SB 9522, hence no horizon designation given.

 320 321

(1819±17 years B.P.) 1 , Kawakawa Tephra * (20,550±300 years B.P.) 2 and ICAL PRO IES
Rotoehu Ash(£: 42,000 B.P.).

In terms of spatial distribution the Taupo Pumice reached the B.C. Barratt
lower North Island, but has not yet been sighted as a discrete layer Soil Bureau, DSIR, Auckl
there, or in the South Island. Also it contains over 80% of pumiceo
shards, not a predominance of angular shards as in the samples us
examined. The Rotoehu Ash, though well documented in the central
North Island, is yet to be found in the Southern North Island or South
Island. Morphology of its glass also appears to be different to the These notes are based on micromorphological studies of a range of
West Coast shards. podzols from the West Coast region of the South Island. For
rison, a groundwater podzol from Northland is included - One Tree
In contrast, the Kawakawa Tephra has a wide distribution over t loamy sand from the New Zealand reference set (N.Z. Soil Bureau
much of central New Zealand and also the Chatham Islands. It has been b)· It is described in detail micromorphologically by Barratt
well documented and typified in the North Island (Cowie 1964a,b; Pullar 65).
& Birrell 1973). More recently, Campbell (1979) has reported and
identified Kawakawa Tephra in fossil scree deposits at Rai Valley, Profile descriptions and chemical and mechanical analyses for the
east of Nelson. Kohn (1979) has dated a thin rhyolitic tephra in coast soils are set out in an unpublished report compiled by
loess at Amberly and identified it as Kawakawa Tephra. This rhyolitic as &Gibson (1979). Profile characteristics are discussed in this
tephra has been recently found in several sites in the Marlborough e by Mew (1980a), with Lee (1980) discussing chemical properties.
region (D.N.Eden &M.D. Laffan pers. comm.). These have been tentative soils used and provisional classifications are given in Table 1.
identified on the basis of mineralogy by the writer, and stratigraphy classification of these soils is discussed by Mew (1980b). The
as also being the Kawakawa Tephra. soil involved is different from the Okarito peaty loam reference
(N.Z. Soil Bureau 1968b) described micromorphologically by
Comparison of shard morphology of Kawakawa glass taken from (1971, 1978).
Marlborough and West Coast samples shows a great deal of similarity.
Hence the shards found in the West Coast samples are most probably West Coast soils used and their provisional classifi on
from the Kawakawa Tephra eruption of 20 OOO years B.P.
Soil Bureau Provisional classification
CONCLUSION Lab. Nos.

The mineralogy of the West Coast soils studied demonstrate the rleston fine sandy loam,
dominant role that the granitic rocks of the region play in determining lling phase SB9503 Moderately gleyed podzol
the mineralogy of the soils, with the sedimentary and metamorphic rocks humic fine sandy
only contributing in a very minor way.
SB9501 Strongly gleyed podzol
On general stratigraphic, shard morphology, and known tephra peaty silt loam SB9515 Gley podzol
distribution grounds, the 'rhyolitic' glass shards found in some SB9516
West Coast soils have probably been derived from the Kawakawa Tephra.
silt loam SB9513 Gley podzol
SB9508 Strongly podzolised gley
SB9511 Gley
SB9512

The West Coast soils occur at altitudes from 215 to 335 m with
nual rainfalls between 2000 and 3600 mm, mostly on level or very
ntle slopes of glacial outwash terraces, an exception being the
r~eston soil on moderately sloping iron-cemented marine sands. The
1 ac1a1 outwash deposits are mainly gravels or sands of greywacke,
Age given in terms of new ~ life
anite and schist composition overlain in the case of the Okarito,
* Kawakawa Tephra (Vucetich &Howorth 1976) is the re-named karere and Mawhera soils by a thick fine-textured deposit of loessic
Aokautere Ash (Cowie 1964a) alluvial origin. Site drainage ranges from imperfect at the
2 ~rleston soil site to poor and very poor at the remainder. The
Age given in terms of old ~ life
lls probably all occurred under a mixed beech-podocarp forest
 322 323

originally, but in all except the Mawhera, Hukarere (cutover) and Addi
(regenerating) sites, the forest has been destroyed by felling and firs
and has been replaced by "pakihi" vegetation consisting of rushes, se/;
mosses, bracken and umbrella ferns, manuka, and gorse. g

~'i
0\
In Northland the One Tree Point profile on consolidated sands r-. U'l co ...... '°...... .... ....
N N
0
'<!'
p. () 0 N '<!' r-. 0\
occurs at an altitude of about 8 m, with annual rainfall of approximatel ~'-' ,,.,I I I
r-.
I I
......'
I
0\
I

1275 mm and very poor site drainage. The original vegetation was kauri .._, 0
N
U'l

""'
00
r-. 0\ '°.... ....
N N

forest but this has been converted to a vegetation much like the souther
1 pakihi', comprising short manuka, wiwi rush, umbrella fern, and lycopod bi) .... N
bO ..r::
<II
=u ::i:
~
fb, ...::!
..r::
~ <
bl)
r.!..l
w
N
CCI
N
m
N N

The micromorphological study was undertaken to aid in the <l)

4-<
ation of the soils to understand their hydrological behaviour better t..::J
...... ..r::
..c:
N N
....
,..., ....
:::;: bl)t..::J
to increase our knowledge of processes and factors involved in their N i:QN i:QN
en
en .......... ......
N,_.
< ..... u
..... .....
N

development. 0 < < < ...... ..... ...... ......

""' ,....,""'
l"')
Samples were examined in thin section, and described following the -5p., 'i() 0 ....""' '°N co U'l U'l
r-. 0\
0 0

writer's nomenclature for organic horizons (Barratt 1964, 1969, table ' 0 ,...., ""' '°00
I I I I I I I ..r::,......
s(.) l"') 0 '°,..., 0
l"') '° '°'<!" '°
~'-'
U'l
""' '° U'l U'l '<I' .µ
I
""' I

'° '°"''<!"
p., I I I I I

..... 0,,, .,,.

N '<I' r-.
revised 1971). Overall terms for mineral horizon samples follow Kubiena '° 0\

N
~'-' '°
l"') 0
'°
,..., N <II ,....,
(pers. comm. in Barratt 1965), but Brewer's (1964) terms are used for
~
bO bO
~ = u ,,., .....
~
N
w
~ ~· bO CCI i:Q
0\ 00 bO <II
some individual pedological features such as cutans. fb, ....:! r.!..l N N N N cQ
tl)
1.1.o
....:! ::i::
..r:: ..r::
< < s m
e m
::i:
<l)
4-<
t..::J ..c:
,...., ..r:: <l)
MICROMORPHOLOGY :::;:
N N ;::;:
.... ..c: 4-<
..... ,..., ....
b() t'.l N N N I') 00 b()

..... ..... .....< tf.) N N

tf.) N i:Q i:Q i:Q
..... ..... ...... ...... ..... ......
Cl'.l
0 < < <
N,_.
...... ..... ..... ..... ..... tl)
0 0
N
< < cQ
N N
i:Q
"'""'
Results are summarised below using broad headings which combine "' .....e
horizons according to their position in the profile. The horizon
........ ..... "'
..c: ,.....
= 0 ,,.,
0 U'l
'°.,., i-.. '<!" '<I'

..,, ..,, ..,,'° ""',,., '°"""

0 N t"') I')
'<I' co .µ
;::;: ..,,
= .,.,'<I' ..,,0 .,.,
..r::,..... p., () I I I
designations employed are after Taylor &Pohlen (1970). U'l N 0 Lfl co 0 I I I I I
Table 2 .µ
,...., '<I' '<I'
'°.,,. 0\ "' ~'-' 0 0
N
0 Lfl

"""
i-..

,,,
P..u I I I I I I I I I 1
the sequence of horizons in each soil profile and horizon depths; ~'-'
0 U'l N 0 Lfl co 0 ~
..... .....
horizon designations are given in terms of both Taylor & Pohlen (1970)
..... '<I'
'° 0\
.... .... 0 .... N
Lfl < bl)
..r::
bi)
..r:: ;;:
< ~
0\ bO <II
and FAO (1974), with organic horizons designated as L, F and Hin this .... .... ....::i: cQ ""' ....:! i:Q m ;:Q co u
~
N N <II N tl)
..r:: ..r::
~ ~ < = 3:
latter case. A11 horizons in the Addison and Mawhera profiles are t.I.. ....:! ::i:: i:Q ;:Q C:Q C:Q co
;::;: ....<l)

.... ........
bi) 00
designated as H horizons in the FAO (1974) system because that system ::;.:
<l)
tl) N ,,., ....
..r:: N

defines a horizon with more than 30% organic matter as an organic Cl)
.... ......... .... ....
N ..,, {.!)
..c:
.... ..c
N ..,,
4-<
,...,N
..,, l'l
Vl
0 < <
..-i
t..::J m u
N
m
N
c:i
.Vl N N N N
horizon. Not all horizons were examined - see Table 3 for details. 0 < < < < C:Q cQ a:! co cQ
..r::,...... 0
co ....
""" '° '<I'
.... .... '<I' N
.µ = N 0 r-.
C'J LI) 00
..,, .... '° """' ..... ....
P..u I I I I I I I I

.... ..,, . ,,, ~'-'

..r:: 00 ('-. Lfl 0 0 '<!"
CIO N '<!"
.µ ,..... <ll N N N U'l ['"-. co
Organic horizons (layers) p.,S I I I I-< 00
....
<ll
o'-'
(.) 0
.... l'l
00 l'l ('-. <llO
.... ..r:: ..r::
N
u
"'°' ""'~
l'l I-< Lfl N bi) bi)
..r:: :;i:
~ < e::c
bi) :;i:
"°
cQ
In the West Coast profiles horizons range in thickness from 1 ~m ....:! ::i:: cQ al co N N

~
.... ;::! e<II N
;;:
;:l Cl)
::i:::
6 cm under pakihi vegetation to between 8 and 25 cm under forest. c..
;:l
< < m u ::;.:
..r::
N l'l
pakihi, they mostly consist of leaves, twigs and fern fronds, but Cl)
.... 0 .....
.... N.... ....
bl) bl) ..r:: m t..::J
<l)
Cl) N
< < <"'
N
,..., .....
N,_,
.....
under forest the thick 0 2 horizons are high in very dusky red, friable .... ,,., "°
0 •cQ ;,!)
:£
Cl)
4-<
N
u
....
humus. In the One Tree Point profile the 0 1 (L/F) horizon is a very
tl)
< < cQ

.,,. ..,, ....0\0

thin accumulation of leaves, twigs and faecal aggregates. ..r:: ....
..,,
..c:,.....
e .... ..........
'<!"
0
('-.
.....I ['"-.
N
0\ m
0\
U'l
'°'
('-.

....
CIO co 0 l'l CIO .µ
.µ
p.,f:i
~
00 N '<:!" Lfl L/') p.,
~'-'
(.)
0
I I
....I
0
I
('-.
I
('-. '<I' m
I
0\
I I
l'l

Thin sections show that decomposition in 01 (L and F) horizons

<l)
o'-'
(.)
0
I
00
I

....'
00 00
N
I

l'l
I
...... 0
I
'
l'l
Lfl
N
""' .....
..... ..... N U'l
'°
('-. CJ",

""" "' ..,,

of the West Coast soils is weak and primarily associated with brown ..... N .... ,,, I-< ..... .... t"')
bl)

~
N
..r:: ..r:: ..r::
N
..r:: e <ll Lfl 0 t.I..
....::i:: bi) bi) bi) :i: ..r:: u :i:
fungal hyphae (mycetic humiskel), with fragmentation and some blackening °' < +
:::r: ~
::i: :;i: CQ m u
(humicol) in the most decayed parts. A few residues appear bitten and
< < &J.l m i:Q m u ..r::
:;i:
;::;:
"'
i:Q

Vl
c.. ....:!
N
m m "°
N N N N

..... ..r::
<l)
a few faecal pellets are present in the two soils under forest, but ~ ..r:: ..... 4-< N ..,, ....
l'l
.... ..c: ...... r..1 ::::;: bl) l'l l'l
.... 0 N .......... t..::J t..::J t..::J u
N
the pellets have the same yellowish red to strong brown colouration as tl) .....
..... N ...... N N Cl)
Cl)
N
..... .... N,_...... ........... .......... .........
< < < m .:r:l i:c u 0 < < t..::J t..::J
the leafy remains, which indicates little advance in humification.

02 horizons are only recognised in those profiles under forest,

and in the Maimai profile under bracken they are H horizons. Under
forest they have a predominantly spongy microstructure and appear
consist mostly of partly collapsed very fine faecal pellets which
weakly decomposed silt-sized plant residues (humiskel), but there
 324

total collapse of plant cell structure, and browning associated with massive or pelleted) microstructures and some intergranular porosity.
fungal hyphae (humicol). In both examples under forest a few uncoat tod and silt grains in most profiles include quartz, feldspars
mineral grains are present. In the Maimai soil under bracken, the 0ed nderately weathered) and muscovite, with chlorite in the Charleston,
horizon has granular to massive microstructure and a dark brown matr~ biotite in the Maimai profile, but no flaky minerals in the One Tree
with little internal structure (humicol), which contains abundant fi~~ int soil.
plant fragments, fragments of fungal hyphae, and charcoal. The matri
shows patchy contamination by mineral grains and this patchiness cou 1 ~ The isotropic groundmass plasma ranges in colour from yellowish
be caused by soil faunal churning. wn to dark brown (Okarito, One Tree Point). It is flocculated in
ro s~ndy profiles but more fluid in the others, and is apparently
In the One Tree Point profile L/F horizons are distinguished by edominantly organic (humicol), although in the Maimai soil, the A12 g
the presence of swollen yellowish-red leafy residues which lack cell eizon seems to be partly argillic. It contains weathering rock or
walls (swollen humiskel) but otherwise show little decomposition. ~ken iron-pan fragment~ stained brown and res~mb~ing stagnogley
ttles, with weak mottling of pseudogley type in its groundmass plasma.
Topsails
In all West Coast samples this group of horizons contains plant
The topsoils are those horizons designated A11 or A11g• although esidu~s (humiskel) and fungal hyphae. In the absence of appreciable
in the One Tree Point profile the topsoil has been redescribed as these horizons could all be designated as A2 or Azg·
organic (02 2 ) (Barratt 1965). The Charleston and Addison topsoils
were not sampled. In the One Tree Point, Charleston, Maimai and Okarito profiles
hese horizons are depleted in weatherable minerals relative to
Of the West Coast soils, the Okarito and Hukarere topsoils ha¥e a orizons with iron enrichment, and are considered eluvial (A2e) horizons.
spongy microstructure and the Mawhera and Maimai profiles a finely
pelleted one. This indicates that soil mesofauna are active in these ~2 G, A 3 g~(~-3) horizons
sites. Most have irregular interconnecting microporosity. The
exception is the Hukarere topsoil, with massive microstructure, and few This group of horizons is represented in the Okarito, Mawhera,
discrete pores associated with decomposing plant remains, mostly roots. ukarere and Maimai profiles. It is rather variable. Most of the
horizons have massive microstructures, with rare to many root pores
The One Tree Point topsoil has massive, pelleted and single grain or non-connecting shrinkage cracks. An exception is the Mawhera G2
microstructure, and inter-aggregate porosity in the air-dried soil horizon which is weakly aggregated in part, with a discontinuous net-
sample is high, about 50-60%. work of irregular shrinkage cracks. Most alse have a closely-packed
mineral skeleton of sand and silt grains, including quartz, feldspar
Skeleton (sand and silt-sized) mineral grains in the topsoils are and muscovite, with other moderately to strongly weathered minerals
angular to subangular, with abundant quartz, and lesser amounts of more including hornblende, chlorite (in Maimai gravel fragments) and biotite.
weatherable minerals, including feldspar, hypersthene and muscovite,
uncoated, or embedded in yellowish red, or dark yellowish brown to The main differences of genetic significance are seen in the
strong brown colloid, which appears largely organic (humicol). All groundmass plasma and associated pedological features.
West Coast topsails contain decomposing plant residues, fungal hyphae
and spores and other particulate matter. The One Tree Point profile In the Okarito A21 G horizon, the streaky, light yellowish brown
merely contains some swollen litter remains, possibly a result of to brownish yellow plasma is considered mainly argillic (argillicol)
incomplete anaerobic decomposition. The topsails are not greatly with some possible clay movement dovm pores. The red to yellowish red
depleted in weathering minerals compared with horizons of enrichment root remains in and alongside fissures, are strongly decomposed and
(explained below), except the One Tree Point topsoil. Depletion of the fragmented, and humic colloid is possibly complexed with iron (organo-
more weatherable minerals is a feature of podzols and suggests that ferrans). This predominantly grey-gleyed horizon may have stagnogley
podzolisation in most of the soils is not as advanced as their field affinities.
morphology might suggest.
11
The IIA 22 G horizon is similar, but the pale yellow and yellow
Immediate 11 subsoils patchy plasma is probably pseudogleyed. The few plant residues ~re
strongly decomposed and infilled by movement of groundmass material
These are the subsoils above horizons of humus and iron enrichment, Which obscures possible movement of clay down pores.
and can be subdivided into two or more horizons in most of the soils.
In the Mawhera G1 horizon, the streaky, brownish yellow to reddish
(a) ~12~12g~2 or As horizons Yellow plasma is thought to be mainly organic. Root remains d~compose
to reddish yellow colloid, and old root pores have similar reddish
This group of horizons is represented in all profiles. (The Addison Yellow to yellow colloid linings with infillings of paler groundmass
soil was not sampled). They have massive microstructure with few material. This horizon is probably organic-enriched, weakly pseudo-
discrete, mostly root, pores and shrinkage cracks; except in the sandy gleyed, and there seems to be considerable movement of the groundmass.
Charleston and One Tree Point profiles, which have partly single grain
 326 327

The underlying G2 horizon has more interconnecting porosity and

higher proportion of weatherable minerals. Its groundmass plasma is a ofiles examined: These ~ave sa1:dy or stony, single to massive
faintly mottled, yellow to yellowish brown with discontinuous orienta crostructures w7th colloid coa~ing, and infilling between, skeleton
cutans in pores that resemble Gi groundmass plasma. Most pores are t ains, and porosity mostly confined to shrinkage cracks. Weatherable
lined with darker material and infilled by paler material and root nerals_include feldspar, biotite, muscovite, chlorite, hornblende
remains are weakly decomposed (humiskel). Mottling appears to be of d amphiboles or pyroxenes. The groundmass plasma includes reddish
pseudogley type and there is apparently movement of soil through root 6
11ow to yellowish red colloid, probably humic, with browner
pores. robably argillic, colloid penetrating rock residues in the first two
rofiles. Plant residues, fungal hyphae, spores and sclerotia are
The IIG 31 horizon contains greywacke and schist fragments, browne resent in the Maimai profile. The bright colour of the humic colloid
at their margins and embedded in a mineral-rich, possibly loessic, n these horizons is unusual and indicates that decomposition may not
groundmass with a sandy silt skeleton and brownish yellow plasma. It e very advanced.
appears to be mainly a horizon of weathering.
Humus accumulations without underlying thin iron pans occur in the
In the Hukarere A3 g horizon, the isotropic yellowish brown ground- awhera. and Hukarere profiles and are IIG 32 b. and B2 g plus ·.B 2 h horizons
mass plasma appears argillic, lightly streaked with humicol. Root espectively. These have predominantly massive microstructures and
remains are mostly humiskel. Strong brown patches of soil high in ow porosity, mainly as shrinkage cracks. Weatherable minerals include
organic colloid have probably been introduced from below by churning. eldspar, muscovite and chlorite in the Mawhera, and muscovite and
The horizon appears to be grey-gleyed and organic-enriched. eldspar in the Hukarere soil, which has more muscovite in its Bzh
orizon. The Mawhera horizon contains leafy fragments and the Hukarere
In the Maimai G horizon, the isotropic yellowish brown to olive ig contains charcoal, suggesting that both are fossil topsails. In
yellow plasma is probably argillic. Decomposing roots with associated th soils these horizons have mixed plasmic materials. In the silty
yellowish red colloid are mostly adjacent to rock fragments. Leafy whera ground~ass are isotropic strong brown and weakly birefringent,
residues (humiskel) are also present. Gleying is not obvious but ellower colloids. In the Hukarere Big, reddish yellow plasma is in
colloid associated with roots could be ferro-organic. Leafy residues he groundmass, similar material lines voids, and material which
could either be fossil or inwashed. esernbles that of the 2horizon infills voids; in the B2h horizon
the groundmass plasma is patchy, weakly birefringent and yellowish
In general, therefore, these horizons seem to be gleyed, but in brown, whilst layered cutans occur in voids.
the two sites under forest, the Mawhera and Hukarere soils, this is
coupled with humus enrichment, either fossil or contemporary. These horizons, of mixed organo-mineral composition, appear to be
enriched with clay as well as humus.
Zones of humus and/or iron enrichment
Horizons enriched in iron with or without associated humus
These are the Bh, Gh, B2fe and B2hfe horizons. (B2fe, B2hfe)

Horizons of humus accumulation are present in all profiles. Most In the Charleston and Maimai profiles these horizons are thin iron
of them overlie iron cemented horizons or are co-formed within them. pans. In the Addison, Okarito and One Tree Point profiles they are
In the Okarito, Mawhera and Hukarere profiles these horizons occur in horizons that contain a series of thin iron pans.
the coarse sand and gravel deposits underlying the fine-textured,
presumed loessic, material and may be partly fossil in origin. Thin iron pans have been examined from the Charleston, Maimai and
Iron pans are present in all but the Mawhera and Hukarere soils. One Tree Point profiles. They have massive microstructure with little
~r no porosity. In the Charleston profile the pan shows a decrease
Only one of each of the two Okarito and Maimai profiles (samples in grain size from coarse sand in the horizon above, to fine sand.
SB9515 and SB9512) was sampled for these horizons. The B2 3 fe horizon The pans contain weatherable minerals which include weathered feldspar
was the only horizon sampled in the Addison profile. ~n~ pyroxenes in the Charleston profile; biotite, muscovite, unident-
ified amphiboles or pyroxenes in the Maimai; and feldspar and horn-
(a) Horizons of humus enrichment (Bh..z._Ghl ~lende in the One Tree Point profile. The infilling plasma ranges from
isotropic reddish brown to black where thick, to yellowish red or
Root mats overlie thin iron pans in the Charleston and One Tree reddish yellow and birefringent where thinner. Weathering stones in
Point profiles. The former consists of darkened and compressed root the Maimai pan are stained strong brown, and decomposing roots are
remains (humiskel) undergoing fungal decay. The latter contains Present, with associated yellowish brown colloid and fungal spores.
fungal-attacked residues, but these are also admixed with brown spongy
aggregates (humicol) that probably result from collapse of fine faecal Iron enriched horizons in the Addison, Okarito and One Tree Point
pellets. Profiles have massive to single grain microstructure and fine inter-
f7an~lar pores or shrinkage cracks. Skeleton grains include feldspar,
Thicker B21h horizons of humus accumulation, admixed with mineral b~ot1te, muscovite and hornblende, and the embedding plasma is weakly
soil, overlie thin iron pans in the Okarito, Maimai and One Tree Point irefringent, dark yellowish brown to brownish yellow in the first two
Profiles (layered in the Okarito soil) and isotropic, yellow to light
 328
329

yellow in the One Tree Point soil. Yellow. and Yellowish red colloids
probably an in situ weathering product, are also present in the first'
two soils. Fungal spores, plant fragments and uncoated grains are
present in the Okarito sample, probably inwashed from above. These
horizons seem to be characterised by illuviation and in situ weathering.

Material transi onal to parent material (B3, G and C)

These are horizons beneath humus and iron enriched zones and were 3
some features of podzols and gleys shown by the soils in thin section
examined in the One Tree Point and Hukarere profiles and in the same FEATURES PRESENT IN THE SOILS n.e. = not examined
Okarito and Maimai profiles used above, i.e. SB 9515 and SB 9512. OHE TREE PT CHARLES- ADDISON l OKARITO MAWHERA l HUKARERE 2 MAI MAI
TON 1 1 2 I

Three of these horizons are sandy or stony, with single grain ORGANIC HORIZONS G G G G G 6

microstructure and intergranular porosity. The Hukarere soil is the Like podzo 1s or with
swollen residues. Very
exception, with massive microstructure, few pores and discontinuous weak decomposition in peat

shrinkage cracks. Minerals present in the soil skeleton include Like podzo 1s but pe 11 ets
generally co 11 apsed or
quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, biotite, chlorite and hornblende, pale yellow and swollen.
In peats, litter blackens
mostly moderately or weakly weathered. Skeleton materials are coated with oxidation
by, or embedded in yellow to pale yellow plasma, with yellowish brown All or Alg HORIZONS) Al2 n.e. n.e. n.e. All All All Alig n.e.
to reddish yellow colloid, possibly ferruginous, in voids of the Hukarere Grains coated or embedded
in colloid
x
G2 horizon, and brownish yellow in voids of the Maimai B3.. Plant · Humus fluid, pale
fragments and fungal hyphae in the Okarito IIB 3 have possibly washed in
A2 A3 n.e. n.e. 3 horizons 3 horizons 2 horizons Al2 n.e.
from above. In the Hukarere soil the yellowish red isotropic plant Coated or embedded grains
residues have been converted to hurnic colloid. Weathering > B2hfe
Fluid humus/clay mixtures
DISCUSSION Iron mottles

B2lh Root mat n. e. I IB2!t. n.e. I 1631 Bl n.e. B2lh--

Micromorphological Classification of the Soils No pan

Humic accumulation with

As might be expected from field observations the thin sections organo-mineral colloids

include features of both podzols and gley soils, but they are somewhat Minerals not depleted
compared with horizon below
intergrade in character. The soils are low in clay and show neither Mottling or mixed colloids
the extreme development of the bleached sand fabric characteristic of in groundmass
sandy podzols on the one hand, nor the characteristic ferruginous B22hfe B2 fe B23fe I 1822 feh n. e. I IG32h B2h n .e. B22 fe
deposits and manganif erous concretions of waterlogged gley soils on Iron concentrated in
the other. With this moderate development of podzolisation and gleying voids in groundmass

in mind the features that are present in soils are summarised in Table 3, Plasma strong brown to
and a score obtained. The order iffwhich the soils are arranged from yellowish brown (includes
rock weathering)
the most podzolised to the most gleyed is: Minerals not enriched
appreciably vs hodzons
above
Charleston (topsoil not sampled) Podzol n.e. n.e. I !Cl n.e. n.e. 62 n.e. 83
Addison (only B23 fe sampled) Podzol Paler, not necessarily
One Tree Point (northern ground-water Gleyed podzol thinner plasma

podzol) Microstructure sti 11

rather massive
Okarito (2 profiles combined) Gley podzol Porosity low
Maimai (2 profiles combined) Gley podzol or Litt 1e change with depth
podzolised gley
Maw her a Podzolised gley Mottling and coatings
continue. In washed soil
Hukarere (ignoring LF horizon) Gley SCORE (P) SCORE (6) 16 8 0 13 17 4

This agrees with the order from podzols to gleys set out in Table 1,
with the exception of the Maimai soil, which seems more podzolised from
micromorphological evidence.
 330
331

Micromorphology and hydrological behaviour of the soils

a~ihi and related ve?etation, wh~re the ?verlying O horizons have been
Water seepage has been observed in the field in the profiles estroyed. In subsoils, ~he h~mic collo~d can be separated into a
as follows: re flocculated type leaving mineral grains uncoated, in the One Tree
~oint, Charleston and Okarito profiles; and a more fluid type, which
One Tree Point Bottom of B21h at 41 cm depth f 0 ats grains, in the Hukarere, Mawhera and Mairnai profiles, where it
Addison Bottom of A2G at 43 cm depth ~~)' be less. liable. to bec?me dr~ periodically, and to start to oxidise.
Okarito (SB9516) Bottom of A1 2g at 45 cm depth subsoil horizons with hum1c enrichment may be partly fossil in origin,
Hukarere Above Big from 0-26 cm depth bat subject to later changes in pedogenesis with rejuvenation of the
Maimai (SB9511) Bottom of A1 2g at 30 cm depth rofile. Their continued presence within the profile is, however,
Maimai (SB9512) Towards bottom of A1 2g at 30 cm depth Pvidence of a weak organic regime. The organic materials within them
ere weakly decomposed (humiskel) or colloidal. In some profiles this
More detailed hydrological information for the West Coast soils ~1.JlIIUS is diluted with clay (humicol-argillicol mixtures) but it does not
is in preparation by R.J. Jackson of Soil Bureau. form intimate complexes with clay in any of them.

From the micromorphological viewpoint, differences in micro-

structure and microporosity between horizons showing seepage and
those immediately underlying them would seem to be the most useful Weathering is rather weak in all profiles, which contain little
observations. clay. Most profiles contain weatherable minerals, especially feldspar
and muscovite, but only small amounts of ferruginous minerals such as
From the information available at present two different situations biotite, hornblende, amphiboles and pyroxenes, This may contribute to
apparently occur: the paleness of most profiles and the weakness of iron mottling, so
that gleying may be underestimated from the thin sections.
(1) Bo~h the horizons.t~at contain seepag~ waters and those immediately
underlying them have similar texture, massive microstructure, and very Uncoated grains on the other hand, are generally a sign of clay
few, non-connecting pores or shrinkage cracks. However, porosity in eluviation, and these are present in the One Tree Point, Charleston,
the underlying horizons is extremely low and probably prevents any Okarito and Maimai A horizons. In addition to clay eluviation in
further vertical movement of drainage waters from above. Examples these soils there is an increase in the quantity of weatherable
are the One Tree Point and Hukarere soils. In the Hukarere soil even minerals in iron pans, where they are protected from weathering,
horizontal seepage must be very slow, as drainage water accumulates although interpretation is complicated in the Okarito profile by the
throughout the mineral soil above the impeding horizon. lithological break in the region of the iron pan.

(2) Drainage water accumulates in a finer-textured deposit overlying As pointed out by Mew (1980b), processes other than illuviation
a coarser-textured and apparently more pervious one, as in the Okarito can be responsible for iron enrichment, such as burial of a relict
and Maimai profiles. In these, thick coatings on grains and stones soil, and precipitation, perhaps bacterial, from moving groundwater
in horizons of humus and iron enrichment may be sufficient to impede as a result of texture contrast, e.g., Okarito and Mawhera series with
surface drainage from above, but a high water table below may also be loess-like silt loams over glacial gravels and sands. Texture
partly responsible. contrast seems more likely to be an aid to pedogenetic deposition,
however, where coarse deposits overlie finer ones, e.g. in the
Micromorphology and pedogenesis Charleston profile, where coarse sand in the A horizon overlies finer
sand in the pan.
Organic regime
Drift Regime
The organic regime is weak in all of the soils, leading to a surface
accumulation of litter in 0 horizons, although these have been consider- A marked textural break has been noted in the Okarito, Mawhera and
ably reduced by fire and felling, except in the Mawhera and Hukarere Hukarere soils, with finer materials above, and coarser materials at
soils, still under beech-podocarp forest. Decomposition is weak and or below the subsoil horizons with humus and iron enrichment. This is
mainly fungal. Only in the Mawhera 0 horizons are large numbers of considered, from field observations, to be caused by the deposition of
fine faecal pellets well preserved and even their yellowish-red loess or loess-like material on glacial outwash deposits. This is
colour indicates weak decomposition. In the One Tree Point profile, supported by thin sections of A and G horizons. They show the massive
~w?llen plant residues occur, possibly indicating bacterial decompos-
microstructure, low porosity and compact fabric of sand and silt
ition under anaerobic conditions. Previously encountered in soils from loess (Barratt 1981), as well as
similar angular and subangular skeleton minerals, principally quartz,
In its very fine, and largely colloidal form, the organic matter feldspar and muscovite, with little clay. It therefore seems likely
is readily mobilised to take part in eluviation. Humic colloid seems that the Okarito, Mawhera and Hukarere soils have been rejuvenated to
to dominate the plasmic constituents in all topsoils. It is yellowish a greater or lesser extent by airfall material over existing profiles.
red under forest but is much darker, perhaps due to oxidation, under This must have arrived fairly suddenly and apparently without much
change to aeration, otherwise the buried organic horizons could not
 332
333

have survived. These areas might have been swampy when dry conditi
exposed the_ landscape to wind erosion elsewhere. Nevertheless in t~ns BI
Hukarere soil, the vegetation, which appears to have been woody wa e
apparently burnt some time after loess deposition began. The effec~
the loes~ may have been effectively to lower the water table enough fo;
0
IONS IN WETLAND SOI
these soils ~o support forest, a process which the vegetation appears
to have carried a stage further by concentrating the bulk of its fi" SOUTH ISLAND
f
ee d"ing roots in
.
surface 0 horizons. This may have implications forne
successful forest management.
V.A. Orchard
Soil Bureau, DSIR, lower Hutt

This paper reports the results of bacterial, actinomycete, fungal

nd spore counts made on organic and mineral soil material from several
oil reference sites on the West Coast, South Island, representing a
ange of wetland soils. No detailed microbiological assessment has
reviously been made on soils from this area.

The soils involved are Addison loamy sand, Charleston sand

(rolling phase), Flagstaff silt loam, Hukarere silt loam, Kini peat,
umara silt loam, Mawhera silt loam and Okarito silt loam. Brief
lassification and site details for these soils are given in Table 1.
With the exception of the Kini peat, the soils and localities involved
are the same as those discussed in this issue by Lee (1980). A
description of a Kini peat can be found in Mew et al. (1975). The
Kini peat sampled for this investigation was close to the Flagstaff
site.

1 Classi cation and brief site details for the ls i ved

Annual
Classification Soil drainage Vegetation
rainfall
(mm)

Strongly gleyed podzol 3600 Very poorly Beech/podocarp

drained forest
Podzol 2500 Imperfectly Pakihi: wire-
drained rush, moss with
manuka and gorse
Flagstaff Gley soil 2800 Imperfectly Podocarp/hard-
drained wood forest
Podzolised gley 2020 Very poorly Beech/podocarp
drained forest
Organic soil 2800 Very poorly Pakihi: sphagnum,
drained umbrella fern
and rushes
Gley podzol 3200 Poorly drained Rushes, moss,
grasses and
flat weeds. Some
bracken and
coprosma
Gley podzol 2500 Poorly drained Beech/podocarp
forest
Gley podzol 2000 Poorly drained Pakihi: umbrella
,sedge,
rushes and manuka
 335

METHODS
Total AHM bacteria by the MPN method are shown in Fig.1. The
The soils involved were sampled and examined at two different ·ghest counts were given by the surface organic samples from the
times; December 1978 and April 1979. ~agst~f~, Hukarer~ and Mawher~ soils: N':1111~ers in these samples were
rY similar, possibly reflecting their similarity in c content and
December 1978 pporting vegetation, the three soils supporting either podocarp/hard-
ood or beech/podocarp forest. The surface organic sample from the
Samples were taken from the top 5 cm of the Addison, Charleston ddison soil however, which supports a similar vegetation, gave a
Flagstaff and Kumara soils. Those from the Addison and Flagstaff , rkedly lower MPN count, lower than the MPN counts given by the Kumara
sites were organic in nature, those from the Charleston and Kumara d Qkarito surface samples, which were basically mineral in nature,
predominantly mineral. Percentage C determinations were not carried d the sample from the Kini peat. This could be due to the different
out on these samples, but data from Lee (1980) would suggest that c sampling time involved, although the Addison was sampled at the same
in the Addison and Flagstaff samples would have been 30% or above, ime as the Kumara. The vegetative cover at the Kumara site is, however,
and in the Charleston and Kumara samples less than 10%. Total rkedly different from that at the Addison. Rainfall at the Addison
aerobic heterotrophic mesophilic (AHM) bacterial counts were made ite is estimated at 3600 mm, and as such is markedly higher than that
using the most probable number (MPN) method in peptone yeast extract stimated at the other three forested sites. This could also be a
broth. Samples were also plated onto media selective for the actino- c0ntributing factor leading to the lower MPN numbers.
mycete genera Nocardia 3 Thermoactinomyces and Micromonospora.
MPN counts on the surface mineral samples from the Charleston,
April 1979 Kumara and Okarito soils, and on the organic sample from the Kini peat,
were variable. These soils support pakihi-type or similar poor
Samples were taken from the top 5 cm of the Charleston, Flagstaff vegetation. The lowest count, from the Charleston site, is probably a
Hukarere, Mawhera and Okarito soils and the Kini peat. With the ' reflection of the low C content of the sample, caused through repeated
exception of the Kini peat, samples were also taken from the closest burning of the site. MPN counts on all subsurface samples were, as
underlying mineral horizon. Of the surface samples, those from the one would expect, lower than the corresponding surface counts
Flagstaff, Hukarere and Mawhera soils, and from the Kini peat, were Bacterial counts on the PYEA dilution plates (Fig.2) were generally
organic in nature, with those from the Charleston and Okarito soils similar to the corresponding MPN determinations, except they were an
predominantly mineral. Percentage C levels of these surface samples order of magnitude lower, as is often the case.
were as follows:
The numbers of actinomycetes and fungi isolated from the samples
Charleston 4.2%; Fragstaff 56.7%; Hukarere 56.8%; Mawhera 60.8%; shown in Figs.3 and 4. Few actinomycetes were isolated from the
Okari to 17. 1%; Kini peat > 70%. surface samples and none from any of the subsurface samples. Most
actinomycetes prefer less acid soils and this may explain these results.
In the case of the Charleston and Okarito soils, the underlying The Charleston and Hukarere surface samples had the highest pH of those
samples were taken from directly beneath the surface sample, whereas tested (4.8 and 4.6 respectively) and they supported the most actino-
with the Flagstaff, Hukarere and Mawhera soils the underlying samples mycetes. The wet nature of these soils would also not favour actino-
were taken from 10, 35 and 15 cm respectively beneath the surface mycetes, which are aerobic. In contrast to actinomycetes, fungi were
sample. isolated from all the surface samples tested and were also present in
.low numbers in most subsurface samples (probably as spores). The
Total AHM bacteria and heat resistant spores (8o 0 c for 10 min) very acid nature of these sites would tend to favour fungal decomposit-
were both enumerated using the MPN method. Samples were also plated
onto media favouring the growth of bacteria (peptone yeast extract
agar, PYEA), actinomycetes (starch-casein agar, S/C) and fungi Heat resistant spores (Fig.5) were separated from all the surface
(Sabourauds agar, SAB). samples tested and from all but the Mawhera subsurface sample.

RESULTS
The results presented relate largely to those samples examined
in 1979. MPN counts of total AHM bacteria on the Charleston and
Flagstaff samples taken in 1978 proved to be similar to those obtained
in 1979 and have not been reproduced here. MPN counts of total AHM
bacteria on the Addison and Kumara samples taken in 1978 are incorporat-
ed and discussed along with the results obtained with those soils
sampled in 1979. Plating of the 1978 samples onto media selective for
actinomycete genera showed that Nocardia were present in the Charleston
soil only, and then only in low numbers (2 x 10 3 /g dry wt.), and
that Therrnophilic actinornycetes and Micromonospora'strains were not
present in any of the samples.
 337
w
a:
w
a: FLAGSTAFF
~
::J
:::c
<(
a:
w
:::c
~
::? 7
<( 10
a:
<( ~
~ LJJ
::J
~
0
-~j
-z I-
a: "C
~
~
Cl..
~ C>
-j 0 :;:,.
c:
::J
0
~
"'C
0
-co ~
w
·~ Cl..

~
O'>
107 ~
w
Q)
......
0
::J Cl.. co 6
0 ..c 10
(.)
z co
......
~ 0
I-

jg
0
I-

SURFACE SAMPLES SUB-SURFACE

SUB-SURFACE
SAMPLES
SAMPLES
Fig . 1 Numbers of bacteria isolated from West Coast wetland soils
using the most probable number ( MPN) method F; g. 2 Numbers of bacteria isolated from West Coast wetland soils
using the dilution plate technique
 w
a::
L1J
339

a::
~
::>
I ~
w
a...

w
a::
w
a::
~
::>
I

-uen
--- -
al
~ <(
~
"'C
C>
z
0
~
-en
~ w
_J
c:
::::J 5 a::
0 10 <(
(.)
I
...
Q)
Q)
(.)
u
>
E co
0)
0 c:
c: ::J
",+:i
(.) LL
<(
.......
......
.......
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LL. <(
·.....:·..
-.~:
•• =:....
~

~
LL. ·::·:··
a::
~
.·.·:··~
w w ......
.....::-:·~··
:::c a.. ........
.·.·.··......•....
~~ ......
(.!)
z ••••• !,
·:.·.·.··
:5 ....... .
--------- -
·.:!.~-.~·
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LL.
.....
~:·:···4:.
-'
SUB-SURFACE
~ ...:.........
..........
...... . ..
SURFACE SAMPLES .:::-::
. ...
SAMPLES .·.......·..
...
.....• ~

Fig . 3 Numbers of actinomycetes isolated from West Coast SURFACE SAMPLES SUB-SURFACE
wetland soils using the dilution plate technique SAMPLES
Fig.4 Numbers of fungi isolated from West Coast wetland soils
using the dilution plate technique
 54U
341
LL
LL
0
I- ~
w
a: a..
~
en ~ z INVERTEBRATE FAUNA OF SOME WET, PODZOLISED SOILS
(.!) 0 ~ FROM THE WEST COAST, SOUTH ISLAND
:5
LL
6 H.P. McCall
10 Soil Bureau, DSIR, Private Bag, Lower Hutt

Samples of organic matter from five sites were examined for

invertebrate animals. Three of the sites were on separate gley podzols
(Okarito peaty silt loam, Mawhera silt loam, Charleston sand), one on a
gleY (Flagstaff silt loam) and one on a podzolised gley (Hukarere silt
ioam). As it was possible to collect samples from the sites on only
two occasions (in the case of the Charleston site only once) any
comments about the invertebrates must be regarded as subjective.
ttoweve , from past experience with o~e gley podzol (Okarito - McColl
1974) certain conclusions can be drawn .

Although quantitative studies were not possible, standard size

samples (25 cm x 25 cm) were collected to permit comparisons between
sites, and Table 1 lists combined results from each site, giving numbers
of each broad taxon represented, so that the dominant groups can be
noted. Absence of some groups at some sites does not imply that they
do not occur at these sites, but is a fair indication that at the time
of sampling they were not common . Also, only the Tullgren-funnel
extraction method was used so that slow-moving and immature stages of
some groups would not be collected.

Detailed descriptions of sites and soils are given by Lee (1980).

Depth of organic horizons and vegetation is summarised in Table 2.

It can be seen from Table 1 that the same groups were mostly present
in samples from both years at any one site. Both pakihi sites (Charles-
ton and Okarito) have fewer taxa represented than those with beech/podo-
carp or podocarp / hardwood vegetation. This was also the case in a
previous study (McColl 1974) when an Okarito soil was found to have les s
than half of the weevil (Curculionidae) and other beetle taxa, and l ess
than one seventh of the lepidopteran taxa represented than a beech/ podo-
carp forest. Other groups were also much less common. ,It is interesting
to note that the Charleston sample and the 1978 Okarito sample both
contained numerous ants (mixed populations of Pro l asius advena and
Chelaner antarcticus at both sites) which indicates that ants are more
successful than most other invertebrates in this environment. Dipteran
adults were not uncommon at these sites, probably due to the abundance of
standing water which is the larval habitat of many species.
SURFACE SAMPLES SUB-SURFACE The Mawhera site had a varied fauna with beetles well represented,
SAMPLES but amphipods and oligochaetes not recorded. This may indicate litter
With high carbon/nitrogen ratio and high tannins, which these groups
Fi g. 5 Numbers of spores isola ted from West Coast wetland so i ls do not tolerate. Huberia brouni was the most common ant at this site .
using the most proba ble numbe r (MPN) method ~ukarere and Flagstaff both had a wide variety of taxa represented,
l ncluding oligochaetes and amphipods.

Generally speaking, it can be seen that .the variety of invertebrate

taxa represented reflects vegetational diversity, and the influence of
t his on the organic horizons.
 343

Table 1 Invertebrate groups and numbers of individuals extracted

( 1978 samples collected in February; 1979 samples except ·
Charleston collected in March; Charleston collected in Table 2 Depth of organic horizons main on
November) at sites sampled

Charleston Okarito Mawhera Hukarere

'79 '78 1
79 '78 '79 1
78 '79 Horizon Vegetation
depth
Annelida 3 1 2 1
Gastropoda 1 1 less than 5 cm impoverished pakihi: wire rush, scattered,
Acari >100 <100 >150 >150 >100 >200 >150 >150 scrubby Leptospermum scoparium
Araneida 4 1 3 22 18 21 16
Phalangida 15 1 2
Fseudoscorpionida 6 1 15 20 36 63 45
IJiplopoda 12 18 12 38 11 5 cm pakihi: umberella fern, sedges, rushes, scattered
15
Chilopoda 23 30 8 11 clumps of L. scoparium
2
Pauropoda 1 1
Symphyla 7 17 3 4 9 2
Copepoda 1 19 cm beech/podocarp: Nothofagus solandri cliffortioides,
Ostracoda 1 1 Podocarpus totara, Elaeocarpus hookerianus,
Isopoda 3 4 27 22 28 ' 17 16 Libocedrus bidwillii, Phyllocladus alpinus,
Amphipoda 14 3 3 4 Cyathodes fasciculata, Coprosma spp.
Collembola <50 <10 <20 <20 >SO <20 >SO
Diplura 1 1 1 4 3 1 1
Protura 1 6 13 8
Blattodea 1 25 cm beech/podocarp: Nothofagus truncata, Weinmannia
D'3rmaptera 1 1 racemosa Dacrydium cupressinum, Quintinnia serrata,
Orthoptera (wetas) 3 1 Phyllocladus alpinus, C. fasciculata, ferns and
Psocoptera 3 mosses
Hemiptera 7 2 29 19 32 27 26
Thysanoptera 1 10 cm podocarp/hardwood: W.racemosa, Q.serrata,
Coleoptera:Osoriinae 11 23 4 2 9 Podocarpus hallii, D. cupressinum, D.bidwillii,
Curculionidae 4 5 18 24 13 41 Phyllochladus alpinus, Coprosma spp., ferns and
Other adults 16 2 8 20 34 72 140 24
mosses
Carvae:Osoriinae 5 6 6 2 4
Others 1 3 1 7 8 76 58 27
Diptera:adults 50 35 34 4 32 3 50 6
larvae 4 2 9 13 8 18 31 29
Lepidoptera:adults 1
larvae 5 9 14 11 19
Hymenoptera:ants 170 >400 14 41 35 4 141
others 1 13
 344 ----:;3~45~------ ..................

can be carried out and pasture growth controlled,

IC achieved. is seldom

ST COAST, Lime
AGRICULTURE ON GLEY PODZO OF THE
SOUTH ISLAND Lime is usually aerially applied at 3.75 to s at about the
same time as the fertiliser and seed.
J.D. Morton
District agricultural Scientist fertiliser
MAF, Greymouth
Fertiliser is initial applied aerially at 500-750 kg/ha of the
following mixture:
The gley podzols of the West Coast of the South Island are 928.3 kg/t 10% serpentine superphosphate
included amongst an estimated 200,000 ha of soils, referred to as 60 kg/t elemental sulphur
pakihi soils. Originally the term 'pakihi' referred to the open tree 6 kg/t copper sulphate
less areas of swampland overlying gley podzol soils, supporting mainl · 5 kg/t sodium tetraborate
rushes, umbrella fern and sphagnum moss, but a much larger area now 0.5 kg/t cobalt sulphate
exists through the destruction of the original native forest and its 0.2 kg/t sodium molybdate
replacement by the typical pakihi vegetation.
This is followed by applications of 500 kg/ha of 22% potash sulphur
Although these soils vary in parent material, degree of podzol- superphosphat~ (71% of 10% serpentine superphosphate, 22% KCL, 7% element-
isation and/or gleying, climate and relief, they all have certain al sulphur) six and twelve months after sowing.
features in common which affect their agricultural development.
Seed
(a) Deficiencies of most essential plant nutrients, the natural
results of weathering and leaching under high rainfall. The following seed mixture is normally applied:
(b) Lack of vertical drainage caused by compact structureless, 10 kg/ha Ruanui ryegrass
impervious subsoils, with in many cases, iron-humus pans overlying 5 kg/ha Manawa ryegrass
cemented gravels which occur from 15 to 120 cm below the surface. 2 kg/ha Apanui cocksfoot
Thus, much of the water movement occurs laterally on or near the 2 kg/ha Kahu tirnothy
surface. 5 kg/ha Huia white clover (coated)
2 kg/ha Hamua or Turoa red clover (coated)
It is estimated that 5% of pakihi soils have been developed for The seed is aerially sown from September to April
agriculture, mainly by the Department of Lands and Survey with some
private development. PASTURE MAINTENANCE AND MANAGEMENT
PASTURE ESTABLISHMENT Maintenance lime and fertiliser

Land preparation Annual maintenance fertiliser rates are 400-500 kg/ha of 22%
potash sulphur superphosphate usually applied in the spring or summer,
Land preparation depends on the nature and amount of cover presen with 750 kg/ha applied on dairy farms. Lime is re-applied at 2.5 t/ha
In areas with sparse pakihi vegetation no land preparation is carried every three to four years.
out, but where fern is thick, burning is carried out. Gorse is usual!
aerially sprayed prior to oversowing. In previously forested areas Weed control
where stumps and lying timber are present, some root raking is carried
out in drier areas. Gorse regrowth is controlled by spraying, either aerially or from
the ground. Rushes (Juncus sp) which normally invade the established
Drainage pasture are controlled by one or a combination of block grazing,
mowing and spraying.
Drainage is restricted to surface drainage, and usually entails
opening up existing water courses with a snow plough or using a Stocki policy
0
hydraulic back actor to dig new drains. There is no feasible method
sub-surface drainage. The stocking rate is usually increased up to around 10 S.U./ha in
t~e first five years after sowing although some private developers reach
Fencing higher stocking rates at an earlier stage of development.
It is desirable to fence the oversown pastures into 5-10 ha pad~ 0

either before or soon after sowing so that intensive rotational graz1n

 346
347

Recently there has been a change from a dominance of cattle to a

70:30 sheep to cattle ratio in stock units. Sheep are considered to
be more suitable for pakihi soils because they cause less pugging damag and beef farming (average for last 3 years)
consolidate the ground better and return dung and urine more evenly to e
Bald Hill Demonstration Private farm
the pasture. Farm
Pasture growth 276 92 ( + 88 ha
other soils)
A typical spring oversown pasture on pakihi soils will yield tocking rate (S.U./ha) 12 14
2-3000 kg D.M./ha in the first year after oversowing. From the second mbing percentage 76 107
year onwards the pasture will yield 9-11 OOO kg D.M./ha if sufficient ol production (kg/head) 4.8 4.4
and correctly timed fertiliser applications are made and weed control, alving percentage 87
adequate subdivision and intensive rotational grazing carried out.

The pattern of pasture growth on Addison soils was measured at Bald

Hill near Westport from 1967 to 1973 (Radcliffe 1975) . Features of the
growth pattern are the low growth rate of less than 10 kg D.M./ha/day
from May to September, the rapid increase in growth from this level in
October up to 50 kg D.M./ha/day from November to February and the
steady decline from February to May. Thus the matching of stocking ON SOCI SOILS
rate to the pasture growth pattern is. difficult because of the
short growing season and the extremes in pasture growth. These ST COAST, SOUTH IS S OF LIME,
can be partly overcome by delaying calving and lambing to October and R D SPECI TRIALS
controlling the summer surplus by conserving silage or hay or grazing
extra stock. The last two options are not always feasible due to the
high rainfall and the cost of transporting stock from other areas. J.D. fvlorton
Di et Agricultural Scientist
Grazing management MAF, Greymo
This is the most important aspect of successfully farming pakihi
soils. The ideal grazing management of pastures on pakihi soils is D RTILISER
rotational grazing of sheep or cattle at three to four weekly intervals
during the pasture growth season so that the paddocks are grazed for mowing trials (1963-66)
no more than three days. A longer rotation length can be used over the
period of low pasture growth by further temporarily subdividing paddocks. In a series of trials on an Addison soil at Bald 11, McNaught &
Ewes and cows can be setstocked over lambing or calving. During (1970) found that pasture yield responses indicated initial
requirements of white clover to be at least 3.75 t/ha lime,
This type of grazing management is essential for maintenance of 1125-1800 kg/ha of superphosphate, 375-500 kg/ha of potassium chloride,
high yielding pastures since the phosphate, sulphur, potassium and about 20 kg/ha of elemental sulphur, 5 kg/ha each of copper and zinc
nitrogen (fixed by clover) that is available to the pasture during the sulphate and 28 g/ha of sodium molybdate. Maintenance requirements
growth season is that which is taken up by the pasture after fertiliser were about 625 kg/ha lime, 750 kg/ha superphosphate, 375-500 kg/ha
is applied and then cycled through the soil-plant-animal system. KCl and 20 kg/ha elemental sulphur.
This is believed to be because the pakihi soils have very low phosphate,
sulphate and potassium retention to prevent leaching of these plant .In a further trial, also at Bald Hill on an Addison soil, During &
nutrients and depend more on the pasture than the soil to act as a Martin (1968) found that there was rapid lateral movement of applied
reservoir. Thus the efficiency of cycling would depend on how evenly sulphate, suggesting 1 e capacity to retain sulphate, and heavy
the dung and urine was returned to the pasture. This is maximised losses of this anion in drainage water. Field trials confirmed that
under rotational grazing by sheep with frequent shifts between small g~sum applied to the soil surface at rates of up to 500 kg/ha protected
paddocks so that the area of stock camps is minimised. white clover against sulphur deficiency for a relatively short time
Only, but the action of elemental sulphur at 19 kg/ha proved both rapid
Stock and farm rformance and effective.
Dairy farming (average for last 3 years)
Cape Foulwind Bell Hill observational trials (1966-69)
Dairy Unit Dairy Unit
There was an increase in white clover vigour in the first seventeen
Area (ha) 100 80 m~nths after establishment up to an initial application of 7.5 t/ha
Cows milked 123 97 11
~eand 600 kg/ha monocalcium phosphate (150 kg P/ha) on an Okarito
Production (kg) 14 420 10 330 5
oi1 at Mawheraiti. At the same site, there was an increase in white
Mean calving date 20 Sept 7 Oct Clover vigour up to 125 kg/ha KCl per year in the second year after over-
Hay fed/cow wintered (bales) 13 36
Area silage cut (ha) 3
 348
349

sowing but no increase in clover vigour above control for the third Yea
There was an increase in white clover vigour up to 65 kg/ha elemental s (1966-73)
sulphur per year which was superior to 384 kg/ha gypsum per year. In
the second year after sowing there was a response in white clover vigou prom 1966 to 1973 a stocking rate (8 and 13 S.U./ha) by rate of
to 5. 7 kg/ha copper sulphate and 180 g/ha sodium molybdate applied l' tiliser trial (500 and 1000 kg/ha 33% potassic reverted super) was
initially but no response to zinc, iron or cobalt. rducted on twelve 1 ha paddocks on the Bald Hill F.R.A. There
~ a significant pasture yield response to fertiliser (23-36%) at
At Bell Hill, on a Moana soil, there were significant responses th rates of stocking 1967 to 1973 and a significant hogget
in white clover vigour to 5.7 kg/ha copper sulphate and 680 g/ha ~veweight response to high rate of fertiliser at the high stock-
of sodium molybdate, and a response to 57 kg/ha elemental sulphur but ~g rate from 1970 to 1973.
no response to lime or potassium.
A grazing trial on the same area from 1973 to 1977 showed no
Small plot mowing trials (1968-79) ignificant responses in pasture yield, hogget liveweight gain and
0 1weight above 50 kg/ha KCl per year.
Trials to measure pasture yield responses to phosphate and
potassium from one spring and autumn cut per year were carried out on A trial at Bald Hill using large plots (20 x 10 m) and grazing of
an Addison soil at Bald Hill from 1969-73. ll plots once every month by sheep has consistently shown for
hree years that 30 kg P/ha per year will result in approximately
The results from the phosphate trial were not conclusive, with yield 0% of the pasture yield which has been measured from 75 kg P/ha per
responses occurring up to 11 to 56 kg P/ha per year. Increasing
responses up to 300 kg/ha KCl were recorded in some spring cuts but at
rates of KCl below this residual effects of applied K were low,
particularly over the summer period for spring applications. Yields
from split spring and autumn and single spring applications were In subtractive pot tests carried out on the Addison, Kumara,
similar. A one year continuous mowing trial at Bald Hill resulted in Maimai, Okarito and Waiuta soils severe deficiencies of N, P, K, S,
responses in pasture yield up to 200 kg/ha with no difference in yield and Cu were found in all soils and deficiencies of B, Mg and Mn
between split and one spring application. Another continuous mowing were found in some soils (Smith et at. 1976). The result justifies
trial at Bald Hill from 1973-77 showed large pasture yield responses the general use of a standard pakihi development fertiliser mixture
up to 350 kg/ha KCl regardless of whether clippings were discarded to be applied initially to all pakihi soils.
or returned. A concurrent occasional cuts trial with grazing between
cuts showed a response up to 200 kg/ha KCl in the spring cuts. Il
There was only a small difference in pasture yield between mono- Small plot mowing trials at Mawheraiti on an Okarito soil and
calcium phosphate (90% soluble in water) and lime reverted super- at Awatuna on a Mawhera soil have shown that at comparatively low
phosphate (20% soluble in water) over three years at Bald Hill. At rates of lime (0.5-1 t/ha), phosphate (20-40 kg/ha per year) and
Bell Hill on a Moana soil, there was no significant difference in potassium (35 kg/ha per year) both Maku (G 4705) and G 4703 Lotus
pasture yield between potassium chloride and potassium metaphosphate together with rye grass, timothy, cocksfoot or Yorkshire fog will
but a split and a single spring application resulted in greater yields yield 4-6000 kg D.M./ha in the second and third years after sowing,
than an autumn application. Pasture deteriorated severely on a compared with yields of 1-2000 kg D.M./ha from white clover and rye-
recently developed Okarito soil at Mawheraiti and this was found to be grass. These results reinforce the concept of sowing lotus as a
due to loss of sulphur which had been applied in the form of gypsum pioneer species at low rates of lime and fertiliser and oversowing
in superphosphate since development. When 60 kg/ha elemental sulphur white clover and ryegrass at a later stage of development after
was applied, there was a significant pasture yield response in the gorse control or adequate subdivision has been carried out.
first year but the response was larger in the second year, indicating.
a need to build up the number of sulphur oxidising bacteria in the soil.
In the same trial there were no yield responses to boron,magnesium,
copper or molybdenum. A trial on a Maimai soil at Blairs Block The small plot mowing trials carried out from 1963 to 1966 at
indicated that sulphur fortified superphosphate manufactured by Bald 1 showed what plant nutrients were required for establishment
adding powdered sulphur to the granules was the most efficient sulphur Of pasture on Addison soil and indicated initial and maintenance
fertiliser in terms of pasture yield. There were only small differences rates of these nutrients. Subsequent trials on other pakihi soils
in pasture yield between one application of 30% potassic, sulphur fort- largely confirmed the Bald Hill results on fertiliser requirements
ified super applied at 625 kg/ha in September, 375 kg/ha in September and for pasture establishment with some modifications on rates. This
250 kg/ha in February.and 250 kg/ha in September and 125 kg/ha in l'esulted the general use of a pakihi development fertiliser
November, January and March. Two occasional cuts trials on an Okarito mixture being confirmed by results from subtractive pot tests .. Th~
soil at Mawheraiti and Maimai soil at Kaimata showed no yield response recommended fertiliser application in the first year after sowing is
to molybdenum after three and five years respectively. at least 840 kg/ha 10% serpentine superphosphate plus 110 kg/ha KCl,
80 kg/ha elemental sulphur, 4.5 kg/ha copper sulphate, 3.8 kg/ha
Sodium tetraborate, 0.4 kg/ha cobalt sulphate and 150 g/ha of sodium
molybdate. Initial lime requirements are 3.75 t/ha.
 351

Trial work in the 1970's has concentrated on defining maintenanc

fertiliser requirements of established pasture. Small plot mowing e to the formulation of the so-called ' Pakihi Fertiliser
trials have indicated the need to apply elemental sulphur regularly potassic reverted supplemented
and have also shown that maintenance applications of molybdenum are not , copper, boron, cobalt, and molybdenum.
required. Results from phosphate and potassium maintenance trials hav
however, varied depending on the type of trial management and measure-e Smith et al. (1976) carried out a survey of nutrient deficiencies in
ment technique used. The maintenance requirements for phosphate have ve of more agriculturally important pakihi soils to determine
been reasonably well defined in a sheep grazing trial but occasional ether the 'standard fertiliser mixture' would be suitable for pakihi
cuts of trials on the same soil have given variable results. Small Plo ilS other than the Addison. The following is a summary of that survey.
potassium trials appear to have overestimated the potassium require-
ments of the Addison soil when compared to the results of a concurrent
grazing trial with sheep which demonstrated the efficiency of potassium
recycling under the trial maRagement system used. Thus it appears that The subtractive technique, a comparative soil test described by
the maintenance requirements for phosphate, and especially potassium, 'ddleton &Toxopeus (1973), was used to investigate deficiencies in N,
on pakihi soils must be investigated under grazing if valid results are s, Mg, B, Fe, Mn, Mo, and Zn. The method involved growth of
to be obtained. The potassium requirement of pasture appears to rennial ryegrass to investigate all major element deficiencies except
depend on the efficiency of cycling potassium through the soil-plant- gnesiuui, and nodulated lucerne for all the other elements. Control
animal system and this will be affected by such factors as stocking iants both species received a complete solution of all essential
rate, type of grazing animal, and grazing frequency and intensity. 1ements (except for nitrogen in case of lucerne) and were therefore
Thus the recommended annual maintenance fertiliser application on dependent of supplies from the soil. For the subtractive treatment,
pakihi soils is 500-750 kg/ha of a 22% KCl, 7% elemental sulphur, 71% 1ants were treated indentically to those in the control pots except
10% serpentine superphosphate mix. The low rate is recommended where or the omission of one element from the nutrient solut and thus
predominantly sheep are carried and the high rate for dairy farming, ere dependent on the ability of the soil to supply this element. The
where greater losses of nutrients from the pasture would be expected. eduction in growth of plants in the subtractive pots compared with the
Lime requirements are 2.5 t/ha every three years. rowth of the control plants was used to measure the degree of deficiency
D) of the element concerned. The results were expressed on a scale of
The potential of using Lotus as a pioneer legume species to reduce -100 where 0 represents no deficiency, (D) being calculated from the
initial costs of pakihi development has been shown in small plot trials, allowing equation for each element.
but this concept needs further investigation under grazing.
D
= 100 (C-T)
c
C = total control dry matter yield
T = total subtracted dry matter yield
8
MULTIP PLANT-NUTRI FICIENCIES IN KIHI I so I LS Approximately 100 kg samples of each soil were collected from
THE WEST COASTJ SOUTH ISLAND untopdressed areas close to the typical sites selected by Ross &Mew
(1975) according to pedological criteria. Both topsoil and subsoil was
collected from each site to investigate the possibility that leached
G.S.Smith & K.R. Middleton nutrients may have accumulated down the profile. The names of the soils
Soil & Plant Research Station and map references for the five sites are as follows:
Ruakura Agricultural Research Centre
MAF, Hamilton Addison fine sandy loam - NZMS 1 S 31/06656 (approx)
Bald Hill Field Station Area, Westport.
I NTROOUCT ION
Kumara silt loam - S 52/077796 (approx) Nelson Creek Farm
The pakihi soils represent approximately 50% of the total land Settlement (Lands Survey Dept), 1.8 km SW of Nelson Creek-
area potentially suited to farming on the West Coast and have an
estimated area of 200 OOO hectares. Probably not more than 3% of this Kopara Road.
large area is being farmed at present. Maimai silt loam - S 52/016724 (approx) Bell Hill Farm Settlement
(Lands and Survey Dept), 2 km S of Kotuku-Bell Hill Road.
Attempts to establish grass-clover pastures on these soils were
largely unsuccessful until the major and minor nutrient requirements
were determined for the Addison gley podzol near Westport (Dunn &
Okarito silt loam - S 38/207244 (approx) on Maimai Plain,
Scott 1964; During et al. 1964; McNaught &During 1970). Most of the 1.8 km W of Maimai.
subsequent research on the pakihi soils has been confined to this area.
However some work has been conducted on an Okarito soil near Reefton (5) Waiuta fine sandy loam - S 45/27048 (approx), 4.1 km along
Forest Service Road joining Hukarere Road between Ikamatua
by O'Connor (1970) with results similar to those at Westport. The
results of these trials, and subsequently trials on the Addison soil, and Mawheraiti.
 353

Because of the very acid conditions of the original pakihi sampi

(pH 4.5 or less), calcium carbonate was used to adjust all soils to ae in the paki ls t
pH of 6.0. For full details of experimental conditions see Smith et
(1976). Q
defi - 100
AND DISCUSSION deficiency 51 -
ciency 26 50
. Table 1 summarises the results of the subtractive test for the fiv 11
sites. All non-zero results except those marked with an asterisk were 0 10
significantly different from the control at the 5% level or better. cantly di from 0)
Major elements Rye grass Nodulated lucerne
N P S K Mg B Cu Fe Mn Mo Zn
The results clearly indicate only small differences between soil
type for the major elements in both topsoils and subsoils. As the 1 53 71 41 12 7* 93 10* 9* 24 31 4*
subsoils were more deficient for all the elements tested it was conclud 2 81 80 65 32 11* 96 9* 6* 40 25 3*
that these elements had been leached from the system. 3 77 88 84 87 24 96 9* 2* 47 22 2*
91 93 100 100 53 97 12* 4* 57 28 4*
Nitrogen: Except for a slight deficiency in the Maimai soil, marked 1 78 88 64 59 16 97 10* 10* 45 30 2*
deficiencies were measured in the other soils in the first cut. By the 2 87 91 80 96 24 90 1* 7* 45 25 1*
fourth cut, however, acute deficiencies had developed in all soils, 3 82 95 98 99 45 85 l* 2* 57 24 2*
indicating that no large reserves of nitrogen were present. 4 91 98 100 100 66 61 6* 3* 55 17* 3*

Phosphorus: Acute deficiencies were found in all cases. 1 46 63 36 15 5* 17 8* Si< 3* 4* 2*

2 79 72 65 40 9* 6* 6* 7* 3* 10* 3*
Sulphur: Deficiencies were found in all soils, indicating that the 3 73 76 82 82 11 15 8* O* ·o* 21 9*
reserves of this element were comparatively small. However, the 4 88 86 98 95 13 10 5* 0* O* 15 7*
deficiencies were not as marked initially as those for nitrogen and 1 62 70 51 54 18 22 10* 10* 5* 13* 6*
phosphorus. 2 79 70 72 90 3* 19 3* 0* 0* 8* 8*
3 81 80 92 96 2* 13 O* 0* 0* 7* 4*
PotassiUJ11: As for the other major elements, the severity of the 4 91 85 100 100 3* 16 0* 4* 0* 15 5*
deficiencies of this element increased with cuts. In fact, by the
1 14 67 10 21 7* 18 48 8* 50 11* 10*
fourth cut the reserves of potassium for active plant growth had been
depleted in all cases. 2 72 85 74 87 8* 21 44 4* 53 13* 12*
3 87 90 94 98 10* 16 45 4* 52 14 10*
94 100 100 11* 9* 39 4* 39 12* 10*
Magnesium: No immediate deficiencies were found in the topsails, but 4 90
slight deficiencies occurred in all subsoils. However, moderate 1 53 ·77 37 28 1* 83 12 0* 36 10* 0*
deficiencies developed in all topsails except Okarito and Maimai in 2 83 79 64 77 7* 56 17 0* 51 12 0*
the later cuts. 3 77 85 84 97 6* 51 18 0* 56 22 9*
91 100 100 7* 30 16 O* 56 24 11*
4 89
ements 20 13*
1 93 94 75 58 54 38 15* 7* 31
90 78 79 9* 4* 44 26 15
As was found for the major elements, deficiencies in minor 2 94 97 87
98 87 55 10* 4* 49 24 20
elements were more severe in the subsoils. 3 81 98 93
91 71 13* 3* 46 31 12*
4 92 97 95 100
Boron: In these tests boron was by far the most important minor 11* 40 15* 11* 10* 15* 1*
1 73 71 57 26
element deficiency with an acute deficiency in the Addison soil for 18 66 33 10* 20 46 0*
2 81 74 74 73
all cuts. Severe deficiencies were found in the Okarito and Waiuta 17 62 26 13* 11* 39 0*
3 77 81 96 95 1*
soils but only slight boron deficiencies developed in the Kumara and 62 24 11* 4* 42
4 89 90 100 100 26
Maimai soils. Both Kumara and Maimai soils had high organic carbon 15* 20*
contents (8%) compared with the other soils (1.5-6%), which suggests 1 88 91 74 64 30 70 33 13* 28
67 76 23 5* 23 15* 15*
that the reserves of boron may be held in this fraction (Russel 1957). 2 84 94 85 96
52 24 5* 23 17* 19*
Release of boron from organic matter presumably depends on microbio~ 3 81 97 98 99 81
31 O* 15* 24 27
logical activity, which might account to some extent for the variation 4 93 99 100 100 88 70
which occurred from cut to cut.
 354 355

Copper: Significant deficiencies were found in three soils: Maimai

which had a moderate degree of deficiency, and Okarito and Waiuta, b~th
of which had a slight copper deficiency. The wet terrace land soils on the West Coast of South Island
nave a rainfall generally in excess of 2500 mm. In region of the
Iron: No significant iron deficiencies were measured in any of the GreY and Taramakau river valleys, glacial outwash terraces and river
soils tested. terraces have carried indigenous podocarp vegetation. Under
rainfall soluble nutrients have been leached from the soil while
Manganese: Moderate manganese deficiencies were found in all soils canopy drip and/or humus has facilitated translocation of iron and
except for Kumara. aluminium down the soil profile. Clear felling of indigenous forest
0as left some 200 OOO ha of these impoverished soils; some are being
Molybdenum: Moderate deficiencies were found in all soils. developed for forestry and/or agriculture.

Zinc: Except for slight deficiencies appearing in some of the later Soils in this area fall into several distinct classes, but each
cuts in the subsoils from Okarito and Waiuta, zinc deficiencies were is characterised by the development of iron pans at textural inter-
not found in these soils. faces in the soil profile and/or the development of massive silty
gleyed horizons. Both of these characteristics contribute to the
CONCLUSIONS problem of restricted vertical drainage.

The results of the subtractive tests confirmed the findings of The most important factors related to development of quality
field trials, that multiple plant-nutrient deficiencies exist in the pasture on these soils are considered to include (i) provision of
Addison pakihi soil. A more significant feature of this survey was surface drainage, (ii) adequate application of fertiliser, and (iii)
that the generally impoverished condition of the pakihi soils was stock management. The first two factors are interrelated and was
independent of 'soil type'. In fact, among the five agriculturally considered relevant to know how much nutrient is lost in surface run-
important soil types studied, major element deficiencies were almost off, both because of its loss from agriculture and its gain to rivers
identical, and the only appreciable differences were in the minor and lakes.
element deficiencies. Moreover, Smith et aZ. (1976) concluded that
what reserves of nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and boron, exist in THE STUDY
these soils are likely to be held in the organic matter. Finally the
results of the subtractive tests clearly indicate that the 'Standard The soil selected for study, Mairnai loamy fine sand, is character-
Pakihi Fertiliser Mixture', already in restricted use, could be used ised by a shallow (14 cm) humic silt loam (A1 ) and a gravelly,
successfully over the whole pakihi area. massive gleyed horizon (14-32 cm). A dark re~ iron pan (32-34 cm)
forms an indistinct irregular boundary over unweathered gravels. The
topsoil (O- 7. 5 cm) has. 12% clay, 32% silt and 56% sand, and a bulk
density of 0.56 g/cm 3 • The dominant clay minerals are vermiculite
intergrades and interstratified smectites.

NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS IN RUN-OFF FROM A WET TERRACE LAND The site was on the Department of Lands and Survey "Ruru" block at
Bell Hill on a poorly drained flat area of some 1000 ha of glacial out-
SOIL ON T WEST COAST, SOUTH ISLAND wash gravels. In: their undeveloped state the soils support a secondary
growth of tangle fern and rushes; indigenous forest was felled and
H.K.J.Powell &M.C.Taylor burnt-over early this century. Within this area an 80 ha unit (average
Dept of Chemistry longitudinal slope 0.7°) was limed (3.75 t/ha), topdressed (625 kg
Univ. of Canterbury, Christchurch superphosphate/ha, including Cu, Mo and Co) and oversown with perennial
ryegrass and clover seed in 1968, and to 1975 had received annual
Loss of nutrient in "surface" run-off has been studied for a maintenance applications of 450 kg/ha of 30% potassic superphosphate.
pasture developed on a Maimai soil under 2700 mm precipitation (Lee et ai. Lime (2.5 t/ha) was applied again in October 1974. Stocking with
1979). The concentration of nutrients in run-off peaked significantly in cattle commenced 1974. Surface drainage in this unit is facilitated
the 3 months fol.lowing fertiliser application (450 kg/ha of 30% potassic by spinner drains and deeper drains (40-60 cm) following contour lines
superphosphate), the relative concentrations being calcium> potassium and flowing into soakage pits (2 m x 2 m) which run the length of one
>sulphur>> phosphorus. fence line in most of the 2 ha paddocks and which penetrate into the
underlying gravels.
By ignoring base levels of nutrient ar1s1ng fTom previous
applications and from soil weathering, and assuming 0.8 for the SAMPLING OF SURFACE RUN-OFF
of precipitation appearing as "surface" run-off, the estimated mass of
nutrient loss (within 3 - 5 months of fertiliser application) was The area under study had no single confluence for drinage water and
equivalent to 28% of potassium applied, 37% of sulphur, 40% of calcium thus the sampling was from open drains originating within the unit;
and 6% of phosphorus. sites were chosen to afford a representative sampling of the total
 357

drainage pattern over the 80 ha unit. Samples were collected at

regular intervals following application of fertiliser (450 kg/ha) in
November. Samples of surface run-off were collected within 24 h filtration of samples through a 0.45 µm millipore filter prior to
following periods of substantial precipitation, i.e. only flowing wat . aiysis provided information on the transfer of nutrient contained in,
was collected. Samples were analysed for potassium, calcium, phospha~1' ~adsorbed on, suspended particulate matter. These measurements
phosphorus and sulphur, both before and after filtration through 0.4 5 e stablished that£· 40% of P04 3 --P and 20% of Sin the surface run-off
membrane filters. Samples of run-off were also collected from two ter were associated with suspended solids (possibly as oxyanions
small catchments via troughs imbedded at 1 cm depth and coupled to a dsorbed on clay, as insoluble particulates, or as a component(s) of
siphon fractionator described elsewhere (Downing &Powell 1980). ~uJ!liC material) .
In the first 4 months after topdressing, high loadings of sulphur
NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION IN RUN-OFF were observed in run-off. This is consistent with the mobility of the
Figure 1 shows the mean concentrations of calcium, potassium, sulphate ion, and the decrease in sulphate-retentive property of the
sulphur and phosphate-phosphorus in run-off water as collected at ten soil following application of superphosphate, (Saunders 1974).
sampling sites through 1975-6. The range of concentrations observed
for each analysis was significant; for example, for samples collected The phosphate concentration in run-off is relatively low because of
in January 1976 the means and standard deviations were 1.8 ± 3.0, its marked tendency for adsorption onto poorly-ordered hydrous oxides
3.2 ± 3.0, 2.6 ± 0.6, and 0.7 ± 0.25 for calcium, potassium, sulphur of irorl and aluminium. However, this soil (0-7.5 cm) shows a significantly
higher P-retention (39%) than other wet terrace land soils (e.g. Maimai
and phosphorus. type sites, 5%;(Lee 1977, 1980 - this issue)). This can be attributed to
the presence of more poorly ordered iron and aluminium coatings (c.f.
Maimai type site, Tamm Fe and Al 0.04% and 0.03% respectively; this soil
o.4% and 0.2%).
's' p horizontal bars in Fig.1 represent the mean levels of nutrient
6.0 12.0 determined for samples collected over a period of weeks in catchment
troughs imbedded in the field. In each case these concentrations are
0-- - --o greater than or similar to the mean values determined for samples
collected from running water in drains. It appears that surface water
5.0 10.0 and near-surface water (to depth 1 cm) which seep slowly into the troughs
I
after the 'flood' of surface run-off has occurred carry a larger
I concentration of dissolved nutrient. In a subsequent year samples
I collected in troughs were analysed after heavy rainfall events. Nutrient
I I
\ concentrations were substantially higher than observed in drains and
4.0 10 I 8.0 streams: potassium, up to 60 ppm; calcium, up to 28 ppm; phosphorus, up
I \ to 5 ppm. This is consistent with the findings of McColl &Gibson (1979a,
I I
E I b). Results from small catchments can give a distorted picture of nutrient
I
0.. I
I
loss as there is no input of nutrients by surface flow from adjacent
a.. I
\
0 areas and the recorded volumes and concentrations may not represent values
3.0 I I\
...... I I \ for water crossing a stream edge.
...... I I I \ e
0
I - - - --d I I \ ESTIMATED LOSS OF NUTRIENT IN RUN-OFF
c tf
:::>
.... b--0,,
iJ•\'oCa
2.0 To calculate the total loss of nutrient in run-off it is necessary to
know also (i) the percentage of precipitation appearing as surface run-off,
and (ii) the input of nutrients in rainfall. The losses for each nutrient
-c
<!.>
have been calculated from Fig.1 by multiplying the average concentration
of nutrient in run-off for the period between two samplings by the volume
....
...... 1.0 2.J of run-off leaving the area. The volume of run-off from a catchment
:::>
• • K (assuming no vertical drainage) can be estimated as the difference between
• + the known volume of precipitation, Vp, and the loss via evapotranspiration,
--- +-<J
~ ---~--
/ --i)::-::_--- ""...,..-+-=-.:::..:;i;,;:...::--+
-()---w ..... , --4.1'- __
s Ve, i f permanent saturation of the soil is assumed. The average Penman
Value of Ve for Hokitika is 708 mm/year (Mr J.D.Coulter, pers. comm.); a
A s 0 ND J FM AM J similar or smaller value would be applicable at Bell Hill. An estimated
Value of Vp - Ve for the catchment for 1975-6, (2700-708 mm) would
represent the minimum volume of run-off expected (74% of Vp). Field
measurements on two small catchments have indicated a run-off of 80-90%
Fig.1 Mean concentration of calcium o, potassium G, sulphur+, of precipitation. In this work the approximate figure of 80% was assumed.
and phosphorus ~ in run-off water. Horizontal bars are
for samples collected in catchment troughs
 358 359

The estimated losses of nutrient within 5 months of topdressing were

sulphur 12 kg/ha, potassium 20 kg/ha, and phorphorus 2.5 kg/ha. The loss of sulphur was equivalent to c. 37% of applied sulphate-
sulphur within 5 months.of topdressing,-the potassiUJE loss was 28% and the
In these estimates no allowance was made for the input of nutrient pnosp~orus loss was eqm.valent to 6% of applied P0 4 3 -P. Loss of sulphur
via rainfall. This input was difficult to assess because of variation diminished abruptly after 4 months whereas loss of potassium continued
which we ascribed to the effects of wind-blown fertiliser originating steadily (to 32% after 6~ months).
from adjacent farming operations through spring and summer. Measurements
reported by Campbell (1975) for the Taipo-Taramakau area indicate mean In contrast the profile for calcium (Fig.1) indicates appreciable
annual levels of 0.07 ppm K in rainfall (an accession of 1.5 kg/ha) and concentr~tion at all times, with an increased concentration following
0.04 ppm for Ca (1.1 kg/ha); these levels may be applicable in the study topdressing. However, superphosphate applied in early summer is a minor
area. source of calcium relative to lime. When the concentration of calcium
is referenced to the background level of c. 4 ppm as observed in winter
ESTIMATED LOSS OF FERTILISER and spring (and assumed to derive from slow dissolution of lime) the
1oss of calcium applied in superphosphate is assessed as 40% the
To estimate the loss of fertiliser in run-off it is necessary to first 5 months following topdressing (Fig.2).
subtract the "base-line" concentration of each nutrient, i.e. the con-
centration arising from soil weathering and from residues of fertiliser It is stressed that these results are valid only for the year and
applied in previous years. site of sampling. The concentration of nutrient in run-off will vary
with the pattern and intensity of rainfall, with time and rate of
For potassium and sulphur the concentrations of nutrient in run-off application of fert iser, and for individual soils grouped within the
(in winter and spring) prior to application of fertiliser were c. 20% Maimai series. Estimation of nutrient concentration in run-off is
and 10% respectively of the maximum values attained after fertiliser limited by sampling. estimation of total fertiliser loss is more
was applied (Fig.1). Thus a portion of the observed concentration did difficult and is dependent on assumptions about total run-off and "base-
not arise from fertiliser applied immediately prior to sampling. There line" concentrations of nutrient in run-off. However, these results do
were insufficient data to allow accurate estimates of these "base-line" afford a basis for estimating losses from wet terrace land soils.
concentrations. However in terms of nutrient balance it is meaningful to
express the cumulative loss as a percentage of the nutrient (fertiliser)
applied in a given year.

Figure 2 shows the cumulative loss of each nutrient with time follow-
ing topdressing, expressed as a percentage of the amount of each applied.
IN EMI PHYSICAL PROPERTI WI
ON ISON SOIL 1 W
40
M.B. 0 1 Connor
Soil & Plant Research Station
......
Ruakura Agricultural Research Cen
c 30 Private Bag, Hamilton
(!.)
·-....
-:::>
c
INTRODUCTION

20 . Gley podzols, or 1 pakihi 1 soils are considered marginal for

agricultural development. Information is available on nutrient
0...
0... requirements for the establishment of ryegrass-white clover swards
0 (During et ai. 1964; During &Martin, 1968; McNaught &Durina 1970)
...... Bu_t t h e e ff ects on the soil
· with
· 1::»
development to pastures is not known '.
0
.,,.,, 10 This study looked at changes in some chemical and physical properties
between an undeveloped and developed (five year-old pasture) situation
0 at the Bald Hill Research Area near Westport.
....J

0~
DEVELOPMENT OF THE S
s 0 N D J F M A M J
. In February 1964, 16 ha of virgin land was oversown with a seed
mixture containing perennial ryegrass, white clover, lotus, crested
Fig.2 Cumulative mass loss of nutrient in run-off expressed as a dogstail and cocksfoot. Legumes were inoculated prior to sowing.
percentage of nutrient applied in fertiliser. Measurements
commence at time of application (November).
 360
361

Fertiliser, including lime (2.5 t/ha) and copperised molybdic super- Soil pH in 0- cm
phosphate (750 kg/ha) was then applied. Both seed and fertiliser was
le of son
loam and silt loam
sown directly into the existing natural vegetation. In November 196 4
a further application of lime (2.5 t/ha) and lime-reverted potassic (30% Undeveloped Developed
superphosphate (500 kg/ha) was made. In March 1966, serpentine potassi silt loam peaty loam
(30%) superphosphate (SOO kg/ha) was applied. In September a rate of c silt loam peaty loam
fertiliser x stocking rate trial was imposed incorporating two rates of
4.40 4.28 5. 71) 5. 41)
lime-reverted potassic (30%) superphosphate - 188 and 375 kg/ha. These
4.37 4.22 5.27)
5 5
· 5.35) 5 • 4
rates were repeated in March and September up to sampling in December-
January 1968/69. 4.34 4.13 4.58 4.83

METHODS
carbon and Nitrogen
Soil Survey
Carbon:nitrogen ratios in the undeveloped scils are high (>25).
With the establishment of high producing ryegrass-white clover
A distinct micro-relief pattern was evident across the landscape
pastures, C and N accumulate in the soil. Such increases, however,
although height variation from crest to hollow was slight (maximum
are confined very much to the topsoil 0-3.8 cm (Table 2). The
1.5 m), three soil types were delineated - a silt loam occupied the increase in %N is more marked than the increase in %C. This in turn
crests, a peaty silt loam the shoulder slopes and a peaty loam the has led to a reduction in the C:N ratio, again confined mainly to the
hollows. Following a detailed soil survey (1:2700), the area occupied
by the three soil types was determined as: · top 0-3.8 cm layer.

silt loam - 30%

peaty silt loam
%C, N C:N ratios in the 0- cm profile -
- 40% Addison silt loam
peaty loam - 24%

Chemical Analysis Depth %C %N C:N

(cm) Undev. Devel. MSD * Undev. Devel. MSD Undev. Devel. MSD
(1%) (1%) (1%)
Soil samples (24) were taken for each soil type from three depths
(0 - 3.8, 3.8 - 7.5 and 7.5 - 15 cm) in the developed (five year
pasture) and 12 per soil type in the undeveloped situation. Some 0-3.8 8.5 11.6 4.5 0.24 0.54 0.24 35.3 21.5 6.8
limited sampling to 37.5 cm was also undertaken. Soil pH, %C, N, 3.8-7.5 5.7 5.4 2.5 0.24 0.25 0.10 23.7 21.3 3.7
total P, Truog P and total exchangeable bases were determined on all 7.5-15.0 5.1 4.4 1. 2 0.24 0.20 0.05 21. 2 22.0 3.8
samples.
*MSD Minimum significant difference
Physical Analysis
Bulk density determinations were carried out using a similar number Differences in %C and %N between soil types are apparent (Table 3
and distribution of samples as used for the chemical analyses. Soil compared with Table 2) with levels generally higher in the undeveloped
penetrometer measurements (the latter using an instrument loaned by the soils on the peaty loam and peaty silt loams compared with the silt loam.
late D.B.Edmond, Grasslands Division, Palmerston North) were made in situ Hence increases with development are less likely to reach statistical
on both the undeveloped and developed sites according to soil type. significance.

RESULTS
Tab 1e 3 %C and %N in the Addison peaty silt loam and peaty loam
pH
Peaty silt loam Peaty loam
The pH of the undeveloped soil is 4.3-4.4. Lime is necessary for Depth Undevel. Devel. MSD (1%) Undevel. Devel. MSD (1%)
legume survival and ryegrass growth on this soil (McNaught &During (cm)
1970) and the application of 5 t/ha of lime resulted in a pH of
%C 13.8 16.8 8.8
approximately 5.5 (0-7.5 cm) in the five year pasture. Effects 0-3.8 10.9 13.3 4.0
generally were confined to the topsoil (Table 1) although there was a 3.8-7.5 7.9 6.9 2.9 13.5 13.3 7.2
tendency for more uniform distribution through the profile in the peaty 7. 5-15. 0 6.9 5.8 2.4 11.9 12.2 6.1
loam than in the silt loam (with the peaty silt loam being intermediate). %N
0-3.8 0.30 0.50 0.16 0.51 o. 72 0.30
3.8-7.5 0.25 0.28 0.09 0.51 0.55 0.27
7. 5-15. 0 0.24 0.24 0.10 0.46 0.42 0.26
 363

Accumulation of carbon and nitrogen with development

As significant changes in the carbon and nitrogen concentrations d both surface and internal horizontal ~ovedme~t of P in soflution is
of the soils were confined to the 0-3.8 cm layer, it was considered 551
"ble • For example , measured
.
losses
.
via ra1nage
f
water
d
rom
.
~sed areas have been high, particularly a ter top ressing
satisfactory to compare C and N accumulation on a 0-15 cm depth basis. op dre::>
No account was taken of possible soil compaction effects under pasture .('fable 6).
but bulk density analyses suggested these were significant only in the'
peaty loam. a drainage
Loss of P topdressed area
Mean annual increases of N over five years amounted to 116, 120 (J.D. Morton pers. comm.)
and 240* kg N/ha/15 cm for the silt loam, peaty silt loam and peaty
loam respectively. N values for the silt loam and peaty silt loam ppm p
(together occupying 76% of the area) are within the range of values
obtained by Walker et aZ. (1959) and Jackman (1964). C values tended September before topdressing 0.12
to be more variable. Results suggest that even on an extremely September after topdressing 0.39
impoverished soil pasture improvement by the correction of all mineral
deficiencies can lead to 'normal' rates of N accumulation. September before topdressing 0.21
September after topdressing 0.84
Phosphorus
Truog P values are low in undeveloped soils but incr~ase with
development and application of superphosphate (Table 4). Increases Exchangeable bases
are most marked in the topsoil 0-3.8 cm, although some increase to
depth (lS cm) has occurred in the peaty loam. Total exchangeable bases (TEB) and base saturation (BS) are low
to very low in the untreated soil but with development, b~th becom~
high in the topsoil 0-7.5 cm (Table 7). Exchangea?le Ca ~s the main
Table 4 Truog P levels in 0-15 cm profile - Addison silt loam contributor to TEB, the application of S t/ha of lime ha~1ng had a .
and peaty loam (in brackets) marked effect. Again, the dominant influence has ~een in the topsoil
layer. Exchangeable Mg (and K) tends to be lower 1;1ith develoJ?ment.
Depth Truog P The K value on a similar soil (Metson 1968) was nil, sug?estlng no
(cm) Undeveloped Developed s yrs MSD (1%) long-ierm reserves of K are present. Certainly the cont1~ued_use
of both K and Mg in a fertiliser programme on developed soils is
0-3.8 2 (2) 16 (24) 9 (1S) desirable.
3.8-7.S 2 (2) 4 (7) 3 (3)
7.S-lS.O 2 (2) 2 (7) 2 (4) Total exchangeable bases (TEB): % base satu on (%BS)
Table 7 profile -
and exchangeable Ca, Mg and K 1n the 0-15 cm
There is some evidence to suggest that movement of P from crest to Addison silt loam
hollow (silt loam to peaty loam) is occurring on these soils. A limited
number of analyses for total P showed values were higher on the peaty TEB %BS Ca Mg K
Depth (cm)
loam compared to the silt loam (Table S). me.% me.%

Table 5 Total phosphorus (Pt) for the Addison silt loam 0-3.8 1.98 o. 77
Undeveloped 4.85 23 2.10
and peaty loam (kg/ha/15 cm) 19.27 96 17.90 0.92 0.45
Developed (5 yr)
Silt loam Peaty loam 3.8-7.S 0.30
3.47 17 1. 50 1.67
Undeveloped o. 77 0.18
87 SS Developed (5 yr) 14.2S 92 13.30
Undeveloped
Developed 160 238
7.S-lS 1.47 0.19
Undeveloped 2.85 lS 1. 20
4.S8 34 3.90 O.S6 0.12
Calculation of the amount of P recovered as a percentage of that Developed (S yr)
applied indicates an 82% recovery in the peaty loam compared with
33% in the silt loam. These soils have low P retention (Saunders 196S)
Physical Analyses
* Result possibly invalid due to compaction effects with development The three soil types exhibit marked morphologi~al differences with
soil textures varying from peaty loam through to silt loam: Th~ former
are highly organic with many roots and stems present and with little
 365

horizon differentiation; the latter have compact subsoils with few

roots. The peaty silt loam is intermediate between the two. Resistance to probe penetration (kN/m 2 )
Bulk density values likewise show a distinct variation amongst soils Depth Peaty loam
(Table 8). In general, values remain constant between undeveloped and (cm) Undeveloped Developed
developed soils with the exception of the peaty loam where compaction
occurred throughout the top 30 cm (sign. 5%). Stocking rate effects on
compaction are evident on the silt loam and peaty silt loam soil types 0-2.5 35 1014
but are confined to the topsoil 0-3.8 cm (Table 8). 2 .5-5.o 35 1048
5 .o-7.5 76 476
7 .5-lO.o 69 386
Table 8 Bulk density (g/cm 3 ) in the 0-3.8 cm profile - Addison
peaty loam, peaty silt loam and silt loam. (Both developed Peaty silt loam
and undeveloped soils and stocking rate effects are shown) 0-2.5 269 1100
2.5-5.o 124 1324
Depth Peaty loam Peaty silt loam Silt loam s.o-7.5 110 1020
(cm) Undev. Dev. Undev. Dev. Undev. Dev. 7.5-10.0 103 779

0-3.8 0.20 0.39* 0.37 o. 34 0.41 0.43 Silt loam

3.8-7.5 0.29 0.43* 0.51 0.58 0.60 0.72 0-2.5 469 924
7.5-15 0.30 0.47* 0.57 0.66 0.71 0.84 2.5-5.0 206 938
15 -30 0.33 0.48* 0. 72 0.90 1.15 1. 05 5.0-7.5 131 490
7.5-10.0 110 455
Stocking rate effects on develoQed soils

Depth Peaty loam Peaty silt loam Silt loam

(cm) (7) (12) (7) (12) (7) (12) ewes/ha pasture improvement by the correction of all mineral deficiencies can
lead to "normal" rates of N accumulation. Other chemical analyses
0-3.8 0.34 0.37 0.28 0.34** 0.33 0.44* indicate the very marked soil surface changes occurring with_development,
3.8-7.5 0.41 0.42 0.51 0.55 0.63 0.70 which in this high rainfall environment is probably not detrimental.
7.5-15 0.43 0.45 0.60 0.62 0.85 0.82 Likewise, the formation of a surface organic mat provides an invaluable
15-30 0.45 0.45 0.75 0.88 1. 00 1. 01 bearing surface for animal traffic.
*
sign. 5%
**
sign. 1%
The formation of a distinct surface organic root mat with develop-
ment is of importance. This root mat provides a valuable bearing
surface for animal traffic which would otherwise "pug" the land badly. PROGRESS REPORT ON E EFFECT OF AGRICULTURAL PMENT
Penetrometer readings (Table 9) indicated a marked increase in resistance I OF AN
to penetration through the topsoil 0-5 cm between undeveloped and
ON SOME CHEMICAL 1 PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PRO
developed soils. This is presumably a 'vegetation' effect caused either OKARITO SILT LOAM1 NEAR R FTON
by compaction of the initial vegetation or a buildup under introduced
species. Stocking rate had no additional effect (data not presented). Rr Lee, R. Tho~as and V .Orchard
Soil Bureau, DSIR, Lower Hutt
CONCLUSIONS

Detailed soil mapping (and sampling) can enable significant changes

INTRODUCTION
in soil properties to be measured over short periods of time. After This paper is a progress report on a ch~mica~, physical and
five years of development to a ryegrass-white clover pasture, significant microbial study being carried out on an Okar1to silt loam on a
increases in C, N, P and Ca could be measured. Mean annual rates of N Department of Lands and Survey farm at Mawheraiti, south of Reefton
accumulation were 116, 120 and 240 kg N/ha/15 cm for the silt loam, in the Grey Valley. Various areas on the farm ha~e been dev~l?ped for
peaty silt loam and peaty loam respectively. The values for the silt different periods of time and afford the opportu~ity of ex~min1ng
loam and peaty silt loam (together occupying 76% of the area) are similar soil properties in relation to development practices and time of develop-
to quoted data (Walker et al. 1959; Jackman 1964); those for the peaty ment.
loam are high and unreliable due to soil compaction effects with develop-
ment. Such results indicate that even on extremely impoverished soils The Okarito silt loam is classified as a gley podzol. Morphologically
it is characterised by having a variable thickness of fine-textured
 JOU

367

material overlying glacial outwash gravels There ma

a surface accumulation of organic material. It i·s y, orf may not be, ro11owing the initial development phase on these soils, maintenance
. h h b · one o several so·1
wh ic ave ecome · known. on the West Coast as 'pakihi·, s oi- 1s. p a k"h·
i i ls. rtiliser dressings are usually supplied every two years). Although
a~~ gr?up are soi_s 1 with high acidity, low natural fertility and se soi evelopment details for site 1 have been recorded, no detailed records
limitations
· to
f hdrainage. The chemical ' physical and micro
· b"io 1ogical
. Vere :re kept of the development of the other three sites, or of subsequent
properties o t ese and associated soils are discussed in this issue fertiliser appl~c~tions: For thes~ details we have had to rely on ~ocal
Lee (1980), Jackson (1980) and Orchard (1980). by l<Jlowledge; fertiliser figures particularly must be regarded as a guide

SITES AND CURRENT PROGRESS onlY ·

No records were available of the stocking history of sites 2, 3 and
Four sites are involved in the investigation each with an ar and none were kept for site 1. Over the time period involved stocking
ap~roximately 800 m2 • One site (site 1) was deveioped in 1977/78 =~dof 4was mixed, with both sheep and cattle.
prior to development w~s sampled for chemistry and physics in an
undeveloped
f h · state to give some base-line data · Thi"s si·t e was re-sam 1
or c emistry and physics and sampled for microbiology in February/M p ed
1978 and
Th h March 1979,
. 6 months and 1~2 years afte r ini
. . t.ia 1 development arch chemistry
e ot er three sites were developed in 1975/76 (site 2) 1971/72 ( :
a1:1d 1965~66 (site 4), and were sampled for chemistry, ph~sics and m~lte )
3
Ten, 7.6 cm diameter cores were taken from random positions in each
biology in Fe~ruary/March 1978~ 3, 7 and 13 years after developmenticro- site, using a light drilling rig. Each core was taken from the ground
These_thre~ sites were subsequently re-visited in 1979 and sampled · · surface to the boundary with underlying gravels. Core lengths were
for microbiology. again therefore variable. After transfer to the laboratory, cores were
extruded and divided into the following depth increments, 0-5 cm, 5-10 cm,
Physical and m~crobiological analyses have been completed on the and then every 10 cm down to a maximum depth of 60 cm. The bottom sample
~amples so far obtained. Chemical determinations are continuing and to of each core was discarded if it did not extend to a full 10 cm.
ate all bu~ the l!z year development samples from site 1 have been Resultant samples were air-dried, ground to <2 mm and stored for analysis.
~nalysed, with the_ exception that no adsorbed sulphate determinations
~ve yet been carri~d out. At this stage it is envisaged that site 1 Physics
will b~ samp~ed again 3 and 6 years after development, thereby providing a
comparison with the data currently obtained from sites 2 and 3. Duplicate core samples (53 :mm diameter x 30 mm high) were taken from
the top three mineral horizons (Ah, Ahg, Bwg) at five randomly located
SITE HISTORY positions in each site. Surface organic accumulations were removed
prior to sampling and accounted for the top 1 to 2 cm at most locations.
The land development ~r~atments used at the four sites and approxi- Site 2, however, was found to have a thick surface root mat and the top
mate total amounts of fert1l1ser applied up until February/March 1978 are 8 cm of material was removed prior to sampling at the five localities in
sho~n in Table 1. this site. Sampling was carried out using either a Soil Moisture
Equipment Corp. sampler or a ring-liner auger core-sampler driven by
Table 1 Estimated amounts of fertiliser in kg/ha applied a light rig. Samples were retained in their liners for physical deter-
to development sites and development treatments minations,
Fertiliser Site 1 Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Microbiology
(6 months (l!z yr) (3 yr) (7 yr) (13 yr)
site for
Samples of the top 5 cm of soil were removed from each
Lime 5000 5000 6275 8785 10, 041 microbiological determinations.
Superphosphate 465 1125 1890 2460 2909
ANALYT METHODS
KCl 0 300 432 677 603
Elemental s 30 70 60 60 60 Chemistry
The following analyses have been carried out on all except the 1~
Development Oversown (0) and Topdressed (T) O+T Burnt+O+T Ploughed+O+T year development samples from site 1: pH, percentage C and N, exchange-
treatments able bases and CEC at pH 7 using 1 M NH 4 0Ac, KCl - extractable Al,
extractable acidity, and 0.5 M H2 S0 4 P. Methods used were as described
by Blakemore et al. (1972), except that KCl-extractable Al and
extractable acidity were determined using methods developed by Blakemore
(pers. comm.) based upon those given by Soil Conservation Service (1972) ·
Aluminium was extracted by standing 10 g of soil overnight (16 h) in
50 ml of 1 M KCl. Following filtration, the residue was washed with
50 ml of 1 M KCl and Al in the combined filtrate and washing determined
 368
369

by atomic adsorption. Extractable acidity was determined by shaking f"'-.. 0 ro 01 ..cy

2.5 g soil overnight with 25 ml of BaCl2/triethanolamine buffer solutio ---""
0 ~t'i Ch'-DU')N--a
LI>
N 00
NN~0\.....-4-.0
F"I 0
l.f)OON...ONl""'l~
t4"l \() 1-1
N
w-4
<icy""' t"--
o..-.-
,..,
t-0 t"F1
......
N-N ~
tf")

rather than by leaching soil (Soil Conservation Service 1972). n,. (/)("JT'

:X::: a. +I +I
;.-j

+I +I +I +I +I
Mi"""I
+I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +t +I +I +I +I +1 +I
0) ~ t-'l tr; ...-l f'. I
+I +I +I +1 +I +I
-.::t ...0 ~CON t-r) .....-4
N!('<l")...qON-..0 0 7"1V""'40..0t'1'1U")00
~18 ..ooa ~ coov-i~ I./') f"1") ..-1 'F"'I .-1 rt! Lf) <>:S' t-f':IN or-4 ooo.- .-1-c::r t"'l t"') t'I') ,..-,l

Physics
L" ~N ,,.....v-INN~ .-< ll"! - • LI>-

1~os"'--t"'~,__--..,,:--.-"'-"'-oo--:+c:;::..,,:-- o U') a l-1) ~

~ ~~~-ONMOOO ~o~~~o ~N-NN·N~~~~~
~ >-,0 ~
Bulk density, total porosity, percentage large pores (drained at t .;:: ~
..-1....-1

+I +1 +1 +I +I +1 +I
'rl
+I +1 +I +1 +I +I +I +1 +I +!
-.--.
+! +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +1 +1 +1 +I +1 +I
a tension of 50 cm of water), 'field capacity' (water content at a tensio ~~~00~~1.J")OO~N ~~~~~~~ ~O~N~~O ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~
of 200 cm of water) and 'wilting point' (water content at a tension of ~~~~~rlt'")Lf>~• OOOOO•t-t'"lN ~~~~~~~ ·~~··,__I ;~~~~~~
[_;IJ.l~--1-::_M:_t'"l:...;-.:.N;...:-~-~.-<~-.::---:t'"l::-:N::-:rl~~"::l-;M~-~N..:._~'-"'-;OO~~:--::t'");::--:::,....;:-:'""'::-;:N:;--;;<cy~M:;c;.-<;;--:;;,....;oN;;-N--~
15 bar) determinations have been carried out on all samples, using v-te"'i
M~,__,__Oll>~
r-1 OOlf'l0\0 OOO'll.l')Ot-1"1
~~~~~~
-L
~~~~~~~
Ot---0!0\t'""IO OC'.ILliO\~O'\
~~~~LI>
it:::;"\J1~85;~
~~ • • • •
methods similar to those described by Gradwell (1972) . The large pore 0 o0crlOO ooo~NM 00000~0 oo~~o oo~~~o Q)

content of soils is closely related to hydraulic conductivity. The +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +1 +I +I +I +1 +I +I +I +! +I +1 +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +t +I +I +I "'

0

OOU1Nr<"l0("-.~tl') ~~N~~®U") OO~NN~~OO ~NNtj~L/i ~~~~~~~

water considered to be available to plants is that held between field t")t---N..-1v:iOOO\ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~'
OONlf'it-l'it-"'l
~~~~."
oo~.q.ey...01..f')
c

capacity and wilting point. v-lr'l N t.n<i::i'N ..-1

.------.
~s~°!~~~
-.::t v-1 O'\ '° 00 v-l
Microbiology NN

+I +I -tl +1 +I +t
Q)
.µ
The samples taken in 1978 were plated onto selective media for the ·~
:r.
actinomycete genera Nocardia, Thermoactinomyces and Micromonospora. .µ

Total bacterial counts were also estimated on control plates. "'f2l

Q)

g-
.....
Q)
The samples taken in 1979 were examined as follows: Total aerobic >
Q)
"O
heterotrophic mesophilic (AHM) bacteria were enumerated using the most
probable number (MPN6 method in peptone yeast extract broth. Heat "'
0
.._,
resistant spores (80 C for 10 min) were also estimated using the MPN g
method. In addition soil was plated onto media favouring growth of "O
.....Q)
bacteria (peptone yeast extract agar, PYEA), actinomycetes (starch- i.
i.
ro
casein agar, S/C) and fungi (Sabourauds agar, SAB). u

0
"'i::
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .....
.._,
ro,......

Chemistry "'"'
..... <I)

0v-4C~N~ ~~OMM.-4 O~M..-IN N~~bb 00~~~~8 ~ >'.-

z ~~~ 000
0000000
~~~~~~
000000
~~~~~~~
0000000
o·o·ooo ooocoo
· ····· <I) .....
.._, ro
<I) i::
"O <II
The results of the chemical determinations carried out are given ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ +I +I +I +I +I
'°o +I +I +I +I +I +I

~~~~~ ~
...... "'
~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~
LI') lJ') lJ') ..cy-
in Table 2, where means and standard deviations for each variate are OU") t-tO 0
• • • • • • I
t-f')

~00d0dO
<II"'
....u <I)
,...;
M~OOOOO .-400000
given for the depth increments examined within each development period. 0000000 0000000
ll>O'I ~ ~t--:~O!t"'~f"·
~ 0
t"")t.r')~~~~~ • • .. y-... 00 ..: 3:
Statistical analysis of the data is still underway and is somewhat . . . . ooo~ooo lJ'l '° ..-I • • t"'l 0
........... ~ N 1"""'10 u .._,
1..Q'tj"N O O O ................ 00
i."'
hampered by the uneven distribution of data below the 20-30 cm depth ...o..;::rNO
+I +I +I +I
OOO
+I +I +I +1 +I +I +1 +I +1 +I +I +I +1 +I + +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +t +I +I +I 0
"".._,<II
<I)

increment. However, at this stage the following points are emerging: r-t.f')N~ O~t'"l
....... ...000\0f'-"'<::!"Ni'-
• ..... . N t---
• •
":::3" t'--- O'I
• • •
0
• I
°!O:r--:O:~"!~ "' .....
i:: u
tr>~OO~l"")NN
~o..o~ .-4?""1~ .eyQ\{)..-1..-ION
..... ,.... NM 0"'
.......... ..... i::
.... .....
Analyses of variance indicate that significant development effects ........ .... . ........
<"! fl'f) t-1') i""') ?"'I v-4
....ro
and depth x development interactions are likely for all the variates . . ~ . .......
000000 0000000 00000 000000 >
~

examined. Percentage C levels in the top 20 cm of site 2 (3 year :g,

oOOO OOO
+i +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +I +1 "'
"O ••
+1 +I +I +I +I +I +1 +I +I +I +I +I
-.ONt"l"d"Lnr--- . .
...Of--..l"f')N<ey-00...0
.. . . "'<I)
f.< ....
"'
development) proved markedly higher than levels at the other sites, ....
Q')~ON

t"'")t#)<rj"~
-..00000
~~'i:::i"
" • • •
<:!' " ' '<!' " ' <:!' '<!'
~ • I
~

..ey-"d'tj"~'i:::i"':t:::i"'i:::i"
~~
i:: ro
These higher levels would have influenced the levels of most of the "'"'
other variates and consequently will most likely affect the ~""0
statistical analyses. They are solely responsible for significant "'ro os::
i:: •

development effects so far obtained in relation to %C itself, CEC at "'i::<II i::

Cl!
pH 7 and extractable acidity. Analysis of co-variance, adjusted for the 000000
II>..:
;:;;:: ....
000000
%C effect, may prove useful in isolating the effect of %C levels on the U'l v-1 N M "d" U'") \0
I I I I i I I
lfl v-4N ('l"')-tj't.J)~
I I I I I I I
Oll>OOOOO 0 Ll'>O 0 0 0 0
other variates examined. v-1 N fi'F> ..ey- U1 ,.-iNt"')"d'Li'l

At this stage it would appear that fertiliser and lime additions

have led to statistically significant changes only in the top 10 cm
of soil material, resulting in marked increases in pH, exchangeable Ca,
exchangeable K and 0.5 M H2S0 4 P, and a decrease in KCl-Al (following
the increase in pH). Topsoil samples from all development phases
 j/U
371

contained free lime, with white angular particles effervescing strongly

in HCl. The very high exchangeable Ca levels reflect this situation. Means and standard deviations for physical determina ons
The six month development samples were limed five months before samplin carried out on development sites
The other sites may have been limed at the same time, at present we g,
cannot be certain of this. At any rate, liming of these sites would Wilting
Total Field Available
have been carried out some time within 12 months of the sampling time. Bulk Density Large Pores Point
Porosity Capacity Water
Standard deviations associated with exchangeable Ca and 0.5 M H2S0 4 p Mg/m 3 %
% % (vol.) % (vol.) % (vd.)
levels increased markedly following the addition of fertiliser,
indicating a fairly uneven distribution of material.
Development (site 1)
Analysis of variance has indicated a significant effect of develop-
ment on %N levels. These levels, however, are compounded with difference: 0.65 ± 0.15 72.2 ± 6.0 14.0 ± 5.6 52.4 ± 3.4 12.5 ± 2.1 39.9 ± 2.9
in %C levels between sites, particularly with respect to site 2. To
1.01 ± 0.13 60.5 ± 5.4 4.7 ± 1.4 50.9 ± 4.2 10.5 ± 2.7 40.4 ± 5.5
date %N is the only variate to have been satisfactorily subjected to an
analysis of co-variance, adjusted to account for the affect of %C. 1.60 ± 0.04 38.4 ± 1.3 3.7±1.1 33.6 ± 0.4 12.6 ± 2.9 21.0 ± 3.1
This analysis has shown a significant development effect increasing N
levels and a significant development x depth interaction restricted to ~velop~d ~ Year (site 1)
the top 10 cm of soil. These effects are attributed directly to the 15.2 ± 3.1
0.68 ± 0.14 70.9 ± 5.4 15.5 ± 7.4 47.1 ± 4.8 31.9 ± 3.6
influence of clover.
0.99 ± 0.06 59.5 ± 2.0 4.5 ± 2.2 49.5 ± 3.7 15.8 ± 4.2 33. 7 ± 1. 6
Physics 40.3 ± 2.5 16.2 ± 4.6 22.9 ± 5,6
1.55 ± 0 .14 40.3 ± 4.9 cl
The results of the physical determinations carried out are given
Developed 1~ Year (site 1)
in Table 3. Two points are clearly evident from these results
which can be related to the condition and history of the sites involved. 0.57 ± 0.12 74.9 ± 5.0 15.8 ± 9.0 52.8 ± 5.5 14 .1 ) 38.7
Firstly, the results for site 2 (3 year development) are different from ) est-
1.01 ± 0.09 59.1 ± 3.0 3.0 ± 2.9 52.8 ± 3.0 12.7 40 1
those for the other sites. This site was found to have a thick root ) mated ·
mat which was removed prior to sampling. Soil physical conditions 1.59 ± 0.10 39.0 ± 3.1 cl 37.1 ± 3.0 11. 9 ) 25.2
below this mat are clearly different from those at other sites.
Secondly site 4 (12 year development), which was the only site to be Developed 3 Years (site 2)
ploughed during development, exhibits greater variation than that 51.0±2.1
0.24 ± 0.07 87.1 ± 2.6 12.2 ± 3.0 64.5 ± 2.3 13.5 ± 0.6
found on the other sites.
0.68 ± 0.24 70.5 ± 9.2 cl 62.1 ± 6.9 15.8 ± 2.8 46.4 ± 8.0
The results do not indicate any systematic changes which may be 38.0 ± 0.9 15.7 ± 4.6 22.3 ± 5.4
1.57 ± 0.05 40. 2 ± 1.5 cl
attributed to pasture development and stocking. With the exception
of site 2 the results are remarkedly consistent. This suggests either
that 13 years may not be long enough to reveal any changes in the Developed 7 years (site 3)
physical properties measured on this soil or that the sampling increments 0.61 ± 0,07 72.0 ± 3.0 10.6 ± 2.8 51.7 ± 1.3 13.9 ± 1.5 37 '7 ± 1. 5
reported are too large to show differences, 29.6 ± 2.7
1.32 ± 0.14 47.0 ± 4.5 1.6 ± 0,8 42.2 ± 3.8 12.7 ± 1.7
Microbiology 1.50 ± 0.04 41.8 ± 1.4 cl 41.0 ± 1.6 15.8 ± 1.3 25.2 ± 0.9

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the results obtained for those samples Developed 13 Years (site 4)
taken from the development sites in 1979. Figure 1 shows the results 14.7 ± 2.5 38.7 ± 8.2
10 0. 66 ± 0. 44 71.1 ± 16 .1 8.7 ± 8.9 53.4 ± 8.3
of counts of total heterotrophic mesophilic bacteria and heat resistant
spores, as estimated by the MPN method, with Fig.2 showing the results 0.96 ± 0.16 59.9 ± 6.3 cl 54.2 ± 6.4 16.0 ± 5.4 38.3 ± 5.4
of plate counts of PYEA bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi. 22.9 ± 2.9
1.43 ± o. 02 44.2 ± 0.8 cl 41.0±0.7 18.1 ± 3.6
Plate counts carried out on those samples taken in 1978 showed
clearly that the number of bacteria isolated from the development sites
increased with pasture age, from 8.7 x 10 4 (site 1) to 1.3 x 10 6 /1 g
dry wt (site 4). The data illustrated for the 1979 samples confirm this
trend. The PYEA and MPN methods give similar results, although numbers
estimated by the PYEA method are an order of magnitude lower. This is
often the case however. The actinomycete population and the number of
heat resistant spores (Figs 1 and 2) also appear to follow the bacterial
trend of increasing numbers with increasing pasture age. With reference
 373

10 8
- 106 106
u
-......
~
cc
~
-z
1..
~
>
b..
<(

-
(/)

~
"C
~
°'
:;::,.
~
> c >
~
b.. I...
"C :::::i "C
0
>
!...
"C

°'
:;::,.
°'
-......
(/)
(I)
I...
0 -u
(I)
( I)
u
°'c:
:;::,.
:::::i
0

-
c Cl.. > u
:::::i
(/)
E
0 7 10 7 0
u 10 0
!...
c
"+,:l
co (I) u

-
"i::
OJ
u
ct:I
..0

z
E
:::::i
<(

-
..0
ro
0
I-

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Sites (increasing age)
Sites (increasing age)

Fig.I Total AHM bacteria and heat resistant spores at the four
development sites as estimated by the MPN method Fig.2 Total bacteria, actinomycetes and fungi at the four
development sites as determined by plate counts
 375

to the actinomycete popu~ation, prior wor~ on the 1978 samples showed a

greater diversity of da:tinohmycete g:nera in thde Mio~dest developm~nt Site
with strains of Nocar ~a~ T ermoact~norrryces an cromonospora isolat d ·ed or podzolised to various.extent~. Th~ presence ?f iron pans
from site 4 but from none of the other sites. e Y r massive silty gleyed horizons gives rise to a uniform problem of
Comparing these results with those obtained for a number of refer 5 ~~icted vertical drainage.

sites on wet, podzolised soils, including the Okarito soil (Orchard 1 ~~

this issue), it is apparent that development has led to both a quantit
9 This paper describes a continuing study o~ the develop~ent of Maimai
y loams for pasture production. The chemical and physical properties
1
and qualitative increase in the microbial population. Bacterial numbe~t ~he Maimai soils have been reported by Lee (1977; 1980-this issue).
are larger, as is the actinomycete count. Of the actinomycete genera s e Maimai soil is typically gravelly in the A12 and G horizons and is
examined, Nocardia were only found at one reference site, that of the us suitable for support of stock.
Charleston soil, with no Thermoactinomyces or Micromonospora isolated
from any of the reference sites. The fungal count is comparable to that is a known tendency for reversion of pasture on wet terrace
for the reference sites. and the objectives of this work were to
CONCLUSIONS (i) assess changes in soil nutrient status following
fertiliser application and pasture establishment, and
Additions of lime and fertiliser, and the growth of clover, have led (ii) assess, by plant and soil analyses, requirements for
to significant increases in nutrient levels and pH in the soil, with a
major and trace elements.
decrease in extractable Al levels occurring as a result of the increase
in pH. These changes, however, appear to be restricted to the top 10 cm
of soil material, with little movement of lime and fertiliser to a
greater depth, even after 13 year development. This restricted movement The study area and its initial development have been described
under such a wet climate reflects the impermeable nature of the subsoil
material in this soil. (Lee et al. 1979; Powell &Taylor 1~80a-this issue). It was.an almost
flat area with soils overlying glacial outwash gravels, and situated
in the Lands and Survey 'Ruru 1 development block at Bell Hill.
The results of physical determinations show no systematic differences
which may be attributed to pasture development. This may, however, be When the present work commenced in 1975 two areas of Mai~a~ soil
because the sampling increments involved were too large, so that changes in this block were under development, one (~_. 60 ha) was fertilised and
occurring in the top 1 or 2 cm of the uppermost horizon are not apparent. oversown in 1968, the other (c. 20 ha, adjoining) in 1974. A third area
Both quantitative and qualitative changes in the microbial population of of 1 ha of undeveloped land was sampled comprehensively prior to its
the soil were apparent as a result of development. These changes are eventual development in 1976. In the following discussion these soi~
probably due to such factors as raising the soil pH, improving the nutrien areas will be designated by the date of their initial development, viz.
status of the soil and perhaps some drying out of the soil as a result of DU 1968 DU 1974 and RR 1976. In each case development involved appli-
development. However, superimposed on these development effects are cation ~f lime (2.5 - 3.75 t/ha) and superphosphate (625 kg/ha, including
differences due to management practices (such as stocking rate and grazing Co, Cu, Mo), followed by annual dressings of potassic superphosphate
frequency) which must not be overlooked, but cannot be evaluated, because
historial information is not available. (450 - 750 kg/ha).

The following sections outline some results from soil and plant
completed during 1975-9.

SOILS - MAJOR ELEMENTS

STUDIES ON D PMENT OF A RRACE SOIL 1. Sampling All sampling was based on an initial assessment of
FOR !CULTURE - MAIMAI SOILS L HILL variability. For DU 1968 and DU 1974 a total of 40 topsoil samples
(0-7.5 cm) was analysed for variability. Coefficients of variance were
determined and were noted to be significantly lower for sampling on a
H.K.J. Powell and M.C. Taylor Volume basis than on a weight basis. The numbers of volume-pooled
Chemistry Department, samples required to achieve (within 95%_confidence limits) ~nalytical
University of Canterbury, Christchurch results within ±15% of the true population mean were determined;
INTRODUCTION in summary, c. 80 samples were taken from DU 1968, c. 30 from DU 1974 and
c. 35 from RR 1976.
Much progress has been made in utilising the wet terrace land soils
of the West Coast for agriculture and forestry. Under rainfall generally Samples were generally taken in ~pring, prior to topdressing. To
in excess of 2500 mm soils have become strongly leached. The processes of afford a basis for comparison of nutrient levels a further strip of
gleying, facilitated by a high water table, and podzolisation, facilitated Undeveloped land, 100-200 m outside two boundaries of the 1974 area was
by rainfall and organic litter, have given a spectrum of soils which are sampled (BU 1974).
 376
377

2. Exchangeable cations and CEC

Rnow what portion of phosphoru~ ~n~ering ~he.organic pool is la~ile.
Table l(a) lists data for RR 1976. Assuming an error of ±15% on Available P (Truog) showed an initial rapid increase. The ratio Truog-
each of the data (means) no distinct trends appear except the increase p/PT (expressed as a percentage) increased from £.: 2% for undeveloped
in exchangeable Ca and K, pH and %BS after initial application of soil to 5, 8 and 9% after 3, 4 and 11 years of development.
fertiliser and lime. The CEC was determined by an approximate KCl Phosphorus - total, organic, inorganic and available (Truog)
method (treatment of soil columns with KCl, aqueous alcohol then NaCl for a Maimai s i lt loam (0- cm); first 3 years of develop-
to determine
. adsorbed K+) and values were 2 to 2~ times lower than th e ment, RR
~mmonium ~cetate val~es. (pH 7.0). ~here is some indication of a steady
increase in CEC; this is expected in parallel with increasing pH. Truog-P
Similar results were obtained for DU 1968 and DU 1974 (Table l(b)). PT Po PI
(mg %) (mg %) (mg %) (mg %)

Table 1 Exchangeable cations in a Maimai silt loam as a function 0 31 22 9.5 0.6

of years of development ~ 3.6
1 3.8
(a) 2 40 32 8.5 3.3
Soil RR 1976, 0-10 cm 3 49 36 11.5 2.6
Years Ca Mg K CEC %BS pH
Development me.% me.% me.% me.% (H20)
*
0.7 0.53 0.20
HERBAGE - MAJOR ELEMENTS
ot 11. 7 13 4.7
k 7.3 0.65 0.20 12.8 64 5.5
2t Two criteria are important: yield of pasture and quality of pasture.
1 7.0 0.73 0.33 14.2 57
2tt The former will control stocking, and therefore profitability. The latter
7.2 0.55 0.24 12.4 65 4.9 may give a key to factors controlling yield and animal health. Because
3tt 8.0 0.68 0.24 15.5 58 5.6 of distance from the study area, and the desirability of maintaining
* Lime 2.5 t/ha pasture under stock regime, thi? work has concentrated on pasture quality.
t 450 kg/ha 30% potassic super [A yield analysis was carried out in 1976 for 2-year-old pasture (DU 1974)
tt 450 kg/ha S-fortified potassic super and 8-year-old pasture (DU 1968). The DM yield profiles paralleled that
for the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries development farm at Bald
Hill on Addison soils, viz. virtually no production in winter, a rapid
(b) increase in yield in October and decrease in April, with virtually no
Soil DU 1974, 0-7.5 cm shouldering in August-September and April-May.]
*
O(BU 1974) 2.4 1.0 0.19 12.2 30 4.6 For pasture quality, three criteria can be used: (i) animal health
1*t 8.1 1.1 0.38 requirements (ii) critical (yield response) levels, as defined by McNaught
2tt 18.4 1. 7 0.41 24.8 (1970) and (iii) deficiency levels. Analyses and visual observations
83 5.2
3tt 19.4 1.5 o. 34 23.8 gave no indication of deficiency status.
89
4
5 14.6 1.1 0.26 18.9 85 5.4 In 1975/6 (September-June) the 2 and 8-year pastures showed adequate
levels (>critical) of P, Ca and Mg. Levels of S and K were generally
* Lime 2.5 t/ha below "critical" except in the period immediately after fertiliser
t 450 kg/ha 30% potassic super application. [At this stage the fertiliser treatment consisted of
tt 750 kg/ha S-fortified potassic super 450 kg/ha 30% potassic superphosphate applied in November.] Nitrogen levels
were marginally low. In assessing fertiliser requirements it was
considered then that (i) more frequent stock rotation could improve
3. PhosEhorus nitrogen levels, (ii) fertiliser should be applied earlier or split, and
(iii) elemental sulphur should be applied. A decision to change to dairy-
Table 2 lists data for RR 1976. The data indicate a steady increase ing promoted the first two objectives. Fertiliser has since been applied
in PT with time.[For reference, annual accession of P from fertiliser was at 375 kg/ha in spring and autumn using (initially) 20% S-fortified
£.: 7.3 mg %/10 cm ha for this area.] The run-off loss of phosphorus potassic superphosphate (later 7% S).
would be small (Powell &Taylor 1980a -this issue). The ratios Po/PT
and PI/Po have remained approximately constant (c. 0.75 and 0.3); the We are now in a position to assess any improvements in pasture
effects of liming and drainage have not been sufficient to increase the quality as a result of improved stock management and higher rates of
P1/Po ratio. Similar results were obtained for DU 1968 and DU 1974 fertiliser application. The following Figures (1-5) summarise seasonal
with Po/PT remaining at £.: 0.6 after 11 years. It would be relevant' to analyses for pasture from DU 1968, and compare data for the seasons 1975/6
and 1978/9.
 378
379

----
-----6.
- - --
--u--
A

--0
I 0

6~~~------
I "'
·50
,,,,"'"'o----- I
I

..........._, __ o Critical
0 ' ~ .... -- -- levels
I

-------o
.... 0·40 .......... .... ..... I I
--------6
-
... '0 - - - -

II
Cl) .... .... I I
..... I I
0 0 ........ I I Critical
I I levels
E 0·30 ".......,_ _;,_,,,....,,';._6

_/~ -------1:::. I
... 6 ,..o- __
-0

c 0·20 ,,. ,.. ,.. -

0
O=Clover --=1975/6
0
6=Grass - - --- = 1978/9
~ 0·10
o-----_ ------o 0

o =Clover =1975/6
s 0 N D J F A M J 1· =Grass = 1978/9

s 0 N D J F A J

Fig.1 Percentage phosphorus in dry matter; pasture from Dec 1968 Fig. 3 Percentage potassium in dry matter; pasture from Dec 1968

Critical
levels

5·0 _o
0-- ___ - - -
- --- o---
o~
....
--o-:/ 0
~o ....

-
2 4·0
0
E -- -
2 0
0
E
Critical levels

-------6
- - t::. - - - - - - - - - - -6 - - - - -
~3·0 t::. ...:>..0·3
-0
c
t::.~ ----t::.
-0

c
2·0 ·- 0·2
z V)

~
~
1·0 O=Clover --=1975/6 0·1 O =Clover - =1975/6
=Grass ----=1978/9 Grass - --=1978/9

0 N D J F M A M J J s 0 N D J F A J J

Fig. 2 Percentage nitrogen in dry matter; pasture from Dec 1968

Fig. 4 Percentage sulphur in dry matter; pasture from Dec 1968
 380

381

3
------------0(:~ a.ccentuate the slight magnesiwn deficiency such that the ratio K/ (Ca+ Mg)
(calculated in equivalents) exceeds the critical valu~ of 2:2 (for
25 I .6,,
I I .._
'.
\
~ Q
incidence of grass staggers; Metson & Saunders 1978) 1n spring (~2.3)
a.nd autumn (>3. 0).

-°'
.~
c
' '-,,,',,
/I ',

-'.,.,A - -:6--
\

~--- ---u""'
~

Q
Sulphur Work at Mawheraiti on reverted pastures on Okarito soils
has indicated that S may be a critically deficient element in wet terrace
soils. Pasture analyses in 1975/6 indicated inadequate S levels (<0.25%)
---~-------------_-;,s,A111L....:C::.:l~o:...:v;.;;e:..:.r_.;:,;Cr it ica I Range except immediately following fertiliser application (Fig.4). The
en
15 i------- 0 ,,____ Grass Critical Range sulphate ion is extremely mobile in run-off (Powell & Taylor 1980 - this
.......... ~ 6 /6 issue) and therefore elemental sulphur was applied. Yield factors
z
10 J).~0/ ~/)./ aside, data in Fig.4 indicate no overall improvement in S content of
pastures in 1978/9 relative to 1975/6.
'/);,
......
5
Cl) It is possible that the low sulphur status of the soil is being
O =Clover - - =1975/6 c aggravated by increased additions of phosphate, an ion which is known
=Grass ----:1978/9 z to be more strongly adsorbed by clays than is sulphate.

0 N D J F M
The N/S ratio (Fig.5) shows (i) the effect of improved nitrogen
A M J J levels, and (ii) that the marked S deficiency in clovers has become
more pronounced in spring. From these data, and those for K, it is
inferred that a higher proportion of fertiliser should be applied in
Fig. 5 spring. There is possibly a case for adding less superphosphate in
N/S ratio for dry matter; pasture from Dec 1968 total with a sulphate supplement in spring to improve the S/P ratio.
This is being investigated.

TRACE ELEMENTS

Phosphorus_ levels (Fig.l) are significantly better than 'critical' Herbage has been analysed for B, Co, Cu, Mn, Fe and Zn. In each
~~lues and provi~e t~e required intake for animals (Butler & Jones 1973) case the levels exceed the response range and are adequate for animal
. e present ap~lication rate is possibly generous relative to other · requirements (Table 3) .
elemental requirements. · Table 3 Trace element composition of clover and grasses (µg/g)
Magnesium levels remained steady through the sampling period with Observed levela Critical level Deficiency level Animal
seasonal means of c. 0.19% (range o 15 - o 25~) Th 1 1 Clover Grass Clover Grass Clover Grass Requirement
th - · . · ·0 • ese eve s exceed
e_response range but are barely adequate for stock (0.15 _ 0.20%·
Dur~n~ 1972, Butle: & Jones 1973). Levels dropped followin each · Boron 33-45 14-20 25-35 7-10 <20 <7
addition of potassi~ s~perphosphate. As observed by Metsong& Saunders Cobalt 0.08-0.09 0.06-0.08 (<0.04) 0.07
(1978) seasonal variations paralleled those for calcium and th Copper 9 7-10 4-6 4-6 <4 <4 10
m eh 1 · · · · ere was
u c oser simil~rity between Mg levels in clovers and grasses than Iron 120-170 150-180 60 60 ( <45)
b
o served for calcium.
Manganese 60-70 170-200 25-30 25-30 <20 <20 40
Molybdenum 1 ( <0. 1) <3
Nitrogen levels (Fig.2)_ showed_ a small improvement from 1975/6 to Zinc 80-120 90-420 12-18 10-16 <12 <10 50
1978/9 with seaso 1
na_ means increasing as follows: grass 2.4% to 3.3~o,·
clover 4.1% to 4 6~00 M f
•• • ore requent rotation of stock (12 hr) probably a Range refers to different sampling sites in DU 1968
contributed to this change.
Trace element composition of soils following
Pota~sium There was a general increase in levels from 1975/6 to development (µg/g)
1978/9 (Fig.3~. The se~sonal variations within the two sets of results Total Extractable
reflect the different times of application of fertiliser viz t a
1
November~ and late September-late February respectively.' oni ; :onths Boron 14-30
of sustain~d gro~th_wa~ realised after the February applicatio~; hi h Cobalt a, b 4-5 0.25-0.6
a
levels of K (3-~·o) indicate an oversupply situation for this el tg Copper 5-8 0.7 -1.1
{ .(<0.2)+
A smaller, earlier application may be appropriate. High potass~::nl~vels { (1.8-2.3)+
+
for soils prior to development
~ DU 1968, DU 1974
RR 1976
 382
383

Total Co in topsoil is in the range 4-5 µg/g in the developed and

undeveloped soils (Table 3). This is in excess of the minimum requir RESTRY
~ent of 2 µg/g reported by Kidson (1937) ~nd greater than that observ:~
in our survey of 8 wet terrace land typesites (1-2 µg/g; Okarito and
Addison soils 0.6-0.9 µg/g).
FORESTRY ON E W PODZOLIS SOILS
Addition of copper fertiliser (5.6 kg CuSO~/ha) increased the ST COAST, SOUTH IS
~opper level in topsoils from£.: 2 µg/g'to 6 µg/g. (Cf. average of c
17
for New Zealand soils;(Muller &Seager 1974)). EDTA-extractable co-pp.
.increase d f rom <0.2 to 0.7-1.1 µg/g; Mitchell et al. (1957) indicate er G.P.S. lan
that copper application may be necessary if this level is <1.5 µg/g N.Z. Forest Service, Hokitika
but plant deficiencies were not observed. •

SUMMARY THE PROBLEM - PAKIHI

This work highlights certain problems and deficiencies associated Pakihi, the acid, wet, podzol wasteland of the West Coast
with pasture and an~mal production on wet terrace land soils. Magnesium carrying a swamp vegetation induced by repeated burning following by-
and sulphur levels in plants were low relative to animal requirements gone logging of dense rimu forests, has for much of this century been
~nd yield r~sponse le~els.respectively. Under high rainfall sulphate the forester's land use conundrum. But these same foresters, from the
~s very labile; application of elemental sulphur (crushed) had not earliest days, have been anxious to rehabilitate the induced pakihi
improved sulphur levels in pasture. Nitrogen levels were improved by land. As early as 1921 a Westland Forest Experiment Station was set
stock management. There was no evidence of trace element deficiencies up at Mahinapua State Forest and in 1923 57 hectares of Douglas fir,
in herbage on developed soils. ponderosa pine, radiata pine, muricata pine, western red cedar, Mexican
cypress, American black poplar and Norway spruce was planted on Okarito/
Waiuta soils. Within five years the performance of radiata and muricata
pines was so bad on the unmodified sites that they were reckoned
unsuitable for Westland afforestation. Western red cedar, Lawsons
cypress, Japanese cedar and ponderosa pine showed the greatest early
promise. However, some of the written-off radiata and muricata pine
persisted. It grew slowly for the first 30 years, at half the rate
achieved on free draining hill soils today, but it kept growing despite
complete lack of thinning which increases wind stability. By the time
these stands reached 45-50 years of age they were producing merchantable
wood at a rate equivalent to the best stands in New Zealand. Recent
replacement of some of these old stands with a new radiata crop has
produced growth rates in the young stands equivalent to that on free
draining soils ~ twice that of the first crop.

THE BREAK THROUGH - CHANGE THE SOIL

Trials on Craigieburn Pakihi, a fluvioglacial high terrace with
Okarito soils, the most intractable of all West Coast wetland podzols,
commenced in 1956, led to a breakthrough in pakihi afforestation.
Ripping or raising mounds with bulldozer blading, spade turfs, swamp
ploughs, cuthbertson ploughs, V-blades and bedding ploughs together with
the addition of a handful of fertiliser per tree quickly led to the
conclusion that successful afforestation of the pakihi would be dependent
on site amelioration and topdressing. The conclusion that the basic need
is to aerate the soil and the simplest technique is to turn it over to
provide at least a 0.5 m height of drainage has been confirmed in trials
throughout Buller, Inangahua, Grey and northern Westland counties.
Without such treatment the trees die. Radiata and muricata pine planted
on mounded pakihi grows but, without the addition of nutrients, suffers
high mortality and on Okarito soils ultimately stagnates in growth. It
is only when the nutrient needs of the trees are being met by timely
application of artificial fertiliser that they grow at a rate equal to
or slightly slower than trees on free draining soils.
 385

CURRENT LAND PREPARATION TECHNIQUE . $150-$200/ha cheaper. But if similar

the hills is pr?b~bly 1·ed to the hill yellow-brown earth
currently two land preparation techniques are used. A V-blade o . . f fertiliser were app i . . f h
mounted in front of a D6 or similarly sized tractor raises mounds 1- 2 antities ~ . Id b 40~0 higher than what is ant1c1pated rom t e
roductivity wou e • •

high each side of a channel cut down to parent material. This V-blad . 111 he P f tile wetland podzols, Okarito soils.
east er -
pre-determines the distance between the rows of trees which are plant~~
on top of the mounds. Rows are 3.5-4.0 m apart. An alternative mean
of land preparation for sites devoid of low scrub and sedge and withou:
buried wood is use of a bedding plough made up of two sets of large
triple discs angled inwards and trailed by an hour-glass roller. It
premature to say which technique is preferable for encouraging tree GEMENT OF THE WET LISED
ST
growth and stability but the V-blade in its. greater upheaval of the UTH IS
soil has a more long-lasting visual impact and is a little more costly. WEST
An advantage of V-blading is the provision of ready accessibility along
the channels to wheeled vehicles and people for silvicultural work. G.P.S. lan
N.Z. Forest service, Hokitika
SILVICULTURE
Between 1200 and 1500 trees/ha are planted and each is fertilised
with 10 g N and 15 g P by means of inserting 110 g of a 50:50 mix of GENERAL IMPRESSIONS
diammonium phosphate and reverted serpentine superphosphate in a slit . . . the suitability of West Coast
in the ground. At age 3 or 4 a second fertilising is carried out by hand Earliest investigations i~to b in 1920 with
f f production management egan
when 30 g N and 45 g P is broadcast around each tree. When the stands indigenous orests ~r . the podocarp forests, and three years later
are thinned to 600 trees/ha at age 6 or 7 (with pruning to half height) Mr Charles E. Fowera er i~ eech forests Both researchers
and to 300 trees/ha at age 9-11 (and pruning to half height) 100 kg/ha p with Dr Leonard Cockayne in the b. th i"r in~estigations that, provided
and 200 kg/ha N plus some K or Mg is applied. By the time the trees onclude d w1"th"in a year of . commencing
d e. by domestic stock was exc 1ud e d '
reach 11 m in height they are to have 6 m of bole pruned. Regular logged forests we:e not fire~, d~nen~~:z~~;ests was certain. In 1980
foliage analyses are taken so that revealed nutrient needs can be natural regeneration of the in gstill be made about the ability of
responded to. Trials to date indicate that the more fertile wetland such a generalised statement can t te themselves on the West Coast.
podzols such as Mawhera, Hochstetter and Maimai soils will need less podocarp and b~ech_forest~ to perp: u~icable to forests on the wet
fertilising than the Okarito soils for which the above described silvi- Such a_conclu:ion is p~rticu~a~~~e l~nd podzols since the exceptions
cultural regime applies. podzolised soils.and hill an lp t the free draining yellow-brown
in the case of rimu generally app y o
THE FUTURE earths.
FORESTS ON THE WET GREY n PLASTI NE11
Apprehension is quite often expressed, particularly by the scientific
fraternity, about the likelihood of windthrow of exotic forest on wetland . . beech and beech/podocarp forests occupy
poezols. Concern is expressed about having trees planted within 0.5 m North of the Taramakau Riv:r ·1s and odocarp forests occur
of a furrow or channel, thus truncating root growth on one side. most of the forested wet podzolised sohi d westp South of the Taramakau
.1n pockets genera lly . towards the sout anthe wetland · . h
Evidence to date is that 13 year old radiata pine trees on wetland 11 podzols wit
podzols snap in high winds rather than uproot. However, there is room River rimu fore:ts virtually o~~~p~e:ch predominating south of the
for development of land preparation techniques which permit a more mixtures of various podoc~rps nt mapping recognising wetland
.
Arawata R1ver. However since rece th . d t
symmetrical spread of the tree's roots. Confidence in pakihi afforestat- 1 . 250 OOO has been carrie ou
ion has increased to the extent that 40-50% of annual exotic afforestation podzolised soils on s~a~eks Rl~rgeracc~~at~ correlation of forests to soil
1 th of the Hokiti a iver .
on the West Coast is on wetland podzols. ~~~sn~~roughout the region is not readily achieved.
It is clear that to establish pine trees rainfall needs to be run . . . f forest on wetland podzolised
off the land fairly rapidly. If there is no natural slope in the A stark fea~ure_i~ exploi1~~i~~ ~orest structure and, with the a~d
wetland podzol some raising of the soil surface is needed. Twenty-two soils is the rapid disintegra~ 1 b logging debris and repeated fires,
years experience suggests that the soil needs to be heaved up to a of choking of natural water c an~e s i~hin a few years to pakihi -
reasonable height for both drainage and aeration. Once there is the deterioration of the vege~atiJon w r sh tangle fern (GZeichenia
sufficient surface run-off, fertiliser applied through the life of the waterlogge d was t e l an d - carrying huncus· u ) and
• Gahnia sedge. Th e more
. . ) · · t d rush (Caforop us mz.nor .
forest at a rate 1/5-1/7 of that used in agriculture is likely to yield c~rc~nata '.J~i~ e d b bracken fern (Pteridiwn aquil~nwn var.
a harvest not far short of the best free draining hill yellow-brown fertile pakihi is vegetate Y ariwn) Regular burning
earths. In contrast to farming development of the pakihi, in forestry esculentwn) and manuka (Leptospermwn scopt t"bn.and provides sportsmen
the endeavour is to alter the soil structure deliberately and rapidly. ensures maintenance of t~is s~bsera~ velge aBit stop the match-box farmers
. ·b·l·t
clear v1si i i Yo_f roaming wild anima s. u b
The pakihi is an easy site to develop for exotic forestry and in contrast 300 600 years_ the vegetation can e
and in time - albeit 100 or or beech forest our forefathers
expected to return to the mature podocarp or
first encountered.
 386 387

PODOCARP FORESTS oespite the various hazards in managing the terrace rimu forests
r a perpetual yield of high quality timber there is ample evide~ce
Rimu forests t haulers and low ground pressure track tractors can be used with
~fidence to achieve the objectives of silviculture. The major change
Earliest logging of the rimu-dominant for .
out only the kahikatea and large rimu e~ts s~lectively plucked 0 er the 17 year period has been the extent of reservation which has
~Juced the potential sustained yield level to 20 OOO cubic metres
logs along the ground As a co trees, using winches for draggi
range of tree sizes
t t H
a~pear
todanstequbence for~sts which contained a Windg
Y o e unmodified from th · . e er annum.
s a e. owever where forests contained . eir virgin
merchantable trees logging eith d . a predominance of large hill forests
the forest leaving a few whi er. ecimated or virtually annihilated
wood understorey which soon ~l~dr~~u saplings overt?pped by the hard- Whereas the rimu terrace forests usually comprise t~ees covering
excluded all these forests have n exposure. Provided fire has been a wide range of sizes, from seedlings to large overmature trees, the
that the distr~bution of podocarpa~~:~ii~ re~en~rated to the_ extent rilllU hill forests on wetland podzolised soils consist of a few large
into a forest identical to the original. gs indicates they will mature rilllU trees in a matrix of hardwoods such as rata and kamahi. The total
volume of the rimu trees on the hills runs at about half that of the
terrac~ forests. Therefore an economic harvest requires removal of
Rimu terrace forests 50% of the merchantable forest. In order to maintain a forest structure,
provide a ready seed source of natural regeneration and permit periodic
In the early 1930s Canterbury School f harvesting, partial felling of hill forests was introduced in 1973.
Charles Foweraker and Frank Hutchinson o_ Forestry lecturers
of the.terrace rimu forests for sustai~e~av~ng observed the potential the retained hill forest rimu trees have proved to be less stable
selection logging. Not until 1956 d yield ~an~gement, advocated against windthrow than their terrace counterparts, so preparations are
yield be applied. . It was a s stem ~~ul ~he pri~ciple of sustained currently being made for complete removal of all merchantable rimu
merchantable trees in an m Y.d _strip felling which removed all trees on hill country and replanting with rimu seedlings.
t · 80 wi e strip and retain d 1
s rip untouched. Eight years of stri -f . e_ an a ternate 80 m
has been rejected on the grounds th tp helling covering some 1900 ha Silver pine
suffered damage during loggin d a t e edges of the virgin strips
rimu seedlings samplings or gan l were.prone to windthrow. Few Although a minor forest produce from the podocarp forests, silver
po es survived logging in th f 11
wh '
ere ow lying areas deteriorated to b ~ e ed strips, pine is important for supply of local fencing material. It may occur
grew a 1dense shrubbery of t f ogs and better-drained areas in stands on the perimeter of bogs (natural pakihi) or as an understorey
opportunity for early natur~~er erns an~ hardwo?ds, thus reducing the in podocarp or podocarp/beech forests. Few trees attain sawlog size
egeneration of rimu. but when they do they are directed to use as boards. Most of the
harvest goes into fence posts, droppers, strainers and deer fencing.
In 1963 selection logging was introd d . . Management therefore generally consists of harvesting the trees larger
smaller podocarp trees rim 1 _uce with the aim of retaining
competition in dense clumpsubpoc:~· fs~pli~gs_and seedlings, reducing than 20 cm butt diameter and protecting the smaller trees and samplings
decadent and malformed trees yand f~inaul lythinning,
creatingremoving
b tt older
d. .
which will grow into a future crop.
natural regeneration of logged .e er con itions for
these ~ilvicultural ideals havea~=~s~ Through~ut its 17 years of.operation THE BEECH FORESTS
economic extraction of logs The eo be f~e~ible enough to permit
management of 40 OOO ha f ·. arly vision was for sustained yield Of the beech forests of the wetland podzolised soils, hard beech
56 OOO m3/yr from forest~ t~~~uw~e~~a~e forest in South Westland yielding (Nothofagus truncata) is the dominant species. Pure hard beech forests
for 25% of the merchantable 1 u ~ harvested once every 50 years clothe the piedmont glaciation terraces, the first valley glaciation
retained healthiest portion ~~r~e, t~~ich c~uld grow ~ack into the terraces and the outwash morainic rolling hills. Only the youngest
systems applied to 4200 ha usin g t period. ~arious harvesting wetland podzols, on the lower glaciation terraces, carry red beech
tyred skidders, mobile haulers !n~rack tractors, fixed haulers, rubber (Nothofagus fusca) forest. For over a century both red and hard beech
have yielded both a better understa~~: ground pressure t:a~k tractors forests have been creamed for the best sawlogs. Cockayne in 1926
forests on the wetland podzol· d . ng of the manageability of rimu recognised the worth of beech when he wrote, "I feel that I can assert
be solved. Rimu trees succ~bset sboilks and.a ~umber of problems yet to with all confidence that in her beech forests New Zealand possesses a
t o ar -stripping by ro f · perpetual source of great wealth, but only so long as they are properly
rees, root damage by skidders d . pes or alling
deep, and ponding caused by bl ~aggin~ ~ogs in a muddy trench 1-1.5 m conserved and managed."
by compacted fascined logging ~~a:!e
0
R ree flow of under-surface water
volume in senescent stands usually· .e~oval of_2~% of the merchantable Hard beech
remaining high forest largely th p~ec~pitates disintegration of the
tell how long windthrow at a 1 r~ugb windthrow. It is too early to Hard beech is the common species on soils such as Okarito, Addison,
forests can be expected to e~e ~ ove what is normal in natural Charleston, Mawhera, Hukarere and Flagstaff. Most logging of hard
d persist in newly logg d f beech forest has been for the rimu content, generally some 20-30% of
1ogge areas the degree of windth e orests. In the skidder
access tracks to salvage windthro:o;r::~~ants establishment of permanent the total amount of wood. Having been creamed for rimu the residue
is a hard beech forest which is usually down-graded by bark beetle
 JOO

389

damage to become worthless for sawlogs. However, both cutover and

virgin hard beech forests are a valuable source of chipwood for pulping. The manageable resource we are considering the largest of its
Because of distance from processing units this resource currently ype in New Zealand. It is the only in the world for manag-
remains largely unused. The potential for managing hard beech is good. ~ng these particular s~eci~s in their natural on a scale of
It readily regenerates naturally and grows at a rate which would permit easonable size. In yielding a high quality product on a sustained
a rotation of 120 years for sawlog yield and 70-80 years for chipwood. ~asis, these indigenous forests pro~ide continuing opportunity to
contribute significantly to the reg10nal economy of the West Coast.
Red beech
Red beech is a valuable sawn timber and is suitable for veneer.
For this reason positive management of red beech can be justified. In.
the natural stands only 20% of the trees are free of defect and thus
available for sawing or veneer. Whether the forests are, in the case
of pure beech, creamed for beech sawlogs, or, in the case of rimu/red FERTILIS TRIALS ESTRY ON WET PODZOLIS
beech, creamed for rimu and beech, the bulk of the trees have no value
whilst pulpwood markets are remote. In the face of such limitations SO I LS,, ; so
red beech on the West Coast can currently be managed only on a minor
scale. D.J, Mead
School of Forestry, University of Canterbury
Within ten years of logging, red beech forest usually has
sufficient seedlings established to permit felling of the overwood, the
trees remaining after removal of the sawlogs. Seedlings are then
permitted to grow in tight competition until sufficient clean bole INTRODUCTION
devoid of branches is formed. Since the bark beetle appears to attack The establishment of exotic trees on the poorly drained,
trees exposed to light usually when diameter exceeds a certain size, impoverished 'pakihis' was first attempted during the l~te 1920's.
the sampling stand is thinned to 400-500 trees/ha before reaching but these plantings often showed very slow growth and hi~h mortali~y.
a diameter of 15 cm. Growth rates are such as to anticipate a rotation In the 1950's interest was revived and in 1956 an establishment.trial
of 80-100 years between harvests. Red beech forests on wetland which involved several tree species, was initiated (WD 72). This
podzols, yellow-brown earths and recent soils could be managed for a was followed in the mid 1960's by two large fertiliser trials (WD 109
sustained yield of high quality decorative timber. and WD 110), both of which showed the potential of these sites when
drainage is improved and nutrient stresses removed. In t~e most
CONCLUSION recent phase of research the objective has ~een to determine the
optimum fertiliser requirements for these sites.
Sustained yield management of indigenous forests on wetland
podzolised soils for the perpetual yield of high quality rimu and red
beech logs is proving to be practical. Their level of productivity is EARLY TRIALS
relatively low but so is the required input. The forests regenerate The results of the 1956 establishment trial on an Okarito silt
naturally after harvesting the high quality wood which presumably will loam at the Craigieburn high terrace (Paparoa State Forest) indicat~d
someday have a high value. To grow radiata pine on these soils requires that improving drainage was very important (Washbourne 1972) . Blading
a large input of land preparation, raising and planting seedlings, the topsoil into heaps and pla~ting on to~ of these heaps was a better
tending, disease control and fertilising. But it needs to be apprec- site preparation method than either planting on upturned turfs or .
iated that the exotic radiata pine without the fertiliser has either directly into the wet topsoil. This trial also demonstrated that while
no or meagre yield except on the youngest wetland podzols. Comparative the application of phosphate was beneficia~ lime a~plications were not
figures illustrate relative productivity under optimum growth conditions, required. Of the exotic species tes~ed, P~nus rad~ata, P. aontorta
which includes land preparation and fertiliser for radiata pine: and P. rrruriaata showed the most promise.
Crop Yield over period unit yield The success of this trial led to the establishment of two larger
radiata pine 3
500 m /ha 30 years 3
17 m /ha/yr scale experiments in the mid 1960's. The first of these (WD ~09) .was
red beech 270 m3 /ha 80 years 3. 4 m3 /ha/yr again on the Craigieburn pakihi in the Grey Valley and th~ obJective
rimu 280 m3 /ha 200 years 1. 4 m3 /ha/yr in this trial was to study the long term growth of P. rad~~a,
P. muriaata (blue strain) and P. aontorta under four fertil~ser tr~at­
By planting nursery grown rimu seedlings the forester's impatience ments: control, p alone, N+P, and N+P+K. The site was drained using
for seeing the new generation established as soon as possible after a Cuthbertson single furrow mouldboard plough and trees were planted
harvesting can be satisfied. Such practice may even provide a 20 year on the spoil mounds as well as on the uncultivated.a~ea be~ween the
start on the natural establishment of the new generation, and in drains. The results showed that radiata pine fertilised with N and
addition, initial growth and survival of the nursery grown seedlings p will grow extremely well on these sites and that growth was faster
will increase that lead. for trees planted on the mounds (Table 1).
 ~
391 I
Table 1 I
~ea~ ~r~e heigh~s.(m) a~ age 9 years in Trial WO 109 I
ra1~1e urn Pak1h1. Heights of trees growing on the'
moun s and on the uncultivated flat area are given Mean tree heights (m) at ages 3 and 6 years in Trial
separately WO 110 on an intermediate terrace in the Grey Valley
Treatments * Control Fertilised *
Control p N+ p Age 3 Age 6 Age 3 Age 6
N + p + K
P. radiata
(a) Mound 3.25 5.34 0.75
(b) Flat 7.92 7.57 1.96 1.14 4.08
1. 79 3.99 7.21 0.91 2.41 1.46 5.05
5.64
P. mW'icata
p. muricata
(a) Mound 3.45 4.27 4.98 undrained 0.53 1.33 0.84 3.06
(b) Flat 2.04 4.06 3.66
4.98 Drained 0.70 1.87 0.91 2.81
P. contorta 2.44
picea sitchensis
(a) Mound 3.35 3.86 Undrained 0.40 0.81 0.47
(b) Flat 4.42 4.48 1.36
2.56 3.56 4.32 Drained 0.41 0.81 0.55 1.60
4.08
*Fertiliser
treatments were:
p
* Fertilised plots have received:
- 13 g P/tree at planting
- 75 kg/ha P at age 8 At planting 7 g N .+ 1 .15 g P + 15 g K per tree
100 kg/ha P at age 12 At age 5 150 kg N + 75 kg P + 30 kg Mg/ha
At age 9 153 kg N + 78 kg P + 15 kg Mg/ha
N - 6 g/tree at planting
- 150 kg/ha N at age 8
- 200 kg/ha N at age 12 The main limiting nutrients have been N and P, although the Craigieburn
K - 12 g/tree at planting pakihi has shown signs of requiring additional K early in the rotation,
- 75 kg/ha K at age 8 and the intermediate terrace additional Mg. It is apparent that during
- 75 kg/ha K at age 12 the first 10 to 12 years of the rotation radiata pine will require
about 200 kg/ha P and 300 to 400 kg/ha N for good growth. However,
it is anticipated that this demand will be much lower in the later part
An excavation study of P. radiata and p . of the rotation when the trees fully occupy the site.
that healthy pines utilised the soil do~ muY"lcata root s~stems indicated
that there was an extensive network f to the underlying gravels and RECENT TRIALS
(Gorman 1977; see also next article)~ roots over the whole area
The main emphasis in recent trials is to determine the long-term
The second major experiment of th. . . optimum fertiliser regime under two management options; a framing
intermediate terrace in the Gre Va is perio~ was located on an timber regime and a board regime. Each trial includes four rates of
Mawhera, Okarito and Hukarere r~11· lley. The soils were a complex of a fertiliser mix based on suitable nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilisers.
hardwood forest was cleared and b inf ph~ses and the.existing podocarp- The early results for three of these trials indicate that the optimum
the main species studied were p ur~. ~rior to p~anting. In this trial dressing at establishment is about 9 g N + 14 g P/tree (Table 3).
(sitk~ spruce) and for each spe~i~~ ~~e~~ ~~r:ur-icata a~d.Picea sitchensis The data also illustrate the large differences in the natural fertility
On this rolling site extensive lateral d . two fertility levels. of these sites.
an attempt was made to determine th . ra1nage was not.attempted but
drainage channels. The results ~ importance of op~ning up the main Table 3 Mean volume index (dia. 2 x height in cm 3 ) at age 3 years
fertiliser (Table 2) but the again show the dramatic response to for three trials established in 1976
response to the m· · 1 d .
was not clearcut because of microsite d'ff inima r~inage treatment Trial No. Soil type Fertiliser treatment *
fertilised, again showed the fastest gr~wt~r;~~=~· Radiata pine, when 0 54 107 214
In these trials foliage anal se h WD 180 Flagstaff hill soil 1458 2387 2505 2337
uptake of the fertiliser and to d ty ~ ave been used to monitor the Okarito silt loam 1948
· WD 223 82 1169 2510
ions. In both instances it has b e ermine the timing of repeat applicat-
.
WD 232 Maimai silt loam 819 1245 1803 1753
initial fertiliser dressings appl~=~ :ecessar~ to ~allow up the small
broadcast dressings. t planting with two large heavy * Grams of a mixture of diammonium phosphate and serpentine reverted
superphosphate applied at planting. The 'optimum' level of
107 g/tree supplies 9 g N + 14 g P + 2.6 g Mg/tree
 393

CON CL US IONS

Trials conducted over a period of almost a quarter of a centur

have demonstrated that pine forests can be established on these sity
provided that there is reasonable drainage, and fertilisers, partice~ site description
arly N and P, are applied. Several dressings during the first hal~ ~
the rotation will be required.
0 The area chosen for the study was the drainage and fertiliser
trial WD 109 established on the Craigieburn pakihi, Paparoa Forest
(S.F.34) in 1965. The soil here is described as Okarito peaty silt
ioam (G. Mew, pers. comm.). This, and similar soil types, range in
depth from 40 to 120 cm, having massive silty B horizons overlying
gravels with iron cementation. Frequent burning of these areas has
removed most of the original forest organic layer. Poor lateral
and vertical water movement, and low fertility, make pakihi soils in
ROOTING OF PINUS~~~~~~~~
AND PINUS MURICATA their natural state unsuitable for the establishment of exotic conifer
ON A PLOUGHED AND PODZOL IN WESTLAND t forests. However, it is possible to improve these physical and
chemical conditions by ploughing and by adding fertilisers. Ploughing
not olily improves drainage but also increases the available soil volume
P,.J,. Gorman * -).1 for tree roots.
Forester, N.Z.Forest Service, Totara Flat
In this experimental area the natural water channels were cleared
with a D7 bulldozer. Lateral drains were then ploughed with a
INTRODUCTION Cuthberton ditching plough at spacings of 5.5 m. The ditches were
46 cm wide and 46 cm deep. The spoil was moved to one side, 1.5 m
Extensive areas of gley podzols occur in Westland on glacial out- from the ditch, forming a ridge. Trees were planted with alternate
wash terraces and rolling moraines, either as large tracts or as rows on ridges and on the flat area on the other side of the ditches.
isolated remnant terraces surrounded by hill and steepland soils. They Trees were fertilised at the time of planting and again seven years
are often referred to as 'pakihi' soils. Removal of the forest cover later.
on parts of these areas by logging, followed by a series of fires, has
led to a vegetation change to non-forest species. These abandoned Tree selection and observations
"induced pakihis" are impoverished and difficult to rehabilitate.
This study was carried out in healthy vigorous 11 year old stands
Trials designed to establish exotic timber species, by different of Pinus radiata and P. muricata. Two trees of each species were
combinations of drainage and fertilisers, were commenced in 1956, 1965, selected, one each from the plough ridges and one from the flat areas
1967, 1975 and 1976. Washbourn (1972) reviewed experience to that adjacent to ditches. The trees were larger than the average of the
date, by which time the trials had shown that pakihi sites can be stands and would probably have formed part of the final crop.
reforested successfully.
The trees were felled, leaving a 15 cm stump. The entire root
OBJECTIVES OF THE ROOT STUDY system was then carefully excavated by sluicing the soil away from the
roots with a high-pressure fire pump. The exposed root system was
Because pakihi soils are shallow, and have other unfavourable then photographed~ in situ from the ground and from a vantage point
physical features, the long-term success of plantation forestry has in a nearby tree. The size and extent of the root system were then
been questioned on the ground that stands may be liable to windthrow. measured.
The objective of the study reported here was to make a preliminary
investigation of the rooting pattern of the more promising species - RESULTS
Pinus radiata and P. muricata - on ploughed and unploughed sites,
from which could be drawn inferences concerning the likely future Data for the excavated trees are given in Table 1. The
stability of stands of these species. In particular, it was to find following points about the root systems were noted:
out the extent to which tree roots spread into unploughed zones, and
the depth of penetration into ungleyed horizons. 1. The roots leading from directly below the stump penetrated almost
vertically to the cemented layer and there ended abruptly.
t These roots provided support for the tree and would probably be
Extracted by R. Lee from New Zealand Forest Service Institute,
Forest Establishment Report No. 106 (1977) by permission of less important for nutrient uptake.
Director of Production Forestry Division, FRI
* Currently overseas
* See original report
 394
395 1
I
I
Table 1 Height, diameter breast height and root measurements
of excavated trees Ripping of the underlying gravels is unlikely to be very useful as
nere are often successive iron pans down the prof~le and th~ gravels
Species Location Fertil- Height DBH No. of roots Mean length t packed tightly, especially in the older formations. It is therefore
is er (m) (cm) > 5 cm at of 5 largest are ·
oubtful whether ripping would improve drainage or avai· 1 abl.e roo~in~
·
50 cm radius roots d iume although this aspect has not been tested. A technical difficulty
110
from stump (m) ld be to find sufficient traction on these wet soils in order to break
wou
up the gravels with rippers.
P.radiata Ridge P+N 11. 5 19.9 5 4.25
P.radiata Flat P+N 11.3 17.3 6 3.60 So far in these stands on pakihi, only occasional trees have been
P.muricata Ridge p 9.5 17.4 7 3.00 · dthrown. On the Craigieburn terraces there was little evidence of
P.muricata Flat p 7.4 10.3 1 3.20 w:~ural windthrow on a large scale in the original forests~ but there
~as been extensive windthrow in.the.past in beech forests in the Grey
d Ahaura river system where wind is funnelled down valleys . . Further
an
south • on similar gley podzols in Mahinapua State Forest,. exotic
. stands
1. .
2. Most roots spread horizontally and divided into a fine network nave reached merchantable size, without drainage or fertiliser app ications,
which covered the entire ground surface. The thicker roots and without being windthrown. Some of these stan~s have ~e~n harvested
provided support for the tree while the finer surface roots would and replanted, but they are mostly on gently rolling morainic country
have provided the major means of nutrient uptake.
and not on flat areas.
3. Root development on the ridges was far superior to that on the Provided that thinnings are carried out early, so that root growth
flats. Because not all of the soil was cultivated, root distribut- is not restricted laterally, it seems likely that stands on these pakihis
ion was uneven; this was accentuated because roots did not cross can be grown to merchantable size without being seriously damaged by
the drains. wind. Pinus muricata may be better adapted to these sites than radiata
pine. In the long term, intensive manag~ment of .pine forests may
4. The trees had a greater available rooting volume when planted on improve soil conditions by providing a high density of root channels and
ridges and this contributed directly to their vigour. so aiding drainage within the soil.
5. Pinus muricata appeared to have a finer, more extensive root system
than P. radiata. This should be more effective in gleaning
nutrients from poor soils. It appeared that P. muricata plots were,
in fact, more vigorous than those of P. radiata.

6. Under this stand the soil was much drier than that of the unplanted
pakihi. As a result of this, and of increased shelter, ground
vegatation was changing.

DISCUSSION

Tree stability depends on a deep well-distributed root system.

This limited investigation has shown that trees grown on an Okarito soil
with fertiliser added will occupy all of the soil available despite its
heavy texture, but that they will not penetrate the underlying compacted
and cemented gravels. Root development is better in cultivated soil,
and rooting depth is increased by mounding or ridging. While lateral
root development was probably sufficient for stability, vertical root
penetration is limited by the depth of the soil, and this may be the
main feature relating to the instability of mature stands.

Preparation techniques other than ditching may produce better

results. For example, bedding ploughs can be used satisfactorily on
pakihi sites to form a raised cultivated bed. This should lead to
rapid root development, although soil depth is not increased greatly.
The bedding technique does not dissect the area with drains which
restrict root spread, and this may be an advantage compared with current
methods.
 397

16. BIBLIOGRAPHY LEKSANDROVA, L.N. 1960

A The use of sodium pyrophosphate for isolating free humic substances
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*ANDERSON, H. A. 1970
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 3

*BACHE, B.W. 1976

The measurement of cation exchange capacity of soils. BARRATT, B.C. 1965
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Development of scrub gumlands. *BENNETT, H.; REED, R.A. 1971
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*BARRATT, B.C. 1960
An investigation of the morphology and development of some *BISCAYE, P.E. 1965
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 400
401

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Chemistry of gley podzols and groundwater podzols. of:IN, H. L. 1971
N.Z. Soil News 1960: 127-9. B Redox potentials.
(unpublished) Soil Science 112: 39-45.

BLAKEMORE, L.C.; MILLER, R.B. 1968 soNIFANT. R.A. 1969

Management and economic aspects of the development of pakihi.
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(unpublished)
BLAKEMORE, L.C.; PARFITT, R.L. 1979
Variable charge in some New Zealand soils. *BORCHARDT, G. A. 19 77
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*BLAKEMORE, L.C.; SEARLE, P.L.; DALY, B.K. 1972
Methods of Chemical Analysis of Soils.
N.Z. Soil Bureau Scientific Report 10A. *BORMAN!d, F.H.; LIKENS, G.E.; EATON, J.S. 1969
Biotic regulation of particulate and solution losses from
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A study of podzolization. Part II. The mobilization of iron Bioscience 19: 600-10.
and aluminium by the leaves and bark of Agathis australis
(kauri). *BRACEWELL, J.M.; ROBERTSON, G.W. 1977
Pyrolysis studies on humus in freely drained Scottish soils.
Journal of Soil Science 4: 17-23. Pp. 167-78 in "Analytical Pyrolysis : Proceedings of the Third
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BLOOMFIELD, C. 1953b (Eds. C.E.R. Jones, C.A. Cramers). Elsevier, Amsterdam. 424p.
Sesquioxide immobilization and clay movement in podzolized soils.
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BRACEWELL,J.M.; ROBERTSON, G.W.; TATE, K.R. 1976
Pyrolysis-gas chromatography studies on a climosequence of soils
BLOOMFIELD, C. 1954a
in tussock grasslands, New Zealand.
The defl~cculation of kaolin by tree leaf leachates.
Transact~ons of the Fifth International Congress of Soil Science,
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Leopoldville 2: 280-3.
*BRADLEY, W.F.; GRIM, R.E. 1961
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*BLOOMFIELD, C. 1954c *BREWER, R. 1964

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BLOOMFIELD, C. 1957b *BRINKMAN, R. 1979 ..

Ferrolysis a Soil-forming Process in Hydromorphic Conditions.
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*BLOOMFIELD, C. 1970
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---------------------,,-,,--,-------~------ -

*BRUCKERT, S. 1970
Influence des composes organiques solubles sur la pedogenese «CABRERA, F.; TALIBUDEEN,. 0. 1978
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*BRYDON, J.E.; DAY, J.H. 1970 CAMPBELL, A.S. 1975
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*BRYDON, J.E.; KODAMA, H.; ROSS, G.J. 1968
Mineralogy and weathering of the clays in orthic podzols cAMPBEI1t, I. B. 1977
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*BRYDON, J.E.; SHIMODA, S. 1972 *CAMPBELL, I. B. 1979

Allophane and other amorphous constituents in a podzol from Occurrence of Kawakawa Tephra near Nelson - note.
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CAMPKIN, R. 1972
*BUNTING, B.T. 1969 Potassium release and fixation by some New Zealand soils as
"The Geography of Soil". related to their clay mineralogy and degree of profile development.
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BURNS, M.M. 1931
Chemical aspects of the soil of the rimu forests. *CANADA DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1970
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*BURROWS, C.J. 1969 *CANADA SOIL SURVEY COMMITTEE. SUBCOMMITTEE ON SOIL CLASSIFICATION 1978
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*BURROWS, C.J. 1977 On the flora of the Mangonui County.
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Third annual report of the pakihi investigations conducted at tlITTENDEN, E.T. 1965 d d
the Cawthron Institute. Cn Pakihi soils in Golden Bay will produce pastures of high stan ar ·
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caITTENDEN, E.T. 1969
CAWTHRON INSTITUTE 1932 Pakihi soils of Golden Bay and their development to pasture.
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N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
Annual Report 1931/32: 22-4. caITTENDEN, E.T.; HODGSON, L.; D?BSON, K.J. 1966
Soils and Agriculture of Wa1mea County, New Zealand.
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Annual Report 1932/33: 24-6. Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
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CHAVASSE, C.G.R. 1954 N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 467-80.
Potentialities for indigenous and exotic forestry in Westland.
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· Clay mineralogy of some South Island high country podzol1se soi s.
CHAVASSE, C.G.R. 1962 Pp. 149-154 in "Soil Groups of New Zeala'.1d. P~rt 5. Podzols and Gley
Forests, Soils and Landforms of Westland. Podzols". (Ed.R.Lee) N.Z. Society of Soll Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
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CHURCHMAN, G.J. 1980b
*CHICHESTER, F.W.; HARWARD, M.E.; YOUNGBERG, C.T. 1970 Clay minerals formed from micas and chlorites in some
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CHILDS, C.W.; ANDERSON, H.G. 1980 Mineralogy and origin of the yellow-brown sands and relate soi s.
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*CHILDS, C.W.; JOHNSTON, J.H. 1980
Mossbauer spectra of proto-ferrihydrite at 77K and 295K, and a *CLARK, J.S.; McKEAGUE, J.A.; NICHOL, W.E. 1966 .
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soils. characterizing the B horizons of brun1solic and podzol1c soils.
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*CHINN, T.J.H. 1977 *CLARK, J.S.; NICOL, W.E. 1968 .
Holocene glacial history from the Waimakariri watershed , New Zealand. Estimation of the inorganic and organic pH-dependent cation
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Pasture investigation on pakihi land at Onekaka.
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CHITTENDEN, E.T. 1960 Engelmann, Leipzig. 456p.
Pasture trials on pakihi soils at Onekaka.
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(unpublished) Clay mineral genesis of some New York S~odosols.
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CHITTENDEN, E.T. 1964
A review of Cawthron Institute's work on pasture development COKER, R. J. 1972 t
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 406
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*COLEMAN, N.T.; THOMAS, G.W. 1967

The basic chemistry of soil acidity. ·cuRRIE, J.D.; OLIVER, J.R. 1969
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Whangarei Agricultural Advisory Committee of the A.P.C.
*COLLINS, J.F.; BUOL, S.W. 1970 (unpublished)
Effects of fluctuations in the Eh-pH environment on iron
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Origin of the pH-dependent cation exchange capacities
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of Irish soil clays.
*COULSON, C.B.; DAVIES, R.I.; LEWIS, D.A. 1960 Geoderma 22: 213-24.
Polyphenols in plant, humus and soil. I. Polyphenols of leaves,
litter, and superficial humus from mull and mor sites. CUTLER, E.J.B. 1960
Journal of Soil Science 11: 20-9. Forest growth on podzolised soils.
N.Z. Soil News 1960: 132-5.
*COWIE, J.D. 1964a (unpublished)
Aokautere ash in the Manawatu District, New Zealand.
N.Z. Jou.rnal of Geology and Geophysics ?: 67-77. DALY, B.K. 1980
The mechanism of podzolisation.
Pp.83-87 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part S. Podzols and
*COWIE, J.D. 1964b
Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee) N.Z. Society of Soil Science,
Loess in the Manawatu District, New Zealand.
N.Z. Journal of Geology and Geophysics ?: 389-96. Lower Hutt. 452p.

COWIE, J.D. 1978 DALY, B. K. 19 81

Acid-oxalate soluble organic matter as an index of podzolisation.
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*DALY, B.K.; BINNIE, H.J. 1974
A leaching method for the extraction of acid oxalate-soluble
COWIE, J.D. 1980a aluminium and iron from soil in conjunction with cation exchange
Gley podzols - definition, classification and boundaries
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Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis 5: 507-14.
Pp. 199-201 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R.Lee).
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Chemistry: A typical sequence of soils derived from
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Pumice Soils". (Ed. N.E. Read) N.Z. Society of Soil Science,
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COX, J.E. 1977 The podzol process.
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Distribution, description and pedogenesis. Northland Peninsula.
Pp. 18-47 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 2. Yellow-brown (Ed. E.M. Bridges)
Sands". (Ed. V.E. Neall). N.Z. Society of Soil Science, Lower Hutt. Welsh Soils Discussion Group Report 11. 146p.
272p.
*DAVIES,R.I. 1971
*CROCKER, R.L.; DICKSON, B.A. 1957 Relation of polyphenols to decomposition of organic matter
Soil development on the recessional moraines of the Herbert and and to pedogenetic processes.
Mendenhall glaciers S.E. Alaska. Soil Science 111: 80-5.
Journal of Ecology 45: 169-85.
*DAVIES, R.I.; COULSON, C.B.; LEWIS, D.A. 1960
CROMPTON, E. 1956 Polyphenols in soil profile development.
Royal Duhlin Society Scientific Proceedings, Series A,1: 183-9.
The environmental and pedological relationships of peaty gleyed
podzols.
Transactions of the 6th International Congress of Soil Science,
Paris, E: 155-61.
 408
409

*DAWSON, H.J.; UGOLINI, F.C.; HRUI'FIORD, B.F.; ZACHARA, J. 1978 *DUDAL, R. 1971
Role of soluble organics in the soil processes of a podzol, 90 years of "podzolic" soils.
Central Cascades, Washington. N.Z. Soil News 19: 67-82.
Soil Science 126: 290-6. (unpublished)
*DEB, B.C. 1949 DUNNE, P.A. 1960
The movement and precipitation of iron oxide in podzol soils. Pakihi development.
Journal of Soil Science 1: 112-22. N.Z. Soil News 1960: 118-25.
(unpublished)
*DEB, B.C. 1950
The estimation of free iron oxides in soils and clays DUNNE, P.A.; SCOTT, J.F. 1964
and their removal. Recent experimental work on pakihi soils.
Journal of Soil Science 1: 212-20. Proceedings of the N.Z. Grassland Association 26: 68-73.
*DE CONINCK, FR.; CONRY, M.; TAVERNIER, R. 1976 DUNNE, P.A.; SCOTT, J.F. 1965
Influence of iron-bearing minerals, especially chlorite, on Pakihi, persistent problem soils on West Coast.
soil development of Irish brown podzolic soils. N.Z. Journal of Agriculture 110: 204-8.
Pp. 573-84 in "Proceedings of the International Clay
Conference, Mexico City, 1975". (Ed. S.W.Bailey) DURING, C. 1967a
Applied Publishing, Wilmette, Ill. 691p. Fertilisers and lime for North Auckland soils.
Proceedings of the N.Z. Grassland Association 29: 15-23.
DE VORE, G.W. 1959
The surface chemistry of feldspars as an influence on their DURING, C. 1967b
decomposition products. "Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming".
Pp. 26-41 in "Clays and Clay Minerals : Proceedings of the Sixth Government Printer, Wellington. 322p.
National Conference on Clays and Clay Minerals, Berkeley,
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Equilibrium concentrations of inorganic phosphate and phosphate
*DEWAN, H.C.; RICH, C.I. 1970 sorption properties in soils under permanent pasture: some
Titration of acid soils. practical applications.
Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 34: 38-44. Transactions, 9th International Congress of Soil Science 2: 281-92.
*DIMBLEBY, G.W. 1962 DURING, C. 1972
The development of British Heathlands and their Soils. "Fertilisers and Soils in New Zealand Farming". 2nd ed.
Oxford Forestry Memoir 23. 120p. Government Printer, Wellington. 312p.
*DIMBLEBY, G.W.; GILL, J.M. 1955 DURING, C.; CAMPKIN, R. 1980
The occurrence of podzols under deciduous woodland in Sources of potassium taken up by ryegrass from some soils
the New Forest. of the North Island.
Forestry 28: 95-106. N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 23: 85-91.
DIXON, J.K.; HARRIS, A.C. 1936 DURING, C.; da ROZA, R.; MARTIN, D. 1964
Preliminary report on the chemical studies of some typical A difficult pakihi-wasteland or farms? Investigations at
soils of Hawke's Bay. Bald Hill, Westport.
N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Proceedings of the N.Z. Grassland Association 26: 62-7.
Annual Report 1935/36: 53-6.
DURING, C.; MARTIN, D.J. 1968
DIXON, J.K.; HARRIS, A.C. 1937 Sulphate nutrition, movement, and sorption, with special reference
Chemical studies on some leached soils. to a gley podzol, West Coast, South Island.
N. Z. Journal of Science and Technology 19.: 173-9. N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 11: 665-76.
*DOWNING, F.; POWELL, H.K.J. 1980 *DlITTA, N.L.; GHOSH, A.C.; NAIR, P.M.: VENKATARAMAN, K. 1964
A siphon device for fractionation of runoff samples. Structure of cassiamin, a new plant pigment.
N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 23: 257-8. Tetrahedron Letters 1964 (39-40): 3023-30.
*DUCHAUFOUR, P. 1977 EASTERFIELD, T.H.; RIGG, T. 1931
"Pedologie. 1. Pedogenese et classification". The conversion of pakihi into dairy pasture.
Masson, Paris. 477p. Cawthron Institute Agricultural Bulletin 9. Bp.
 410
411

EASTERFIELD, T.H.; RIGG, T. 1932

Pakihi soils research. f!ELDES, M. 1966
N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research The nature of allophane in soils. Part 1. Significance of struct-
Annual Report 1931/32: 22-4. ural randomness in pedogenesis.
N.Z. Journal of Science 9: 599-607·
EASTERFIELD, T.H.; RIGG, T. 1933
Pakihi soils research. FIELDES, M. 1968
N.Z. Depa:l'tment of Scientific and Industrial Research Clay mineralogy.
Annual Report 1932/33: 24-6. Pp. 22-39 in "Soils of New Zealand. Part 2".
N.Z. Soil Bureau Bulletin 26(2). 22lp.
EASTERFIELD, T.H.; RIGG, T.; BRUCE, J.A. 1929
Pakihi lands of the Nelson Province. *FIELDES, M.; CLARIDGE, G.G.C. 1975
N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology 11: 231-41. Allophane.
Pp. 351-93 in "Soil Components. Volume 2. Inorganic Components".
*ELLIS, R.C. 1971 (Ed. J.E.Gieseking). Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 684p.
Mobilization of iron by extracts of Eucalyptus leaf litter.
Journal of Soil Science 22: 8-22. FIELDE~, M.; PERROTT, K.W. 1966
The nature of allophane in soils. Part 3. Rapid field and
*ESLER, A.E.; RUMBALL, P.J. 1975 laboratory test for allophane.
Gumland vegetation at Kaikohe, Northland, New Zealand. N.Z. Journal of Science 9: 623-9.
N.Z. Journal of Botany 13: 425-36.
FIELDES, M.; TAYLOR, N.H. 1961
*FANNING, D.S.; KERAMIDAS, V.Z. 1977 Clay mineralogy of New Zealand soils. Part 5: Mineral colloids
Micas. and genetic classification.
Pp. 195-258 in "Minerals in Soil Environments". N.Z. Journal of Science 4: 679-706.
(Eds. J.B.Dixon, S.B.Weed). Soil Science Society of
America, Madison,Wis. 948p. *FLAIG, W.; BEUTELSPACHER, H.; RIETZ, E. 1975
Chemical composition and physical properties of humic substances.
*FAO 1974 Pp.1-211 in "Soil Components. Volume 1. Organic Components".
"FAO-Unesco Soil Map of the World, 1: 5 OOO OOO. Volume I. (Ed. J.E.Gieseking). Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 534p.
Legend". Unesco, Paris. 59p.
FOO, Y.; TATE, K.R. 1977
*FAQ 1978 Isolation of chrysotalunin, a red pigment from a New Zealand soil.
"FAO-Unesco Soil Map of the World, 1:5 OOO OOO. Volume X. Experientia 33: 1271.
Australasia". Unesco, Paris. 221p.
FOX, J.P. 1956
*FARMER, V.C. 1979 Soils and erosion in the Harper-Avoca Catchment, Canterbury.
Possible roles of a mobile hydroxy aluminium orthosilicate N.Z. Soil Bureau. Unpublished report.
complex (proto-imogolite) in podzolization.
Pp. in "Migrations Organo-minerales dans les Sols *FRANKLIN, D.A. 1962
Temperes". International Colloquium of C.N.R.S., Nancy, France. Peat-podzol intergrades.
(in press) M.Sc. Thesis, University of Edinburgh.
(unpublished)
*FARMER, V.C.; FRASER, A.R.; TAIT, J.M.; PALMIERI, F.; VIOLANTE, P.;
NAKAI, M.; YOSHINAGA, N. 1978 *FRANZMEIER, D.P.; HAJEK, B.F.; SI:MONSON, C.H. 1965
Imogolite and proto-imogolite in an Italian soil developed Use of amorphous material to identify spodic horizons.
on volcanic ash. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 29: 737-43.
Clay Minerals 13: 271-4.
*FRANZMEIER, D.P.; WHITESIDE, E.P.; MORTLAND, M.M. 1963
*FIELDES, M. 1955 A chronosequence of podzols in northern Michigan.
Clay mineralogy of New Zealand soils. Part II. Allophane III. Mineralogy, micromorphology, and net changes
and related mineral colloids. occurring during soil formation.
N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology B37: 336-50. Quarterly Bulletin, Michigan State University Agricultural
Experiment Station 46: 37-57.
FIELDES, M. 1957
Clay mineralogy of moderately and strongly podzolized yellow- *FRIDLAND, V.M. 1957
brown earths and podzols. Podzolisation and illimerisation.
N.Z. Soil News 1957: 151-3. Akademii Nauk S.S.S.R. Doklady 115: 1006-9.
(unpublished)
 412 413

*GALLEZ, A.; JUO, A.S.R.; HERBILLON, A.J. 1976

Surface and charge characteristics of selected soils in GlBBS, H.S.; MERCER, A.D.; COLLIE, T.W. 1950
Soil Science Society of America Journal 40: 601-8. Soils and Agriculture of Westland, N.Z.
N.Z. Soil Bureau Bulletin 2. 24p.
*GAMBLE, D.S.; SCHNITZER, M.; HOFFMANN, I. 1970
Cu 2 +-fulvic acid chelation equilibrium in 0.1 m KCl at 2s 0 c. *GILLMAN, G.P. 1979
Canadian Journal of Chemistry 48: 3197-204. A proposed method for the measurement of exchange properties
of highly weathered soils.
*GAST, R.G. 1977 Australian Journal of Soil Research 1?: 129-39.
Surface and colloid chemistry.
Pp. 27-73 in "Minerals in Soil Environments". *GJEMS, 0. 1970 . . . .
(Eds. J.B. Dixon, S.B.Weed). Soil Science Society of Mineralogical composition and pedogenic weathe~ing of the
America, Madison, Wis. 948p. clay fraction in podzol soil profiles in Zales1ne, Yugoslavia.
Soil Science 110: 237-43.
*GERSPER, P.L.; HOLOWAYCHUK, N. 1970
Effect of stemflow water on a Miami soil under a beech tree. *GOH, K.M.; REID, M.R. 1975
II. Chemical properties. Mqlecular weight distribution of soil organic matter
Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 34: 786-94. as affected by acid pre-treatment and fractionation
into humic and fulvic acids.
GIBBS, H. S. 1957 Journal of Soil Science 26: 207-22.
Podzolized yellow-brown earths and podzols in the North Island.
N.Z. Soil News 195?: 146-7. GOH, K.M.· WILLIAMS, M.R. 1979
(unpublished) Chan~es in molecular weight distribution of soil organic
matter during soil development.
GIBBS, H.S. 1960a Journal of Soil Science 30: 747-55.
Gley podzols - Introduction.
N.Z. Soil News 1960: 115. GOODALL, R.W. 1964
(unpublished) Oversown clovers on pakihi lands. . .
Proceedings of the N.Z. Grassland Assoc~at~on 26: 57-61.
GIBBS, H.S. 1960b
Soils of the Wellington District. *GOODMAN B.A.; BERROW, M.L. 1976
N. Z. Society of Soil Science Proceedings 4: 4-6. Th~ characterisation by M.'ossbauer spec~roscopy o~ the
secondary iron in pans formed in Scottish podzol1c soils.
GIBBS, H.S. 1961 Journal de Physique 3? Colloque C6: 849-55.
Soils of the Tararua Ranges.
N.Z. Soil News 1961: 81-3. *GOODMAN, B.A.; CHESHIRE, M.V. 1976
(unpublished) The occurrence of copper-porphyrin complexes in soil humic acids.
Journal of Soil Science 2?: 337-47.
GIBBS, H.S. 1963
Soils of New Zealand and their limitations for pastoral use. GOOLD, G.J. 1966
N.Z. Institute of Agricultural Science Proceedings 1963: 63-79. The Aiotira and Omu soil suites of North Auckland.
Internal Report No. 13a, Research Division, Department of
GIBBS, H.S. 1964a Agriculture, Auckland.
Soils of Northland. (unpublished)
Pp. 25-37 in "National Resources Survey, Part III, Northland
Region". (Comp. Town and Country Planning Branch, Ministry of GOOLD, G.J. 1970
·Works). Government Printer, Wellington. 202p. Waiotira soil suite studies.
Internal Report No.3, Northland Fie~d Research Section,
GIBBS, H.S. 1964b Department of Agriculture, Whangare1.
Soils of Westland. (unpublished)
Proceedings of the N. Z. Grassland Associat.ion 26: 11-21.
GORMAN, P.J. 1977 . .
GIBBS, H.S.; COWIE, J.D.; PULLAR, W.A. 1968 Rooting patterns of Pinus radiata an~ Pinus mur~aata on a
Soils of North Island. ploughed and fertilised gley podzol in We~tland.
Pp. 48-67 in "Soils of New Zealand. Part 1". N.Z. Forest Service, Forest Research Inst~tute, Forest
N.Z. Soil Bureau Bulletin 26 (1). 142p. Establishment Report 106. lOp.
(unpublished)
 414 415

GRADWELL, M.W. 1959

Blocky structures in gleyed podzols. GREENWOOD, R.M. 1961
N.Z. Soil News 1959: 55. Pasture establishment on a podzolised soil in Northland.
(unpublished) III. Studies on rhizobial populations and the effects of
inoculation.
*GRADWELL, M.W. 1968 N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 375-89.
The moisture-holding properties of Waikato soils and
methods of their determination. GRIMMETT, R.E.R.; BROGAN, F.J.A. 1933
N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 11: 631-54. Some soils of the North Cape District.
N.Z. Journal of Agriculture 47: 229-36.
GRADWELL, M.W. 1971
The available-water capacities of North Auckland soils. rJAMBLYN, C.J. 1931
N.Z. Journal of Agricultural ReseCCl'ch 14: 253-87. Puwera gum-land experimental farm.
Notes on operations, seasons 1929-30 and 1930-31.
*GRADWELL, M.W. 1972 N. Z. Journal of Agriculture 43: 422-9.
Methods for Physical Analysis of Soils.
N.Z. Soil Bureau Scientific Report lOC. HARRIS, C.S. 1938
Pakihi soils of Westport.
GRANGE, L.I. 1933 N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
Puketotara Block, Bay of Islands. Annual Report 1937/38: 60-1.
N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
Annual Report 1932/33: 37. HARRIS, C.S.; HARRIS, A.C. 1939
Soil Survey of Westport District.
GRANGE, L.I. 1934 N. z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
The gum-land soils of North Auckland. Bulletin 71. 23p.
N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology 15: 408-13.
HEINE, J.C. 1975
GRANGE, L.I. 1936 Interim Report on Soils of Wellington Region, New Zealand.
Soils of New Zealand. N.Z. Soil Bureau Record 39. 39p.
Pp. 89-91 in "Handbook for New Zealand". Australian (unpublished)
and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of
Science, Wellington. 157p. HEINE, J.C.; ADAMS, J.A.; MEW, G. 1977
Interim Report on the Limitations for Exotic Forestry of the
GRANGE, L.I. 1939 Soils of the Mokihinui-Orikaka Region, South Island, New Zealand.
Soil Survey. N.Z. Soil Bureau Record 52. 28p.
N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research (unpublished)
Annual Report 1938/39: 46-60.
*HENDERSHOT, W.H. 1978
GRANGE, L.I. 1941 Measurement technique effects of the value of zero point
General survey, North Island. of charge and its displacement from zero point of titration.
N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Canadian Journal of Soil Science 58: 439-42.
Annual Report 1940/41: 29-32.
*HENDERSHOT, W.H.; LAVKULICH, L.M. 1978
GRANGE, L.I. 1944 The use of zero point of charge (ZPC) to assess pedogenic
A basic scheme for land classification. development.
N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology A26: 136-41. Soil Science Society of America Journal 42: 468-72.

GRANGE, L.I. 1945 *HENDERSHOT, W.H.; SINGLETON, G.A.; LAVKULICH, L.M. 1979
Farming in New Zealand. North Island soils. Variation in surface charge characteristics in a soil
N.Z. Journal of Agriculture 70: 387-97. chronosequence.
Soil Science Society of America Journal 43: 387-9.
GRANGE, L.I. 1946
Farming in New Zealand, South Island soils. *HENMI, T.; WELLS, N.; CHILDS, C.W.; PARFITT, R.L. 1980
N.Z. Journal of Agriculture 72: 583-91. Poorly-ordered iron-rich precipitates from springs and streams
on andesitic volcanoes.
*GREENE-KELLY, R. 1953 <Jeochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 44: 365-72.
The identification of montmorillonoids in clays.
Journal of Soil Science 4: 233-7.
 416
417

HEWITT, S. R.; SHANNON, P. W.; KEENAN_, B. R. 1980

Pastures - land development on podzolised northern yellow- *HUANG, W.H.; KELLER, W.D. 1972
brown earths and podzols ('Gumlands'). Geochemical mechanics for the dissolution, transport,
Pp. 175-83 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5. and deposition of aluminum in the zone of weathering.
Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society Clays and Clay Minerals 20: 69-74.
of Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
HUGHES, H.R. 1975
*HIGASHI, T.; IKEDA, H. 1974 Regeneration of semi-pakihi forest, Granville State Forest,
Dissolution of allophane by acid oxalate solution. Westland.
Clay Science 4: 205-12. Beech Research News 3: 9-15,
(unpublished)
*HINGSTON, F.J. 1963
Activity of polyphenolic constituents of leaves of Eucalyptus IVES, D.; WEBB, T.H.; JARMAN, S.M.; WARDLE, P. 1972
and other species in complexing and dissolving iron oxide. The nature and origin of "wind-throw podzols" under
Australian Journal of Soil Research 1: 63-73. beech forest in the lower Craigieburn Range, Canterbury.
N.Z. Soil News 20: 161-77.
HOGG, D.E. 1965 (llhpublished)
Studies on le2c:hing losses of sulphur from pumice soils,
yellow brown loams and sands. JACKMAN, R.H. 1955a
Proceedings of the N.Z. Grassland Association 27: 123-8. Organic phosphorus in New Zealand soils under pasture.
I. Conversion of applied phosphorus into organic forms.
HOGG, D.E.; COOPER, M. 1964 Soil Science 79: 207-13.
Laboratory studies on losses of phosphorus, sulphur,
and potassium from Te Kopuru sand. JACKMAN, R.H. 1955b
N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 7: 364-74. Organic phosphorus in New Zealand soils under pasture.
II. Relation between organic phosphorus content and some
HOLLINGS, P.E. 1967a soil characteristics.
Bacteriology of the early stages of the Franz Josef Soil Science 79: 293-9.
chronosequence.
N.Z. Soil News 1967: 27-34. JACKMAN, R.H. 1961
(unpublished) Pasture establishment on a podzolised soil in Northland.
II. Plot trials studying nutrient deficiencies.
HOLLINGS, P.E. 1967b N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 361-74.
Nitrification in the early stages of the Franz Josef.
N.Z. Soil News 1967: 19-26. *JACKMAN, R.H. 1964
(unpublished) Accumulation of organic matter in some New Zealand soils.
I. Patterns of change of organic carbon, nitrogen,
*HOLLOWAY, J.T. 1954 sulphur and phosphorus.
Forests and climates in the South Island of New Zealand. N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 7: 445-71.
Transactions of the Royal Society of N.Z. 82: 329-410·
*JACKSON, M.L. 1956
*HOLMGREN, G.G.S. 1967 "Soil Chemical Analysis - Advanced Course".
A rapid citrate-dithionite extractable iron procedure. M.L. Jackson, Ma~ison, Wis. 991p.
Soil Science Society of America Proc~edings 31: 210-1.
*JACKSON, M.L. 1958
*HSU, P.H. 1977 "Soil Chemical Analysis".
Aluminum hydroxides and oxyhydroxides. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 498p.
Pp.99-143 in "Minerals in Soil Environments".
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Madison, Wis. 948p. 1952
Weathering sequence of clay-size minerals in soils and sediments.
*HUANG, W.H.; KELLER, W.D. 1971 II. Chemical weathering of layer silicates.
Dissolution of clay minerals in dilute organic acids at Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 16: 3-6.
room temperature.
American Mineralogist 56: 1082-95. JACKSON, R.J. 1980
Physical properties of wetland soils, West Coast, South Island.
Pp. 292-95 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
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Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
 418
419

*JARVIS, M.C.; DUNCAN, H.J. 1976

Profile distribution of organic carbon, iron, aluminium pRATH, E.J.; FOY, C.D. 1971
and manganese in soils under bracken and heather. Lime-fertilizer-plant interactions in acid soils.
Plant and Soil 44: 129-40. Pp. 105-51 in "Fertilizer Technology and Use". (Eds. R.A.Olson,
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*JEFFERY, J.W.O. 1960 of America, Madison, Wis. 611p.
Iron and the Eh of waterlogged soils with particular reference
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Journal of Soil Science 11: 140-8. Mobilization of aluminum in acid gleyed soils.
Soviet Soil Science 5: 433-42.
*JENKINSON, D.S.; OADES, J.M. 1979
A method for measuring adenosine triphosphate in soils. J<APOOR, B. S. 197 3 .
Soil Biology and Biochemistry 11: 193-9. The formation of 2:1-2:2 intergrade clays in some
Norwegian podzols.
*JENKINSON, D.S.; POWLSON, D.S. 1976 Clay Minerals 10: 79-86.
The effects of biocidal treatments on metabolism in soil.
V. A method for measuring soil biomass. r<EAR, . S. 1965
Soil Biology and Biochemistry 8: 209-13. Soils of Reefton District.
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*JENNY, H.; GESSEL, S.P.; BINGHAM, F.T. 1949
Comparative study of decomposition rates of organic matter KEENAN, B. R. 19 71a . .
in temperate and tropical regions. Land development - special soils and areas: pak1h1 soils.
Soil Science 68: 419-32. Section P9(a) in "Pastures". Research Division,
N.Z. Department of Agriculture.
*JOFFE, J.S. 1936
"Pedology". KEENAN, B.R. 1971b .
Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, N.J. 575p. Land development - special soils and areas: podzolised northern
yellow-brown earths and podzols.
*JOFFE, J.S. 1949 Section P9(c) in "Pastures". Research Division,
"Pedology". 2nd ed. N.Z. Department of Agriculture.
Pedology Publications, New Brunswick, N.J. 662p.
KENNEDY, D. 1954
JOHN, M.K.; SAUNDERS, W.M.H.; WATKINSON, J.H. 1976 The role of forestry in the land-use pattern on the West Coast.
Selenium adsorption by New Zealand soils. N.Z. Journal of Forestry ?: 11-22.
I. Relative adsorption of selenite by representative
soils and the relationship to soil properties. KIDSON, E.B. 1937
N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 19: 143-51. Cobalt status of New Zealand soils.
N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology 18: 694-707.
*JOHNS, W.D.; GRIM, R.E.; BRADLEY, W.F. 1954
Quantitative estimations of clay minerals by diffraction *KIRK, T. 18 70
methods. On the flora of the Isthmus of Auckland and the Takapuna district.
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*JONGERIUS, A.; SCHELLING, J. 1960 *KITTRICK, J .A. 1973
Micromorphology of organic matter formed under the Mica-derived vermiculites as unstable intermediates.
influence of soil organisms, especially soil fauna. Clays and Clay Minerals 21: 479-88.
Transactions of ?th International Congress of Soil Science,
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A study of clay minerals in podzol soils in New Brunswick,
*JUO, A.S.R.; AYANLAJA, S.A.; OGUNWALE, J.A. 1976 eastern Canada.
An evaluation of cation exchange capacity measurements Clay Minerals ?: 295-309.
for soils in the tropics.
Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis ?: 751-61. *KODAMA, H.; SCHNITZER, M. 1973
Dissolution of chlorite minerals by fulvic acid.
*KAILA, A. 1967 Canadian Journal of Soil Science 53: 240-3.
Potassium status in different particle size fractions of
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Journal of the Scientific Agricultural Society Finland 39: 45-56. Identification and significance of a Late Picistocene tephra
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Quaternary Research 11: 78-92.
 421

*KONONOVA, M.M. 1951

Problema pochvennogo gumusa i sovremennoye zadachi ego *LANGMUIR, D. 1971
izucheniya. (The problem of soil humus and contemporary Eh-pH determination.
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*KONONOVA, M.M. 1966 ...
"Soil Organic Matter: Its Nature, Its Role in Soil Formation *LAVERDIERE, M.R.; WEAVER, R.M. 1977
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*KUBIENA, W.L. 1953 ...
"The Soils of Europe". *LAVERDIERE, M.R.; WEAVER, R.M.; D'AVIGNON, A. 1977
Characteristics of the mineral constituents of some albic
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Canadian JoUX'nal of Soil Science 5?: 349-59.
*KUMADA, K.; HURST, H.M. 1967
Green humic acid and its possible origin as a fungal metabolite.
NatUX'e 214: 631-3. LEAMY, M.L. 1974
Suits of Stewart Island (Rakiura), New Zealand .
LAFFAN, M.D. 1980 . Z. Soil SUX'vey Report 22.
Soils of the Charleston-Punakaiki region, South Island,
New Zealand. LEAMY, M.L.; FIELDES, M. 1976
Soils, land classification and use.
N.Z. Soil SUX'vey Report 4?. Pp. 122-43 in "New Zealand Atlas". (Ed. I.Wards).
Government Printer, Wellington. 292p.
LAFFAN, M.D.; ADAMS, J.A. 1977
Interim Report on the Limitations for Exotic Forestry of the
Soils of the Charleston-Punakaiki Region, South Island, LEE, E.S.; POWELL, H.K.J.; TAYLOR, M.C.; TSAO, N.Y. 1979
Concentrations of nutrients in runoff from a gley podzol soil
New Zealand.
N.Z. Soil BUX'eau Record 56. 21p. in South Island, New Zealand.
(unpublished) N. Z. eTournal of Science 22: 35-8.

*LAMB, H.H. 1965 LEE, R. 1977

The warm Mediaeval epoch and its sequel. Soil Bureau laboratory - orientated studies.
Palaeogeography~ Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1: 13-37. Pp. 10-24 in "Field Demonstration and Workshop on Soils
of West Coast Wet Terrace Lands, Greymouth, 5-7 July, 1977".
(Comp. R.F.Thomas). Soil Bureau, Dept. of Scientific and
LAMBERT, J.P. 1961
Pasture establishment on a podzolised sqil in Northland. Industrial Research, Lower Hutt. 36p.
I. Field trial studying lime and fertiliser requirements. (unpublished)
N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 4: 348-60.
LEE, R. 1980
Chemical properties of wet podzolised soils from the West Coast
*LAMBERT, J.P. 1967
Pasture species for Northland. of the South Island.
Proceedings of the N.Z. Grassland Association 29: 78-87. Pp. 249-60 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
Podzols and Gley Podzols 11 • (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of Soil
LAMBERT, J.P.; RUMBALL, P.J.; BOYD, A.F. 1979 Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
Comparison of ryegrass white clover pastures with
and without paspalum and kikuyu grass. LEE, R.; GIBSON, E.J. 1980
I. Pasture production. Redox potential measurements in two gley podzols and a
N.Z. Journal of Experimental AgricultUX'e ?: 295-302. podzolised gley from the West Coast, South Island.
Pp. 261-·69 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
*LANGFORD, C.H.; KHAN, T.R. 1975 Podzols and Gley Podzols 11 • (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of
Kinetics and equilibrium of binding of Fe 3 + by a fulvic acid: Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
a study by stopped flow methods.
Canadian Journal of Chemistry 53: 2979-84. LEE, R.; THOMAS, R.F.; ORCHARD, V.A. 1980
Progress report on the effect of agricultural development on
some chemical, physical and microbial properties of an Okarito
silt loam, near Reefton.
Pp. 365-74 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of
Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
 422

*LIND, C.J.; HEM, J.D. 1975

Chemistry of aluminium in natural waters. McCOLL, H.P. 1974
U.S. Geological Survey Water Supply Paper 182?-G. 83p. The arthropods of the floors of six forest types on the
West Coast, South Island: A preliminary report.
*LLOYD, J.A. 1976a Proceedings of the N.Z. Ecological Society 21: 11-6.
Extractives of New Zealand Nothofagus species. 3. Extractives
of red beech hardwood, sapwood and bark. *McCOLL, R.H.S.; GIBSON, A.R. 1979a
N.Z. Fore~t Research Institute, Forest Products Division, Downslope movement of nutrients in hill pasture, Taita,
Wood Chem~stry Report ?. New Zealand. I. Water runoff.
(Unpublished) N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 22: 143-50.
*LLOYD, J.A. 1976b *McCOLL, R.H.S.; GIBSON, A.R. 1979b
Extractives of New Zealand Nothofagus species. 4. Extractives Downslope movement of nutrients in hill pasture, Taita,
of hard beech hardwood, sapwood and bark. New Zealand. II. Effects of season, sheep grazing, and
N.Z. Forest Research Institute, Forest Products Division, fertiliser.
Wood Chemistry Report 12. N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 22: 151-61.
(unpublished)
McCRAW, J.D. 1957
*LLOYD, J.A. 1976c Weakly weathering, podzolized yellow-brown earths (Haast series).
Extractives of New Zealand Nothofagus species. 5. Extractives N.Z. Soil News 195?: 167-8.
of silver beech hardwood, sapwood and bark. (unpublished)
N.Z. Forest Research Institute, Forest Products Division,
Wood Chemistry Report 14. McDONALD, D.C. 1955
(unpublished) Soil moisture and physical properties of a Westland "pakihi"
soil in relation to deforestation.
*LLOYD, J.A.; BRISTO, H. 1975 N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology 3?B: 258-66.
Extractives of New Zealand Nothofagus species. 2. Extractive
content of hardwood, sapwood and bark. McDONALD, D.C. 1960
N.Z. Forest Research Institute, Forest Products Division, Physical aspects of a pakihi soil.
Wood Chemistry Report 2. N.Z. Soil News 1960: 130.
(unpublished) (unpublished)
LOCKHART, J.M. 1960 *MacEWAN, D.M.C.; RUIZ AMIL, A.; BROWN, G. 1961
Experimental results and agricultural development. Interstratified clay minerals.
N.Z. Soil News 1960: 125-6. Pp. 393-445 in "The X-ray Identification and Crystal Structures
(unpublished) of Clay Minerals". 2nd ed. (Ed. G. Brown). Mineralogical
Society, London. 544p.
LOCKHART, J.M. 1963
Fertiliser usage in Westland. *McGARTH, D. 1972
N.Z. Journal of Agriculture 10?: 493-507. Hydroxyanthraquinones in soil.
Geoderma ?: 167-76.
LONG, P.A. 1966
Areas of Soils of South Island, New Zealand. McINTOSH, P.D. 1980
N.Z. Soil Bureau Report 3/1966. 89p. Soil changes under radiata pine in Kaingaroa Forest,
central North Island, New Zealand·
*LOVELAND, P.J.; BULLOCK, P. 1975 N.Z. Journal of Science 23: 83-92.
Crystalline and amorphous components of the clay
fractions in brown podzolic soils. *McKEAGUE, J.A. 1967
Clay Minerals 10: 451-69. An evaluation of 0.1 M pyrophosphate and pyrophosphate-dithionite
in comparison with oxalate as extractants of the accumulation
*LUNDBLAD, K. 1934 products in podzols and some other soils.
Studies of podzols and brown forest soils. Canadian Journal of Soil Science 4?: 95-9.
Soil Science 3?: 137-55.
*McKEAGUE, J.A.; BRYDON, J.E.; MILES, N.M. 1971
LYNCH, P.B. 1953 Differentiation of forms of extractable iron and aluminium in soils.
Pasture production at Dargaville Demonstration Farm. Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 35: 33-40.
N.Z. Grassland Association Proceedings 15: 134-40.
 424
425

*McKEAGUE, J.A.; DAY, J.H. 1966

Dithionite- and oxalate-extractable Fe and Al as aids in MacPHERSON, A. 1912
differentiating various classes of soils. Drainage by explosives. Experiments on the pakihi soils
Canadian Journal of Soil Science 46: 13-22. of Westland.
N.Z. Journal of Agriculture 5: 126-33.
*McKEAGUE, J.A.; DAY, J.H. 1969
Oxalate-extractable Al as a criterion for identifying McSWEENEY, G.; MULLER, F. B. 1979
podzol B horizons. Measurements of movement of some major plant nutrients
Canadian Jou:t'nal of Soil Science 49: 161-3. through five New Zealand soils.
Progress in Water Technology 11: 263-70.
*McKEAGUE, J.A.; SCHNITZER, M.; HERINGA, P.K. 1967
Properties of an ironpan humic podzol from Newfoundland. *MALCOLM, R.L.; NETTLETON, W.D.; McCRACKEN, R.J. 1969
Canadian Jou:t'nal of Soil Science 4?: 23-32. Pedogenic formation of montmorillonite from a 2:1-2:2
intergrade clay mineral.
*McKEAGUE, J.A.; SHELDRICK, B.H. 1977 Clays and Clay Minerals 16: 405-14.
Sodium hydroxide-tetraborate in comparison with sodium
pyrophosphate as an extractant of "complexes" characteristic Si
MARK, A.F.; SMITH, P.M.F. 1975
of spodic horizons. A lowland vegetation sequence in South Westland:
Geoderma 19: 97-104. Pakihi bog to mixed beech-podocarp forest.
Part 1. The principal strata.
*McKELVEY, P.J. 1963 N.Z. Ecological Society Proceedings 22: 76-92.
"The Synecology of the West Taupo Indigenous Forest".
Government Printer, Wellington. *MARKS, P.L. 1974
The role of Pin Cherry (Prunus pennsylvanica L.) in the
McKIE, D.A. 1978 maintenance of stability in northern hardwood ecosystems.
A study of soil variability within the Blackball Hill soils, Ecological Monographs 44: 73-88.
Reefton, New Zealand.
M.Agr.Sc. Thesis, Lincoln College. *MATTSON, S.; NILSSON, I. 1935
(unpublished) The chemical characteristics of soil profiles:
III. The podzol complex.
*MacKNEY, D. 1961 Lantbrukshogskolans Annaler 2: 115-34.
A podzol development sequence in oakwoods and heath in
Central England. *MEHRA, O.P.; JACKSON, M.L. 1960
Journal of Soil Science 12: 23-40. Iron oxide removal from soils and clays by a dithionite-
citrate system buffered with sodium bicarbonate.
*MacKNEY, D. 1970 Pp.317-27 in "Clays and Clay Minerals: Proceedings of the
Podzols in lowland England. Seventh National Conference on Clays and Clay Minerals,
Pp.64-87 in "Soil Heterogeneity and Podzolization". Washington, D.C., October 20-23, 1958". (Ed. A.Swineford).
(Ed. E.M. Bridges) Welsh Soils Discussion Group Report 11. 146p. Pergamon Press, London. 369p.
*MacLEAN, A.J.; BRYDON, J.E. 1971 *MERING, J. 1975
Fixation and release of potassium in relation to the Smectites.
mineralogy of the clay fraction of some selected soil horizon samples. Pp. 97-119 in "Soil Components. Volume 2. Inorganic Components".
Canadian Jou:t'nal of Soil Science 51: 449-59. (Ed. J.E. Gieseking). Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 684p.
*McNAUGHT, K.J. 1970 METSON, A.J. 1968
Diagnosis of mineral deficiencies in grass-legume pastures Potassium.
by plant analysis. Pp. 82-95 in "Soils of New Zealand. Part 2".
Proceedings of the 11th International Grassland Congress: 334-8. N. Z. Soil Bu:t'eau Bulletin 26(2). 22lp.
McNAUGHT, K.J.; DURING, C. 1970 *METSON, A.J.; SAUNDERS, W.M.H. 1978
Relations between nutrient concentrations in plant tissues Seasonal variations in chemical composition of pasture.
and responses of white clover to fertilisers on a gley podzol I. Calcium, magnesium, potassium, sodium and phosphorus.
near Westport. N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 21: 341-53.
N.Z. ,Tour'nal of Agricultural Research 13: 567-90.
MEW, G. 1973
The soil factor in the ecology of some West Coast beech forests.
Soil Bureau, Nelson. 16p.
(unpublished)
 4Lo
427

MEW, G. 1975
Soil in relation to forest type in beech forests in the
Inangahua depression, West Coast, South Island. G.; LEE, R. 1978
Soil formation on terraces under superhumid mesothermal
N.Z. Ecological Society Proceedings 22: 42-51.
conditions in New Zealand. (Abstract).
Pp. 219-20 in "llth International Congress of Soil Science,
MEW, G. 1980a Volume 1, Abstracts for Papers Presented at Commission
Gley podzols. Distribution and properties. West Coast,
South Island. Sessions". 412p.
Pp. 211-20 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5. Podzols
and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee) N.Z. Society of Soil Science, MEW, G.; LEE, R. 1979
Further investigations on wet land soils from the
Lower Hutt. 452 p. West Coast, South Island.
N.Z. Soil News 2?: 168-9. (unpublished)
MEW, G. 1980b
Gley podzols - soil processes and classification.
Pp. 238-48 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5. MEW, G.; LEE, R. 1981
Investigation of the properties and genesis of West Coast
Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society wet land soils, South Island, New Zealand.
of Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p. 1. Type localities, profile morphology and soil chemistry.
N.Z. JoUX'nal of Science (in press).
MEW, G. (in press a)
Soils, Forestry and Agriculture of the Grey Valley,
MEW, G.; ROSS, C.W. 1978
South Island, New Zealand. Soils of the Grey Valley; soil unit sheets.
N.Z. Soil Sur>vey Report 46. Unpublished Soil Bureau report.
MEW, G. (in press b)
Soils, Forestry and Agriculture of the Greymouth-Hokitika Region, MEW, G.; SEARLE, P.L. 1977
West Coast soil surveys: coverage, and main soil characteristics.
South Island, New Zealand. In "Seminar on the Future of West Coast Forestry and Forest
N.Z. Soil Sur>vey Report 58. Industries, Hokitika, 1977". N.Z. Forest Service, Wellington.
(unpublished)
MEW, G.; CAMPBELL, I.B.; LAFFAN, M.D. 1977
Aorere Valley development proposal; comments on soils. MEW, G.; WEBB, T.H.; ROSS, C.W.; ADAMS, J.A. 1975
Unpublished Soil Bureau report. Soils of Inangahua Depression, South Island, New Zealand.
N.Z. Soil Sur>vey Report 1?.
MEW, G.; LAFFAN, M.D. 1978
Soils of part of the Oparara Basin, Karamea, and their suitability *MIDDLETON, K.R.; TOXOPEUS, M.R.J. 1973
for exotic production forestry. Diagnosis and measurement of multiple soil deficiencies
Unpublished Soil Bureau report. by a subtractive technique.
Plant and Soil 38: 219-26.
MEW, G.; LAFFAN, M.D.; ADAMS, J.A.; DUGDALE, J.S.; McCOLL, H.P. 1977
Interpretation of basic characteristics from soil surveys
and related work with special reference to physical, chemical *MILES, J. 1977
The influence of trees on soil properties.
and biological properties. Institute of Terrestl'ial Ecology Annual Report 19??: 5-11.
In "Seminar on the Future of West Coast Forestry and Forest
Industries, Hokitika, 1977". N.Z. Forest Service, Wellington.
(unpublished) MILLER, R.B. 1957
On the mechanism of podzolization.
N.Z. Soil News 195?: 159-63. (unpublished)
MEW, G. ; LEAMY, M. L . 19 77
Some pedological trends from recent West Coast soil surveys *MITCHELL, R.L.; REITH, J.W.S.; JOHNSTON, I.M. 1957
and their relevance to forest use. Trace element uptake in relation to soil content.
N.Z. Jour>nal of Forestry Science ?: 151-61. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture 8: S51-9.
MEW, G.; LEE, R. 1977 ~DKMA, D.L.; JACKSON, M.L.; SYERS, J.K.; STEVENS, P.R. 1973
Soil formation on terraces under superhumid mesothermal Mineralogy of a chronosequence of soils from greywacke
conditi~ns on the West Coast, South Island. and mica-schist alluvium, Westland, New Zealand.
N.Z. So~l News 25: 163-4. (unpublished) N.Z. Journal of Science 16: 769-97.
MOKMA, D.L.; SYERS, J.K.; JACKSON, M.L., CLAYTON, R.N.,; REX, R.W. 1972
Aeolian additions to soils and sediments in the South
Pacific area.
Journal of Soil Science 23: 147-62.
 428
429

MOLLOY, B.P.J. 1964 MORTON, J.D. 1980a

Soil genesis and plant succession in the subalpine and alpine Agriculture on the gley podzols of the West Coast, South Island.
zones of Torlesse Range, Canterbury, New Zealand. Part 2 - Pp. 344-47 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
Distribution, characteristics, and genesis of soils. Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N. Z. Society of
N.Z. Journal of Botany 2: 143-76. Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
MOLLOY, B.P.J.; BURROWS, C.J.; COX, J.E.; JOHNSTON, J.A.; WARDLE, P.
MORTON, J.D. 1980b
1963 Fertiliser and lime requirements on West Coast soils.
Distribution of subfossil forest remains, eastern South Island, Farm Production and Practice 371. 3p.
New Zealand.
N.Z. Journal of Botany 1: 68-77. MORTON, J.D. 1980c
Pasture growth on gley podzols and associated soils of the
MOLLOY, B.P.J.; COX, J.E. 1965 West Coast, South Island - results of lime, fertiliser
The role of beech forest in the development of the yellow-brown and species trials.
earth to podzol sequence of eastern South Island. Pp. 347-350 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
N.Z. Soil News 1965: 95-104. (unpublished) Pqdzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of
Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
MOLLOY, L.F.; BLAKEMORE, L.C. 1974
Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands. MORTON, J.D.; WRIGHT, D.B. 1980
1. Introduction, sites, and soils. Soils : Pakihi; pasture establishment and management.
N.Z. Journal of Science 17: 233-55. Farm Production and Practice 370. 2p.
MOLLOY, L.F.; BRIDGER, B.A.; CAIRNS, A. 1977 *MVCKENHAUSEN, E. 1962
Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands. "Entstehung, Eigenschaften und Systematik der Boden der
13. Structural carbohydrates in tussock leaves roots Bundesrepublik Deutschland".
and litter and in the soil light and heavy frac~ions. ' DLG-Verlags, Frankfurt am Main. 148p.
N.Z. Journal of Science 20: 443-51.
*MUIR, A. 1961
MOLLOY, L.F.; BRIDGER, B.A.; CAIRNS, A. 1978 The podzol and podzolic soils.
Studi~s on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands. Advances in Agronomy 13: 1-56.
15. Litter decomposition: weight losses and changes in
contents of total N and organic constituents. *MUIR, J.W.; LOGAN, J.; BROWN, C.J. 1964
N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 265-76. The mobilization of iron by aqueous extracts of plants. II.
Capacities of the amino-acid and organic-acid fractions of a
MOLLOY, L.F.; CAIRNS, A.; BRIDGER, B.A. 1978 pine-needle extract to maintain iron in solution.
Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands. Journal of Soil Science 15: 226-37.
19. Decomposition of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin
in kaolinite pellets buried in the soils. ' *MULLER, F.B.; SEAGER, R.H. 1974
N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 451-8. Copper studies - field trial.
N.Z. Fertiliser Manufacturers' Research Association,
MOLLOY, L.F.; SPEIR, T.W. 1977 1974 Research Reports: 214-5. ( unpublished)
Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
12. Constituents of the soil light fraction.
N.Z. Journal of Science 20: 167-77. *MULLER, P.E. 1878
Studier over Skovjord.
*MOOMAW, J.C.; NAKAMURA, M.T.; SHERMAN, G.D. 1959 Tidsskrift fz.a~ Skovb:rug 3: 1-124.
Aluminium in some Hawaiian plants.
Pacific Science 13: 335-41. *MOLLER, P.E. 1884
Studier over Skovjord.
*MOORE, T.R. 1973 Tidsskrift fur Skovbrug 7: 1-232.
The distribution of iron, manganese, and aluminium in some
soils from north-east Scotland. *MOLLER, P.E. 1887
11 Studien uber die naturlichen Humusformen und
Jou:rnal of Soil Science 24: 162-71.
deren Einwirkung auf Vegetation und Boden".
*MORRIS, J.Y. 1965 Springer, Berlin.
Climate investigations in the Craigieburn Range, New Zealand.
IV. Z. Jou:rnal of Science 8: 556-82. *NAIR, V.D.; PRENZEL, J. 1978
Calculations of equilibrium concentration of mono- and
polynuclear hydroxyaluminium species at different pH and
total alu.'Ilinium concentrations.
Zeitschrift fia> Pflanzenernahrung und Bodenkunde 141: 741-51.
 430 431

*NATHAN, S. 1978
"Sheet S44 Greymouth (lst ed.). Geological Map of New Zealand ORCHARD, V.A. 1980
1:63 360". Microbial populations in wetland soils from the West Coast,
N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. South Island.
Pp. 333-40 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
N.Z. DEPARTMENT OF LANDS AND SURVEY 1959 Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R.Lee). N.Z. Society of
"Report on Land Utilisation Survey, West Coast Region, Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
South Island N.Z. 11 •
Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington. *PARFITT, R.L.; HENMI, T. 1980
Structure of some allophanes from New Zealand.
N.Z. SOCIETY OF SOIL SCIENCE 1957 Clays and Clay Minerals 28: 285-94.
The soils of New Zealand. Part 5. Moderately and strongly
podzolized yellow-brown earths and podzols. *PARK, G.N. 1970
N.Z. Soil News195?: 143-73. Concepts in vegetation/soil system dynamics. I. Stability,
(Reprinted as Pp. 87-127 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand". climax, maturity and steady-state.
N.Z. Society of Soil Science, Lower Hutt. (1965) 497p.) (unpublished) Tuatara 18: 132-44.

N.Z. SOIL BUREAU 1954 PARK, G. N.1971

General Survey of the Soils of North Island, New Zealand. Changes in the structure and composition of the vegetation/soil
N.Z. Soil Bu:r>eau Bulletin 5. 286p. system, Maymorn Ridge, Southern Tararua Range.
M.Sc.Thesis, Victoria University of Wellington.
N.Z. SOIL BUREAU 1968a (unpublished)
General Survey of the Soils of South Island, New Zealand.
N.Z. Soil Bu:r>eau Bulletin 2?. 404p. PARK, G.N. 1972a
Concepts in vegetation/soil system dynamics.
N.Z. SOIL BUREAU 1968b II. Post steady-state.
Soils of New Zealand. Tuatara 19: 105-25.
N.Z. Soil Bu:reau Bulletin 26. 3v.
PARK, G.N. 1972b
*NICHOLLS, J.L.; BEVERIDGE, A.E. 1971 Variation in soil water and soil air contents associated with
Vegetation. a vegetation-soil sequence in the Tararua Mountains, New Zealand.
Pp.10-2 in "Hydrological Research: Annual Report No. 19: N. Z. Ecological Society Proceedings 19: 57-64.
Purukohukohu, IHD Experimental Basins Nos. 4 and 5 to 1969."
PARK, G.N. 1980
National Water and Soil Conservation Organisation, Wellington. 18p.
Gley podzols and vegetation change - a study in the Tararua Range.
*NORRISH, K.; TAYLOR, R.M. 1961 Pp. 232-37 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
The isomorphous replacement of iron by aluminium in soil goethites. Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of
Jou:rnal of Soil Science 12: 294-306. Soil Science Lower Hutt. 452p.

O'BYRNE, T.N. 1978 *PATIL, V.B.; RAO, A.V.; VENKATARAMAN, K. 1970

Cassiamin A, B, and C, three 2,2'-bianthraquinonyls
Suitability of soils in the Karamea district for kiwi in Cassia siamea.
fruit and other horticultural crops.
Unpublished Soil Bureau report. Indian Jou:rnal of Chemistry 8: 109-12.

O'CONNOR, M.B. 1970 *PEARSON, R.W. 1975

Changes in some chemical and physical properties with Soil acidity and liming in the humid tropics.
development on an Addison Gley Podzol near Westport. Cornell International Agriculture Bulletin 30. 66p.
M.Agr. Sci. Thesis, Lincoln College. 136p.
(unpublished) PENHALE, H.R. 1956
Corrosion of cement-asbestos and concrete pipes in some
O'CONNOR, M.B. 1980 New Zealand soils.
Changes in chemical and physical properties with N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology 38B: 257-78.
development on an Addison soil, Westport.
PENHA.LE, H.R. 1971
Pp. 359-65 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Soiciety Corrosion of mild steel plates in some New Zealand soils.
of Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p. N.Z. Jou:rnal of Science 14: 336-53.

*ONG, H.L.; SWANSON, V.E.; BISQUE, R.E. 1970 *PERROTT, K.W. 1977
Natural organic acids as agents of chemical weathering. Surf ace charge characteristics of amorphous
aluminosilicates.
U.S. Geological Su:rvey : Professional Paper 700-C: 130-7.
Clays and Clay Minerals 25: 417.-21.
 432
433

PERROTT, K.W. 1978

The influence of organic matter extracted from *PONNAMPERUMA, F.N.; TIANCO, E.M.; LOY, T. 1967
humified clover on the properties of amorphous alumino- Redox equilibria in flooded soils. I. The iron hydroxide systems.
sil icates. I. Surface charge. Soil Science 103: 374-82.
Australian Journal of Soil Research 16: 327-39.
*PETERSEN, L. 1976 POOLE, A.L. 1937
"Podzols and Podzolization". A brief ecological survey of the Pukekura State Forest,
DSR Forlag, Copenhagen. 293p. South Westland.
N.Z. Journal of Forestry 4: 78-85.
*PETERSEN, L. 1978
Solubility interactions between iron/aluminium and POWELL, H.K.J.; TAYLOR, M.C. 1979a
Nutrient concentrations in run-off from a gley podzol soil.
soil organic matter during podzolization. Progress in Water Technology 11: 295-301.
Pp. 385-6 in "llth International Congress of Soil Science,
Volume 1, Abstracts for Papers Presented at Commission
POWELL, H.K.J.; TAYLOR, M.C. 1979b
Sessions". 412p. Quaµtitative studies on iron (III) - polyphenol equilibria
in aqueous solution.
*PETERSON, P.J. 1962
(unpublished)
Mineral nutrition of Agathis australis Salisb., the kauri.
Part 1 - Effects of deficiencies of essential elements on POWELL, H.K.J.; TAYLOR, M.C. 1980a
the growth and foliar mineral composition of seedlings. Nutrient concentrations in run-off from a wet terrace
N.Z. Journal of Science 5: 141-64. land soil on the West Coast, South Island.
Pp. 354-9 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
POHLEN, I.J. 1957a Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N. Z. Society
Moderately and strongly podzolized yellow-brown of Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
earths and podzols. Introduction.
N.Z. Soil News 195?: 143-5. POWELL, H.K.J.; TAYLOR, M.C. 1980b
(unpublished) The role of organic matter in the podzolisation process.
Pp. 88-96 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5.
POHLEN, I.J. 1957b Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of
Stages in vegetation sequences of soil development. Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p.
N.Z. Soil News 195?: 171-3.
(unpublished) POWELL, H.K.J.; TENNANT, D.J. 1979
Studies on fulvic acid.
POHLEN, I.J.; GIBBS, H.S.; RAESIDE, J.D.; DIXON, J.K.; (unpublished)
HARRIS, A.C.; BIRRELL, K.S. 1938 .
Hawke's Bay soil survey: progress report.
N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research PULLAR, W.A. 1969
Annual Report 193?/38: 50-4. Soil survey of Kaituna swamp and environs. Appendix 1 (a).
Pp.1-19 in "Kaituna River Major Scheme: Lower Kaituna River.
POHLEN, I.J.; HARRIS, C.S. 1937 Volume 2. Appendices". Bay of Plenty Catchment Commission.
Hawke's Bay soil survey: progress report. (unpublished)
N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
Annual Report 1936/3?: 60-5. PULLAR, W.A. 1977
Distribution, description and pedogenesis. Bay of Plenty District.
POLLOK, J.A. 1978 Pp. 53-64 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 2. Yellow-brown
Processes of gleying. Sands". (Ed. V.E.Neall). N.Z. Society of Soil Science, Lower Hutt.
Pp.33-9 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 3, Gley Soils". 272p.
(Ed. W.C.Rijkse). N.Z. Society of Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 127p.
*PULLAR, W.A.; BIRRELL, K.S. 1973
Age and Distribution of Late Quaternary Pyroclastic
POLLOK, J.A. 1980
and Associated Cover Deposits of Central North Island,
The genetic connection between horizons in the podzol profile.
Pp. 103-4 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5. Podzols New Zealand.
and Gley Podzols. (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of Soil Science, N.Z. Soil Survey Report 2.
Lower Hutt. 452p.
 434 435

*RICH, R.I. 1968

Mineralogy of soil potassium.
PULLAR, W.A.; COWIE, J.D. 1967 Pp. 79-96 in "The Role of Potassium in Agriculture".
Morphology of subfulvic and related soils on dunelands
(Eds. V.J. Kilmer, S.E. Younts, N.C. Brady).
at Mt. Maunganui, Bay of Plenty. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wis. 509p.
N.Z. Jou:Y'nal of Science 10: 180-9.
RIGG, H.H. 1951
PULLAR, W.A.; SELBY, M.J. 1971 An ecological survey of the pakihi lands of the Westport
Coastal progradation of Rangitaiki Plains, New Zealand. District, Nelson.
N. Z. Journal of Science 14: 419-34. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Canterbury.
(unpublished)
*PYATT, D.G. 1970
Soil Groups of Upland Forests. RIGG, H. H. 1962
Forestry Commission : Forest Record 71. 51p. The pakihi bogs of Westport, New Zealand.
Transactions of the Royal Society of N.Z. Botany 1: 91-108.
*PYATT, D.G.; CRAVEN, M.M. 1979
Soil changes under even-aged plantations. RIGG, T. 1923
Pp.369-86 in "The Ecology of Even-Aged Forest Plantations". "Westport and Karamea soils".
(Eds. E.D.Ford, D.C. Malcolm, J. Atterson). Cawthron Institute, Nelson. 9p.
Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Cambridge. 582p.
RIGG, T. 1933
*PYATT, D.G.; McLAREN, D.T.; CRAVEN, M.M. 1980 North Auckland soils.
Physical properties of four soils at Newcastleton Forest, N. Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Annual Report
south Scotland. 1932/33: 40-1.
Proceedings of the North of England Soils Discussion Group 15:
35-63. RIGG, T. 1934
Pakihi soils research.
RADCLIFFE, J.E. 1975 N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Annual Report
Seasonal distribution of pasture production in New Zealand. 1933/34: 20-1.
IV. Westport and Motueka.
N.Z. Journal of Experimental Agriculture 3: 239-46. RIGG, T. 1935
Pakihi soils research.
RAESIDE, J.D. 1948 N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Annual Report
Some post-glacial climatic changes in Canterbury and 1934/35: 35-7.
their effect on soil formation.
Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand 77: 153-71. RIGG, T. 1936
Pakihi soils research.
RAESIDE, J.D. 1957 N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Annual Rep~rt
Podzols of the South Island. 1935/36: 33-4.
N.Z. Soil News 1957: 147-8.
(unpublished) RIGG, T. 1938a
Chemical work at the Cawthron Institute, period 1937-38.
RAESIDE, J.D.; HEINE, J.C. 1970 N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Annual Report
Soils. Westland County (Southern part). 1937/38: 65-7.
Pp. 21-40 in "Land Inventory Survey. Westland County
(Southern Part)". Department of Lands and Survey, Wellington. 55p. RIGG, T. 1938b
Pakihi development, Sergeant's Hill, Westport.
*RAMAN, K.V.; MORTLAND, M.M. 1969 Reports of the Department of Lands and Survey, New Zealand,
Amorphous materials in a Spodosol some mineralogical and for the year 1937-38: 35-6.
chemical properties.
Geode1W1a 3: 37-43. RIGG, T. 1939
Chemical work at the Cawthron Institute.
RAWSON, J .G. 1972 N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial Research Annual Report
Response of thirty- to forty-year-old retarded radiata pine 1938/39: 55-9.
stands in Northland to aerial application of phosphate.
N. Z. <To:J..rnal of F01°estry 17: 101-7. RIGG, T. 194 7
The soils and agriculture of the Waimea County, Nelson, N.Z.
Report of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the
Advancement of Science 26: 236-51.
 437
436

ROSS, C.W.; MEW, G. 1975

*RIGHI, D.; de CONINCK, F. 1977 Current thoughts on some Westland Gley Podzols -
Mineralogic evolution in hydromorphic sandy soils should they be re-classified?
and podzols in "Landes du Medoc", France. N.Z. Soil News 23: 78-90. (unpublished)
Geoderma 19: 339-59.
ROSS, C.W.; MEW, G.; SEARLE, P.L. 1977
RIJKSE, W.C. 1977 Soil sequences on two terrace systems in the North
Soils of Pohangina County, North Island, New Zealand. Westland area, New Zealand.
N.Z. Soil Bureau Bulletin 42. 70p. N.Z. Journal of Science 20: 231-44.

RIJKSE, W.C. (Ed.) 1978 ROSS, D.J. 1975

"Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 3, Gley Soils". Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
N.Z.Society of Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 127p. 5. Invertase and amylase activities of topsoils and
their relationships with other properties.
RIJKSE, W.C. 1979 N.Z. Journal of Science 18: 511-8.
Soils of Part Urewera-Waikaremoana Area, North Island,
New Zealand. *ROSS, D.J. 1978
N.Z. Soil Survey Report 45. Influence of temperature on biochemical processes in
some soils from tussock grasslands. 3. Invertase,
*RIJKSE, W.C.; BELL, J.L. 1974 amylase, and cellulase activities.
Soils of Purukohukohu IHD Experimental Basin, Rotorua County, N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 599-605.
North Island, New Zealand.
N.Z. Soil Survey Report 18. *ROSS, D.J.; BRIDGER, B.A. 1978
Influence of temperature on biochemical processes in
*ROBERT, M. 1973 some soils from tussock grasslands. 2. Nitrogen
The experimental transformation of mica toward smectite; mineralisation.
relative importance of total charge and tetrahedral N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 591-7.
substitution.
Clays and Clay Minerals 21: 167-74. ROSS, D.J.; CAIRNS, A. 1978a
Influence of temperature on biochemical processes in
ROBERTSON, S. 1980 some soils from tussock grasslands. 1. Respiratory activity.
Sand mineralogy of wet,podzolised soils from the West Coast, N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 581-9.
South Island.
Pp. 315-20 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5. ROSS, D.J.; CAIRNS, A. 1978b
Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p. 22. Decomposition of the protein zein in kaolinite
pellets buried in the soils.
ROBERTSON, S.M.; MEW, G. 1981 N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 481-6.
Identification of volcanic ash on the West Coast, South Island.
N.Z. Journal of Geology and Geophysics: (in press) ROSS, D.J.; McNEILLY, B.A. 1975
Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
*ROBINSON, G.W. 1932 3. Nitrogen mineralisation and protease activity.
"Soils. Their Origin, Constitution and Classification". N.Z. Journal of Science 18: 361-75.
Murby, London.
ROSS, D.J.; MOLLOY, L.F.; BRIDGER, B.A.; CAIRNS, A. 1978
*ROBINSON, G.W. 1936 Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
"Soils. Their Origin, Constitution and Classification". 20. Decomposition of cellulose on the soil surface and in
2nd ed. the topsoil.
Murby, London. N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 459-65.

*ROBINSON, G.W.; RICHARDSON, M. 1933 ROSS, D.J.; SPEIR, T.W. 1978

The Dispersion of Soils in Mechanical Analysis. Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
Imperial Bureau of Soil Science, Technical Communication 26. 32p. 17. Litter decomposition : some glycoside hydrolase activities.
N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 285-96.
*ROMANOFF, M. 1957
Underground corrosion.
U.S. Bureau of Standards Circular C5?9. 226p.
 439
438

SARATHCHANDRA, S.U. 1978

ROSS, D.J.; SPEIR, T.W. 1979 Nitrification activities of some New Zealand soils and the
Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands. effect of some clay types on nitrification.
23. Cellulase and hemicellulase activities of topsoils N.Z. ~Tournal of Agricultural Research 21: 615-21.
and tussock plant materials.
N.Z. Journal of Science 22: 25-33. *SATO, 0. 1976
The distribution of Pg (green fraction of P type humic acid)
ROSS, D.J.; TATE, K.R.; CAIRNS, A.; PANSIER, E.A. 1980 and the degree of humification of Pb (brown fraction of P type
Microbial biomass estimations in soils from tussock humic acid) in soils of Central Japan.
grasslands by three biochemical procedures. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 22: 159-67.
Soil Biology and Biochemistry 12: 375-83.
*SATO, O.; KUMADA, K. 1967
*ROSS, G.J. 1971 The chemical nature of the green fraction of P
Relation of potassium exchange and fixation to degree type humic acid.
of weathering and organic matter content in micaceous Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 13: 121-2.
clays of podzol soils.
Clays and Clay Minerals 19: 167-74. SAUN~ERS, W.M.H. 1965
Phosphate retention by New Zealand soils and its relationship
*ROSS, G.J. 1980 to free sesquioxides, organic matter, and other soil properties.
Mineralogical, physical and chemical characteristics of N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 8: 30-57.
amorphous constituents in some podzolic soils from
British Columbia. SAUNDERS, W.M.H. 1974
Canadian Journal of Soil Science 60: 31-43. Effect of superphosphate topdressing on phosphate and
sulphate retention.
*ROSS, G.J.; MORTLAND, M.M. 1966 N.Z. Soil News 22: 15-22. (unpublished)
A soil beidellite.
Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 30: 337-43. *SAWHNEY, B. L .. 1972
Selective sorption and fixation of cations by clay minerals:
*ROTH, C.B.; JACKSON, M.L.; SYERS, J.K. 1969 A review.
Defferation effect on structural ferrous-ferric Clays and Clay Minerals 20: 93-100.
iron ratio and CEC of vermiculites and soils.
Clays and Clay Minerals 1?: 253-64. *SAWHNEY, B.L.; JACKSON, M.L. 1958
_,, Soil montmorillonite formulas.
*RUIZ AMIL, A.; GARCIA, A.R.; MacEWAN, D.M.C. 1967 Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 22: 115-8.
"X-ray Diffraction Curves for the Analysis of
Interstratified Structures". *SCHNITZER, M. 1969
Volturna Press, Edinburgh. 180p. Reactions between fulvic acid, a soil humic compound
and inorganic soil constituents.
RUMBALL, P.J. 1979 Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 33: 75-81.
Nitrogen fixation in pasture. II. Northland warm
temperate, Kaikohe. *SCHNITZER, M. 1978
N.Z. Journal of Experimental Agricul-ture ?: 7-9. Humic substances : Chemistry and reactions.
Pp. 1-64 in "Soil Organic Matter". (Eds. M. Schnitzer,
*RUMBALL, P.J.; BOYD, A.F. 1980 S.U. Khan). Elsevier, Amsterdam. 319p.
Comparison of ryegrass-white clover pastures with and
without paspalum and kikuyu grass. II. Sheep production. *SCHNITZER, M.; DESJARDINS, J.G. 1969
N.Z. Journal of Experimental Agriculture 8: 21-6. Chemical characteristics of a natural soil leachate
from a humic podzol.
RUSCOE, Q.W. 1975 Canadian Journal of Soil Science 49: 151-8.
The distribution and properties of soils, and their biota.
Pp. 139-75 in "Biogeography and Ecology in New Zealand". *SCHNITZER, M.; KHAN, S.U. 1972
(Ed. G.Kuschel). Junk, The Hague. 689p. "Humic Substances in the Environment".
Marcel Dekker, New York. 327p.
*RUSSEL, D.A. 1957
Boron and soil fertility. *SCHNITZER, M.; KODAMA, H. 1977
Pp. 121-8 in "Soil: The Yearbook of Agriculture 1957". Reactions of minerals with soil humic substances. .
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. 784p. Pp. 741-70 in "Minerals in S~il Environm~nts". ~Eds.J.~.D1xon,
s.B.Weed). Soil Science Society of America, Madison, W1s. 948p.
 440 441

*SCHNITZER, M.; SKINNER, S. I.M. 1963 *SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1972
Organo-metallic interactions in soils: 1. Reactions between Soil Survey Laboratory Methods and Procedures
a number of metal ions and the organic matter of a podzol Bh for Collecting Soil Samples.
horizon. Soil Survey Investigations Report 1. 63p.
Soil Science 96: 86-93.
*SOIL SURVEY STAFF 1975
*SCHWERTMANN, U. 1959 Soil Taxonomy. A Basic System of Soil Classification
Die fraktionierte Extraktion der freien Eisenoxyde in for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys.
Boden, ihre mineralogischen Formen und ihre Entstehungsweisen. U.S. Department of Agriculture .. Soil Conservation Se1•vice_.
Zeitschrift fur Pflanzenernahrung Dungung Bodenkunde 84: 194-204. Agriculture Handbook 436. 754p.

*SCHWERTMANN, U. 1964 *SOKOLOVA, T.A.; TARGUL'YAN, V.0.; SMIRNOVA, G.Ya. 1971

Differenzierung der Eisenoxide des Bodens <lurch Extraktion Clay minerals in Al-Fe humus podzolic soils and
mit Anunoniumoxalat-Losung. their role in the formation of the soil profile.
Zeitschrift filr Pflanzenernahrung IJiingung Bodenkunde 105: 194-202. Soviet Soil Science 3: 331-41.

*SCHWERTMANN, U. 1973 SPEIR, T.W. 1977

Use of oxalate for Fe extraction from soils. Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
Canadian Journal of Soil Science 53: 244-6. 11. Urease, phosphatase, and sulphatase activities of
topsoils and their relationships with other properties
*SCHWERTMANN, U.; FISCHER, W.R. 1973 including plant available sulphur.
Natural "amorphous" ferric hydroxide. N.Z. Journal of Science 20: 159-66.
Geoderma 10: 237-47.
SPEIR, T.W.; ROSS, D.J. 1978
*SEGALEN, P. 1971 Studies on a climosequence of soils in tussock grasslands.
Metallic oxides and hydroxides in soils of the warm 18. Litter decomposition: urease, phosphatase, and
and humid areas of the world: formation, identification, sulphatase activities.
evolution. N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 297-306.
Pp. 25-39 in "Soils and Tropical Weathering: Proceedings
of the Bandung Symposium, 16 to 23 November 1969". *STAHR, K. 1973
Unesco, Paris. 149p. Der Einfluss eines Fe-Bandchen-Mikrohorizonts
(thin iron pan) auf der Wasser - und Lufthaushalt
SHEPHERD, J.R. 1949 von Mittelgebirgsboden.
Farming in New Zealand, Westland. Pp. 521-8 in "Pseudogle.y and Gley: Genesis and Use
N.Z. Journal of Agriculture 79: 255-66. of Hydromorphic Soils" (Eds. E.Schlichting, U. Schwertrnann).
Verlag Chemie, Weinheim. 771p.
*SIMONSON, R.W. 1968
Concept of soil. STEELE, K.W. 1976
Advances in Agronomy 20: 1-47. Fate of a spring application of nitrogen to two Northland soils.
N.Z. Journal of Experimental Agriculture 4: 415-21.
SMITH, G.S.; MIDDLETON, K.R. 1980
Multiple plant nutrient deficiencies in 'pakihi' soils STEELE, K.W. 1979
of the West Coast of the South Island. Quantitative aspects of nitrogen turn-over in
Pp. 350-4 in "Soil Groups of New Zealand. Part 5. New Zealand grassland soils.
Podzols and Gley Podzols". (Ed. R. Lee). N.Z. Society of Pp. in "The Place of Nitrogen Fertiliser in
Soil Science, Lower Hutt. 452p. New Zealand Agriculture 11 •
N.Z. Institute of Agricultural Science. (in press)
SMITH, G.S.; MIDDLETON, K.R.; SMITH, R.G. 1976
Diagnosis of multiple plant-nuLrient deficiencies STEELE, K.W.; DAWSON, T.E. 1980
in soils of the West Coast of the South Island. Nitrogen as an aid to pasture establishment and
I. "Pakihi" soils. renovation in Northland.
N.Z. Journal of Experimental Agriculture 4: 423-7. N.Z. Journal of Experimental Agriculture 8: 123-9.

*SOIL CONSERVATION AND RIVERS CONTROL CO\lliCIL 1957 STEELE, K.W.; SAUNDERS, W.H.M. 1980
"Floods in New Zealand 1920-1953, with Notes Soil nitrification activity and phosphorus uptake by ryegrass
on some Earlier Floods". after nitrogen fertiliser application.
Soil Conservation and Rivers Control Council, Wellington. 237p. N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 23: 83-4.
 442 443

STEELE, K.W.; SAUNDERS, W.M.H.; WILSON, A.T. 1980 *SUGGATE, R.P. 1965
Transformation of ammonium and nitrate fertilisers in Late Pleistocene Geology of the Northern Part of the
two soils of low and high nitrification activity. South Island, New Zealand.
N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 23: 305-12. N.Z. Geological Survey Bulletin ??. 9lp.
STEELE, .K. W.; WILSON, A. T.; SAUNDERS, W.M.H. 1980 SUTHERLAND, C.F. 1937
Nitrification activity in New Zealand grassland soils. Soils of Kaitaia district.
N.Z. Journal of Agricultural Research 23: 249-56. N.Z. Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research Annual Report 1936/3?: 67-9.
STEVENS, P.R. 1963
A chronosequence of soils and vegetation near the SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. 1979a
Franz Josef Glacier. Soil map of Ahipara-Herekino area (sheets N04/05), North
M.Agr.Sc. Thesis, University of Canterbury. Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
(unpublished)
N. z. Soil Bureau Map 181.
STEVENS, P.R. 1964
SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. 1979b
A preliminary report on a chronosequence of soils Soil map of North Cape - Houhora area (sheets M02, N02/03),
and vegetation near the Franz Josef glacier. North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
N. z. Soil News 1964: 68-86 .•
(unpublished) N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 180.
SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. 1980
STEVENS, P.R. 1967 Soil map of Bay of Islands area (sheets 0 04/05), North
Some aspects of the Manawatu and Franz Josef chronosequences. Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
N.Z. Soil News 196?: 3-10. N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 184.
(unpublished)
SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. 1980
STEVENS, P.R. 1968a
Soil map of Mangawhai-Warkworth area (sheets ROS/09),
A chronosequence of soils near the Franz Josef Glacier. North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
Ph.D. Thesis, Lincoln College.
(unpublished) N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 190.

STEVENS, P.R. 1968b SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. 1980
Soil map of Ruawai-Rototuna area (sheets P08/09),
Loess deposits and gleyed horizons in Okarito soils North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
of North and South Westland. (Letter to the editor).
N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 188.
N.Z. Journal of Geology and Geophysics 11: 1271-3.
*STEVENS, P.R.; WALKER, T.W. 1970 SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. 1980
Soil map of Waipoua-Aranga area (sheets 0 06/07),
The chronosequence concept and soil formation. North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
Quarterly Review of Biology 45: 333-50.
N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 185.
*STEVENSON, F.J.; ARDAKANI, M.S. 1972
SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGIIT, A.C.S. (in press)
Organic matter reactions involving micronutrients in soils. Soil map of Hukerenui-Whangarei area (sheets Q06/07),
Pp.79-114 in "Micronutrients in Agriculture".
North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
(Eds. J.J. Mortvedt, P.M. Giordano, W.L. Lindsay).
Soil Science Society of America, Madison, Wis. 666p. N.Z. Soil BWt'eau Map 18?.

*STOBBE, P.C.; WRIGHT, J.R. 1959 SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGIIT, A.C.S (in press)
Modern concepts of the genesis of podzols. Soil map of Kaitaia-Rawene area (sheets 0 03/04/05),
Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 23: 161-4. North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 182.
STOUT, J.D.; DUTCH, M.E. 1967
SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. (in press)
Changes in biological activity in the Franz Josef and
Manawatu sand chronosequences. Soil map of Mangakahia-Dargaville area (sheets P 06/07),
N.Z. Soil News 196?: 35-40. North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
(unpublished) N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 186.
SUTHERLAND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. (in press)
Soil map of Maungaturoto-Kaipara area (sheets Q08/09),
North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO.
N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 189.
 445
444

SUTHERL~ND, C.F.; COX, J.E.; TAYLOR, N.H.; WRIGHT, A.C.S. (in press) TATE , K. R. 19 79
Soil map of Whangaroa-Kaikohe area (sheets P 04/05), Fractionation of soil organic phosphorus
North Island, New Zealand. Scale 1:100 OOO. in two New Zealand soils by use of sodium borate.
N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 183. N.Z. Journal of Science 22: 137-42.
*SWAIN, F.M. 1970 TATE, K.R.; ANDERSON, H.A. 1978
"Non-marine Organic Geochemistry". Phenolic hydrolysis products from gel
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. 445p. chromatographic fractions of soil humic acids.
Journal of Soil Science 29: 76-83.
SWINDALE, L.D. 1957a
The effect of kauri vegetation upon the development of TATE, K.R.; CHURCHMAN, G.J. 1978
soils from rhyolite and olivine basalt. Organo-mineral fractions of a climosequence of
N.Z. Soil News 1957: 164-6. soils in New Zealand tussock grasslands.
(unpublished) Journal of Soil Science 29: 331-9.
SWINDALE, L.D. 1957b TAYLOR, N.H. 1933
Formation of minerals by podzolization. Soil processes in volcanic ash-beds.
N.Z. Soil News 1957: 170-1. The volcanic ash-beds of the northern King-Country
(unpublished) and their secondary alumina minerals.
N.Z. Journal of Science and Technotogy 14: 193-202, 338-52.
SWINDALE, L.D. 1959
On gleys and gleying. TAYLOR, N.H. 1948
N.Z. Soil News 1959: 53-4. Soil Map of New Zealand.
(unpublished) N.Z. Soil Bureau Map 280.
SWINDALE, L.D.; JACKSON, M.L. 1956 TAYLOR, N.H. 1952
Genetic processes in some residual podzolised Pedology as an aid in animal research.
soils of New Zealand. Australian Veterinary Journal 28: 183-9.
Transactions of the 6th International Congress
of Soil Science, Paris E: 233-9. TAYLOR, N.H.; COX, J.E. 1956
The soil pattern of New Zealand.
SWINDALE, L.D.; JACKSON, M.L. 1960 N.Z. Institute of Agricultural Science Proceedings 1956: 28-44.
A mineralogical study of soil formation in four rhyolite-
derived soils from New Zealand. TAYLOR, N.H.; DIXON, J.K.; SEELYE, F.T. 1950
N.Z. Journal of Geology and Geophysics 3: 141-83. The soils of North Auckland Peninsula, New Zealand.
Transactions of the 4th International Congress of
SYERS, J.K. 1967 Soil Science 1: 293-6.
Inorganic phosphorus transformations with time.
N.Z. Soil News 1967: 11-8. TAYLOR, N.H.; POHLEN, I.J. 1954
(unpublished) Soils.
Pp. 18-60 in "General Survey of Soils of North Island,
*TAMM, 0. 1922 New Zealand".
Eine Methode zur Bestimmung der anorganischem N.Z. Soil Bureau Bulletin 5. 286p.
Komponente des Gelkomplexes im Boden.
Meddelanden fran Statens Skogsforsokningsinstitut 19: 387-404. TAYLOR, N.H.; POHLEN, I.J. 1962
Soil Survey Method. A New Zealand Handbook for the
*TAN, K.H.; GIDDENS, J.E. 1972 Field Study of Soils.
Molecular weights and spectral characteristics of humic N.Z. Soil Bureau Bulletin 25. 242p.
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 447
446

TAYLOR, N.H.; POHLEN, I.J.; SCOTT, R.H. 1959 *UGOLINI, F.C.; DAWSON, H.; ZACHARA, J. 1977
Soils and land use. Direct evidence of particle migration in the soil
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*UGOLINI, F.C.; MINDEN, R.; DAWSON, H.; ZACHARA, J. 1977
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*VAN RAIJ, B.; PEECH, M. 1972
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*VAN REEUWIJK, L.P.; DE VILLIERS, J.M. 1968
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*VAN REEUWIJK, L.P.; DE VILLIERS, J.M. 1970
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Field Demonstration and Workshop on Soils of West Coast Pp. 93-102 in "Pseudogley and Gley : Genesis and Use of Hydro-
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*VOL'NOVA, A.I.; MIRCHINK, T.G. 1972
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(unpublished) VUCETICH, C.G. 1960
Gley podzols.
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*VUCETICH, C.G.; HOWORTH, R. 1976
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 448
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VUCETICH, C.G.; LEAMY, M.L.; POPPLEWELL, M.A.; URE, J.; WARDLE, P. 1964
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N.Z. Soil BUX'eau Bulletin 18. 52p.
*WARDLE, P. 1977
VUCETICH, C.G.; PULLAR, W.A. 1963 Plant communities of Westland National Park (New Zealand)
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Soils, Agriculture, and Forestry of Waiotapu Region, Primary succession in Westland National Park and
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WARDLf,, P.; MARK, A.F.; BAYLIS, G.T.S. 1973
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The rehabilitatfon of' induced pakihi sites in Westland.
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Reactions of expanding-lattice clay minerals with
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The significance of phosphorus in pedogenesis.
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(unpublished) *WEBB, L.J. 1954
Aluminium accumulation in the Australian-New Guinea flora.
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Studies on soil organic matter. 2. Influence of
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Soil Science 87: 1-10.
*WEIR, A.H.; GREENE-KELLY, R. 1962
WALKER, T.W.; THAPA, B.K.; ADAMS, A.F.R. 1959 Beidellite.
Studies on soil organic matter. 3. Accumulation of American Mineralogist 4?: 137-46.
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in improved grassland soils. WELLS, N. 1956a
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WALTON, T. 1971 N.Z. JoUX'nal of Science and Technology 37B: 473-82.
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N. Z. Journal of Agricultw. e 123(1):
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40-3. WELLS, N. 1956b
Soil studies using sweet vernal to assess element
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 450 451

WELLS, N. 1957 *WILDE, R.H. 1974

The effect of podzolization on element levels. Soils of the Camp Stream Catchment, Canterbury,
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Selenium in horizons of soil profiles. "Forest Soils".
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Element composition of soils and plants. Increased phosphorus uptake by radiata pine in
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The uptake of minerals by sweet vernal and its Molecular weight distribution and chemical nature
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Proceedings of the ?th International Grassland Congress: 334-44. Ph.D. Thesis, Lincoln College. 379p.
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WELLS, N.; SAUNDERS, W.M.H. 1960
Soil studies using sweet vernal to assess element availability. WILLIAMS, P.A. 1975a
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WESTON, G.C. 1956 N.Z. Journal of Botany 13: 215-68.
Fertiliser trials in unthrifty pine plantations at
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N.Z. Journal of Forestry ?(3): 35-46. Studies of the tall-tussock (Chionochloa) vegetation/soil
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WESTON, G.C. 1958 2. The vegetation/soil relationships.
The response of radiata pine to fertilizers. N.Z. Journal of Botany 13: 269-303.
N.Z. Society of Soil Science Proceedings 3: 13-9.
WILLIAMS, P.A.; GRIGG, J.L.; MUGAMBI, S.; O'CONNOR, K.F. 1978
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Tane 9: 63-84. N.Z. Journal of Science 21: 149-56.
*WHITTON, J.S. 1978 WILLIAMS, P.A.; GRIGG, J.L.; NES, P.; O'CONNOR, K.F. 1976
Geobiochemistry. Vegetation/soil relationships and distribution of
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The effect of podzolisation on total element levels. Macro-element composition of Chionochloa pallens and
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Gibbsite and halloysite decomposition in strongly acid Macro-element composition of tall-tussocks (Chionochloa)
podzolic soils developed from granitic saprolite of in the South Island, New Zealand, and their relationship
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Geode1>rna 19: 51-61. N.Z. Jou:Pnal of Botany 16: 479-98.
 452

WRIGHT, A.C.S. 195la

The soil factor in plant ecology.
Wellington Botanical Society Bulletin 24: 2-6.

WRIGHT, A.C.S. 195lb

Soils of south-western Southland.
N.Z. Jou.rnal of Science and Technology A33: 66-75.

WRIGHT, A.C.S. 1959

Soils of the Chatham Island (Rekohu).
N.Z. Soil BUX'eau Bulletin 19. 60p. . :.· :. ~ ~ : ,·

~ ..
W~IGHT, A.C.S.; GRIDLEY, E.J.S. 1949
Note on boron deficiency in Wharekohe silt loam.
N.Z. Journal of Science and Technology 31A(4): 36-9.
WRIGHT, A.C.S.; MILLER, R.B. 1952
Soils of South-West Fiordland.
N.Z. Soil BUX'eau Bulletin ?. 30p.

WRIGHT, A.C.S.; RICHARDS, J.; LOBB, W.R.; MILLER, R.B. 1952

Soils and their Utilization, Green Isl~nd-Kaitangata
District.
N.Z. Soil BUX'eau Bulletin 6. 36p.

*WRIGHT, J.R.; SCHNITZER, M. 1963

Metallo-organic interactions associated ~ith podzolization.
Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 2?: 171-6.

YOUNG, A.W.; CAMPBELL, A.S.; WALKER, T.W. 19~fr

Allophane isolated from a podzol deve1op~d on a
non-vitric parent material.
Nature 284: 46-8.

YOUNG, A.W.; TONKIN, P.J.; McKIE, D.A.; CAMr,BE~L, A.S . 1977

Conceptual models of soil development ~~~ soil distribution
in hill country, central South Island', :t':lew Zealand. Part I.I.
Chemical and mineralogical properties.
N.Z. Soil News 25: 173-5. (unpublished)

YOUNG, D.J. 1967

Loess deposits of the West Coast of the South Island,
New Zealand.
N.Z. JoiArnal of Geology a:nd Geophysics 10: 647-58.
*YUAN, T.L. 1959
Determination of exchangeable hydrogen in soils by a
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Soil Science 88: 164-7.