Chapter I

Introduction

Contents Page No.

Introductory Part …. …. 1-5

Land Tenure System in …. …. 5-12

India – An Overview

Background of the Land …. …. 12-18

Tenure Systems in Early Kerala
…. ….
Importance of the Study 18-20

Hypothesis …. …. 21-23

Study Area …. …. 23-24

Objectives of the Study …. …. 24-26

Methodology …. …. 26-27

Review of Literature …. …. 27-32

Chapterisation …. …. 32-34

Conclusion …. …. 34-35

Notes and References …. …. 36-39

 2

Introduction

Since the beginning of human existence man has directed his

activities towards the earth resources and has used and misused

them for his selfish motives. The history of man‟s use and misuse of

land goes back to pre-history. Man was once a carnivorous hunting

animal along with other carnivores in the jungle. The discovery of

tools for hunting and farming and fire for cooking food and

intercommunication through speech and gestures, early man could

establish a greater advantage over the rest. A major revolution came

when he tamed wild animals and discovered the mode of cultivation.

The beginning of agriculture transformed the life of early man. It

meant anchorage for early man to soil. Thus, the land became the

bases of all his socio-economic activities and the prime resource.

Land may be regarded as space, surface or room within and

upon which life takes place. Land is fixed in quantity and it is

indestructible because space cannot be destroyed or increased. The

proper use of land was a matter of concern ever in history. For the

purpose of proper land utilization, tenancy system was introduced

from the very early times. Tenancy system or the land tenure

pattern implies a system according to which land is held by an

individual or the actual tiller of the soil. Land tenure also refers to

the conditions under which land is occupied. Though a

comprehensive and specific definition of „tenure‟ has not been laid

 3

down by any law till date, this term had been in common use

everywhere in modern times.1 Etymologically, the Latin root of

„tenure‟ is „teno‟ which means „to hold.‟ Land tenure, thus, refers to

the provisions under which land is held. It includes all the conditions

of possession, control, use and occupancy of land by both the

landlords and the tenants. In a wider sense, the term signifies much

more than the mere ownership rights over the land.2

Land reforms include reforms or improvements in the land

tenure system as well as reforms in other supporting institutions

which are related to the land and its utilization. Land reforms not

only aim at redistribution of terra but also, the reorganization of

operational holdings for the optimum utilization of land, honouring

the rightful ownership of the actual cultivators, assuring them social

justice. It is necessary to abolish the intermediaries and bring the

actual cultivator in direct contact with the state for the fulfilment of

the above so that a congenial atmosphere could be created in which

the cultivator feels sure of reaping the fruits of his hard labour.

Tenancy reforms have been on the agenda of most of the

countries from the very early times. Many countries had made

several attempts to introduce land reforms in their regions. History

gives many instances where the land reforms have been controversial

and often accompanied by conflicts and violence. Countries like

Imperial China made several unsuccessful attempts to introduce

land reforms in the early period. Athenians and the Romans tried
 4

without success to regulate the accumulation of land in a few

hands.3 Many attempts made in earlier times could not produce the

anticipated results because of the severe opposition from the vested

interests and the reactionary forces. But there are instances of land

reform measures that were formulated and implemented with

supportive mechanisms. The cases of reasonably effective land

reforms introduced in Japan and Taiwan after the Second World War

certify this. While cases of land reforms undertaken in normal

circumstances generally failed, those with urgency and with the

support of the peasantry ― who were the potential beneficiaries ―

produced the expected results. 4

The system of land tenure is the pivot round which many

agrarian problems evolve. If the central system is defective, the rest

of the associated systems are bound to be defective. The land system

is a vital factor which can influence the entire development process

in any country. There are many factors that lead to changes in the

tenurial system. Usually the tenurial changes are caused by various

factors like the migration of the people, changes in the territorial

control imposed by the rulers or by the other related factors such as

lack of political will, insincerity of the law makers and the like.

Generally, land tenure systems of countries are shaped by

historical and evolutionary processes. Social and economic factors

induce change in the terms of land tenure. Changes may also be

mandated by the state or the sovereign. Land reforms become

 5

significant instruments of transition in a society beset by agrarian

crisis and where feudal fetters hold the productive forces in check.

There are various factors which influence the processes of

development whether the country is agrarian, industrial or agro-

industrial. If the structure of the society is agrarian, the land tenure

system is bound to be a decisive factor of development. It is difficult

to understand the patterning of a pastoral society or an agrarian

society without a clear insight into the land tenure systems. Reforms

in the field of land tenure are necessary to facilitate a judicious

redistribution of land.

Land Tenure System in India – An Overview

Scholarly opinions are divided with regard to the question of

land ownership in ancient India. Some holds the view that land

ownership in India primarily belong to the state while others believe

that the private ownership was the tenurial mode in ancient India.

Issues mentioned above as well as many other related issues on land

in ancient times are subjects of debate among the academic circles in

recent times. Ancient texts refer to private ownership of land,

though at the same time some texts are found which affirm the

existence of state owned or crown owned land.5 Private ownership

was not absolute, natural or universal in early India. It is presumed

that land was given higher importance in the life of the people. Land

was held in reverence as „mother‟ or Bhumidevi. It is also a fact that

while giving due importance to land, the misuse of land, it seems,

 6

was not a feature of the early period. During the Vedic Age, land was

considered to be the property of the community as well as the

individual. Hence it was a subject of social concern. While individual

private property was widely recognised, it is unlikely that individuals

possessed absolute title to their land. The state could confiscate the

property of the wicked, for ownership was ultimately based on

virtue.6 At the same time, it was the fundamental responsibility of

the state, to give due protection to the bona fide property of the

individual. Vedic rules prescribe vigilance in the proper upkeep and

maintenance of land. Whether the land was owned by the community

or the ruler or the individual, the main concern was the judicious

distribution of the land among the people.

During the post-Vedic period, the king generally had no right

over the land except the right to a share of the produce. The

cultivators were regarded as the actual owners of the land.7 The

sovereign took keen interest in protecting the actual cultivators in

maintaining their property intact. Under the Muslim rule in India,

the assessment of land revenue was more systematized and

standardized. Sher Shah started a proper land revenue system

which was later completed by Akbar. The zamindars established

their suzerainty during the Mughal period. In course of time the

zamindars began to act in between the state and the tenants. There

prevailed a system by which the right of collecting land revenue was

sold out on the basis of public auction to the highest bidder.8 As and
 7

when the central authority got weakened, the land revenue collection

was controlled by the chieftains.

Under the British, the land tenure system was overruled for

the benefit of the ruler. The British rulers transformed the entire

land systems by introducing their colonial motives in India. Their

purpose was to collect the maximum revenue from the land.9 For the

effective functioning of this new system they introduced many

changes in the tenurial pattern. The zamindars were given the right

of proprietorship over their property. The result was that the

zamindars became the landlords and the cultivators were reduced to

the position of mere tenants. One of the grave consequences of the

British rule was the severe erosion of the right of the peasantry and

their virtual extinguishment.10 During this period the revenue

administration came to devote its attention to cadastral survey and

settlement, maintenance of elaborate land records and collection of

agricultural statistics. The policy of the British was to uphold and

preserve the rights of the landlords and the superior tenure holders

all over the country. Nothing was done to weaken the landlord‟s hold

over the land. Even though it had been realized that the agrarian

structure hampered agricultural production, the administration

turned a blind eye to the inequities perpetrated on the tillers of the

soil.11

The British land policy in the beginning was meant to remove

the restrictive fetters that characterized the earlier European

 8

settlements and at the same time to introduce some flexible

conditions of land tenure as might stimulate „the employment of

British capital, skill and enterprise in the development of the

material resources in India.‟ 12 Further, they considered land policy

as part of the imperial policy designed to develop agricultural

produce to feed British industry.13 The British believed that the

traditional control over the land belonged to the jenmies. They

followed this idea for getting the support of the jenmies for their

colonial rule in the country. Through this attitude towards the

jenmies, the British were trying to create a favourable social

background in the country for their imperial expansion. They also

made use of the jenmies as the carriers of the idea of British

supremacy over to the peasants.

The main impact of the tenancy reforms during the colonial

period was that they did not draw a bold line between different

interests but singled out substantial tenants for special protection

and devoted less attention to other tenants. The changes in the

tenurial system elevated the tenants who held the land directly from

the landlords to the position of a new class of landlords. There was

no serious change in the condition of the actual tillers of the soil.

The British, through their policy reshuffled the upper levels of the

tenurial hierarchy and exposed the tenants at the bottom to

competition and exploitation. The actual tillers of the soil were

 9

depending upon the land for their livelihood. They were subjected to

both traditional as well as colonial exploitations.

The frontline leaders of the Indian freedom struggle felt the

need for effective reforms to benefit the actual tenant. The agrarian

system at the time of Indian independence was characterized by

semi-feudal landlordism. The concentration of land in a few pockets

of socially dominant sections and the existence of many landless

labourers were matters of their main concern.

There were three main types of land tenures in India on the eve

of Indian independence ― landlord tenure or Zamindari System,

independent single tenure or Ryotwari System and the joint village or

village community or Mahalwari community. Under the Zamindari

System, the land was held by a person who was solely responsible for

the payment of land revenue. Actual cultivation was done by the

tenants while the land remained under the control of absentee

landlords. The landlord simply was the provider of land and the

tenants provided all the management and labour. This system was

greatly responsible for exploitation of peasants, their oppression and

poverty and above all low productivity. It was uneconomic and

inefficient in respect of land use.14 The major defect of the Zamindari

system was that, it led to breed inefficiencies and inequalities. The

landlord was responsible for the payment of land revenue to the state

and the actual tiller was not in direct contact with the state.
 10

Under the Ryotwari System there was the direct relationship

between the state and the tenant (ryot), but when it fully developed,

ryots began to sublet their lands. The major advantage of this

system was that there was no sub-infeudation and the cultivator had

direct relation with the government. Under this system, the peasant

was free to look after his land properly and introduce, if necessary,

all possible improvement on it and the magic of property ownership

could turn „sand into gold.‟ This system created an atmosphere of

frequent sub-letting of land. The defective method of assessment of

land revenue under this system led to the decline of the collective

basis of village life which led to the decay of village community.

The Regulation IX of 1833, which was passed during the period

of Lord William Bentick, was the basis of Mahalwari System.15 In

this system revenue was collected from the village. The individual

cultivators were generally responsible for a certain share of the

revenue but in the last resort, all the villages were responsible jointly

and severally.16 This system largely prevailed in Punjab, Agra and

Awadh. The Mahalwari System was an important innovation in the

land revenue system under the British rule. It was the recognition of

a more subtle form of property right than that of the absolute

ownership concept.17

As a result of the above factors, India has been facing agrarian

crisis under the colonial rule in one form or other. There was the

increasing landlessness of the peasants accompanied by frequency of

 11

famines and shortage in the production and supply of food materials.

Absentee landlordism was considered as the greatest barrier in the

development of the agrarian structure in the country.18 Important

changes have been brought in terms of tenancy and land ownership

in the country after independence. The major objectives of the

country‟s land policy after independence can be classified in to two,

viz., assuming social justice and inducing economic efficiency. To

establish social justice and economic efficiency, a more equitable

distribution of land and also a judicious reorganization of the

agrarian structure were necessary that might lead to remove the age

old institutional defects pertaining to agricultural development.

Independent India continues to remain an agricultural country

despite nearly six decades of planning and industrialization. The

majority of the population directly or indirectly depends on

agriculture. The peasantry constitutes the most important class in

this predominantly agrarian country. The agrarian sector caters to

multiple functions of crucial importance like providing livelihood to

the people and keeping the nutritional as well as the ecological

balances. Acceleration in agricultural growth is necessary to keep

the basic national indices healthy. Improvements in agriculture

influence greater economic growth, sufficient food availability, higher

income levels, better health position of the population and ultimately

a sustainable development of the country. Generally, both the

 12

agrarian structural models and land tenure systems will have direct

bearing on all these factors.

All through the years after Indian independence, land-related

issues have been seriously debated upon. Many reforms have been

introduced in different Indian states to improve the prevailing

agrarian system. Critical interventions in the tenurial system are

generally considered instrumental to agrarian reforms. Economic

growth and social change cannot be effectively accomplished without

addressing the flaws in the land tenure system. Agriculture, being

the primary occupation in India, a comprehensive analysis needs to

be undertaken to identify the problems related to land. By the time

India achieved independence, a strong public opinion had

crystallized against the semi-feudal landlordism in order to achieve

economic regeneration. In most of the reorganized states, the cry for

effective land tenure system was heard.

Background of the Land Tenure Systems in Early Kerala

With reference to Kerala, the need for effective tenurial reforms

was felt in the Princely States much earlier than that of the other

Indian states. There were three territorial segments, Travancore,

Cochin and Malabar in early Kerala. The agrarian relations in the

region were mixed up with to a greater extent with the caste system

that prevailed. It was the ascendancy of the Brahmins to the region

that led to the introduction of feudalistic agrarian relations.

 13

The traditional tenurial concept in Kerala was that the landed

property was owned by the Brahmins with their ascendancy to

Kerala.19 Historical evidences are sighted by the scholars to prove

the assumption that prior to the migration of Brahmins, the land

belonged to the lower castes. As the Brahmins were considered

superior to others in scholarship, the community below them in rank

as well as the sovereigns entrusted the management of the land with

them.20 The Brahmins who administered the land were popularly

called urallors or trustees of land. Some of the urallors in course of

time began to oppress the tenants or actual cultivators. This forced

the rulers to enact regulations to ensure security to the tenants. This

trend in the field of land relations continued in the later years also.

By the twelfth century A.D when Brahmin jenmies became very

powerful, the landlord-tenant relations began to get deteriorated.

The land relations in North Kerala underwent changes with the

Mysorean interlude.

In early times, landed property in Travancore was under the

control of temples and jenmies and they enjoyed those lands free of

tax and paid only Rajabhogam (a tribute or tax) to the ruler in times

of emergency. The tenurial system of the state was basically different

from that which had existed in other parts of the country. The

tenants held their lands on feudal tenure giving an undertaking to

their landlords to accept their suzerainty and to defend them against

enemies whenever necessary. As mentioned earlier, there emerged a

 14

change in the situation as a result of the ascendancy of Brahmin

jenmies to the region. The new class of jenmies had influenced the

feudal population and made them adopt their own customs. By this

time the state was almost disintegrated converting the rulers as mere

puppets in the hands of the jenmies and chieftains.21

One peculiarity of the land tenure system in early Kerala was

that the landlords and the tenants always dwelt in the same

agricultural field. Moreover, land tax was never paid directly to the

landlord. The system was based on the Ryotwari principle, i.e., the

principle of direct settlement with individual ryots. Land tax as such

on a permanent basis began to be collected only by the beginning of

the eighteenth century, though the amount collected was very

meagre.22

The rulers of Travancore although remained as passive

spectators in the early period, were compelled to incorporate certain

innovative changes in the tenurial pattern leading to the emergence

of the modern tenurial system. They began to implement land

settlements in order to settle uncertainty that prevailed in the

agricultural realm. The first settlement was conducted in 1738

during the period of the ruler Marthanda Varma (1729-‟58).23

Colonel Munroe who was appointed by the English East India

Company as the Resident of the native state in 1800 initiated steps

for more British intervention in the internal administration of the

state. Munroe attempted to introduce a system of administration

 15

modelled on that of England and to make Travancore a model state

of India with peaceful, progressive and prosperous atmosphere and

at the same time introducing measures to inculcate loyalty to the

British.24

The British intervention in Travancore compelled the rulers to

enter into a series of treaties with them.25 As part of the imperialistic

endeavour on exploiting Travancore economy through land revenue,

the British had initiated changes in the traditional land tenure

system. Confiscation of properties of landed magnates and

transferring them to government were the regular features of the

British policy.26 As a result, there was the centralization of landed

property under the state. This policy of absorption accelerated the

emergence of state as the greatest jenmie in the region.27 The state

became the supreme landlord, with two third of the cultivated area

under it. A larger part of the total area of Travancore came under

the direct ownership of the state.28 Henceforth, the state was in

favour of introducing many tenancy reforms. This unprecedented

attitude of the Travancore rulers in favour of this change in the

tenurial system accelerated the pace of land reforms in this Princely

State.

The system of land relations that had existed in Travancore

substantially contributed to the progress of the agrarian economy,

but certain lapses demanded correction. The powers of the jenmies

of the jenmom lands over the tenants had to be regulated. A similar

 16

situation existed in the matter of the ownership rights of the sircar

(government) lands. The legislative bodies in Travancore, as well as

the rulers, made regulations and amendments from time to time, to

rectify such anomalies. All these changes had their effect on

Travancore society which was traditionally an agrarian state.

Among the native states of early Kerala, Travancore was in the

forefront in incorporating land tenure legislations. One of the earliest

Proclamations by the ruler of Travancore for the purpose of tenurial

changes was the Pattom Proclamation of 1865. It was this

Proclamation by the ruler which made the land in Travancore

saleable or transferable.29 This Proclamation was the very beginning

of the structural changes in the agrarian system in the state. The

marginalized section of the society began to acquire land ownership

rights. They began to concentrate on agriculture that led to the

development of the state economically and that created an

atmosphere of social change in the society. There was also the

beginning of a new social order in Travancore as a result of this

Proclamation.

The Proclamation of 1865 was subjected to modifications in

later years. New reforms were introduced for the purpose of

improving the relations between the jenmies and the kudiyans

(tenants). These reforms in Travancore were followed by similar

measures in the union of the states of Travancore-Cochin, and later

in united Kerala. These changes had long term effects in reducing

 17

the caste and class differences in the state, as well as in the break-

up of the age old joint family system. So the legislations related to

land tenure had far reaching effects not only on land relations, but

also on the social and cultural life of the people of the region. The

introduction of various reforms in tenurial relations also signified the

recognition of the demands for tenancy rights in Travancore.30

The progressive land tenure policy of Travancore rulers was

evident from their encouragement given for the conversion of waste

lands into agricultural lands and those lands were given ten years

tax exemption for reclamation and other costs.31 The tenurial

changes that took place in Travancore served to improve the position

of tenants and to ensure the distribution of land from the upper

castes to the lower strata. This change which was brought about

through the changes in the rights of ownership of land later initiated

major changes in the socio-economic and political arenas of the state

which influenced the nearby states, Cochin and Malabar.

Cochin was the smallest territorial unit in early Kerala. The

rulers of Cochin also made attempts to subdue the chiefs and to

strengthen the state power, but not at the same extent as in

Travancore. The ruler of Cochin issued a Royal Edict in 1863 to

prevent the unnecessary eviction of tenants before the stipulated

period. But the Royal Edict was not implemented strictly and there

was the lack of supportive mechanism for the effective

implementation of tenurial changes in the region. In the case of

 18

Malabar, the tenurial system was more complex. The political

changes that took place in the region influenced its social life and

also the land relations. The British policy of maximization of revenue

from land as well as their tenurial policies resulted in agrarian

protests in the region fanned by communal feelings. There were the

compelling factors for the introduction of tenurial changes in the

region.

The changes in land tenure system in these three territorial

units have substantially influenced Kerala, at the time of its

inception. The transformation that took place in the Travancore

society was, to a great extent, the result of the changes in the

agrarian systems. The tenurial changes had its effects on the

economic life of the people. The changes in the agrarian economy as

well as the commercialization of agriculture, both led to a

corresponding change in human relations. There were agrarian

protests by the peasants in early Kerala but the monarchy in the

region favoured meaningful changes in the tenurial pattern. The

tenurial changes ultimately gave rise to significant alterations in the

social structure in Travancore and also in later Kerala, paving the

way for the emergence of a model state.32

Importance of the Study

The land tenure systems in all countries are the products of a

long historical process. India is no exception. Tenurial changes were

the products of oppression, unrest and outcomes of historical

 19

movements. The Indian peasantry for a long time were under

oppressions of landlords and colonial regimes, came to be degraded

into slavery, serfdom and let down by the growing pressure of

economic and social inequalities. They were a prey to the whims and

notions of intermediaries as well. It was at this point, a radical

change in the prevalent land tenure system was a necessary factor to

play an important role in the rehabilitation of the agricultural

economy of independent India. Independent India was predominantly

agrarian in nature and when the developmental programmes were

embarked on, the Indian leaders felt the need for reforms in the land

system and land reform began to assume the importance of an

explicit and strategic developmental issue in contemporary history.

The problem of structural organization of the agrarian system

can be treated as the foundation of all other reforms.33 The only way

for rectifying the agrarian problem of poverty and farm management

is implementing radical, institutional and organizational reforms. In

the case of early Kerala, land ownership and cultivation of land went

together. Land tenure system that had existed in Travancore had

substantially helped the progress of the agrarian economy. The

ruling families as well as the legislative bodies in Travancore played a

major role in introducing changes in the region. The pressure from

the tenants was not less. All these changes had their effect on

Travancore society and the later Kerala.

 20

The relevance of the study of the land tenure systems in

Travancore would be better understood if a comparative study is

made on the socio-economic conditions that exist in other parts of

the country. In other parts of India, even today socio-economic

disparities exist to a large extent, whereas the situation in Kerala is

different. This may be attributed to the enlightened policy pursued

by the rulers along with the tenurial changes that were implemented

in the state from the very early time.

Land tenure systems have become an important area of

concern leading to debate and discourses in recent times. It has

been taken up by a good number of scholars for their special studies.

Micro level studies have been also taken up by many. The

institutions like the Centre for Development Studies and the Kerala

State Planning Board have taken up various studies on the impact of

land tenure systems. The political impact of the land tenure

legislations have been studied by those interested in the political

implications of land tenure legislations. The present study is an

attempt to focus on the evolution, highlighting the role of

administrators in implementing tenancy reforms, the extent of

popular pressure for land reforms as well as the economic and socio-

cultural impact of land tenure systems in Travancore, and in one

sense, an effort to overcome some missing elements on the earlier

and recent studies pursued by some professional as well as amateur

scholars.
 21

Hypothesis

The importance of land tenure systems in a welfare society was

felt by the rulers of the Princely States in Kerala. The Princes were

specially admired for their progressive outlook and responsible

administration. Feudal landlordism that caused outbursts and

uneasiness among the tenants was also a feature of early Kerala.

The native rulers of Travancore were awakened to the need for

tenancy reforms and the impact was the Proclamation of 1865. This

measure of the Travancore ruler can be treated as the basis for the

subsequent legislative changes in the area and the impact has been

carried to the integrated State of Kerala which was formed in the

year 1956. The State of Kerala introduced drastic legislative

measures in the field of land ownership rights in 1959. This measure

in Kerala influenced the life pattern of the people of the region in the

later years.

The highlight of the hypothesis is that the Kerala model of

development which has become a popular phenomenon of

development in contemporary times had its sound basis in the earlier

tenurial changes in the region. Kerala is a state with a high rate of

literacy among Indian states. The basis for this higher literacy rate

as well as the tremendous educational progress among the middle

class population in recent times, ranking the state to the top among

the Indian states could be read out as an impact of the land tenure

patterns in the erstwhile Travancore, Cochin and Malabar territorial

 22

segments. The tenurial changes affected changes in the economic

growth of the middle class population, changes in the agrarian

pattern of the region, finally leading to a large scale commerci-

alization of agriculture.

The educational progress of the people of the state as well as

improved health condition of the people also can be attributed to the

effects of this change in the social set up. The agrarian changes as

well as the changes that took place due to the disintegration of the

existing joint family system came to a point at which people migrated

to new areas in different parts of the state and abroad. As an impact

of this migration, now the people from Kerala are working abroad

and are earning NRI (Non-Resident Indian) income and investing it in

the state. This income from the NRI‟s often surpassed the other

revenues to the state. It was also the impact of the tenurial changes

that created an awakening among all classes of people of Travancore

and later Kerala to spread the democratic egalitarian ideas into their

minds. The age old economic disparity between the different sections

of people in the society was reduced to the minimum due to the

changes in the land relations. There was the comparatively peaceful

socio-cultural revolution in the region which created minimum

tension and sentimental dysfunction among the people. Further, the

agrarian reforms helped to reduce the complicated relationship

between the landlords and the tenants in the state. The basis of the

cultural growth and transformation of the region can also be traced

 23

as the effects of the tenurial change. The socio-political and cultural

progress of the state also can be traced back to the structural

changes in the land ownership pattern that existed in the state from

the very early times.

Study Area

The study begins with a prelude to the thesis incorporating the

meaning of the terms used in the study, emphasizing the importance

of land tenure on the agricultural development that promotes the

quality of the population, life style, higher income levels and above

all, the socio-cultural development. The study gives an analysis of

the land tenure system initiated at the national level since the Vedic

times, down through the Muslim period, colonial phase and in

Independent India. This is done in order to present a brief outline on

the tenurial system of India in yesteryears. In Independent India,

agriculture is given a higher priority and the series of Five Year

Plans that India launched in the 60‟s gave due importance to the

improvement of the agrarian sector.

The study is mainly confined to the tenurial systems in the

erstwhile Travancore from 1865 to 1959. It was in the year 1865

that a Proclamation was issued by the then Travancore ruler

Ayillyam Thirunal, which was the most significant one on the land

relations. The present study mainly begins with the Proclamation of

Travancore referred to above, the background leading to the

Proclamation and the economic and socio-political conditions

 24

prevailing in this Princely State and also in the two other constituent

segments (Cochin and Malabar) in modern Kerala.

The study also includes the effects of the Proclamation on the

life of the people which further paved the way for the emergence of

new class of land owners, new land markets and the expansion of

cultivation and change of agrarian practices in the region. The

initiative of the erstwhile Travancore rulers ultimately paved the way

for the economic, social and cultural progress of the state during

their rule and finally resulted in the drastic legislations in land

ownership rights in Kerala in 1959.

Objectives of the Study

 To examine the background of the tenurial changes in

Travancore that led to the decline of jenmie system.

 To study the circumstances that led to the Pattom

Proclamation of 1865 and other subsequent Proclamations in

the State.

 To study the progressive nature of the administration of the

rulers of Travancore and to analyse the factors at work for

their progressive outlook.

 To explore the effects of various legislative measures of the

Travancore rulers and to understand how land was

transformed into a „commodity‟ in the market as a result of the

tenurial changes.
 25

 To enquire into the responses of peasants to various

Proclamations and legislative measures introduced by the

rulers.

 To study about the various factors that influenced the tenurial

changes in the country as a whole and the role if any, of

landlords and the tenants. The study intends to analyse the

nature of the agrarian movements in the region, role of the

Indian nationalists and the role of the Planning Commission in

suggesting reforms in the tenurial field.

 To analyze the nature of the changes affected in the political,

economic, social and cultural areas and to examine how this

had affected the life of the people of Kerala.

 To examine the socio-cultural revolution that took place in the

Travancore society as a result of the tenurial changes and how

far the concept of welfare state is being realized in later Kerala.

 To trace how far the tenurial changes in the native state of

Travancore have had an effect on the social and religious

reform movements in the State and the progressive land

reforms of the first popular government in Kerala in 1957.

 To enquire and to understand the various forces which worked

for and against the effective implementation of land reforms in

later Kerala.
 26

 To analyse the impact of the tenurial changes in the State and

how far these changes did influence the State of Kerala in the

subsequent years – the educational progress of the State,

migration of the people, the brain drain and the pre-eminence

of Kerala in many sectors etc.

 To introduce to the future generations the nature of

administration of early Kerala and the factors which

contributed to its enlightened nature.

Methodology

This study is basically descriptive in nature with an

interpretative methodology added to analytical assessment. For the

general review of the impact of the land tenure systems in

Travancore, all tools of research work- statistical, analytical, field

survey and interviews have been applied along with a detailed study

on various Legislative Proceedings, Declarations, Official Reports,

Documents related to various agitations for tenure reforms etc.

Personal interviews were made with those who were directly involved

in the process of tenurial change as well as with those who studied

the subject. Personal interview was made with Smt. K.R. Gauriamma

who was the Revenue Minister of the first popular Ministry in 1957

and also the one who was instrumental in introducing in the Kerala

Legislative Assembly, the Kerala Stay of Eviction Proceedings Act,

(1957), and the Kerala Agrarian Relations Bill (1959) which formed

the basis of the later Kerala Land Reforms Acts in the State.
 27

The study has been developed on the basis of the sources both

primary and secondary. Primary sources were available from the

Central Archives and Directorate of State Archives, Trivandrum, and

the Regional Archives at Ernakulam and Calicut. Most of the original

records were collected from the State Archives, Trivandrum. The

reports of various Committees and Commissions appointed by the

Government of Travancore from time to time, Cover Files and the

various Department Files available at the State Archives were also

consulted. Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Assembly,

Legislative Council, and those of the Sri Moolam Assembly, Popular

Assembly, Sri Chitra State Council were also used. The Regulations

and other Acts and Proclamations of Travancore and the various

Administrative Reports were also consulted. Secondary sources were

collected from various books and other publications.

The study has been further expanded by analyzing factors

using the electronic media including internet sources, newspaper

reports, commentaries, doctoral dissertations, monographs, field

survey etc. The Modern Language Association Handbook for Writers

of Research Papers was referred for framing the format of the thesis.

Review of Literature

The study is based on an exhaustive examination of

authoritative sources, both primary as well as secondary which

provided evidences and shed much light on many aspects regarding

this study. The archival records which form the main categories of
 28

primary sources are best examples for the official views on various

issues like the Cover File which contains the views of Dewan, Sir T.

Madhava Row, on the tenures of Travancore in detail. The records

Ozhukus (field register) available at the archives give an outline in

respect of landed properties in the state. Other records like Ayakettu

(permanent records on land settlement) and the Thandapperu

Register contained details of land possession and tax of each

assignee. There were many records connected with the acquisition of

land (Ponnumvila case records) for various developmental projects of

the state, that have been used. The Mathilakam records give the

details collected from the cadjan (dried leaf of the Palmyra trees)

records which were available for reference of the early history of

Travancore. Orders or Proclamations issued by the Rajas of

Travancore popularly known as neetus were also referred to. The

various records of the proceedings of Travancore Legislative

Assemblies and Councils available at the Kerala Legislative Assembly

Library were also useful. The monographs published by the Centre

for Development Studies were also consulted.

The various aspects of land reforms in an Indian perspective

were made by various scholars. Harkishan Singh Surjeet‟s work

“Land Reforms in India,” the various works of Daniel Thorner, B.H.

Baden Powell, “Land Reforms in India” by P.S. Appu, Bhowani Sen‟s

“Evolution of Agrarian Relations in India,” Sita Ram Singh‟s “Land

Reforms in India,” Desraj Sabarwal‟s “New Technology and Agrarian

 29

Change” were but a few in this regard. The focus of these studies is

of a generic nature which is different from the present study. The

work edited by Steve Jones, P.C. Joshi and Miguel Murmis‟s “Rural

Poverty and Agrarian Reforms” was helpful in understanding the

agrarian aspects that exist in Asia, Latin America, Africa and Europe.

Scholastic studies in the field of land reforms in the Kerala

context include the work of Dr. T.C.Varghese, titled, “Agrarian

Change and Economic Consequences: Land Tenures in Kerala, 1850-

1960.” The work seeks to identify the link between agrarian

structures in the formation of the traditional Kerala society. The

work by Dr. P.Radhakrishnan on “Peasant Struggles Land Reforms

and Social Change,” examines the case of Malabar between 1836 and

1982. The study is about the historical process of peasant struggles

and its connection between land reforms and social change in the

Malabar region. Dr. T.K. Oommen‟s major work, “From Mobilization

to Institutionalization” examines the dynamics of agrarian movement

in twentieth century Kerala. He also published various studies

connected with the agrarian aspects. “Land Reforms and Socio-

Economic Change in Kerala” by Dr. M.A Oommen is important both

as a historical survey and as cultural evaluation on the topic. His

monograph “A Study on Land Reforms in Kerala” highlights the

achievements and shortfalls of land reform legislations in modern

Kerala. The work titled “Social Consequences of Agrarian Change” by

Dr. Ram Chandran Nair deals with the social transformation

 30

resulting from the impact of agrarian change on the complex social

structure of the traditional Travancore Society.

The Association of Peasant Studies at the University of Calicut

published a study on, “Agrarian India, Problems and Perspectives.”

The work discusses various agrarian aspects by scholars like Dr. K.

N. Ganesh, Dr. Ramachandran Nair and others. Dr. K.K.N. Kurup

made various studies on the agrarian relations of Malabar. The study

by Dr. Rajan Gurukal, “The Kerala Temple and the Early Medieval

Agrarian System” deals with the institutional centrality of the temple

in the early Kerala society. Other than these works, the works and

articles of Prof. Elamkulam Kunjan Pillai, Dr. P.K. Michael Tharakan,

Adv. Harikrishna Iyer, F. Fawcett also need special mention while

studying the tenurial system in the region. However, the thrust of

these studies is different from the present study.

Works of many scholars like D.D. Kosambi, K. P. Padmanabha

Menon, K. A. Neelakanta Sastri, P. Shangoony Menon, R. S. Sharma,

Burton Stein, Bipin Chandra, P. K. Balakrishinan, K. K. Kusuman,

P. K. Gopalakrishnan, K. N. Panikar, E. M. S. Namboodirippad,

Robbin Jeffrey, Ronald J. Herring, K. N. Raj, M. G. S. Narayanan, M.

Gangadharan, Kesavan Veluthat, M. T. Narayanan, S. Sivadasan,

was but a few which contain various aspects connected with this

study. There were many unpublished research works in the different

university libraries like, the study on the Socio-economic

Consequences of Land Reforms in Kerala by Vimala Shibu, the study

 31

by N. Sasidharan Nair on the History of Social Legislations in

Travancore, Agrarian Movements in Travancore by P. N. Mohandas,

study on the Evolution of Land Reforms in Travancore‟s early period

by Noorjam Beevi, Political Agitations in Travancore by P. Sarojini,

Jenmie System in Kerala in the 19th century by K.T.Thomas, P.

Sureshkumar‟s History of Social Legislations of Travancore, were the

few among them. But the area of study of these works was different

and with a different perspective than the present study.

Other than these, secondary documents like Manuals – Land

Revenue Manual of Travancore, State Manual of Travancore (4

volumes), State Manual of Cochin, Malabar District Manual (2

volumes), various Gazetteers, Memoirs, Journals and other historical

works available were referred. Various University Libraries like the

Kerala University, Mahatma Gandhi University, Calicut University,

Madras University, Cochin University, Sree Sankaracharya Sanskrit

University, the Public Libraries at Trivandrum and Ernakulam, the

AKG Centre Library, Trivandrum, Centre for Development Studies

Library, Trivandrum, Kerala Council for Historical Studies Library,

Trivandrum, Kerala University History Department Library,

Karyavattom, School of Social Sciences Library, Kottayam, the Union

Christian College Library, Aluva, as well as many local and regional

Libraries were consulted for the study. The present study is mainly

based on the tenurial changes which started with the Proclamation

 32

of 1865; its thrust as well as scope and impact were different from

the various studies mentioned above.

Chapterisation

The study is divided into seven chapters including introduction

and conclusion parts.

Chapter I is the introductory section which includes a prelude

to the thesis, the origin of the term tenure, its meaning and

evolution, a brief note on the early Indian tenurial system, the

tenurial patterns in early Kerala and a reference to the historic

Pattom Proclamation of 1865. The chapter also includes the

importance of the study, hypothesis of the thesis, study area,

objectives of the study, methodology used along with a survey of the

related literature referred and chapter wise content of the thesis and

a conclusion part.

Chapter II deals with the land tenure systems in early Kerala-

Travancore, Cochin and Malabar. A study on the historical

background of the land tenure system, its evolution through the

years, the colonial impact etc. have been discussed in this chapter.

The close similarities between the land tenure system prevailed in

Travancore and Cochin along with the dissimilarities which existed

in Malabar are also included in it.

Chapter III concentrates on the important land tenure

legislations in Travancore from 1865 to 1949. Anti imperialistic

struggle in the region which took place under the leadership of the
 33

native administrators is also discussed in this chapter. The study

examines the circumstances which forced the passing of various

legislations, the stringent role of the British colonial authorities in

India to transform the tenurial pattern into their advantage and its

outcome. The chapter ends with an impact of the land tenurial

legislations in Travancore between 1865 and 1949 and how far the

tempo was carried over to the next stage and to later Kerala.

Chapter IV discusses the legislations on land tenures after the

integration of Travancore with Cochin (1949) and beyond. The

political turmoil of the post-independence period in the region and

the tenurial changes after the formation of Kerala have been

examined in a larger socio-political context in this Chapter. The

revolutionary tenancy reforms in the State, the attempts by the

Planning Commission for the abolition of the intermediaries and

other tenancy reforms in the region have been also referred to in the

Chapter.

Chapter V is about the economic impact of the land tenure

legislations on Travancore. It deals with the changes in the

ownership of land as a result of the tenurial changes in Travancore

and its impact on the economic life of the region which resulted in a

new atmosphere of trading activities as well as the economic

expansion. The chapter also contains the economy of farm

management, the transformation of the economy, commercialization

of agriculture etc. The role of the economically and socially weaker

 34

sections and their involvement in the social life and how their

temperaments were transformed into peasant‟s movements during

the period were also included in this chapter.

Chapter VI deals with a study of the socio-cultural

significance of the land tenure legislations in Travancore. The

Chapter gives details regarding the changes in the tenurial system in

Travancore and their impact on the socio-cultural life of Travancore

in the later history of Kerala. The various social reform movements

sphere headed by the social and religious reformers in the region, the

contributions of various forces including the colonialists in spreading

the message of social reforms have been examined in this chapter.

The chapter examines how the cultural life of Travancore had its

intimate association with the land tenure system in the region. The

reciprocal relation between the landlord and tenants of erstwhile

Kerala is also examined in the Chapter.

The Chapter VII centres on an assessment and conclusion of

the study.

Conclusion

The agrarian structure that evolved in early Kerala during the

pre-colonial period was different from that during the colonial period.

The structural changes of land relations along with the decline of

class structure were a notable feature of the period. Various factors

have influenced the process of change in Travancore-political, social,

economic and the like. Along with this, the intervention on the part
 35

of the government was also there. The rulers of Travancore made

timely intervention in the tenurial system of the region. The changes

in the tenure systems brought the tenant community in

confrontation with the landed magnates and feudal lords. This

necessitated the intervention of the governments in tenurial issues in

the state. These changes in the land ownership pattern have

influenced the economic as well as socio-cultural life of the people.

The impact of land tenure systems in Travancore had influenced the

other territorial segments like Cochin and Malabar and also the state

of Kerala in subsequent years.

It is hoped that the study would be helpful to present a

comprehensive idea of the nature, evolution and impact of the land

tenure systems in Travancore and also the overall impact of various

legislations related to land on the then state of Kerala and

contemporary times in general.

 36

Notes and References

1 Govindlal D. Patel., „The Legal and Economic Consequences of

the Abolition of Land Tenures,‟ Agrarian Reforms in Bombay,

Agricol, Bombay, 1950, p.3.

2 Atul Kumar Singh., Land Ownership in Ancient India, Journal of

Indian History, Vol. LXIII, University of Kerala, Trivandrum,

1984, p.42.

3 Appu P. S., Land Reforms in India - A Survey of Policies,

Legislations and Implementations, Vikas Publishing House, New

Delhi, 1996, p. xiii.

4 Ibid., p. xiv.

5 Atul Kumar Singh., op.cit., p. 42.

6 Ibid., p. 42.

7 Lekhi R. K. and Jogindar Singh., Agricultural Economics, Kalyani

Publishers, New Delhi, 1946, p.112.

8 Mamoria C.B. and B. B. Tripatti., Agricultural Problems of India,

Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1961, p. 683.

9 Panikkar K.N., Against Lord and State: Religion and Peasant

Uprisings in Malabar, 1836-1921, Oxford University Press, Delhi,

1992, p.3.

10 Mamoria C. B. and B. B. Tripatti., op.cit., p. 691.

11 Appu P. S., op.cit., p. 34.

 37

12 Misra B.B., The Indian Middle Class, Oxford University Press,

Delhi, p. 257.

13 Ibid.

14 Baden Powell B. H., Land Revenue in British India, Oxford

University Press, London, 1892, p. 201.

15 Lekhi R.K., and Jogindar Singh, op.cit., p.114.

16 Sharma A. N., Economic Structure of Indian Agriculture, Himalaya

Publishing House, Bombay, 1984, pp. 110-111.

17 Ibid., p.111.

18 Bhowani Sen., Evolution of Agrarian Relations in India, People‟s

Publishing House, New Delhi, 1962, p.237.

19 Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer., Literary History of Kerala (Mal.),

Vol.I, University of Kerala, Trivandrum, 1998, p.34.

20 Oommen M. A., Land Reforms and Socio-Economic Change in

Kerala, The CLS, Madras, 1971, p.12.

21 Ibid., p.12.

22 Ramachandran Nair S., „Land Reform and Agriculture in Kerala‟

Agrarian India, Problems and Perspectives, E. K. G. Nambiar

(ed.), Association of Peasant Studies, University of Calicut, 1999,

pp.121-123.

23 Suresh Kumar., Political Evolution of Kerala: Travancore

1859-1938, Phoenix Publishing House, New Delhi, p. xv.

 38

24 Louise Onwerkerk (ed.]., Dick Kooliman, No Elephants for the

Maharaja, Social and Political Change in the Princely State of

Travancore 1921-1947, Manohar Publications, New Delhi, 1994,

p.38.

25 Aitchison C. U., (compiled), A Collection of Treaties, Engagements

and Sanads Relating to India and Neighbouring Countries

(Revised Edition), Vol. V, New Delhi, 1983, p. 224.

26 Muraleedharan Nair V., Dynamics of Agrarian Struggle, New

Delhi, 1996, p. 224.

27 Madhava Iyer R., Travancore Land Revenue Manual, Vol. IV,

Trivandrum, p. 206.

28 Varghese T.C., Agrarian Change and Economic Consequences,

Land Tenures in Kerala: 1850-1960, Allied Publishers, Bombay,

1970, p.78.

29 Notification of His Highness, the Maharaja of Travancore on 2

June 1865, cited in Travancore Land Revenue Manual, Vol.4,

p.375.

30 Elamkulam P. N. Kunjan Pillai., Studies in Kerala History, NBS,

Kottayam, 1970, p. 366.

31 Micheal Tharakan P. K., Migration of Farmers from Travancore to

Malabar from 1930 to 60, An Analysis of Economic Causes,

Unpublished M.Phil Thesis, CDS, Trivandrum, 1977, p. 44.

 39

32 George K.K., Limits to Kerala Model of Development, Centre for

Development Studies, Trivandrum, 1993, p.4.

33 Thirumali S., Post War Agricultural Problems and Policies in

India, Indian Society of Agricultural Economics, New Delhi,

1954, p.125.