Project Report on semiconductors –

INTRODUCTION
 Semiconductors :­  Most of the solids can be placed in one of the two classes:
Metals and insulators.  Metals are those through which electric charge can easily
flow, while insulators are those through which electric charge is difficult to flow.
 This distinction between the metals and the insulators can be explained on the
basis of the number of free electrons in them.  Metals have a large number of free
electrons which act as charge carriers, while insulators have practically no free
electrons.                                            
There are however, certain solids whose electrical conductivity is intermediate
between metals and insulators. They are called ‘Semiconductors’.  Carbon, silicon
and germanium are examples of semi­conductors.   In semiconductors the outer
most electrons are neither so rigidly bound with the atom as in an insulator, nor so
loosely bound as in metal.   At absolute zero a semiconductor becomes an ideal
insulator.

semiconductors - Theory and Definition

Semiconductors are the materials whose electrical conductivity lies in between
metals and insulator.  The energy band structure of the semiconductors is similar
to the insulators but in their case, the size of the forbidden energy gap is much
smaller than that of the insulator.  In this class of crystals, the forbidden gap is of
the order of about 1ev, and the two energy bands are distinctly separate with no
overlapping.   At   absolute   o0,   no   electron   has   any   energy   even   to   jump   the
forbidden   gap   and   reach   the   conduction   band.   Therefore   the   substance   is   an
insulator.  But when we heat the crystal and thus provide some energy to the atoms
and their electrons, it becomes an easy matter for some electrons to jump the small
(  1 ev) energy gap and go to conduction band.  Thus at higher temperatures, the
crystal becomes a conductors.  This is the specific property of the crystal which is
known as a semiconductor.

Effect of temperature on conductivity of Semiconductor

At 0K, all semiconductors are insulators.  The valence band at absolute zero is
completely filled and there are no free electrons in conduction band.   At room
temperature the electrons jump to the conduction band due to the thermal energy. 
When   the   temperature   increases,   a   large   number   of   electrons   cross   over   the
forbidden gap and jump from valence to conduction band. Hence conductivity of
semiconductor increases with temperature.
INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semi-conductors. In a pure semiconductor, each
atom behaves as if there are 8 electrons in its valence shell and therefore the entire material
behaves as an insulator at low temperatures.
A semiconductor atom needs energy of the order of 1.1ev to shake off the valence electron.
This energy becomes available to it even at room temperature. Due to thermal agitation of
crystal structure, electrons from a few covalent bonds come out. The bond from which
electron is freed, a vacancy is created there. The vacancy in the covalent bond is called a
hole.
This hole can be filled by some other electron in a covalent bond. As an electron from
covalent bond moves to fill the hole, the hole is created in the covalent bond from which the
electron has moved. Since the direction of movement of the hole is opposite to that of the
negative electron, a hole behaves as a positive charge carrier. Thus, at room temperature, a
pure semiconductor will have electrons and holes wandering in random directions. These
electrons and holes are called intrinsic carriers.
As the crystal is neutral, the number of free electrons will be equal to the number of holes. In
an intrinsic semiconductor, if ne denotes the electron number density in conduction band,
nh the hole number density in valence band and ni the number density or concentration of
charge carriers, then
                                  ne = nh = ni

extrinsic semiconductors
As   the   conductivity   of   intrinsic   semi­conductors   is   poor,   so   intrinsic   semi­
conductors   are   of   little   practical   importance.   The   conductivity   of   pure   semi­
conductor can, however be enormously increased by addition of some pentavalent
or a trivalent impurity in a very small amount (about 1 to 10 6 parts of the semi­
conductor).  The process of adding an impurity to a pure semiconductor so as to
improve   its   conductivity   is   called   doping.   Such   semi­conductors   are   called
extrinsic semi­conductors.  Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types :
            i)          n­type semiconductor
            ii)         p­type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor
When an impurity atom belonging to group V of the periodic table like Arsenic is
added to the pure semi­conductor, then four of the five impurity electrons form
covalent bonds by sharing one electron with each of the four nearest silicon atoms,
and fifth electron from each impurity atom is almost free to conduct electricity.  As
the pentavalent impurity increases the number of free electrons, it is called donor
impurity.   The   electrons   so   set   free   in   the   silicon   crystal   are   called   extrinsic
carriers   and   the   n­type   Si­crystal   is   called   n­type   extrinsic   semiconductor. 
Therefore n­type Si­crystal will have a large number of free electrons (majority
carriers) and have a small number of holes (minority carriers).
In terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such electrons
create a donor energy level just below the conduction band as shown in figure.  As
the energy gap between donor energy level and the conduction band is very small,
the   electrons   can   easily   raise   themselves   to   conduction   band   even   at   room
temperature.   Hence,   the   conductivity   of   n­type   extrinsic   semiconductor   is
markedly increased.
In a doped or extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of the conduction band
(ne) and the number density of holes in the valence band (n h) differ from that in a
pure semiconductor.   If ni is the number density of electrons is conduction band,
then it is proved that
                                                ne nh = ni2
p-type semiconductor
If a trivalent impurity like indium is added in pure semi­conductor, the impurity
atom can provide only three valence electrons for covalent bond formation.  Thus
a gap is left in one of the covalent bonds.   The gap acts as a hole that tends to
accept electrons.  As the trivalent impurity atoms accept electrons from the silicon
crystal, it is called acceptor impurity.  The holes so created are extrinsic carriers
and  the  p­type   Si­crystal  so obtained  is called  p­type  extrinsic  semiconductor. 
Again, as the pure Si­crystal also possesses a few electrons and holes, therefore,
the p­type si­crystal will  have a large number of  holes (majority carriers) and a
small number of electrons (minority carriers).
It terms of valence and conduction band one can think that all such holes create an
accepter energy level just above the top of the valance band as shown in figure. 
The electrons from valence band can raise themselves to the accepter energy level
by absorbing thermal energy at room temperature and in turn create holes in the
valence band.
Number   density   of   valence   band   holes   (nh)   in   p­type   semiconductor   is
approximately   equal   to   that   of   the   acceptor   atoms   (N a)   and   is   very   large   as
compared to the number density of conduction band electrons (n e).  Thus,
                                    nh Na > > ne
electrical resistivity of semiconductors
Consider a block of semiconductor of length l1 area of cross­section A and having
number density of electrons and holes as n e and nh respectively.  Suppose that on
applying a potential difference, say V, a current I flows through it as shown in
figure.  The electron current (Ic) and the hole current (Ih) constitute the current I
flowing through the semi conductor i.e.
                                    I = Ie + Ih                                                                     (i)
                         It   ne is   the   number   density   of   conduction   band   electrons   in   the
semiconductor and ve, the drift velocity of electrons then
                                    Ie = eneAve
                        Similarly, the hole current, Ih = enhAvh
                        From (i)                       I = eneAve + enhAvh
                                                            I = eA(neve + nhvh)                               (ii)
                        If  is the resistivity of the material of the semiconductor, then the
resistance offered by the semiconductor to the flow of current is given by :
                                    R =  l/A                                                                     (iii)
                        Since V = RI, from equation (ii) and (iii) we have
                        V = RI =  l/A  eA (neve  + nh vh)
                        V =  le(neve + nhvh)                                                            (iv)
If E is the electric field set up across the semiconductor, then:
                        E = V/l                                                                                    (v)
            from equation (iv) and (v), we have
                                    E = e (neve + nhvh)
                                    1/ = e (ne ve/E + nh vh/E)
            On applying electric field, the drift velocity acquired by the electrons (or
holes) per unit strength of electric field is called mobility of electrons (or holes). 
Therefore,
                        mobility of electrons and holes is given by :
                        e = ve/E and h = vh/E
                        1/ = e(ne e + nh h)                                                  (vi)
Also, = 1/ is called conductivity of the material of semiconductor
                                  = e (ne e + nh h)                                           (vii)
                         The   relation   (vi)   and   (vii)   show   that   the   conductivity   and   resistivity   of   a
semiconductor depend upon the electron and hole number densities and their mobilities.  As
ne and   nh increases   with   rise   in   temperature,   therefore, conductivity   of   semiconductor
increases with rise in temperature and resistivity decreases with rise in temperature.