Manila

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"Maynila" and "Maynilad" redirect here. For the TV series, see Maynila (TV series). For related water
companies, see Maynilad Water Services and Manila Water.
This article is about the capital city of the Philippines. For the region, see Metro Manila. For other
uses, see Manila (disambiguation).

Manila

Maynilà

Capital and Highly Urbanized City

Lungsod ng Maynilà
(City of Manila)
Clockwise from top: Manila Bay skyline, Fort Santiago, Quiapo
Church, Malacañan Palace, Rizal Monument, Manila City Hall

Flag

Seal

Nickname(s):

Pearl of the Orient[1]

Motto(s):

Manila, God First

 Map of Metro Manila with Manila highlighted

Wikimedia | © OpenStreetMap

Manila

Location within the Philippines

Coordinates: 14°35′45″N 120°58′38″ECoordinates:

14°35′45″N 120°58′38″E

Country Philippines
Region National Capital Region (NCR)
Congressional District 1st to 6th districts of Manila
Administrative District 16 city districts

Established 13th century or earlier

Sultanate of 1500s
Brunei (Rajahnate of
Maynila)
Spanish Manila June 24, 1571
City Charter July 31, 1901
Highly Urbanized City December 22, 1979

Barangays 896

Government
[2]

• Type Sangguniang Panlungsod

• Mayor Francisco "Isko Moreno"
Domagoso (NUP/Asenso Manileño)
• Vice Mayor Dr. Ma. Sheilah "Honey Lacuna"
Pangan (NUP/Asenso Manileño)
• City Representatives
List[show]
• City Council
Councilors[show]
• Electorate 1,065,149 voters (2019)

Area
[3][4]

• City 42.88 km2 (16.56 sq mi)

• Urban 1,474.82 km2 (569.43 sq mi)
• Metro 619.57 km2 (239.22 sq mi)

Elevation 5 m (16 ft)

Population
(2015 census)[6][7]
• City 1,780,148
• Density 41,515/km2 (107,520/sq mi)
• Urban 22,710,000[5]
• Metro 12,877,253
• Metro density 20,785/km2 (53,830/sq mi)

Demonym(s) English: Manileño, Manilan;

Spanish: manilense,[8] manileño(-a)
 Filipino: Manileño(-a), Manilenyo(-a),
Taga-Maynila

Economy
• Income class special city income class
• HDI (2017) 0.756[9] – high
• Revenue (₱) 10,154,964,750.07 (2016)
• GDP USD 276.4 billion

Time zone UTC+8 (PST)

ZIP code +900 – 1-096

PSGC 133900000

IDD : area code  +63 (0)2

Climate type tropical monsoon climate

Native languages Tagalog

Website manila.gov.ph

Manila (/məˈnɪlə/; Tagalog: Maynilà, pronounced [majˈnilaʔ] or [majniˈla]), officially the City of
Manila (Tagalog: Lungsod ng Maynilà [luŋˈsod nɐŋ majˈnilaʔ]), is the capital of the Philippines and
a highly urbanized city. It is the most densely populated city proper in the world as of 2018.[10] It was
the first chartered city by virtue of the Philippine Commission Act 183 on July 31, 1901 and gained
autonomy with the passage of Republic Act No. 409 or the "Revised Charter of the City of Manila" on
June 18, 1949.[11] Manila, alongside Mexico City and Madrid are considered the world's original set
of Global Cities due to Manila's commercial networks being the first to traverse the Pacific Ocean,
thus connecting Asia with the Spanish Americas, marking the first time in world history when an
uninterrupted chain of trade routes circled the planet.[12] Manila is also the second most natural
disaster-afflicted capital city in the world next to Tokyo,[13] yet it is simultaneously among the most
populous and fastest growing cities in Southeast Asia.[14]
The Spanish city of Manila was founded on June 24, 1571, by Spanish conquistador Miguel López
de Legazpi. The date is regarded as the city's official founding date; however, a settlement has
already existed dating back as far as 1258. Manila was also the seat of power for most of the
country's colonial rulers. It is home to many historic sites, some of which were built during the 16th
century. Manila has many of the Philippines' firsts, including the first university (1590),[15] light station
(1642), lighthouse tower (1846), water system (1878), hotel (1889), electricity (1895), oceanarium
(1913),[16] stock exchange (1927), flyover (1930s), zoo (1959), pedestrian underpass
(1960),[17] science high school (1963),[18] city-run university (1965), city-run hospital (1969), and rapid
transit system (1984; also considered as the first rapid transit system in Southeast Asia).[19]
The term "Manila" is commonly used to refer to the whole metropolitan area, the greater metropolitan
area or the city proper. The officially defined metropolitan area called Metro Manila, the capital
region of the Philippines, includes the much larger Quezon City and the Makati Central Business
District. It is the most populous region of the country, one of the most populous urban areas in the
world,[20] and is one of the wealthiest regions in Southeast Asia.[21] The city proper is home to
1,780,148 people in 2015,[6] and is the historic core of a built-up area that extends well beyond its
administrative limits. With 71,263 people per square kilometer, Manila is also the most densely
populated city proper in the world.[6][7]
 The city is located on the eastern shores of Manila Bay. The Pasig River flows through the middle of
the city, dividing it into the north and south sections. Manila is made up of 16 administrative
districts: Binondo, Ermita, Intramuros, Malate, Paco, Pandacan, Port Area, Quiapo, Sampaloc, San
Andres, San Miguel, San Nicolas, Santa Ana, Santa Cruz, Santa Mesa and Tondo, while it is divided
into six districts for its representation in Congress and the election of the city council members. In
2016, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network listed Manila as an "Alpha - "global
city,[22] while the Global Financial Centres Index ranks Manila 97th in the world.[23]

Contents

 1Etymology
o 1.1May-nilad
 2History
o 2.1Early history
o 2.2Spanish period
o 2.3American period
o 2.4Japanese occupation and World War II
o 2.5Post-war years and the martial law era (1945-1986)
o 2.6Contemporary period (1986-present)
 3Geography
o 3.1Climate
o 3.2Natural hazards
o 3.3Pollution
 4Cityscape
o 4.1Architecture
 5Demographics
o 5.1Crime
o 5.2Religion
 5.2.1Christianity
 5.2.2Other faiths
 6Economy
o 6.1Tourism
o 6.2Shopping
 7Culture
o 7.1Museums
o 7.2Sports
o 7.3Festivities and holidays
 8Law and government
o 8.1Finance
o 8.2Barangays and districts
 9Infrastructure
o 9.1Housing
o 9.2Transportation
o 9.3Water and electricity
 10Healthcare
 11Education
 12Notable people
 13Sister cities
 o 13.1Asia
o 13.2Europe
o 13.3Americas
 14International relations
o 14.1Consulates
 15See also
 16Notes
 17References
 18Sources
 19External links

Etymology[edit]
Maynilà, the Filipino name for the city, comes from the phrase may-nilà, which translates to "where
indigo is found."[24] Nilà is derived from the Sanskrit word nīla (नील) which refers to indigo, and, by
extension, to several plant species from which this natural dye can be
extracted.[24][25] The Maynilà name is more likely in reference to the presence of indigo-yielding plants
growing in the area surrounding the settlement, rather than Maynilà being known as a settlement
that trades in indigo dye.[24] This is because the settlement was founded several hundred years
before indigo dye extraction became an important economic activity in the area in the 18th
century.[24] The native Tagalog name for the indigo plant, tayum (or variations thereof)[24][26] actually
finds use in another toponym within the Manila area — Tayuman ("where the indigo [plant] is") —
and elsewhere in the Philippines (e.g., Tayum, Abra; Tagum, Davao del Norte).
Maynilà was eventually adopted into Spanish as Manila.
May-nilad[edit]

Plate depicting the "nilad" plant (Scyphiphora hydrophylacea), from Augustinian missionary Fray Francisco
Manuel Blanco's botanical reference, "Flora de Filipinas"

An antiquarian and inaccurate etymology asserts the origin of the city's name as may-
nilad ("where nilad is found").[24] Here, nilad is taken to be the name for one of two littoral plant
species:

 popularly, but incorrectly: the water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) which still grows on the
banks of the Pasig River to this day.[24] However, it is a recent introduction to
the Philippines from South America and therefore could not have been the plant species referred
to in the toponym.[24]
 correctly: a shrub-like tree (Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, formerly Ixora manila Blanco) found in
or near mangrove swamps,[24][27] This tree is the actual species that
the Tagalog terms nilád or nilár refer to.[28]
From a linguistic perspective it is unlikely for native Tagalog speakers to completely drop the final
consonant /d/ in nilad to arrive at the present form Maynilà.[24] As an example, nearby Bacoor still
retains the final consonant of the old Tagalog word bakoód ("elevated piece of land"), even in
old Spanish renderings of the placename (e.g., Vacol, Bacor).[29] Historians Ambeth
Ocampo[30][31] and Joseph Baumgartner[24] have also found that in all early documents, the place had
always been written without the final /d/, thereby making the may-nilad etymology spurious.
The misidentification of nilad as the source of the toponym appears to originate from an 1887 essay
written by Trinidad Pardo de Tavera, in which he wrote nila as both referring to Indigofera
tinctoria (true indigo) and to Ixora manila (actually, nilád in Tagalog[28]).[25][24] Early 20th century
writings, such as those of Julio Nakpil[32] and of Blair and Robertson then repeated the
claim.[33][31] Today, this erroneous etymology continues to be perpetuated through casual repetition in
both literature[34][35] and popular use, such as in Maynilad Water Services and the name of the
underpass close to Manila City Hall, Lagusnilad ("Nilad Pass").[30]

History[edit]
Main articles: History of Manila and Timeline of Manila
Early history[edit]
Battles of Manila

 Battle of Manila (1500)

 Battle of Manila (1570)
 Battle of Manila (1574)
 Battle of Manila (1762)
 Raid on Manila (1798)
 Battle of Manila (1896)
 Battle of Manila (1898)
 Battle of Manila (1899)
 Battle of Manila (1945)

See also

 Battle of Manila Bay (1898)

Around Manila

 Battle of Bangkusay Channel (1571)

 La Naval de Manila (1646)

 v
 t
 e
The Laguna Copperplate Inscription is the oldest historical record in the Philippines. It has the first historical
reference to Tondo and dates back to Saka 822 (c. 900).

Rajah Sulayman

The earliest evidence of human life around present-day Manila is the nearby Angono Petroglyphs,
dated to around 3000 BC. Negritos, the aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippines, lived across the
island of Luzon, where Manila is located, before the Malayo-Polynesians migrated in and assimilated
them.[36]
Manila was an active trade partner with the Song and Yuan dynasties.[37] The polity
of Tondo flourished during the latter half of the Ming dynasty as a result of direct trade relations
with China. The Tondo district was the traditional capital of the empire, and its rulers were sovereign
kings, not mere chieftains. Tondo was christened under the Chinese characters for "Eastern Totality
(All)" or "東都" due to its location east of China. The kings of Tondo were addressed variously
as panginuan in Maranao or panginoón in Tagalog ("lords"); anák banwa ("son of heaven");
or lakandula ("lord of the palace"). The Emperor of China considered the Lakans—the rulers of
ancient Manila—"王", or kings.[38]
In the 13th century, Manila consisted of a fortified settlement and trading quarter on the shore of the
Pasig River. It was then settled by the Indianized empire of Majapahit, as recorded in the epic eulogy
poem "Nagarakretagama", which described the area's conquest by Maharaja Hayam
Wuruk.[38] Selurong (षषषषषषष्), a historical name for Manila, is listed in Canto 14 alongside
Sulot, which is now Sulu, and Kalka. Selurong (Manila) together with Sulot (Sulu) was able to regain
independence afterwards and Sulu even attacked and looted the Majapahit province of Po-
ni (Brunei) in retribution.[38]
During the reign of the Arab Emir, Sharif Ali's descendant, Sultan Bolkiah, from 1485 to 1521,
the Sultanate of Brunei which had seceded from Hindu Majapahit and became a Muslim, had
invaded the area. The Bruneians wanted to take advantage of Tondo's strategic position in trade
with China and Indonesia and thus attacked its environs and established the Muslim Rajahnate of
Maynilà (‫ ;كوتا سلودوڠ‬Kota Seludong). The rajahnate was ruled under and gave yearly tribute to the
Sultanate of Brunei as a satellite state.[39] It created a new dynasty under the local leader, who
accepted Islam and became Rajah Salalila or Sulaiman I. He established a trading challenge to the
already rich House of Lakan Dula in Tondo. Islam was further strengthened by the arrival of Muslim
traders from the Middle East and Southeast Asia.[40]
Spanish period[edit]

The newly rebuilt Manila Cathedral in 1880 before the earthquake of July 20, 1880, which knocked down the
over-a-century old bell tower.

On June 24, 1571, the conquistador Miguel López de Legazpi arrived in Manila and declared it a
territory of New Spain (Mexico), establishing a city council in what is now the district of Intramuros.
He took advantage of a Tondo vs Manila territorial conflict to justify expelling or converting Bruneian
Muslim colonists who supported their Manila vassals while his Mexican grandson Juan de
Salcedo had a romance with a princess of Tondo, Kandarapa.[41] López de Legazpi had the local
royalty executed or exiled after the failure of the Conspiracy of the Maharlikas, a plot wherein an
alliance between datus, rajahs, Japanese merchants and the Sultanate of Brunei would band
together to execute the Spaniards, along with their Latin American recruits and Visayan allies. The
victorious Spaniards made Manila, the capital of the Spanish East Indies and of the Philippines,
which their empire would control for the next three centuries. In 1574, Manila was temporarily
besieged by the Chinese pirate Lim Hong, who was ultimately thwarted by the local inhabitants.
Upon Spanish settlement, Manila was immediately made, by papal decree, a suffragan of
the Archdiocese of Mexico. Then, by royal decree of Philip II of Spain, the city of Manila was put
under the spiritual patronage of Saint Pudentiana and Our Lady of Guidance (Spurred by a locally
found sacred image i.e. a Black Madonna of unknown origin; one theory is that it is from Portuguese-
Macau, another is that, it is a Tantric goddess and this was worshiped by the natives in a Pagan-
Hindu manner and had survived Islamic iconoclasm by the Sultanate of Brunei. This image was
interpreted to be of Marian nature, and it was found during the Miguel de Legazpi expedition and
eventually a Mexican hermit built a chapel around that image).
Manila became famous for its role in the Manila–Acapulco galleon trade, which lasted for more than
two centuries and brought goods from Europe, Africa and Hispanic America across the Pacific
Islands to Southeast Asia (which was already an entrepôt for goods coming
from India, Indonesia and China), and vice versa. Silver that was mined in Mexico and Peru was
exchanged for Chinese silk, Indian gems and the spices of Indonesia and Malaysia.
Likewise, wines and olives grown in Europe and North Africa were shipped via Mexico to
Manila.[42] In 1606, upon the Spanish conquest of the Sultanate of Ternate, one of monopolizers of
the growing of spice, the Spanish deported the Sultan of Ternate along with his clan and his entire
entourage to Manila were they were initially enslaved and eventually converted to
Christianity.[43] About 200 families of mixed Mexican-Filipino-Spanish and Papuan-Indonesian-
Portuguese descent from Ternate and Tidor followed him there at a later date.[44] The city attained
great wealth due to it being at the confluence of three great commercial exchanges: the Silk Road,
the Spice Route and the Silver Flow. Jealous of her wealth, the city was captured by Great Britain in
1762 as part of the Seven Years' War in Europe.[45] The city was then occupied by the British for
twenty months from 1762 to 1764 in their attempt to rule the Spanish East Indies, but the city was
cut off from the rest of the country by Spanish-Filipino forces who refused to accept British
rule.[46] Frustrated by their inability to take the rest of the archipelago, the British eventually withdrew
in accordance with the 1763 Treaty of Paris. An unknown number of Indian soldiers known
as sepoys, who came with the British, deserted and settled in nearby Cainta, Rizal, which explains
the uniquely Indian features of generations of Cainta residents.[47][48]

Puente Colgante in 1875

The Chinese were then punished for supporting the British invasion, and the fortress city
of Intramuros, initially populated by 1200 Spanish families and garrisoned by 400 Spanish
troops,[49] kept its cannons pointed at Binondo, the world's
oldest Chinatown.[50] The Mexican population was concentrated at the south part of Manila,[51][52] and
also at Cavite, where ships from Spain's American colonies docked, and at Ermita, an area so
named because of a Mexican hermit that lived there. The Philippines hosts the only Latin American-
established districts in Asia.[53] When the Spanish evacuated Ternate, they settled
the Papuan refugees in Ternate, Cavite which was named after their former homeland.[54]
The rise of Spanish Manila marked the first time in world history where all hemispheres and
continents were interconnected in a worldwide trade network. Thus, making Manila,
alongside Mexico and Madrid, the world's original set of Global Cities, predating the ascent of
modern Alpha++ class world cities like New York or London as global financial centers, by hundreds
of years.[55] A Spanish Jesuit Priest commented that due to the confluence of many foreign
languages gathering in Manila, he said that the confessional in Manila is "the most difficult in the
world."[56] Another Spanish missionary in the 1600s by the name of Fray Juan de Cobo was so
astonished by the manifold commerce, cultural complexity and ethnic diversity in Manila he thus
wrote the following to his brethren in Mexico:
"The diversity here is immense such that I could go on forever trying to differentiate lands and
peoples. There are Castilians from all provinces. There are Portuguese and Italians; Dutch, Greeks
and Canary Islanders, and Mexican Indians. There are slaves from Africa brought by the Spaniards
[Through America], and others brought by the Portuguese [Through India]. There is an African Moor
with his turban here. There are Javanese from Java, Japanese and Bengalese from Bengal. Among
all these people are the Chinese whose numbers here are untold and who outnumber everyone
else. From China there are peoples so different from each other, and from provinces as distant, as
Italy is from Spain. Finally, of the mestizos, the mixed-race people here, I cannot even write because
in Manila there is no limit to combinations of peoples with peoples. This is in the city where all the
buzz is." (Remesal, 1629: 680–1)

— [57]
After Mexico gained independence in 1821, Spain began to govern Manila directly.[58] Under direct
Spanish rule, banking, industry and education flourished more than they had in the previous two
centuries.[59] The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 facilitated direct trade and communications with
Spain. The city's growing wealth and education attracted indigenous peoples, Negritos, Malays,
Africans, Chinese, Indians, Arabs, Europeans, Latinos and Papuans from the surrounding
provinces[60] and facilitated the rise of an ilustrado class that espoused liberal ideas: the ideological
foundations of the Philippine Revolution, which sought independence from Spain. A revolt by Andres
Novales was inspired by the Latin American wars of independence. Following the Cavite Mutiny and
the Propaganda Movement, the Philippine revolution eventually erupted, Manila was among the first
eight provinces to rebel and thus their role was immortalized in the Philippine Flag where Manila was
marked as one of the eight rays of the symbolic sun.
American period[edit]
After the 1898 Battle of Manila, Spain ceded Manila to the United States. The First Philippine
Republic, based in nearby Bulacan, fought against the Americans for control of the city.[61] The
Americans defeated the First Philippine Republic captured President Emilio Aguinaldo, who declared
allegiance to the United States on April 1, 1901.
Upon drafting a new charter for Manila in June 1901, the Americans made official what had long
been tacit: that the city of Manila consisted not of Intramuros alone but also of the surrounding
areas. The new charter proclaimed that Manila was composed of eleven municipal districts:
presumably Binondo, Ermita, Intramuros, Malate, Paco, Pandacan, Sampaloc, San Miguel, Santa
Ana, Santa Cruz and Tondo. In addition, the Catholic Church recognized five parishes—Gagalangin,
Trozo, Balic-Balic, Santa Mesa and Singalong—as part of Manila. Later, two more would be added:
Balut and San Andres.[62]

The Burnham Plan of Manila.

Under American control, a new, civilian-oriented Insular Government headed by Governor-

General William Howard Taft invited city planner Daniel Burnham to adapt Manila to modern
needs.[63] The Burnham Plan included the development of a road system, the use of waterways for
transportation, and the beautification of Manila with waterfront improvements and construction of
parks, parkways and buildings.[64][65]
Tram running along Escolta Street during the American period.

The planned buildings included a government center occupying all of Wallace Field, which extends
from Rizal Park to the present Taft Avenue. The Philippine Capitol was to rise at the Taft Avenue
end of the field, facing toward the sea. Along with buildings for various government bureaus and
departments, it would form a quadrangle with a lagoon in the center and a monument to José
Rizal at the other end of the field. Of Burnham's proposed government center, only three units—the
Legislative Building and the buildings of the Finance and Agricultural Departments—were completed
when World War II erupted.
Japanese occupation and World War II[edit]

The destruction brought about by the Battle of Manila in 1945

During the Japanese occupation of the Philippines, American soldiers were ordered to withdraw from
Manila, and all military installations were removed on December 24, 1941. General Douglas
MacArthur declared Manila an open city to prevent further death and destruction, but Japanese
warplanes continued to bomb it. Manila was occupied by Japanese forces on January 2, 1942.
From February 3 to March 3, 1945, Manila was the site of the bloodiest battle in the Pacific theater of
World War II. Some 100,000 civilians were killed in February.[66] At the end of the battle, Manila was
recaptured by joint American and Philippine troops. It was the second most devastated city in the
world, after Warsaw, during the Second World War. Almost all of the structures in the city,
particularly in Intramuros, were destroyed.
It was after the many times when Manila was once again destroyed by war, when the city earned the
moniker "The City of Our Affections". This nickname was given by National Artist and writer Nick
Joaquin, in reference to the spirit of resilience the city has had in the face of the constant wars that
have razed it and also in repeatedly surviving and rebuilding despite being the second-most natural
disaster prone city in the world.[67] This is reflected in the noble spirit of Manileños and Filipinos who,
despite having the second-most disaster prone capital city in the world and also the second-most
war devastated capital city in recent history, are the most generous nationality in Southeast Asia and
the 17th most generous nationality worldwide.[68] Manila (and the Philippines in general) is also
among the top sources of missionaries worldwide.[69] This is explained by the fact that the Philippines
is the most fervently Christian country in the world and is ranked as the 5th most religious country,
globally.[70]
Post-war years and the martial law era (1945-1986)[edit]

Rizal Avenue in the 1970s before the construction of Line 1

In 1948, President Elpidio Quirino moved the seat of government of the Philippines to Quezon City,
a new capital in the suburbs and fields northeast of Manila, created in 1939 during the administration
of President Manuel L. Quezon.[71] The move ended any implementation of the Burnham Plan's intent
for the government centre to be at Luneta.
With the Visayan-born Arsenio Lacson as its first elected mayor in 1952 (all mayors were appointed
before this), Manila underwent The Golden Age,[72] once again earning its status as the "Pearl of the
Orient", a moniker it earned before the Second World War. After Lacson's term in the 1950s, Manila
was led by Antonio Villegas for most of the 1960s. Ramon Bagatsing (an Indian-Filipino) was mayor
for nearly the entire 1970s until the 1986 People Power Revolution. Mayors Lacson, Villegas, and
Bagatsing are collectively known as the "Big Three of Manila" for their contribution to the
development of the city and their lasting legacy in improving the quality of life and welfare of the
people of Manila.
During the administration of Ferdinand Marcos, the region of Metro Manila was created as an
integrated unit with the enactment of Presidential Decree No. 824 on November 7, 1975. The area
encompassed four cities and thirteen adjoining towns, as a separate regional unit of
government.[73] On the 405th anniversary of the city's foundation on June 24, 1976, Manila was
reinstated by President Marcos as the capital of the Philippines for its historical significance as the
seat of government since the Spanish Period. Presidential Decree No. 940 states that Manila has
always been to the Filipino people and in the eyes of the world, the premier city of the Philippines
being the center of trade, commerce, education and culture.[74] Concurrent with the reinstatement of
Manila as the capital, Ferdinand Marcos designated his wife, Imelda Marcos, as the first governor of
Metro Manila. She started the rejuvenation of the city as she re-branded Manila as the "City of
Man".[75]
During the martial law era, Manila became a hot-bed of resistance activity as youth and student
demonstrators repeatedly clashed with the police and military which were subservient to the Marcos
regime. After decades of resistance, the non-violent People Power Revolution (predecessor to the
peaceful-revolutions that toppled the iron-curtain in Europe), led by Maria Corazon
Aquino and Cardinal Jaime Sin, ousted the dictator Marcos from power.[76]
Contemporary period (1986-present)[edit]
From 1986–1992, Mel Lopez was mayor of Manila. During his early years, his administration was
faced with 700 million pesos worth of debt and inherited an empty treasury. In the first eleven
months, however, the debt was reduced to 365 million pesos and the city's income rose by around
70% eventually leaving the city with positive income until the end of his term. Lopez closed down
numerous illegal gambling joints and jueteng. In January 1990, Lopez padlocked two Manila casinos
operated by the Philippine Amusement and Gaming Corporation (PAGCOR), saying the billions it
gained cannot make up for the negative effects gambling inflicts upon the people, particularly the
youth. He also revived the Boys’ Town Haven (now referred to as “Boys Town”), rehabilitating its
facilities to accommodate underprivileged children and provide them with livelihood and education.
In 1992, Alfredo Lim was elected mayor, the first Chinese-Filipino to hold the office. He was known
for his anti-crime crusades. Lim was succeeded by Lito Atienza, who served as his vice mayor.
Atienza was known for his campaign (and city slogan) "Buhayin ang Maynila" (Revive Manila), which
saw the establishment of several parks and the repair and rehabilitation of the city's deteriorating
facilities. He was the city's mayor for 3 terms (9 years) before being termed out of office. Lim once
again ran for mayor and defeated Atienza's son Ali in the 2007 city election and immediately
reversed all of Atienza's projects[77] claiming Atienza's projects made little contribution to the
improvements of the city. The relationship of both parties turned bitter, with the two pitting again
during the 2010 city elections in which Lim won against Atienza. Lim was sued by councilor Dennis
Alcoreza on 2008 over human rights,[78] charged with graft over the rehabilitation of public
schools,[79] and was heavily criticized for his haphazard resolution of the Rizal Park hostage taking
incident, one of the deadliest hostage crisis in the Philippines. Later on, Vice Mayor Isko Moreno and
28 city councilors filed another case against Lim in 2012, stating that Lim's statement in a meeting
were "life-threatening" to them.[80]

View of the Rizal Monument in Rizal Park with the controversial Torre de Manila looming in the background.

In 2012, DMCI Homes began constructing Torre de Manila, which became controversial for ruining
the sight line of Rizal Park.[81] The tower is infamously known as "Terror de Manila" or the "national
photobomber."[82] The Torre de Manila controversy is regarded as one of the most sensationalized
heritage issues of the country. In 2017, the National Historical Commission of the Philippines erected
a 'comfort woman' statue along Roxas Boulevard, which made Japan express regret that such
statue was erected in the city despite the healthy relationship between Japan and the
Philippines.[83][84]
In the 2013 elections, former President Joseph Estrada defeated Lim in the mayoral race. During his
term, Estrada allegedly paid ₱5 billion in city debts and increased the city's revenues. In 2015, in line
with President Noynoy Aquino's administration progress, the city became the most competitive city in
the Philippines, making the city the best place for doing business and for living in. In the 2016
elections, Estrada narrowly won over Lim in their electoral rematch.[85] Throughout Estrada's term,
numerous Filipino heritage sites were demolished, gutted out, or approved for demolition. Among
such sites are the post-war Santa Cruz Building, Capitol Theater, El Hogar, old Magnolia Ice Cream
Plant, and Rizal Memorial Stadium, among many others[86][87][88] Some of these sites were saved upon
the intervention of various cultural agencies of government and heritage advocate groups against
Estrada's orders.[89] In May 2019, Estrada claimed that Manila was debt-free,[90] however, two months
later, the Commission on Audit verified that Manila has a total of 4.4 billion pesos in debt.[91]
Estrada, who was seeking for reelection for his third and final term lost to Isko Moreno in the 2019
local elections.[92][93] Moreno has served as the Vice Mayor under both the Lim and Estrada
Administration. Estrada's defeat was seen as the end of their reign as a political clan, whose other
family members run for various national and local positions.[94] After assuming office, Moreno initiated
a city-wide cleanup against illegal vendors, signed an executive order promoting open governance,
and vowed to stop bribery and corruption in the city.[95]
The city has an ordinance penalizing cat-calling since 2018, and is the second city in the Philippines
to do so after Quezon City passed a similar ordinance in 2016.[96] Recently, the City Government is
planning to revise existing curfew ordinance since the Supreme Court declared it unconstitutional on
August 2017. Out of the three cities reviewed by the Supreme Court, namely: the City of
Manila, Navotas and Quezon City; only the curfew ordinance of Quezon City was approved.[97][98]
Under the proposed form of federalism in the Philippines, Manila may no longer be the capital or
Metro Manila may no longer be the seat of government. The committee has not yet decided on the
federal capital and states that they are open to other proposals.[99][100]

Geography[edit]
Main article: Geography of Manila
ISS photo of Manila (just left of center) and surrounding cities

The City of Manila is situated on the eastern shore of Manila Bay, on the western edge of Luzon,
1,300 km (810 mi) from mainland Asia.[101] One of Manila's greatest natural resources is the protected
harbor upon which it sits, regarded as the finest in all of Asia.[102] The Pasig River flows through the
middle of city, dividing it into the north and south.[3][4] The overall grade of the city's central, built-up
areas, is relatively consistent with the natural flatness of its overall natural geography, generally
exhibiting only slight differentiation otherwise.

The Manila Bay sunset

Almost all of Manila sits on top of centuries of prehistoric alluvial deposits built by the waters of the
Pasig River and on some land reclaimed from Manila Bay. Manila's land has been altered
substantially by human intervention, with considerable land reclamation along the waterfronts since
the American colonial times. Some of the city's natural variations in topography have been evened
out. As of 2013, Manila had a total area of 42.88 square kilometers.[3][4]
In 2017, the City Government approved five reclamation projects: the New Manila Bay–City of
Pearl (New Manila Bay International Community) (407.43 hectares), Solar City (148 hectares), the
Manila Harbour Center expansion (50 hectares), Manila Waterfront City (318 hectares)[103] and
Horizon Manila (419 hectares). Once completed, it will increase the city's total area from
42.88 km2 (4,288 ha) to 58.3 km2 (5,830 ha). Another reclamation project is possible and when built,
it will contain the in-city housing relocation projects.[104] Reclamation projects have been criticized by
environmental activists and the Philippine Catholic Church, claiming that these are not sustainable
and would put communities at risk of flooding.[105][106] In line of the upcoming reclamation projects,
the Philippines and the Netherlands forged a cooperation to craft the ₱250 million Manila Bay
Sustainable Development Master Plan to guide future decisions on programs and projects on Manila
Bay.[107]
Climate[edit]
Under the Köppen climate classification system, Manila has a tropical savanna climate (Köppen Aw),
bordering closely on a tropical monsoon climate (Köppen Am). Together with the rest of the
Philippines, Manila lies entirely within the tropics. Its proximity to the equator means that
temperatures are hot year-round especially during the daytime, rarely going below 19 °C (66.2 °F) or
above 39 °C (102.2 °F). Temperature extremes have ranged from 14.5 °C (58.1 °F) on January 11,
1914,[108] to 38.6 °C (101.5 °F) on May 7, 1915.[109]
Humidity levels are usually very high all year round, making the temperature feel hotter than it is.
Manila has a distinct dry season from late November through early March, and a relatively
lengthy wet season that covers the remaining period with slightly cooler temperatures during the
daytime. In the wet season, it rarely rains all day, but rainfall is very heavy during short
periods. Typhoons usually occur from June to September.[110]

hideClimate data for Port Area, Manila (1981–2010, extre

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
36.5 35.6 36.8 38.0 38.6 37.6 3
Record high °C (°F)
(97.7) (96.1) (98.2) (100.4) (101.5) (99.7) (
29.6 30.6 32.1 33.5 33.2 32.2 3
Average high °C (°F)
(85.3) (87.1) (89.8) (92.3) (91.8) (90.0) (
26.7 27.4 28.7 30.1 30.0 29.3 2
Daily mean °C (°F)
(80.1) (81.3) (83.7) (86.2) (86.0) (84.7) (
23.8 24.2 25.3 26.6 26.9 26.4 2
Average low °C (°F)
(74.8) (75.6) (77.5) (79.9) (80.4) (79.5) (
14.5 15.6 16.2 17.2 20.0 20.1 1
Record low °C (°F)
(58.1) (60.1) (61.2) (63.0) (68.0) (68.2) (
17.3 14.2 15.8 23.7 147.2 253.5 4
Average rainfall mm (inches)
(0.68) (0.56) (0.62) (0.93) (5.80) (9.98) (1
Average rainy days (≥ 0.1 mm) 4 3 3 4 10 17
Average relative humidity (%) 72 69 67 66 71 76
Mean monthly sunshine hours 177 198 226 258 223 162
Source #1: PAGASA[111][112]

Source #2: Danish Meteorological Institute (sun, 1931–

Natural hazards[edit]
See also: List of earthquakes in the Philippines
Swiss Re ranked Manila as the second riskiest capital city to live in, citing its exposure to natural
hazards such as earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons, floods and landslides.[13] The seismically
active Marikina Valley Fault System poses a threat of a large-scale earthquake with an
estimated magnitude between 6–7 and as high as 7.6[114] to Metro Manila and nearby
provinces.[115] Manila has endured several deadly earthquakes, notably in 1645 and in 1677 which
destroyed the stone and brick medieval city.[116] The Earthquake Baroque style was used by
architects during the Spanish colonial period in order to adapt to the frequent earthquakes.[117]
Manila is hit with five to seven typhoons yearly.[118] In 2009, Typhoon Ketsana (Ondoy) struck the
Philippines. It led to one of the worst floodings in Metro Manila and several provinces in Luzon with
an estimated damages worth ₱11 billion ($237 million).[119][120] The floodings caused 448 deaths in
Metro Manila alone. Following the aftermath of Typhoon Ketsana, the city began to dredge its rivers
and improve its drainage network. The south of Manila is also home to a now dormant volcano, Taal
Volcano which in the past threatened the capital with landslides and volcanic eruptions.
Pollution[edit]

Pollution in Manila Bay

Due to industrial waste and automobiles, Manila suffers from air pollution,[121][122] affecting 98% of the
population.[123] Air pollution alone causes more than 4,000 deaths yearly.[124] On a 1995 report, Ermita
is regarded as Manila's most air polluted district due to open dump sites and industrial
waste.[125] According to a report in 2003, the Pasig River is one of the most polluted rivers in the
world with 150 tons of domestic waste and 75 tons of industrial waste dumped daily.[126] The city is
the second biggest waste producer in the country with 1,151.79 tons (7,500.07 cubic meters) per
day, after Quezon City which yields 1,386.84 tons or 12,730.59 cubic meters per day. Both cities
were cited as having poor management in garbage collection and disposal.[127]
The Pasig River Rehabilitation Commission is in charge of cleaning up the Pasig River
and tributaries for transportation, recreation and tourism purposes.[128] Rehabilitation efforts have
resulted in the creation of parks along the riverside, along with stricter pollution controls.[129][130]

Cityscape[edit]

The bay skyline of Manila as seen from Harbour Square (2009)

Street map of Manila city proper, with points of interest indicated

Manila is a planned city. In 1905, American Architect and Urban Planner Daniel Burnham was
commissioned to design the new capital. His design for the city was based on the City Beautiful
movement, which features broad streets and avenues radiating out from rectangles. The city is
made up of fourteen city districts, according to Republic Act No. 409—the Revised Charter of the
City of Manila—the basis of which officially sets the present-day boundary of the city.[131] Two districts
were later created, which are Santa Mesa (partitioned off from Sampaloc) and San
Andres (partitioned off from Santa Ana).
Manila's mix of architectural styles reflects the turbulent history of the city and country. During the
Second World War, Manila was razed to the ground by the Japanese forces and the shelling of
American forces. After the liberation, rebuilding began and most of the historical buildings were
thoroughly reconstructed. However, some of the historic buildings from the 19th century that had
been preserved in reasonably reconstructible form were nonetheless eradicated or otherwise left to
deteriorate. Manila's current urban landscape is one of modern and contemporary architecture.
Architecture[edit]
The façade of the Manila Metropolitan Theater, designed by Juan M. Arellano

Manila is known for its eclectic mix of architecture that shows a wide range of styles spanning
different historical and cultural periods. Architectural styles reflect American, Spanish, Chinese, and
Malay influences.[132] Prominent Filipino architects such as Antonio Toledo, Felipe Roxas, Juan M.
Arellano and Tomás Mapúa have designed significant buildings in Manila such as churches,
government offices, theaters, mansions, schools and universities.
Manila is also famed for its Art Deco theaters. Some of these were designed by National Artists for
Architecture such as Juan Nakpil and Pablo Antonio. Unfortunately most of these theaters were
neglected, and some of it have been demolished. The historic Escolta Street in Binondo features
many buildings of Neoclassical and Beaux-Arts architectural style, many of which were designed by
prominent Filipino architects during the American Rule in the 1920s to the late 1930s. Many
architects, artists, historians and heritage advocacy groups are pushing for the rehabilitation of
Escolta Street, which was once the premier street of the Philippines.[133]
The Luneta Hotel, an example of French Renaissance architecture with Filipino stylized beaux art

Almost all of Manila's prewar and Spanish colonial architecture were destroyed during its battle for
liberation by the intensive bombardment of the United States Air Force during World War II.
Reconstruction took place afterwards, replacing the destroyed historic Spanish-era buildings with
modern ones, erasing much of the city's character. Some buildings destroyed by the war have been
reconstructed, such as the Old Legislative Building (now the National Museum of Fine
Arts), Ayuntamiento de Manila (now the Bureau of the Treasury) and the currently under
construction San Ignacio Church and Convent (as the Museo de Intramuros). There are plans to
rehabilitate and/or restore several neglected historic buildings and places such as Plaza Del
Carmen, San Sebastian Church and the Manila Metropolitan Theater. Spanish-era shops and
houses in the districts of Binondo, Quiapo, and San Nicolas are also planned to be restored, as a
part of a movement to restore the city to its former glory and its beautiful prewar state.[134][135]
Since Manila is prone to earthquakes, the Spanish colonial architects invented the style called
Earthquake Baroque which the churches and government buildings during the Spanish colonial
period adopted.[117] As a result, succeeding earthquakes of the 18th and 19th centuries barely
affected Manila, although it did periodically level the surrounding area. Modern buildings in and
around Manila are designed or have been retrofitted to withstand an 8.2 magnitude quake in
accordance to the country's building code.[136]