High voltage engineering
Overvoltages
· power frequency
· switching surges
· lightning surges
Overvoltage protection
· earth wires
· spark gaps
· surge arresters
Insulation coordination
Overvoltages
· power frequency
· switching - Short time
( > Um 2 )
· lightning -
Ylijännitelajit
Power frequency overvoltages
· earth faults in unearthed & compensated neutral systems
Þ maximum phase voltage
» 1,05 × 3 U V
Uv is the normal phase voltage
Flow of fault current in an earth
fault in unearthed power system.
Uv = phase voltage before fault.
Rf = fault resistance.
Voltages during an earth fault
in unearthed power system.
a) Rf = 0, b) Rf ¹ 0, U’max » 1,05 Ö3 Uv
·
Limiting the earth fault voltages
Solid earthing; earth fault factor k £ 1,4
UT Highest phase voltage (fault)
k = =
UV Normal phase voltage
k £ 1,4 if
ì X 0 / X 1 £ 4,5
í
î R 0 / X 1 £ 1,0
In Finland the 420 kV system is solid earthed
Values of k, when R1 = R2 = 0,1 X1
Power frequency overvoltages
Ferranti-phenomenon: in no-load state the voltage of a line rises towards the end
l r l r
g c g c
s ds s+ds
U2 = voltage in the line end Example: s/km U2/U1
U1 = voltage in the line beginning 100 1,006
U2 1 s = line length 200 1,022
= ; 300 1,05
U1 cos b s b = phase constant
400 1,09
b = (r + jwl) (g + jwc) 500 1,15
r << l & g << c
Þ b » w lc = 6° / 100 km
(regardless the voltage !!!)
Energising a capacitively loaded network
Sk = short circuit power
Qc = capacitive var production - compensation reactor absorption
420 kV system voltages (U) as a function of feeding point short circuit
power (Sk) and undercompensation degree (Qc).
Switching overvoltages:
Interrupting capacitive current
i
t2 t3 1) current of C is cut off at time t1;
t in C it remains a Ö2U voltage
t1
2) half 50 Hz cycle later the voltage
across k is 2Ö2U (t2); restriking
with frequency w =1/ÖLC
u
Ö2 U 3) if current interrupted 1. half cycle
t later (t3), voltage in is C -3·Ö2U
-3Ö2 U
L k
u( t) = 2 U sin wt
u(t) ~ C
( wL <<
1
)
wC
Interrupting a small inductive current
u i
Lk k i
u
~ u(t) Ck Cs Ls
u(t ) = 2 U cos wt
After interruption the circuit behind Means of limitation :
k starts to oscillate with frequency:
· breaker selection (restriking is Ok)
wS = 1/ LSCS
· opening resistors in CB
Þ over voltage · increasing capacitance Cs
Energy stored in L and C : · surge arresters
1 1 1
W = CS u 0 + LS i 0 = CS u L,2 max
2 2
2 2 2
Switching an unloaded line
· Travelling wave phenomenon
· Of importance for lines over 300 kV
· High speed reclosing & residual charge
· Highest overvoltages even 3.5 p.u.
· Mitigation : closing resistors Þ 2 p.u.
Voltage in line end when switching an unloaded line live Voltage in line end when switching an unloaded line
a) one-line diagram of the circuit, in a strong transmission system.
b) voltages: graph 1: residual charge = 0 graph 1: no residual charge
graph 2: residual charge = -1,0 p.u. graph 2: residual charge -1,0 p.u.
Lightning surges
· thunder cloud and the lightning stroke
Thunder cloud
cross section
Phases of a
lightning stroke
Direct stroke to the conductor
2 1 2
1 i = lightning current, Ex. 20 kA
u = i Z0
2 Z0 = surge impedance, Ex. 450 W
Þ u » 4,5 MV
Þ always causes flashover
Cross-arm unearthed (wood pole) Cross-arm earthed Earthed pole with
Lightning stroke causes 3-ph fault Bach flashover shielding wires
Induced overvoltages
· stroke to the line vicinity
· 3-pole travelling wave created
· U < 200…300 kV
· problem mainly in MV networks
Number of faults caused by lightning strokes for lines without
shielding wires. 1 direct strokes, 2 induced overvoltages.
Means for limiting the overvoltages
Voltage withstand curve of a 123 kV transformer. 1: steep surges, 2: slow surges,
3: “short” switching and, 4: “long” switching over voltages, 5: 50 Hz voltage, (1 min)
· circuit breaker selection
· closing / opening resistors
· parallel reactors
· protection capacitors
· shielding wires
· spark gaps
· surge arresters
Shielding wires
· used for 110 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV lines
· In 110 kV lines the number of lightning faults 7-fold
in no shielding wires
· shielding angle q selected such that the currents with stroke
distance higher than rs can not reach the phase conductors
(rs ~ lightning current)
rs » 6,7 is0,8
Ex. 20 kA
Þ 74 m
The dependence of shielding angle on
the line geometry. rs ^ stroke distance
The shielding angle q
Spark gaps
a: s=80 mm or 100 mm
b: s=60 mm or 80 mm
Sparks gaps used for pole mounted secondary transformers
· used for < 200 kV pole transformers
· operation causes an earth fault Þ reclosing
· when operates, the surge voltage collapses
Þ transformer must be tested for a cut surge
· large variation in the flashover voltage
· with steep surges, the flashover voltage strongly increased
Voltage-time characteristics for lightning surges. a) estimation method,
b) results for a 30 inch spark gap (positive polarity)
Surge arresters
Two types:
· spark gaps in series with SiC-resistors
· ZnO - surge arresters
Voltage - current characteristics of SiC and ZnO resistors
Surge arrester types. (a) spark gap type, (b) active spark gap type, (c) ZnO - type.
1 = resistor, 2 = spark gap, 3 = active spark gap, 4 = blowing coil, 5 = by-pass resistor.
The operation of a surge arrester
û1 = peak value of the incoming voltage
û2 = insulation level of the equipment
us = break down voltage (SiC only)
ûr = remaining voltage of the arrester
SiC
û = peak value of 50 Hz voltage
îs = peak value of the surge current
îj1 = 50 Hz current in the spark gap
îj2 = 50 Hz current in the active spark gap
t1 = time of break down
ZnO
Transformer protection using spark gap or surge arrester
A ^ a transformer, voltage strength for
surges 550 kV, B ^ spark gap S = 79 cm,
C ^ spark gap S = 66 cm, D ^ surge arrester
UN = 120 kV, 1,2 ^ test voltage crest values
Surge arrester location
a) transformer connected in overhead line
b) transformer connected in underground
cable
Rated data of a surge arrester
Protective level: highest voltage over the surge arrester. Withstand level
voltage of the power system equipment must be 1,2 -1,4 * protective level.
Nominal voltage: highest voltage that the surge arrester can take without
break down. Must be 5…10 % higher than maximum expected operation
voltage of the power system considered.
Nominal discharge current: current surge amplitude, that corresponds to
the protective level. Standard values: 20, 10, 5, 2.5 kA
Rated current: the capacity to discharge energy
Insulation coordination
Fitting the insulation level and the protective level together
margin
Protective level Withstand level
Us Uw
Max operation voltage Um
Uw vs. Um
Uw = withstand level =
margin - lightning surges 1.2 - 1.4
- switching overvoltages 1.1 - 1.2
· the ratio of protective level and operation voltage
- in conventional surge arresters about 2.4
· margin for surge arrester operation 10 %
· earth fault factor k
· highest normal operation voltage as phase voltage
Example. Unearthed system Um = 24 kV
- earth fault factor k = 1.05 × 3 » 1.82
- margin for surge arrester operation 1.1
- protective level / operation voltage 2.4
- margin between insulation level
and protection level 1.4
Insulation withstand level:
Um
U w = 1.82 × 1.1 × 2.4 × 1.4
3
= 93.2 kV
(Std IEC-71: 95 kV)
Example: Solid earthed system Um = 420 kV
- earth fault factor k = 1.4
- margin for surge arrester operation 10 %
- protection level / operation voltage 2.4
- margin between insulation level
and protection level 1.2
Insulation withstand voltage:
Um
U w = 1.4 × 1.1 × 2.4 × 1.2
3
= 1075 kV
(Std IEC-71: 1050 kV tai 1175 kV)
Statistical methods
U max
Failure risk : R = ò p(U) F(U) dU
U min
- p(U) is the distribution of the voltage stresses
- F(U) is the probability function of insulation strength
Statistical insulation coordination.
a) the risk of failure, b) the minimum of costs
1= insulation costs, 2=failure costs, 3=total costs
Statistical safety factor g
U W10
g =
U S2
- UW10 is the voltage level with a 10 % break down probability
- US2 is the voltage stress having a 2 % exceeding probability
The definition of the variables in statistical safety factor definition
