See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: [Link]

net/publication/10915436

Anticipation Skill in a Real-World Task: Measurement, Training, and Transfer

in Tennis

Article  in  Journal of Experimental Psychology Applied · January 2003

DOI: 10.1037/1076-898X.8.4.259 · Source: PubMed

CITATIONS READS
295 4,074

4 authors, including:

Andrew Mark Williams Paul Ward

University of Utah MITRE
223 PUBLICATIONS   10,936 CITATIONS    109 PUBLICATIONS   5,001 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Nicholas James Smeeton

University of Brighton
44 PUBLICATIONS   1,179 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Improving Public Transportation Accessibility Using Cognitive Task Analysis Techniques View project

The effect of context on anticipation, decision making, and perception of deceptive intent View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Nicholas James Smeeton on 27 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied Copyright 2002 by the American Psychological Association, Inc.
2002, Vol. 8, No. 4, 259 –270 1076-898X/02/$5.00 DOI: 10.1037/1076-898X.8.4.259

Anticipation Skill in a Real-World Task: Measurement, Training, and

Transfer in Tennis
A. Mark Williams, Paul Ward, John M. Knowles, and Nicholas J. Smeeton
Liverpool John Moores University

Anticipation skill in tennis was examined using realistic film simulations, movement-based response
measures, and a portable eye movement recording system. Skilled players were faster than their less
skilled counterparts in anticipating the direction of opponents’ tennis strokes, with this superior perfor-
mance being based, at least in part, on more effective visual search behaviors. The processes mediating
superior performance were then modeled in groups of recreational tennis players using video simulation,
instruction, and feedback. Players who received perceptual training improved their performance on
laboratory- and field-based tests of anticipation when compared with matched placebo and control groups
that did not receive any instruction regarding expert performance strategies. The approach used may have
practical utility in a variety of performance contexts.

Perceptual skills play a crucial role in the performance of long-term working memory theory proposed by Ericsson and
everyday tasks such as driving (McKenna & Horswill, 1999), colleagues (e.g., Ericsson & Delaney, 1999; Ericsson & Kintsch,
reaching and grasping (Goodale & Servos, 1996), and sports 1995) suggests that experts bypass the limitations of short-term
participation (Williams, Davids, & Williams, 1999). The ability to working memory by acquiring skills that promote both rapid
anticipate a future event based on information arising early in the encoding of information in long-term memory and allow selective
display is often regarded as one of the most important perceptual access to this information when required. With extensive practice,
skills underlying effective motor performance. For example, experts index information in such a way that they can successfully
skilled drivers are able to anticipate hazardous traffic situations anticipate future retrieval demands. Retrieval cues kept in short-
more effectively than novices, thereby reducing their accident term working memory facilitate access to information stored in
liability (McKenna & Horswill, 1999). Similarly, in sports such as long-term memory. Expert performers, therefore, acquire flexible
tennis, the ability to anticipate an opponent’s intentions based on representations that facilitate performance and allow them to adapt
postural cues provides a crucial performance advantage (e.g., see rapidly to changes in situational demands.
Rowe & McKenna, 2001; Singer et al., 1994). Although research on perceptual expertise is rapidly expanding,
The majority of researchers working on perceptual (and cogni- knowledge as to the mechanisms underpinning anticipation skill is
tive) expertise have adopted an information-processing framework somewhat limited, and there have been few attempts to determine
and used the expert–novice paradigm to isolate the important whether its acquisition can be facilitated through training and
attributes that differentiate skilled from less skilled individuals. instruction (see Williams et al., 1999). In this article, we use the
The consensus seems to be that expert performers develop knowl- expertise approach advocated by Ericsson and Smith (1991) to
edge and skills that enable them to deal effectively with a variety rectify perceived shortcomings in the literature. In Experiment 1,
of related performance scenarios. The relationship between visual the important characteristics of anticipation skill in a real-world
perception, memory, and skill has previously been explained task are identified by using realistic film simulations, movement-
through reference to the perceptual “chunking” model proposed by based response measures, and a portable eye movement recording
Chase and Simon (1973). This model suggests that experts can system. The intention was to analyze and describe the perceptual
exceed the capacity of short-term memory by clustering or group- processes critical to expert performance on the task. In Experi-
ing individual elements (e.g., individual player positions) into ment 2, knowledge derived from Experiment 1 is used to create a
larger and more meaningful units (e.g., game configurations). systematic training program with the intention of improving an-
More recently, Gobet and Simon’s (1996) template theory inte- ticipation skill. The approach used in this program of research,
grates perceptual features such as chunks with high-level cognitive namely that of developing a realistic performance measure so as to
processes such as schematic knowledge and planning through capture and analyze expert performance and then using this infor-
complex data structures referred to as templates. In contrast, the mation to design and implement a suitable training intervention,
might have practical utility in a variety of performance contexts.

A. Mark Williams, Paul Ward, John M. Knowles, and Nicholas J. Experiment 1

Smeeton, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool
John Moores University, Liverpool, England. Anticipation in Real-World Tasks
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to A. Mark
Williams, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool One of the earliest studies to examine anticipation skill in a
John Moores University, The Henry Cotton Building, 15–21 Webster real-world task was carried out by Jones and Miles (1978). In this
Street, Liverpool L3 2ET, England. E-mail: [Link]@[Link] study, a film-based temporal occlusion approach was used to

259
260 WILLIAMS, WARD, KNOWLES, AND SMEETON

investigate whether expert, intermediate, and novice tennis players Method

could successfully anticipate the direction of an opponent’s serve.
Three different temporal occlusion periods were used: 336 ms after Participants
ball–racket impact, 126 ms after impact, and 42 ms before impact. Eight skilled (mean age ⫽ 23.0 years, SD ⫽ 7.3) and 8 less skilled (mean
Participants were required to indicate where they thought the ball age ⫽ 27.2 years, SD ⫽ 4.4) male tennis players were recruited. The
would land on a schematic representation of the service court area. skilled participants were defined as club level performers or above, with an
The expert tennis players’ performance was significantly better average of 11.9 (SD ⫽ 4.7) years playing experience, during which they
than novices at the earliest occlusion periods only, signifying that had played an average of 500 (SD ⫽ 308) tournament matches. The less
skilled participants had an average of 3.8 (SD ⫽ 1.0) years of recreational
they were able to use information available before ball–racket
tennis experience and had not played in any tournament matches. The less
contact more effectively than their novice counterparts. Following skilled participants reported that they were physically active and partici-
the seminal work of Jones and Miles (1978), other researchers pated in sports other than tennis at a competitive level. Informed consent
have reported similar findings (e.g., see Isaacs & Finch, 1983; was obtained before commencing the experiment.
Rowe & McKenna, 2001; Tenenbaum, Levy-Kolker, Sade, Lieber-
mann, & Lidor, 1996). Test Film
Although these studies highlighted the importance of anticipa-
tion skill in real-world tasks, no attempts were made to identify the Two club level, male tennis players were used as models. The players
important information cues underpinning successful performance. were required to play forehand and backhand strokes during simulated
match play situations toward four locations on court (left court, right court,
Singer et al. (1996) addressed this issue by using an eye movement
center forecourt, and center backcourt). Each player was positioned on the
registration system to identify differences in visual search behav- baseline and filmed “front on” using a VHS video camera (Panasonic
iors between expert and novice tennis players. Participants were MS-4). This viewing position provided the same perspective as an oppo-
required to move a handheld joystick in response to serve and nent positioned mid-court on the other side of the net. The film sequences
passing shots presented on a small (12-in [30-cm]) television were edited to produce 6 practice and 16 test trials (8 forehand and 8
monitor. The expert players were quicker and more accurate in backhand shots). The stroke type and ball end locations were randomized.
their response to the filmed sequences. Also, differences in visual Each trial lasted approximately 4 s and included the model’s preparatory
movements and stroke execution. An intertrial interval of 5 s was used.
behaviors were observed between skill groups. The experts fo-
cused on the racket and shoulder–trunk regions to glean informa-
tion concerning the ball’s likely destination, whereas novices Procedure
tended to fixate on more distal and potentially less relevant cues The test film was back-projected (SharpVision XG-NV2E, Mahwah, NJ)
such as the ball, head, and nondominant side of the body (cf. onto a large screen (3 m ⫻ 3.5 m) located 5 m from the participant such
Buckolz, Prapavesis, & Fairs, 1988; Goulet, Bard, & Fleury, that the visual angle subtended by the opponent was similar to the real-
1989). world situation (approximately 8.5°). Participants stood on two pressure
In recent years, researchers have been criticized for using small sensitive pads, holding a tennis racket in a ready position, and were asked
television displays and simplistic response protocols to replicate to respond quickly and accurately to each tennis stroke. Responses were
made by taking a step to one of four pressure sensitive pads located 0.4 m
the performance setting. Artificial laboratory tasks may negate
directly in front, behind, to the left or right of the participant, and by
experts’ advantage over novices by denying them access to infor- swinging the racket as if to intercept the ball. A schematic of the experi-
mation that they would normally use, limiting them to use different mental setup used is presented in Figure 1A. The film was occluded after
information to solve a particular problem (Abernethy, Thomas, & initiation of the participant’s response to prevent feedback on task perfor-
Thomas, 1993; Williams et al., 1999). In response to this criticism, mance. Participants’ responses were measured with a choice response time
attempts have been made to develop more realistic laboratory system activated by the pressure sensors (Movement Science Reaction
protocols (e.g., Ward, Williams, & Bennett, 2002) and to measure Timer, 1993; Clinical and Biomedical Engineering, Royal Liverpool Uni-
versity Hospital). The test session took approximately 30 min to complete.
anticipatory performance in situ (e.g., Singer et al., 1998). How-
Eye movements were recorded with an eye-head integration system
ever, empirical effort is still required to develop appropriate mea- comprised of an Applied Science Laboratories (Bedford, MA) 5000SU eye
sures of anticipatory performance in real-world settings (Rowe & tracker and Ascension Technologies (Burlington, VT), Flock of Birds
McKenna, 2001). magnetic head tracker (Model 6DFOB). The integrative system allows
In this experiment, skilled and less skilled tennis players were freedom of movement within 1.22 m in any direction and collects three
required to perform simulated tennis strokes in response to near pieces of information to calculate eye line of gaze; displacement between
pupil and corneal reflection, position of eye in head, and position and
life-size images of opponents playing forehand and backhand
orientation of head in space. This information is calculated with respect to
groundstrokes. We assessed the participants’ anticipatory perfor- a precalibrated 9-point grid overlaid onto the scene plane. A simple eye
mance and their visual search behaviors as they viewed and moved calibration was performed to verify point of gaze before each participant
in response to the action sequences. The eye movement patterns was tested. Periodic calibration checks were conducted before and during
and interspersed fixations provided an indication of the under- presentation of the test trials; however, recalibration was not required for
lying perceptual and cognitive processes used during task per- any participant. The integrated system was accurate to within 1° of visual
formance (see Rayner, 1998). We hypothesized that the skilled angle.
tennis players would demonstrate superior anticipation and
more selective and effective visual search behaviors than their Dependent Measures and Statistical Analysis
less skilled counterparts.
Two measures of anticipatory performance were obtained.
 ANTICIPATION SKILL IN TENNIS 261

Figure 1. The experimental setup used during the laboratory- (A) and field-based (B) tests of anticipation skill.

Response accuracy (RA). This was defined as the mean correctness of seven fixation locations: head–shoulder, trunk– hips, arm– hand, leg–
the participant’s response relative to the actual shot destination across all foot, racket, ball, and racket– ball contact areas. A further “unclassified”
trials (in percentages). category was included to account for those fixations that did not fall
Decision time (DT). This was the mean time from onset of the film clip within any of the above areas (i.e., net, court, or background areas).
to the initiation of the participant’s movement response across all trials (in Fixation locations were classified objectively by superimposing scan
milliseconds). The response was completed when the participant lifted his paths over the dynamic display. Percentage viewing time was analyzed
foot off one of the pressure sensitive pads. using a factorial analysis of variance (ANOVA) in which group was a
Performance on the anticipation test was analyzed statistically using a between-participant factor and fixation location was a within-
one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), with group participant factor.
(skilled, less skilled) as a between-participant factor and DT and RA as the Search rate. This measure was comprised of the average number of
dependent measures. Planned comparisons were carried out to compare the fixation locations per trial, the average number of fixations per trial, and
performance of both groups on each dependent measure, respectively. mean fixation duration (in milliseconds). As in previous research (e.g.,
Effect sizes were calculated using the Cohen’s d statistic. Williams & Davids, 1998), a fixation was defined as the period of time (ⱖ
Three measures of visual search behavior were recorded. 100 ms) when the eye remained stationary within 1.5° of movement
Percentage viewing time. This measure was the percentage of time tolerance. Each variable was analyzed separately using a one-way
spent fixating on each area of the display. The display was divided into ANOVA, with group as a between-participant factor.
262 WILLIAMS, WARD, KNOWLES, AND SMEETON

Search order. This variable was defined as the average frequency with Table 2
which a combination of successive fixation locations was observed on each Mean and ⫾ Standard Deviation Decision Time (DT) and
trial (i.e., fixations immediately prior to or following the current fixation). Response Accuracy (RA) Scores of the Laboratory-Based
Initial analyses were performed descriptively using a series of transition Anticipation Test
matrices. Two variables were subsequently analyzed using separate one-
way ANOVAs, with group as a between-participant factor. These variables Mean error rate Standard deviation
were the number of transitions between racket, ball, and racket– ball
contact areas and the number of transitions between head–shoulder and Group DT (ms) RA (%) DT (ms) RA (%)
trunk– hip region.
Skilled 3,817.5 68.4 63.3 4.0
Less skilled 3,954.5 64.5 89.5 10.3
Results
Anticipation Test
of locations fixated per trial, the average number of fixations per
The results of the MANOVA are presented in Table 1. Planned
trial, or the mean fixation duration (all ps ⬎ .05, d ⫽ 0.59, 0.17,
comparisons indicated that the skilled players were significantly
and 0.20, respectively). Participants averaged 6.5 (SD ⫽ 1.20)
quicker than the less skilled participants in responding to the
fixations per trial, with a mean duration of 526.6 (SD ⫽ 134.5) ms,
virtual tennis strokes ( p ⬍ .01, d ⫽ 1.77). No differences were
whereas an average of 4.2 (SD ⫽ 0.5) locations were fixated on per
observed between groups in response accuracy ( p ⬎ .05,
trial.
d ⫽ 0.49). The mean data are presented in Table 2.

Percentage Viewing Time Search Order

Mauchly’s test of sphericity highlighted a significant violation The results of an analysis of the transitions between head–
of the sphericity assumption for repeated measures ANOVA, shoulder and trunk– hip regions are presented in Table 5, along
␹2(27, N ⫽ 28) ⫽ 50.42, p ⬍ .01, ␧ ⫽ .87. We used the with a separate analysis involving transitions within and between
Huynh–Feldt correction procedure to adjust the degrees of free- racket, ball, and racket– ball contact areas. Skilled tennis players
dom. The results of the ANOVA are presented in Table 3. Signif- used more successive fixations within and between the head–
icant effects were observed for location, F(6.08, 85.15) ⫽ 17.80, shoulder and trunk– hip regions (M ⫽ 6.1, SD ⫽ 2.9) than their less
p ⬍ .01, ␻2 ⫽ .70, and the Location ⫻ Group interaction, skilled (M ⫽ 4.5, SD ⫽ 2.8) counterparts (d ⫽ 0.56). In contrast,
F(6.08, 85.15) ⫽ 5.27, p ⬍ .01, ␻2 ⫽ .18. Newman–Keuls analysis the less skilled players alternated their gaze between racket and
indicated that the skilled tennis players spent significantly more ball areas of the display more frequently (M ⫽ 8.3, SD ⫽ 2.6) than
time fixating on the head–shoulder region of the body in compar- skilled (M ⫽ 3.8, SD ⫽ 2.2) players (d ⫽ 1.88).
ison to more peripheral areas of the body such as the arm– hand,
leg–foot, ball, and unclassified locations (all ps ⬍ .01, d ⫽ 0.58, Discussion
0.46, 0.54, and 0.84, respectively). Similarly, the skilled players
The aim of Experiment 1 was to identify skill-based differences
spent a longer period of time fixating on the trunk– hip region
in anticipatory performance by using a real-world task involving
compared with the arm– hand and ball regions ( p ⬍ .05, d ⫽
tennis forehand and backhand strokes. A secondary aim was to
0.45, 1.54) and the leg–foot and unclassified locations ( p ⬍ .01,
determine whether skilled and less skilled performers used differ-
d ⫽ 1.40 and 2.50, respectively). In contrast, less skilled partici-
ent visual search behaviors as they viewed the film-based tennis
pants spent significantly more time viewing the racket compared
strokes. We hypothesized that the skilled players would demon-
with the head–shoulder, trunk– hips, arm– hand, leg–foot, ball,
strate superior anticipatory performance and more effective visual
unclassified, and racket– ball contact areas (all ps ⬍ .01, d ⫽ 1.85,
search behavior than less skilled players.
2.71, 3.38, 2.73, 3.01, and 2.42, respectively). The less skilled
As expected, the skilled players exhibited superior anticipatory
participants also spent considerably more time fixating on the
performance compared with the less skilled performers. This find-
racket than the high-skilled players ( p ⬍ .01, d ⫽ 1.92). The mean
ing supports previous research using representative real-world
results are presented in Figure 2.
tasks (e.g., McKenna & Horswill, 1999), especially in tennis (e.g.,
Search Rate
Table 3
As highlighted in Table 4, no significant differences were found
ANOVA Test Results to Examine Differences in Fixation
between the skilled and less skilled players in the average number
Location Across Groups
Table 1
Effect Error
MANOVA Test Results for the Skilled and Less Skilled Players
on the Field-Based Anticipation Test Factor df MS df MS F

Effect ⌳ F df Group 1 0.00 14 0.00 1.10

Location 6.08 992.69 85.15 55.76 17.80**
Group .41 9.52** 2, 13 Group ⫻ Location 6.08 293.92 85.15 55.76 5.27**

Note. MANOVA ⫽ multivariate analysis of variance. Note. ANOVA ⫽ analysis of variance.

** p ⬍ .01. ** p ⬍ .01.
 ANTICIPATION SKILL IN TENNIS 263

Figure 2. Mean (⫾ SE) percentage time spent viewing each fixation location for skilled and less skilled
participants.

Jones & Miles, 1978; Rowe & McKenna, 2001; Singer et al., The search order data suggested that the skilled players also
1996). The skilled players made a decision approximately 140 ms considered the subtle relations between areas within the central
earlier than the less skilled players did, thereby providing a con- body region, such as the degree of rotation of the torso or the
siderable performance advantage with regard to successful stroke orientation of the shoulders relative to the hips (cf. Ward et al.,
execution. 2002). In contrast, the search order data suggest that the less
Systematic differences in gaze behavior were observed across skilled participants primarily considered the relationships between
the two skill groups. The less skilled players preferred to focus on the movements of the racket and ball trajectory relative to the
more obvious, deterministic cues from the racket and ball regions. impending racket– ball contact zone.
In contrast, the skilled players utilized a more synthetic search In summary, skilled tennis players demonstrated superior antic-
strategy, using prior knowledge and experience to direct their gaze ipatory performance compared with their less skilled counterparts.
toward additional, perhaps more subtle task-relevant information The experts’ anticipation skill was based, at least in part, on more
cues located around the central body areas (i.e., head–shoulder, refined and effective visual search behaviors. The skilled players
trunk– hip). Also, with an increase in skill level, there was an spent longer periods of time fixating on central body regions such
enhanced ability to search for, and utilize, cues from earlier oc- as the head–shoulders and trunk– hip regions compared with less
curring events within the display. The less skilled players relied on skilled players who, in contrast, used more distal cues such as the
later occurring, distal cues; information that was likely to have racket and ball to guide their anticipatory response. In Experi-
been only confirmatory in nature for the high-skilled players. ment 2, we used information about the processes mediating supe-
These differences in visual behavior across skill groups are similar rior performance to develop a systematic training program to
to those presented in previous studies involving both eye move- enhance anticipation skill in less skilled tennis players. We used
ment recording (e.g., Singer et al., 1996; Ward et al., 2002) and various instructional approaches coupled with an innovative field-
retrospective verbal reports (e.g., Buckolz et al., 1988). based measure of performance transfer.

Table 4 Table 5
The Results of Separate ANOVA Tests for the Mean Number of The Results of Separate ANOVA Tests to Examine Differences in
Fixation Locations, Number of Fixations, and Fixation Duration Search Order Transitions Between and Within Different Display
Per Trial Areas

Effect Error Effect Error

Variable df MS df MS F Search order transitions df MS df MS F

No. of fixation locations 1 0.03 14 0.29 0.12 Head–shoulders, trunk–hips 1 42.25 14 5.26 8.02**
No. of fixations 1 2.15 14 1.62 1.33 Racket, ball, racket–ball 1 81.00 14 5.75 14.10**
Fixation duration 1 3,011.26 14 19,165.92 0.18
Note. ANOVA ⫽ analysis of variance.
Note. ANOVA ⫽ analysis of variance; No. ⫽ number. ** p ⬍ .01.
264 WILLIAMS, WARD, KNOWLES, AND SMEETON

Experiment 2 In contrast, learners have difficulty or are unable to verbalize

knowledge acquired through more implicit or guided discovery
Training Anticipation Skill in Real-World Tasks techniques (see Gentile, 1998; Green & Shanks, 1993; Stadler &
Roediger, 1998). Although prescriptive approaches may facilitate
In contrast to the exhaustive literature on expert performance, short-term solutions to the problem at hand, they may not allow
the issue of whether, or how, anticipation skill can be enhanced learners to develop the flexible and adaptive knowledge systems
through practice and instruction has received limited attention. In required to deal with a variety of performance contexts. The
two recent reviews, Williams and colleagues (e.g., Williams & suggestion is that instructional approaches based on guided dis-
Grant, 1999; Williams & Ward, in press) concluded that cognitive covery provide the learner with the opportunity to explore different
interventions that develop the underlying knowledge base have solutions to the problem at hand. The role for the instructor in this
practical utility for enhancing anticipation skill in sport and other latter approach is to manipulate the constraints of the learning
contexts. The typical approach has involved using video simula- environment such that desired behavior emerges through practice
tions that re-create the participant’s customary view of the action and exploration, a process commonly referred to as search plus
(e.g., return of serve in tennis, hazardous driving situation, various selection under constraint (e.g., see Thelen, 1995).
surgical situations). These film sequences are presented to the A potential implication when attempting to train anticipation
learner coupled with the directive to focus attention on the most skill is that visual attention should merely be directed toward
informative cues. This process is presumed to facilitate perceptual “information rich” areas of the display as opposed to specific
learning by increasing the amount of attention paid to perceptual information cues (see Magill, 1998). In this approach, knowledge
features that are important and decreasing attention to irrelevant is acquired more implicitly through guided discovery rather than
features of the display (Goldstone, 1998). The relationship be- via conscious or intentional processes. For example, when learning
tween these key sources of information and the subsequent action to anticipate an opponent’s serve in tennis, players should not be
requirements are also highlighted, and feedback about the correct directed to focus their gaze on specific information cues such as
response is provided. For example, this type of approach has the ball and racket orientation at impact. Players should merely be
already been used successfully to train police officers, aviation directed toward the contact zone so that they can discover the
pilots, whitewater rafting guides, and sports performers (see Ab- regularities between racket and ball orientation for each type of
ernethy, Wood, & Parks, 1999; Allerton, 2000; Helsen & Starkes, serve. Highly directed instruction does not allow players to learn
1999; O’Hare, Wiggins, Williams, & Wong, 1998). how to search, whereas completely random searching is likely to
Although these studies highlight the potential of perceptual be time-consuming and inefficient and could lead to losses in
training programs, various shortcomings prevent a clear evaluation self-confidence and motivation. Different combinations of ball and
of their usefulness. The majority of researchers have failed to use racket orientations are required so that the learner can become
placebo (e.g., viewing other instructional material or mere obser- progressively attuned to the invariant regulatory features. Thus far,
vation of training film without receiving formal instruction) and these predictions have not been tested empirically.
control (e.g., no training) groups in addition to the conventional With these issues in mind, we used knowledge derived from
training group. The improvements in performance observed in Experiment 1 regarding the visual search strategies used by skilled
these studies may be due to conformational bias or increased players to train less skilled performers; we assessed anticipatory
familiarity with the test environment rather than any meaningful performance pre- and posttest by using laboratory- and field-based
treatment effect (e.g., see Singer et al., 1994). Also, researchers measures; and we examined the relative merits of explicit instruc-
have neglected to use suitable transfer tests to examine whether tion and guided discovery approaches by using one group that was
training facilitated performance in the real-world context (e.g., see provided with prescriptive information as to the important cues
Farrow, Chivers, Hardingham, & Sachse, 1998). The design and underlying performance, whereas we invited another group to pick
implementation of some measure of transfer is essential to deter- up the same information through guided discovery. Finally, we
mine whether the improvements observed in the laboratory setting made attempts to improve on previous research by using matched
actually transfer to the real-world setting (cf. Scott, Scott, & Howe, control and placebo groups to ensure that any improvements were
1998; Singer et al., 1994; Starkes & Lindley, 1994). due to meaningful training effects rather than to the result of
Another important issue is how relevant information should be potentially confounding factors such as increased test familiarity
conveyed to the learner during the instructional process. The or expectancy effects.
traditional approach has been essentially prescriptive or highly
directed in nature, with detailed instruction and feedback as to Method
correct behavior being provided (e.g., see Abernethy et al., 1999;
Participants
Farrow et al., 1998). However, scientists have recently advocated
a more hands-off or less prescriptive approach to instruction (e.g., A total of 32 recreational level, male tennis players were recruited to
see Davids, Williams, Button, & Court, 2001; Williams et al., participate in the experiment. These participants were similar in ability to
1999). The suggestion is that guided discovery techniques may be those in the less skilled group in Experiment 1. However, because of the
time-consuming nature of the intervention used, 4 of the participants
more effective than explicit instruction strategies, particularly un-
withdrew from the experiment before participating in any program of
der conditions involving high uncertainty or stress (e.g., Hardy, intervention. The participants had played tennis for an average of 3.4
Mullen, & Jones, 1996; Masters, 1992; Maxwell, Masters, & Eves, (SD ⫽ 1.4) years at a recreational level only. All were physically active
2000). When skills are learned through explicit or prescriptive athletes with comparable levels of sporting experience and attainment,
approaches, the emphasis is on verbalization and active cognition albeit in nonracket sports. Informed consent was obtained prior to com-
such that the knowledge once acquired can be verbally mediated. mencing the experiment.
 ANTICIPATION SKILL IN TENNIS 265

Test Film practice anticipating an opponent’s intentions in a variety of realistic tennis

drill and match situations. This realistic training protocol allowed partici-
The same test film as in Experiment 1 was used. pants to reestablish potentially important linkages between perception and
action variables.
Procedure Guided discovery group (n ⫽ 8). Participants followed a similar train-
ing program to that highlighted for the explicit instruction group. However,
Laboratory test. The setup and procedure were the same as in
rather than providing explicit instruction as to the most important infor-
Experiment 1.
mation cues underlying performance, these participants were merely di-
Field test. Participants were required to respond to a male, club level
rected to focus on potential areas of interest. For example, rather than being
player performing forehand and backhand groundstrokes from the baseline.
informed that the orientation of the hip indicated whether the shot was
A Bola Ball Trainer (TR85) projection machine was located in the left
going to be played cross-court or down-the-line, participants were directed
corner of the participant’s baseline. The rally was initiated when a tennis
to focus attention around the midriff region and to try and determine
ball was projected from the ball projection machine toward the feeding
through guided discovery the relationship between hip orientation and shot
player at an average velocity of 12.7 m/s. The feeder was required to strike
outcome. Various verbal probes such as “Do you notice anything different
the ball with a similar velocity toward one of four different locations on the
between the cross-court and down-the-line shots?” were used to try and
participant’s side of the court (i.e., left court, right court, center forecourt,
encourage problem solving and guide the learner toward the relevant
and center backcourt). The participant, located mid-court, was required to
information.
anticipate the opponent’s stroke and to move to intercept the ball quickly
Placebo group (n ⫽ 7). Participants observed a 45-min instructional
and accurately, as in a match situation. The participant’s actions were
video focusing on technical skills. They were informed that this training
recorded with a digital video camera (JVC GR-DVL 9600) positioned
tape was expected to be helpful in developing anticipation skill. This
behind and slightly to the right of the ball projection machine. The camera
procedure was undertaken to provide an expectancy set for training bene-
was positioned so that the club player, ball projection machine, and
fits that was comparable to that of the perceptual training groups. No
participant’s actions were clearly visible within its field of view for
additional training information was provided.
subsequent analysis. The experimental setup is presented in Figure 1B. Six
Control group (n ⫽ 5). This group of participants received no instruc-
practice and 16 test trials (8 forehand and 8 backhand shots) were pre-
tion or training.
sented. The shot type and ball end location was randomized. An intertrial
interval of approximately 10 s was used, and the test session took approx-
imately 20 min to complete. Dependent Measures and Statistical Analysis
The same measures of performance as reported in Experiment 1 were
Training Protocol recorded on the laboratory-based test of anticipation skill. For the field-
based test of anticipation, similar measures of performance were obtained
Participants were divided randomly into four groups. Each group of
following frame-by-frame analysis of the video data at a sampling fre-
participants completed the laboratory- and field-based pre- and posttests,
quency of 50 Hz. The on-court measures were the following:
although the order of completing the tests was counterbalanced to reduce
DT: The mean time period from the projection of the ball to the
the possibility of order or learning effects. Half the participants in each
initiation of the participant’s initial step in the direction of the ball’s
group completed the laboratory test initially, whereas the others were first
anticipated landing position across all trials (in milliseconds).
tested in the on-court setting. The pre- and posttests for each group were
RA: This was the mean accuracy of response relative to the ball’s final
undertaken a week apart. During the intervening period, the four groups of
destination across all trials. This measure was calculated as a proportion of
participants followed different protocols.
the number of trials presented (in percentages).
Explicit instruction group (n ⫽ 8). Participants who underwent ex-
Interobserver reliability measures were obtained for these dependent
plicit instruction completed 45 min of laboratory-based perceptual training
measures by using intraclass correlation techniques (see Atkinson & Nev-
followed by 45 min of field-based instruction on an individual basis. In the
ill, 1998). The obtained intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from .90
laboratory-based training, participants viewed film clips of a regional level
to .96.
tennis player executing forehand and backhand shots from an on-court
Because the duration of the film and on-court action sequences were not
perspective. Freeze-frame and slow-motion video playback facilities were
identical, data from the laboratory and field tests were analyzed separately
used to highlight the important information cues underpinning successful
by using a factorial MANOVA in which group (explicit instruction, guided
anticipation skill and the relationship between these sources of information
discovery, control, placebo) was the between-participant variable; test (pre,
and eventual shot placement highlighted. The important information cues
post) was the within-participant variable; and DT and RA were the depen-
were derived from the data collected in Experiment 1. The training tape
dent measures. Planned comparisons were carried out to compare the
was repeated, allowing the participant the opportunity to reassess the
performance of participants in the explicit instruction and guided discovery
linkages between a particular cue and eventual shot location.
groups against those in the control and placebo groups on each dependent
Following the advance cue instruction, participants were provided with
measure on the pre- and posttest, respectively. Also, planned comparisons
the opportunity to practice responding to similar film clips. A total of eight
were performed between the explicit instruction and guided discovery
clips were presented using a temporal occlusion paradigm (see Williams et
groups and between the control and placebo groups, respectively. Effect
al., 1999). The film sequences were occluded at the moment of ball–racket
size calculations were based on the Cohen’s d statistic.
contact, and participants were required to verbally indicate the ball’s likely
destination. Feedback was provided as to correct performance and any
questions answered. Results
The structure of the on-court instruction followed the guidelines pro-
posed by Abernethy et al. (1999) and Singer et al. (1994). This included Laboratory Test
formal instruction on the biomechanics of forehand and backhand shots,
emphasizing the proximal-to-distal progression of stroke kinematics. The The results of the MANOVA are presented in Table 6. There
key information cues were highlighted using a regional level tennis player was a significant interaction between group and test, Wilks’s ⌳ ⫽
to demonstrate the linkage between a particular cue and the subsequent .58, F(6, 46) ⫽ 2.41, p ⬍ .05. Planned comparisons indicated that
response requirements. Participants were then given the opportunity to there were no significant differences in DT or RA between any of
266 WILLIAMS, WARD, KNOWLES, AND SMEETON

Table 6 Table 7
MANOVA Test Results for the Laboratory-Based Anticipation MANOVA Test Results for the Field-Based Anticipation Test
Test
Effect ⌳ F df
Effect ⌳ F df
Group .69 1.49 6, 46
Group .91 0.36 6, 46 Test .31 25.19** 2, 23
Test .79 2.89 2, 23 Group ⫻ Test .57 2.44* 6, 46
Group ⫻ Test .57 2.40* 6, 46
Note. MANOVA ⫽ multivariate analysis of variance.
Note. MANOVA ⫽ multivariate analysis of variance. * p ⬍ .05. ** p ⬍ .01.
* p ⬍ .05.

there were no significant differences in DT or RA between any of

the groups on the pretest (all ps ⬎ .05). However, we observed the groups on the pretest (all ps ⬎ .05). However, we observed
significant differences in RA when comparing the explicit instruc- significant differences in DT when comparing the explicit instruc-
tion and guided discovery groups with the control and placebo tion and guided discovery groups with the control and placebo
groups on the posttest ( p ⬍ .01, d ⫽ 0.83). The two training groups on the posttest ( p ⬍ .01, d ⫽ 1.03). The two training
groups recorded significantly higher RA values on the posttest groups recorded significantly faster DT values (M ⫽ 2,001.0 ms,
(M ⫽ 72.1%, SD ⫽ 15.6) compared with the participants in the SD ⫽ 163.3) compared with the participants in the control and
control and placebo groups (M ⫽ 58.9%, SD ⫽ 14.0). No signif- placebo groups (M ⫽ 2,186.7 ms, SD ⫽ 198.5). No significant
icant differences in DT were observed between the two training differences in RA were observed between the two training groups
groups and the two control groups on the posttest ( p ⬎ .05, and the two control groups on the posttest ( p ⬎ .05, d ⫽ 0.25). No
d ⫽ 0.21). No significant differences in DT or RA were observed significant differences in DT or RA were observed between the
when comparing the explicit instruction group against the guided explicit instruction and guided discovery groups ( p ⬎ .05, d
discovery group on the posttest ( p ⬎ .05, d ⫽ 0.25 and 0.06) or ⫽ 0.19 and 0.10) or between the control and placebo groups on the
when comparing the control and placebo groups on the posttest posttest ( p ⬎ .05, d ⫽ 0.37 and 0.43).
( p ⬎ .05, d ⫽ 0.30 and 0.47). The explicit instruction and guided discovery groups recorded
Participants in the explicit instruction and guided discovery significantly faster DT values on the posttest (M ⫽ 2,001.0 ms,
groups significantly reduced their DT values from pre- (M ⫽ SD ⫽ 163.3) compared with the pretest (M ⫽ 2,195.8 ms, SD ⫽
3,278.1 ms, SD ⫽ 197.3) to posttest (M ⫽ 3,160.0 ms, SD ⫽ 125.3; p ⬍ .01, d ⫽ 2.08). No significant pre-to-posttest differ-
196.4; p ⬍ .01, d ⫽ 0.60). No significant pre-to-posttest differ- ences in RA were observed for the two training groups ( p ⬎ .05,
ences in RA were observed between the two training groups ( p ⬎ d ⫽ 0.40). Similarly, no significant pre-to-posttest differences in
.05, d ⫽ 0.13). Similarly, no significant pre-to-posttest differences DT or RA were observed for the control and placebo groups ( p ⬎
in DT or RA were observed for the control and placebo groups .05, d ⫽ 0.46 and 0.04). The mean performance scores are high-
( p ⬎ .05, d ⫽ 0.11 and 0.34, respectively). The mean group lighted in Figure 4.
performance scores across the dependent variables are presented in
Figure 3. Discussion
The intention in this experiment was to examine whether antic-
Field Test
ipation skill could be improved through the implementation of a
The results of the MANOVA are presented in Table 7. There training program based on video simulation and on-court training.
was a significant effect for test, Wilks’s ⌳ ⫽ .31, F(2, 23) ⫽ A secondary aim was to examine the relative effectiveness of
25.19, p ⬍ .01, and for the Group ⫻ Test interaction, Wilks’s ⌳ ⫽ explicit instruction and guided discovery approaches when at-
.57, F(6, 46) ⫽ 2.44, p ⬍ .05. Planned comparisons indicated that tempting to enhance anticipation skill in a real-world task involv-

Figure 3. Mean (⫾ SE) performance scores for the four groups of participants on the laboratory-based test of
anticipation. pre ⫽ pretest; post ⫽ posttest.
 ANTICIPATION SKILL IN TENNIS 267

Figure 4. Mean (⫾ SE) performance scores for the four groups of participants on the field-based test of
anticipation. pre ⫽ pretest; post ⫽ posttest.

ing tennis forehand and backhand strokes. The use of matched experiment showed that on the field-based test of anticipation,
placebo and control groups and a field-based measure of transfer participants in the explicit instruction and guided discovery groups
provided further innovations. significantly improved their DT values on the posttest compared
The data from the laboratory-based test of anticipation skill with their initial pretest scores. The mean improvement in decision
showed that both the explicit instruction and guided discovery time from pre- to posttest for the two training groups was almost
groups significantly improved their performance from pre- to 200 ms (d ⫽ 2.08). Also, although there were no differences
posttest. The mean improvement in decision time from pre- to between the four groups on the pretest, the two training groups
posttest for the two training groups was almost 120 ms (d ⫽ 0.60). recorded faster DT scores than the control and placebo groups on
This difference reflects a meaningful improvement in anticipatory the posttest. The results provide further support for the practical
performance to levels approaching those of the high-skill group in utility of perceptual training programs and indicate that skills
Experiment 1, presumably as a result of a more refined ability to developed in the laboratory transfer to the field setting. Video
pick up subtle postural cues and to ignore irrelevant sources of simulation and field-based instruction help to develop the under-
information (Goldstone, 1998). Findings provide support for other lying knowledge structures and skills and facilitate the acquisition
researchers who have attempted to enhance anticipation skill in of anticipation skill in real-world tasks.
sport and other settings (Abernethy et al., 1999; Helsen & Starkes, Although the performance of the two training groups on the
1999; O’Hare et al., 1998). field-based test closely mirrored that reported on the laboratory
Although there were no differences between groups in DT or test, the RA scores were lower on the laboratory-based test than on
RA on the pretest, the explicit instruction and guided discovery the field-based test. In the field setting, the players could see the
groups recorded higher levels of accuracy on the posttest com- first, and if need be, the latter portions of ball flight, and as a
pared with the control and placebo groups. In contrast, no signif- consequence, made relatively few errors. In contrast, on the film-
icant pre-to-posttest differences in performance were evident for based test, the participants were constrained to anticipate early and
participants in the control and placebo groups. The improvement in were only allowed a relatively short view of the ball’s trajectory.
performance in the two groups undertaking anticipation training is Also, it may be harder to anticipate ball direction from film clips
a meaningful training effect as opposed to the result of increased compared with an actual situation (cf. Williams et al., 1999). The
test familiarity or confirmation bias. The findings provide support loss of dimensionality and auditory cues as well as the potential
for other recent studies (e.g., Abernethy et al., 1999; Farrow et al., difficulty of orienting the response in relation to the film may
1998). It should be noted however that the participants in the make the laboratory task more difficult than the field test.
placebo group in this experiment were not exposed to any on-court The field-based measure of anticipation used in this study offers
practice. Consequently, the possibility remains that the training much potential for the assessment of perceptual skill in a variety of
improvement observed for the explicit instruction and guided sports, particularly those involving more “closed skills” such as the
discovery groups may be partly due to familiarity effects as a result serve in various racket sports, the penalty flick in field hockey, or
of undertaking an extra 45 min of on-court instruction. This the penalty kick in soccer. Moreover, such techniques may be used
potential confound should be addressed in future experiments by effectively to measure performance in nonsport tasks such as
requiring participants in the placebo group to undertake on-court police and military training or driving and aircraft piloting. The
practice in addition to video-based instruction, perhaps in relation advent of high-speed (i.e., ⬎ 50 Hz) cameras and digital editing
to refining technical skills. and coding systems should enhance measurement sensitivity and
Another novel component of the current experiment was the the potential benefits of using video analysis as a behavioral
inclusion of some measure of performance transfer from the lab- assessment tool.
oratory to the field. Typically, researchers have failed to develop No significant differences in performance were observed be-
objective and sensitive measures of transfer. To promote the need tween the explicit instruction and guided discovery groups on the
for evidence-based practice, some measure of transfer is essential laboratory- or field-based pre- or posttests in DT (␣ ⫽ .07 and .28)
to determine whether improvements observed in the laboratory or RA (␣ ⫽ .06 and .06). Researchers have proposed that guided
transfer to the performance setting. The results of the present discovery instruction may be more beneficial to performance,
268 WILLIAMS, WARD, KNOWLES, AND SMEETON

particularly when performing in stressful environments (Masters, strategies has practical utility as a method of enhancing anticipa-
1992; Maxwell et al., 2000). The suggestion is that guided discov- tion skill in real-world contexts.
ery approaches allow learners to explore various ways to solve the The advantages of using video technology in this way are that
problem, encouraging them to provide a variety of solutions and learning can occur at a self-regulated pace, in a safe environment
increasing perceptual flexibility and adaptability (Savelsbergh & either at or away from the workplace, and the equipment is
Van der Kamp, 2000). In contrast, traditional explicit instruction relatively inexpensive and accessible. Video images can be easily
approaches may be overly prescriptive, constraining the learner to captured and manipulated for training purposes by, for instance,
rely on less efficient sources of perceptual information. It would be highlighting or occluding relevant or irrelevant sources of infor-
interesting to see if the improvements in perceptual skill are mation. Video training may be supported by practice sessions
maintained over prolonged periods of time and whether the im- undertaken in situ, whereas in future virtual reality may also
plicitly trained players’ perceptual processes are more robust to provide exciting opportunities for those interested in designing and
changes in emotional states, as proposed by Masters and col- implementing perceptual training programs (e.g., see Loomis,
leagues. Further research is required using larger sample groups to Blascovich, & Beal, 1999).
explore the relative effectiveness of these instructional techniques Although the model of perceptual training proposed in this
in facilitating the acquisition of perceptual skill. article offers much potential for enhancing performance in various
settings, a number of outstanding issues need to be addressed.
First, eye movement data were not collected on the laboratory-
General Discussion and Conclusions based posttest and consequently, it is not possible to conclude
whether the observed improvements in anticipatory performance
This program of research had several objectives. First, we for the two training groups was reflected by the expected changes
developed a realistic laboratory-based test of anticipation skill in a in visual search behaviors. Thus far, few researchers have exam-
real-world task involving tennis using life-size film images and ined whether, or how, visual behaviors change during skill acqui-
movement-based response measures and used a portable eye sition, and consequently this is an area that merits further inves-
movement recording system to identify differences in visual search tigation (cf. Williams, 2002).
behavior between skilled and less skilled performers. Second, we Another interesting issue is whether other perceptual skills can
used information derived from this test to develop a training also be developed by using a combination of video simulation and
program based on video simulation and instruction to enhance instruction. There is evidence to suggest that pattern recognition
perceptual skill. We made an attempt to examine the relative skill can be improved through repeated exposure to a variety of
effectiveness of explicit instruction and guided discovery instruc- related action sequences (see Wilkinson, 1992). A suggestion is
tional techniques. The inclusion of matched placebo and control that exposure to specific patterns of play in sport, for example,
groups along with a novel measure of transfer provided further results in the development of specialized receptors or detectors
innovations. We hoped that the three-step approach used in this through a process termed imprinting (Goldstone, 1998). These
program of research, whereby expert performance is initially cap- detectors are proposed to develop and strengthen with exposure to
tured with a realistic task, followed by more detailed analysis of the stimulus or stimuli resulting in increased speed, accuracy, and
the underlying processes, and then finally, an investigation of the general fluency with which stimuli are processed.
important effects of practice and training on performance, would The question of how practice should be structured for effective
have implications in a range of settings, particularly where deci- learning has always been a topical area for debate in the motor
sions have to be made under temporal constraint. skills literature (see, Lee, Chamberlin, & Hodges, 2001). The
The findings show that anticipation skill in real-world tasks can general consensus is that variability of practice and high-
be accurately measured in the laboratory with representative tasks contextual interference practice conditions are beneficial for skill
that incorporated life-size film displays and realistic response acquisition. In contrast, few researchers have examined whether
measures. The skilled performers were faster in responding to the similar principles apply in the learning of perceptual and cognitive
tennis simulations compared with their less skilled counterparts, skills (for a recent exception from the ergonomics literature, see de
and systematic differences in visual search behavior were observed Croock, van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). Similarly, the optimal
between the two skill groups. The skilled performers extracted frequency and duration of perceptual training sessions has yet to be
more meaningful information than the less skilled players did from determined. The average length of a session has ranged from 15
the trunk and hip regions in attempting to anticipate the direction min to 2 hr, whereas the frequency has varied from a single session
of an opponent’s forehand and backhand drive shots. The pro- to a 6-week training period (see Williams & Grant, 1999). Does
cesses mediating expert performance were then modeled success- perceptual skill continue to improve with training and practice, or
fully in a group of less skilled players using video simulation is there an optimal point beyond which the additional training
coupled with instruction and feedback. The two groups of partic- benefits are minimal? There is also controversy as to whether
ipants who were exposed to perceptual training improved their perceptual training programs should be used with experts, inter-
performance on the anticipation test compared with matched pla- mediates, or novices. Although the majority of training studies
cebo and control groups who did not receive any instruction. have used novice participants, the answer to this question may
Moreover, the improvement in performance observed in the labo- depend on the nature and difficulty of the skills being taught as
ratory transferred to the field setting, confirming that the observed well as the type of simulation used (for an interesting discussion,
improvement was a meaningful treatment effect rather than the see Alessi, 1988). When attempting to answer these questions,
result of increased test familiarity or habituation. It appears that some degree of guidance may be obtained from the extensive
video simulation and instruction regarding expert performance literature pertaining to the acquisition of motor skills; however,
 ANTICIPATION SKILL IN TENNIS 269

concerted efforts involving systematic programs of research are Hardy, L., Mullen, R., & Jones, G. (1996). Knowledge and conscious
necessary before this area of study can provide a more meaningful control of motor actions under stress. British Journal of Psychology, 87,
contribution to performance enhancement in real-word tasks. 621– 636.
Helsen, W. F., & Starkes, J. L. (1999). A new training approach to complex
decision making for police officers in potentially dangerous interven-
References tions. Journal of Criminal Justice, 27, 395– 410.
Isaacs, L. D., & Finch, A. E. (1983). Anticipatory action of beginning and
Abernethy, B., Thomas, K. T., & Thomas, J. T. (1993). Strategies for intermediate tennis players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 451– 454.
improving understanding of motor expertise (or mistakes we have made Jones, C. M., & Miles, T. R. (1978). Use of advance cues in predicting the
and things we have learned!!). In J. L. Starkes & F. Allard (Eds.), flight of a lawn tennis ball. Journal of Human Movement Studies, 4,
Cognitive issues in motor expertise (pp. 317–356). Amsterdam: Elsevier. 231–235.
Abernethy, B., Wood, J. M., & Parks, S. (1999). Can the anticipatory skills Lee, T. D., Chamberlin, C. J., & Hodges, N. J. (2001). Practice. In R. N.
of experts be learned by novices? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.), Handbook of sport
Sport, 70, 313–318. psychology (2nd ed., pp. 115–143). New York: Wiley.
Alessi, S. M. (1988). Fidelity in the design of instructional simulators. Loomis, J. M., Blascovich, J. J., & Beal, A. C. (1999). Immersive virtual
Journal of Computer-Based Instruction, 15, 40 – 47. environment technology as a basic research tool in psychology. Behav-
Allerton, D. J. (2000). Flight simulation: Past, present and future. Aero- ior, Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 31, 557–564.
nautical Journal, 104, 651– 663. Magill, R. A. (1998). Knowledge is more than we can talk about: Implicit
Atkinson, G. A., & Nevill, A. M. (1998). Statistical methods for addressing learning in motor skill acquisition. Research Quarterly for Exercise and
measurement error (reliability) in variables relevant to sports medicine.
Sport, 69, 104 –110.
Sports Medicine, 26, 217–238.
Masters, R. S. W. (1992). Knowledge, knerves, and know-how. British
Buckolz, E., Prapavesis, H., & Fairs, J. (1988). Advance cues and their use
Journal of Psychology, 83, 343–358.
in predicting tennis passing shots. Canadian Journal of Sports Sci-
Maxwell, J. P., Masters, R. S. W., & Eves, F. F. (2000). From novice to
ences, 13, 20 –30.
know-how: A longitudinal study of implicit motor learning. Journal of
Chase, W. G., & Simon, H. A. (1973). Perception in chess. Cognitive
Sports Sciences, 18, 111–120.
Psychology, 4, 55– 81.
McKenna, F. P., & Horswill, M. S. (1999). Hazard perception and its
Davids, K., Williams, A. M., Button, C., & Court, M. L. J. (2001). An
relevance for driver licensing. Journal of International Association of
integrative modeling approach to the study of intentional movement
Traffic and Safety Sciences, 23, 36 – 41.
behavior. In R. N. Singer, H. A. Hausenblas, & C. M. Janelle (Eds.),
O’Hare, D., Wiggins, M., Williams, A., & Wong, W. (1998). Cognitive
Handbook of sport psychology (2nd ed., pp. 144 –173). New York:
task analyses for decision centred design and training. Ergonomics, 41,
Wiley.
1698 –1718.
de Croock, M. B. M., van Merriënboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998).
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing:
High versus low contextual interference in simulation-based training of
20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin, 124, 372– 422.
troubleshooting skills: Effects on transfer performance and invested
Rowe, R. M., & McKenna, F. P. (2001). Skilled anticipation in real-world
mental effort. Computers in Human Behavior, 14, 249 –267.
Ericsson, K. A., & Delaney, P. F. (1999). Long-term working memory as tasks: Measurements of attentional demands in the domain of tennis.
an alternative to capacity models of working memory in everyday skilled Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 7, 60 – 67.
performance. In A. Miyake & P. Shah (Eds.), Models of working Savelsbergh, G. J. P., & Van der Kamp, J. (2000). Information in learning
memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control (pp. to coordinate and control movements: Is there a need for specificity of
257–297). New York: Cambridge University Press. practice? International Journal of Sport Psychology, 31, 476 – 484.
Ericsson, K. A., & Kintsch, W. (1995). Long-term working memory. Scott, D., Scott, L. M., & Howe, B. L. (1998). Training anticipation for
Psychological Review, 102, 211–245. intermediate tennis players. Behavior Modification, 22, 243–261.
Ericsson, K. A., & Smith, J. (1991). Prospects and limits of the empirical Singer, R. N., Cauraugh, J. H., Chen, D., Steinberg, G. M., Frehlich, S. G.,
study of expertise: An introduction. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Smith (Eds.), & Wang, L. (1994). Training mental quickness in beginning/intermedi-
Toward a general theory of expertise: Prospects and limits (pp. 1–38). ate tennis players. The Sport Psychologist, 8, 305–318.
New York: Cambridge University Press. Singer, R. N., Cauraugh, J. H., Chen, D., Steinberg, G. M., & Frehlich,
Farrow, D., Chivers, P., Hardingham, C., & Sachse, S. (1998). The effect S. G., (1996). Visual search, anticipation, and reactive comparisons
of video-based perceptual training on the tennis return of serve. Inter- between highly-skilled and beginning tennis players. Applied Sport
national Journal of Sport Psychology, 29, 231–242. Psychology, 8, 18 –35.
Gentile, A. M. (1998). Implicit and explicit processes during acquisition of Singer, R. N., Williams, A. M., Frehlich, S. G., Janelle, C. M., Radlo, S. J.,
functional skills. Scandinavian Journal of Occupational Therapy, 5, Barba, D. A., et al. (1998). New frontiers in visual search: An explor-
7–16. atory study in live tennis situations. Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Gobet, F., & Simon, H. A. (1996). Templates in chess memory: A mech- Sport, 69, 290 –296.
anism for recalling several boards. Cognitive Psychology, 31, 1– 40. Stadler, M. A., & Roediger, H. L., III. (1998). The question of awareness
Goldstone, R. L. (1998). Perceptual learning. Annual Review of Psychol- in research on implicit learning. In M. A. Stadler & P. A. Frensch (Eds.),
ogy, 49, 585– 612. Handbook of implicit learning (pp. 105–132). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Goodale, M. A., & Servos, P. (1996). Visual control in prehension. In H. N. Sage.
Zelaznik (Ed.), Advances in motor learning and control (pp. 87–122). Starkes, J. L., & Lindley, S. (1994). Can we hasten expertise by video
Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. simulations? Quest, 46, 211–222.
Goulet, C., Bard, C., & Fleury, M. (1989). Expertise differences in pre- Tenenbaum, G., Levy-Kolker, N., Sade, S., Liebermann, D. G., & Lidor, R.
paring to return a tennis serve: A visual information processing ap- (1996). Anticipation and confidence of decisions related to skilled per-
proach. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 11, 382–398. formance. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 27, 293–307.
Green, R. E., & Shanks, D. R. (1993). On the existence of independent Thelen, E. (1995). Motor development: A new synthesis. American Psy-
explicit and implicit learning systems: An examination of some evi- chologist, 50, 79 –95.
dence. Memory & Cognition, 21, 304 –317. Ward, P., Williams, A. M., & Bennett, S. J. (2002). Visual search and
 270 WILLIAMS, WARD, KNOWLES, AND SMEETON

biological motion perception in tennis. Research Quarterly for Exercise Williams, A. M., & Grant, A. (1999). Training perceptual skill in sport.
and Sport, 73, 107–112. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 30, 194 –220.
Wilkinson, S. (1992). Effects of training in visual discrimination after one Williams, A. M., & Ward, P. (in press). Developing perceptual expertise in
year: Visual analyses of volleyball skills. Perceptual and Motor sport. In K. A. Ericsson & J. Starkes (Eds.), Developing elite athletes.
Skills, 75, 19 –24. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Williams, A. M. (2002). Visual search behaviour in sport. Journal of Sports
Sciences, 20, 169 –170.
Williams, A. M., & Davids, K. (1998). Visual search strategy, selective
attention, and expertise in soccer. Research Quarterly for Exercise and
Sport, 69, 111–128. Received March 18, 2002
Williams, A. M., Davids, K., & Williams, J. G. (1999). Visual perception Revision received September 18, 2002
and action in sport. London: Spon Press. Accepted September 18, 2002 䡲

View publication stats