aS Ae aah te -First Edition 1971 Sisth Edition 1987 Reptinied 1990 Seventh Edition 1991 Reprinted 1993, 1998, 2000 ighth Edition 2001 mth Edition — 2011 CoryRiGHT © NEM CHAND & BROS, 2011 No part of this publication may be reprinted any electronic, mechanical or any means, Photocopying and recording, translated in any language with oF reproduced or utilized in any ed in any form now known or hereafter invented, inclag? or in any information storage and retiieval syn 'out the prior written peimission of the Publishet/ Auth Edited by Mrs. Indira Khanna & Mrs. Lalitha Justo ISBN 978-81-85240-63-3, Published by Nem Chand & Bros., Civil Lines, Roorkee 247 667, India e-mail : ncb_rke@[Link] Photoset and Printed at the Roorkee Press, Mahavir Marg, Roorkee 247 667 ‘ila PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION The basic concept of highway engineering have been considerably changed in the last ‘two decades. In the past, the subject was essentially based on the empirical practices and hum rales. “The design and construction thereby were done mainly based on the experiences of individual engineers, Like in ather countries, in India also several organisation namely, Cenural Road Research Insitute, Minisify of Transport (Roads Wing), P. W. D. Research Stations and some educational institutions have Contributed'a great deal to the knowledge and newer concepts in this field of engineering. All these contributions have given the subject a scientific oullook. The authors have been associated with the teaching and research in this discipline at the University of Roorkee for the past several years and as result ofthis experience this book embodies the latest know-how on the subject. It has been the obyective of the authors to prepare this book introducing the subject of highway engineering to the student in a systematic manner covering the latest knowledge. ‘The treatment of the subject is fully in metric system. Besides being useful forthe Civil Engineering students in general, it is hoped that the book should also fulfill the need of ‘he students of those institutions where this subject is being taught at an advanced level for the final year degree class as an optional paper or for the preparation of a complete Highway Project. In preparing this book, the authors have liberally drawn information from @ number of publications, particularly, of Indian Roads Congress. The authors feel that the book should serve the purpose of a standard text book for the undergraduate students of Civil Engineering for almost all the teaching institutions in the country. It is possible that some errors might have been left unnotices print’. The authors would sincerely welcome the constructive eri ‘book for the subsequent editios, while the book was in ism for improving the Janvary 26, 1971 8. Roorkee ©PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION ‘The book has been revised in general and efforts have been made to improve the presentation, Suggestions and comments on the contents and subject matter received from the sidents, teachers and professionals will be considered by the authors durin further revision of the book. s Ss. March, 2011 ic. CONTENTS CORTES trey evs INTRODUCTION 8 1.1 Importance of Transportation 1) 12 Bilterent odes of ransporation 2 13 Characteristics of Roads Transport 4 14 Importance of Roads in India 4 1.5 Scope of Highway Engineering 6 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING 9-50 2 2.1. Historical Development of Road Construction 9 22 Highway Development in India 1g 4 23 Necessity of Highway Planning 2 24 — Classification of Roads 2 25 Road Patterns 24 ' 26 Planning Surveys 7 2.7 Preparation of Plans 29 28 Interpretation of Planning Surveys 30 29 Preparation of Master Plan & its Phasing 30 2.10 Highway Planning in India 35 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS 51-70 3.1 Highway Alignment st 3 32 _Engincering Surveys for Highway Location 3s 33 Drawings and Report a 34 Highway Project a HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN 11-188 Introduction 1 4 Highway Cross Section Elements B Sight Distance 86 Design of Horizontal Alignment 103 Design of Vertical Alignment 139 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ies $1 Introduction \s 5 52 Traffic Characteristics ai 53. Traffic Operation au 5.4 Design of Intersections 3H 5.5. Design of Parking Facility x8 $6 Highway Lighting 2 5.7 Traffic Planning & Administration 287cus Paving Mixes mt € Cement Concrete DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION 8.1 General Construction 8 Earthwork Construction of Earth Roads 84 Construction of Gravel Roads 83 Construction Water Bond Macadam Roads 86 Construction of Bituminous Pavements 8.7 Construction of Cement Concrete Pavements 88 Construction of Joints in Cement Concrete Pavements 8.9 Joint Filler and Sealer 8.10 Reinforced Concrete Pavements 8.11 Prestressed Concrete Pavements SOIL STABILIZED ROADS 9.1 Introduction 9 52 Mechanical soi ‘Stabilization 9.3 Soil-cement Stabilization 9.4 Soil lime Stabilizat 9.5 Stabilization of Soil [Link] Materials 9.6 — Special Problems in Soil Stabilization Work HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE. 10.1 Introduction 10 102 Pavement Faitures 10.3 Maintenance ot Highways 10.4 Pavement Evaluation 10.5 Stengthening of Existing Pavements HIGHWAY DRAINAGE 11.1 Introduction 11 112 imponance or Highway Drainage 11.3 Surface Drainage 114 Sub-surface Drainage 11.5 Drainage of Slopes & Erosion Control 11.6 Road Construction in Waterclooved Areac 481 488 - 517 488 489, 498, 505 507 $18 - 534 518 518 519 528 532 $32 MONWAY puceieenis MILL ROADS. wea? 12 4 122. Alignment of $i Rex 123° Geometries of Hill Road 124 Design & Consteuction of Hill Ravaas i 12.5 Drainage in Hill Roads g 12.6 Maimenance Problems in Hill Roads ROAD SIDE DEVELOPMENT S89 13.1. Environment Factors in Planning and Development of Hghocys ss 13 (32. RoststeDevlomen and bere 13.3 Planning Plastation of Trees ss 13.4 Species and their Selection at 135 Care of Trees HIGHWAY ECONOMICS AND FINANCE. 565-53 Introduction “5 14 12s iigimay User Benetis Highway Costs Economic Analysis, ‘Highway Finance INDEXul ) Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION L.L.1 Role of Transportation ‘Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development ‘of any country. Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since ‘every commodity produced whether it is food, clothing, industrial products or medicine needs transport at all stages from production to distribution. In the production stage, transportation is required for carrying raw materials like seeds, manure, coal, steel etc. In the distribution stage, transportation is required from the production centres viz; farms and factories to the marketing centres and later to the retailers and the consumers for distribution, The inadequate transportation facilites retard the process of socio-economic development of the country. The adequacy of transportation system of a country indicates its economic and social development. 1.1.2 Economie Activity and Transport ‘The economic activities are the processes by means of which the produets are utilized to satisfy human wants, TWo important factors well known in economic activity are: (@ Production or supply and i) Consumption for human wants or demand Man and his products are thus not bound to his local surroundings. The importance of transportation in economic activity isto be found in its effects on both human wants for {goods and satisfaction through production and distribution, While discussie the general ao wor transportation, it may be said thatthe increased productivity and its efficent transportation can lower the cost of the produets. The trans influencing factor on consumer price of commodities 1.1.3. Social Effects of Transportation i always settled along the Progress follows the lines of transportation. Population have ‘ rivey shores, road sides and near railway stations. Inthe presen ‘concept of transportationINTRODUCTION 2 network, this kind of ribbon development is greatly discouraged. Attem made to decentralize the population centres away from the sides re being transportation routes. Thus fown planning pattems are rapidly changin congestion around the populated areas suburban living and industrial emer’ ®¥0ld 8 developing, These suburbs and satellite towns, acting as counter-m, linked up with rapid transit systems. The various social effects of tran further elaborated as follows : (a) Sectionalism and transportation : wagnets shoulg tt a Improved transportation has implication in reducing sectionalism within the country and also outside the Po Under-developed colonies and tribes are improving their living conditions @ n= distances have apparently been reduced with reduction in travel time. More-fex & travels in ther pats of te country and outside the country tend to increase knowhatee™ the people from other sections of the society. The intemational understanding for aoe peace and order also improves with efficient network of transportation, se (©) Concentration of population into urban area: The improved transportation network brings prosperity to the urban population, The prosperity and employmen._ portunities of urban area attract the population from other areas resulting in enfament economic activities. Adequate mass transportation facilities are needed to cater the teternal movements in urban area such as daily movements to and from factories, offices sclools, hospitals and other social needs. Efficient rapid transit facilities are necessary for sub-urban and inter-city long distance travel for business needs, social visits and ‘wurist activities. This also encourages the people to live in places away from their work: centres, thus helping to decrease the growth of slums in urban areas. In general the transportation facilities are essential for the well being of the community. (6) Aspect of safety, law and order : Transport facilites are essential for rushing aids to areas affected by an emergency. To maintain law and order at home, itis required to have an efficient svstem of transport network. To defend the territory of the country against the extemal aggression and to guard the borders with the foreign territories, transport facilities are needed connecting the farthest border area from the head quarters or capitals. At times, this alone may be a sufficient reason to develop a transport network ‘hich may not involve any economic and social benefit directly. Alllthe advantages of transportation may now be summarized : (Transportation is for advancement of the community. (ii) Transportation is essential fo the country, and the economic prosperity and general development of (til) Transportation is essential for strategic movem: Country and to maintatn better law and order. ent in emergency for defence of the DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION 3 ‘can be sold atthe nearest marketing centres for more remunerat ive price resulting in faster economic growth and decreased wastage, With improved facilis for education, health care and other social needs in the villages, the urge for the migration to urban centes ‘deereases, thus helping in balance development of the country as a whole, 1.2 DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION Three basic modes of transport are by land, water and air. Land has given scope for development of road and rail transport, Water and air have developed waterways and airways, respectively. The roads or the highways not only include the modem highway system but also the city streets, feeder roads and village roads, catering for a wide range of road vehicles and the pedestrians. Railways have been developed both for long distance transportation and for urban travel. Waterways include oceans, rivers, canals and lakes for the movement of ships and boats. The aircraft and helicopters use the airways. Apart from these major modes of transportation, other modes include pipe lines, elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and monorails. Pipelines are wsed for the transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles. “The four major modes of transportation are : (Roadways or highways il) Railways ii), Waterways (iv) Airways ‘The transportation by air is the fastest among the four modes. Air travel also provides ‘more comfort apart from saving in transportation time for the passengers and the goods between the airports. Transportation by water is the slowest among the four modes: but this mode needs minimum energy to haul unit load through unit distance. ‘The transportation by water is possible between the ports on the sea routes or along the river: ‘or canals where inland transportation facilities are available. ‘The transportation along the railway track could be advantageous by railways between the stations both for the passengers and goods, particularly for longer distances. These railway tracks could serve as arteries fr tansporaton by land and the roads could serve ‘as feeder system for transportation to the interior parts and to the intermediate localities between the railway stations. The energy requirement to haul unit load through unit i i xth) ofthat required by road tance by the railway is only a fraction (one fourth to one si f Eomiati? full advantage of this mode should be taken forthe transportation of bulk goods along land where the railway facilities are available = The transportation by road is the only mode si cl Tice oe is mode imum flexibility for : a Speed alco the rough any mode of ad vehicle. Is posible o direction, time and of travel etc. igh any piensa pare ‘door to door service only by road transport. The other three modes id 0 vrtation by roads forthe service to an Waterway and rally hve to depend on renspaation Dy ross S00, om their resrecive terminal, aipons, harbours or Sane | oration and therfore needed no only to me mae 2 ety for oad rave by 2 wel lement them, b 10 SUPP erie of roads throughout the country.INTRODUCTION ination between different modes of transportation is desi ee at wvpealtiy competition between the different modes, ny a Thad varying characteristics ‘The branch of transportation engineering which deals with the planning. qe. contaction and maintenance of aiports and other facilities forthe operation ef 4 oittned Aiport Engineering. The development of terminal facilities for shipe meng their harbouring, repairs etc. are covered under Harbour Engineering. The desi boats, taying of railway tracks and yard, their maintenance and the safety and conrot on movements are dealt in Railway Engineering. The planning, design, construct maintenance of road and roadway facili Covered under Road Engineering or Highway Engineering. 1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT It is an accepted fact that of all the modes the transportation, road transport is ity nearest to the people. The passengers and the goods have to be first transported by road before reaching a railway station or a port or an airport. ‘The road network alone could serve the remotest villages of the vast country like ours. ia ‘The characteristics of road transport are briefly listed here. f (® Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, tucks, two and three wheeled automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles, But railway tracks are used only by rail locomotives and wagons, waterways are used by only ships and boats. i (ii) Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Mott vehicles are much cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, water and air carriers. Construction and maintenance of roads is also cheaper than that of railway tracks, docks, harbours and airports. i (Gi). Road transpor offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle fom fone lane to another and from one road to another according to the need and convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed and timings of} travel is not available to other modes of transport. Z (¥) In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains SP junctions and main stations for comparatively longer time. (¥) Speed of movement is directly related it i i hi . The rosé dtseases wih nceaing dpeion gests eed nocpen h 8 dispersion in speed. Road transport is subjected to 2 eeree of accidents due tothe Nexbility of movements offered othe cod Derailment of railway locomotives and air crash of air planes are a, ‘ommon. They are in fact more disastrous, 7 Road transport is the only a community alike, (vi) Means of transport that offers itself t0 “ IMPORTANCE OF ROADS IN INDIA’ 401 ignificance of | Planned Road Network It may be said that deficie ’ to the sdbacs tS deficiency in he road development in India has cx . agricul : ltural, commercial and industrial sectors. It is °°” IMPORTANCE OF ROADS IN INDIA s provide roads links between the villages and market cent urban ares aloe dona fet the ecnomie ad ving conor of oe reat ne ‘country as a whole. Overall economic progress can be achieved, only if reasonably adequate transport facilities are made available between the villages and other ditt head quarters and commercial centres. ‘The road networks have also to be supplemented with Express ways to keep pace with the requirement of unimerrupted movement of fast Vehicles along the arterial roads. In general, developing countries have to raise their \tansportation systems toa higher level both in terms of length and quality zo as to meet the demand which is being generated by the development plans. Also road development generates considerable employment potential. It is estimated by Planning Commission and the National Council of Applied Economic Research that Rs. 1,000 crores invested in roads would yield employment for six million persons. thas been shown that a paved surface in reasonably good condition can contribute 10 15 to 40 percent savings in vehicle operation cost, This is very significant from the point of view of energy crisis and conservation of petroleum fuel. Thus itis all the mare important to construct and maintain road pavements in good condition. Revenue from the road transport in India has been much higher than the investment made on road development plans. Out of the estimated revenue of Rs. 10,000 crores from the road sector during the sixth five year plan 1980-85, only Rs. 3439 crores was provided for roads during the plan period. During the seventh plan Rs. 6,000 crores was spent for ross development in the country. There is a great need and considerable scope for bisher investments for development of road transportation in Indi, 1.42. Requirement of Rural Road Development ‘There are 5.76 lakhs villages in India. Of these only about $7 percent of villages with population about 1500, 36.3 percent villages with population 1000 to 1500 and 28 percent villages with population less than 1000 were connected with all-weather roads by 1980-81. Realising the urgency of developing the village roads, these have been treated as a par of minimum needs programme since the fifth five-year plan. It is estimated that Rs. 11,000 crores (as per 1980 cost estimates) will be needed to de all weather motorable road network so that on the average any village is not more yan 1.6 km from a road. During the sixth five year plan (1980-85) out of the provision of Re, 3439 crores for the road development and maintenance, Rs. 1165 crores was set apart for the rural roads under the minimum needs programme, The sites are also sctely engaged in the development of rual reads. For example, a masterplan for rural reads been prepared for Karnataka State at an estimated cost of Rs 949 crores. 1.43 Comparative Study of Road Statistics ‘The road sats give an idea ofthe stage of road development ofa country: The road statistics may be presented onthe bass of area ofthe county othe popstaton, roa spork of tis country has t0 be considerably increased during te derlopreet plans. The poor state of road development in India in te Pes may following reasons : H in the country upto the initiation of 0 .d development of roads in the upto the 9 ie ead Pan the year 1943, Only during the five-year plans since 1951, the development works were speeded UP.6 INTRODUCTION (Gi) The investment even today’ on the road development programme is mi the revenue from the road transport. A Lowey thay (iii) Poor economic conditions of the vast majority of the population in villa i the owning of private vehicles and discourage the use of transport, °° Prohibiy ‘There has been a noteworthy progress in road development in India durin independent period, especially since the start ofthe five year plans inthe year SPOS: total road length by the year 1951 was only 3,97,600 km, whereas ihe recat: The achieved by 1981 was 15,02,700 km, The density of roads in km per 100 sq, kes te the country by the year 1951 was about 12 which was increased to 21 by ie aTe8 of, 34 by 1972 and 46 by 1981. The road density values of some of the deveen 95h : 4 developing countries by the year 1981 are given in Table 1.1 for comparison, Pe! a8 Table 1.1 Road Density Values in Different Countries by the Year 1981 Road density in km R Country | per [Link] area | Country prion ‘Afghanistan 3 [New Zealand 35 [Expr 3 I 67 Nepal S* USA. 68 Australia u Hungary 94 Nigeria 12° Ttaly 97 Pakistan 13° France 146 Malaysia d4* Great Britain 153 Brazil 16 Netherlands 225 Greece 28 Japan 296 "1984 Statistics from World Bank Policy Study. 1,5 SCOPE OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING The road pavements are generally constructed on small embankments, slightly above the general ground level wherever possil Possible, in order to avoid the difficult drainage and ‘maintenance problems. The term road or roadway thus constructed is therefore termed ‘highway’ and the sci i called ‘Highway Hagar technology dealing with Road Engineering is generally Constructed and maintained. 4 Seuiced sad cian Answers to each of these questions contribute to the In utshelt, it . development, pane eee ee engineering deals with various phase like trafic operation and” its contro, ighway geometric design and location, highay it ‘materi 5 ‘ maintenane, economic considerations, neces sy siement design, constuction a4 jon, : REFERENCES 7 ‘Scope of Highway Engineering, PHASES DETAILS Development, Planning Historical background; Basis for Planning; Master Plan: and Locations Engineering surveys and highway alignment. Highway Design, Road Geometries and their Design; Rigid and Flexible Geometries and Pavements; Design factors and thickness design; Overlay Structures design; Design of drainage system. ‘Traffic Performance Traffic studies analysis; Need for new road links; Traffic and its Control regulation and control; Intersection design and their controls, ‘with signs, signal, istands and markings. Highway Materials and mix design; Highway constuction; Earth ‘work, construction of different types of pavements; Earthen. soi stabilized, water bound macadam, Bituminous surfaces an ‘cement concrete roads; pavement failures; pavement evaluation “Maintenance of pavements and drainage system. Economics, Finance Road user cost and economic analysis of highway projects; ‘and Administration pavement types and maintenance measures; Highway Finance and phasing of exg ss; Administrat Materials, Construction and Maintenance REFERENCES 1. Sinha S. N., ‘Development of Roads in India’. The Indian Concrete Journal, Oct. 1958. 2. ECAFE Report of the Seminar of Low Cost Roads and Soil-Stabilization, ‘New Delhi, 1958 inistry of Information and Broadcasting. ‘Our Roads, Moder India Series No. 11, Publication Division, Government of India. 4. William W. Hay, “An Introduction to Transportation Engineering", Toppan ‘Company Lid., Tokyo. 5. Shivalingaiah, L, “Road Development in Kamataka", Indian Highways, Vol. 9. No. 12, Indian Roads Congress, 1981. 6. Ministry of Shipping ‘and Transport, Roads Wing. “Road Development Plan for India, 1981-2001", Indian Roads Congress, 1984. 7. The World Bank, "Road Deterioration in Developing Countries, Causes and Remedies", A World Bank Policy Study, Washington D.C.‘ INTRODUCTION PROBLEMS 1, Discuss the role of transportation in the economic and socjy ¥ country Betts 2. What are the diferent modes of transportation ?. Explain cach of them. the specitic fy eto 3. Compare the character Fentueof diferent mode of tanspotti 4 n, 4. Whatare the characteristics of road transport in comparison with o 5. What, in your opinion were the chief causes of ‘Iransportation in India? her system wealected conditions op 6 Explain the role of transportation in rural development in India ? 7. Outline and discuss the scope ofthe highway engineering study, %) Chapter p Highway Development and Planning 2.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION 2.1.1 Early Development ‘The oldest mode of travel obviously was on the footpaths. Animals were aso used to transport men and materials. Later simple animal drawn vehicles were developed and tis became a common and popular mode of transporation for @ very long period aftr the invention of wheel. This brought up the necessity of providing a hard surfoce for these wheeled vehicles to move on. Such a hard surface is believed to have existed in Mesopotamia in the period about 3500 B.C. The first road on which there is some authentic record is that of Assyrian empire constructed by about 1900 B.C. Only during the period of the Roman empire, roads were constructed in large scale and the earliest construction techniques known are of Roman Roads. The Romans constructed an extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome through the empire mainly for military operations. Hence Romans are considered to be the pioneers in road construction. 2.1.2 Roman Roads Many of the early Roman roads were of elaborate construction. Some ofthese roads are still in existence after over 2000 years. During this period of Roman civilization ‘many roads were built of stone blocks of considerable thickness. The Appian way was built in 312 B.C. extending over $80 km which illustrate the road building technique used by Romans. ‘The main features of the Romans roads are : (i) They were built straight regardless of gradients. Gi). They were built after the soft soil was removed and a hard stratum was reached. i) The total thickness of the construction was as high as 0.75 to 1.2 metres at some be places, even though the magnitude of wheel loads of animal drawn vehicles was very low. 910 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING A ypical cross section of Roman road is shown in Fig, 2.1, The conn HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION u rocedure was as follows : : procedure was Ses metiod of construction was implemented in that cousty in 1778. Can 6 the regime of Napofeon the major develo 7 is “ LARGE STONE SLABS IN LINE 4 PLIME CONCRETE: rajor development of road system in Frarce tok place MORTAR 1D 10 15m THICK 25 TOXOenrmhick cal ctoss section of Tresapuet's road consiruction is piven in Fig. 29 andthe p—— 025m ‘construction steps may be enumerated as below at, SULPING WEARING Sur mses TOTAL Thickness, ToC Sem ce A | Peace +] 075 10 1-2m ssoupeng1cem Sam LARGE FOUNDATION STONES. TW LIME MORTAR 10 70 20¢m_ THICK \sioe oman "Canoe scunoanon stones OW FOU, Hem Prec ‘BROKEN STONES IN LIME MORTAR 2570 40cm THK HARD SOIL STRATUM Fig. 2.2 Typical Cross Section of Tresaguet’s Construction (1775 A.D.) (The subgrade was prepared and a layer of large foundation stones were lid on edge by hand. At the two edges of the pavement large stones were embedded edgewnse to serve as submerged kerb stones. Fig. 2.1 Typical Cross section of Roman Road (i)_A trench of width equal to that of the carriage way was dug along a straight path removing the loose soll from the top. The trench was cut upto a depth until ah stratum was-reached, ya ard Gi) The comers of these heavy foundation stones were hammered and then the interstices filled with smaller stones. Broken stones were packed to a thickness of Gi) One or two layers of large foundation stones were laid in lime mortar a the bottors. hose 8 ca 3 cogs The thickness ofthis bottom layer ranged from 10 to 20 cm. Vertical Kerb stone were placed along the edges of the pavement. (iii) The top wearing course was made of smaller stones and compacted to a thickness of about $ cm at the edges and gradually increased towards the centre, giving a cross (ii) A second layer of lime concrete with large size broken stones mixed in lime mortar slope of | in 45 t0 the surface, to provide surface drainage, id ‘was laid over the bottom course up toa thickness of 25 to 40 em. (iv) The shoulders were also provided cross slope to drain the surface water to the side (iv) “Another layer of lime concrete was laid over this with smaller broken stones mixed. sal in lime mortar to a thickness of 25 to 40 if fs mi lickness of 25 to 40 em, or even more if necessary. sd Metis if Gnetractiow John Metcalf (1717-1810) was engaged on road construction works in Egland during the period when Tresaguet was working in France. He apparently followed the recommendations of Robert Phillips whose paper was presented in Royal Society, Metcalf was responsible for the construction of about 290 km of road in the northern region of England. As Metcalf was blind, much of his work was not recorded. (¥) The wearing course consisting of dressed large stone blocks set in lime mortar was!” provided at the top. The thickness of these blocks also varied from 10 to 15 em. Obviously the above construction should have been much stronger than’ what vas’ required for the animal drawn carts in those days. ‘The enormous cost of construction cannot be justified at all, i this technique is compared with the modern trend of pavement design based on more scientific approaches. 2.1.5 Telford Construction Thomas Telford (1757-1834) began his work in early 19th century. He was the founder of the Institution of Civil Engineers at London. He also believed in using heavy foundation stones above the soil subgrade in order to keep the road foundation fra. He sisted on providing a definite cross slope for top surface of the pavement by varying the thickness of foundation stones, A typical cross section of Telford's construction by the year 1803 is shown in Fig. 23. 21.3 Tresaguet Construction ‘After the fall of the Roman empire, their technique of road construction did not in other countries. Until the eighteenth century there is no evidence of any new. oad construction method, except the older concept o| thick construction of beads as the Roman did, mor a ‘The construction steps are given below : (i) A level subgrade was prepared to designed width af about 9 meters. Large i i laid with hand with their i foundation stones of thickness 17 to 22 cm were ; - largest face down so as to be laid in a stable position. The stones of lesser thickness} HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION Ping WEARING SURFACE Wes) Cem TIC BROKEN STONE. a Sem THICK = fr BROKEN STONE passin 3T5ery SEVE, Wem tice t Re, AMONTAC SOBER? TOLiOSTION STONES CF -aNGuLan Beech SURFACE course wn STONES PASSING Ler} SIEVE, Sem THC. [BROKEN STONE IN LIME WoRTAR WARING S7FATTOZem) STINE Temeeee oem THick [BROKEN SIONES Pasting Sem SIEVE em Te | ; COMPACIED sumoRApE Fig. 2.3 Typical Cross Section of Telford's Construction (1803 AD) WITH CROSS SLOFE 10136; (17 em) were placed towards the edges and stones of increasi thickness were tig Fig. 24 Typical Cross Section of Macadam’s Construction (1827 A.D.) towards the centre. At the centre the largest stones of approximate thickn, | ‘were used such that these foundation stones of varying thickness Provide the oot Oy tis eel achat eng Soundation sons ae erat slope designed by Telford. | ay to be mm layer of construction. He realised thatthe subgrade being the lowest portion of the pavement should be prepared properly and ‘kept drained so as to carry the load transmitted through the pavement. Compacted layer of smaller size broken stones placed at the botiom, according to Macadam, could replace, with advantage, the heavy foundation stones. (ii) The interstices between foundation stones were fil led with smaller chipping and properly beaten down, See. () The central portion of about 5.5 metre width was covered with two layers of angular-broken stones to compacted thickness of 10 and $ em. ‘These layers were intially rammed and later allowed to be compacted under the traffic and get consolidated by the rains, ii) Though the total thickness of construction, was less than previous methods, this technique could serve the purpose in a better way, due to better load dispersion characteristics of compacted broken stone aggregates of smaller sizes. (iv) The size of broken stones for the top layer was decided based on the stability under animal drawn vehicles, The pavement surface was also prepared with a eross slope of | in 36 for drainage of surface water. (¥) A certain width of the pavement towards the ed; broken stones, 15 em thick, sometimes in lit stones so as to provide lateral stability. iges was constructed by compacted ime mortar instead of using the kerb ‘Macadams method is the first method based on scientific thinking. It was realised that the stresses due to wheel load of traffic gets decreased atthe lover layers of the pavement and therefore it is not necessary to provide large and strong boulder stones as foundation or soling course at the lowest layer of the pavement. This method became very popular far and wide. Various subsequent improved methods were based on Macadam's construction and some of the methods stil in use are known after his name, such as water bound macadam, penetration macadam and bituminous macadam constructions (i) A binding layer of wearing course 4 cm thick was constructed on the it sravel. The finished surface had a cross slope of about 1 in 45, ee Telford proposed to provide cross usually laid below the foundation lev Water to percolate from subgrade. Grains at intervals of about 90 meters. They were el as the interstices were large enough to allow the ‘0p to the bottom of the construction and thus soften the level ‘The construction steps are : 2.1.6 Macadam Construction (i). Subgrade is compacted and prepared with a cross slope of | in 36 upto a desired ‘width (about 9 metres). (i) Broken stones of a strong variety, all passing through 5 cm size sieve were ‘compacted to a uniform thickness of 10 cm, (iii) The second layer of strong broken stones of size 3.75 cm was compacted to thickness of 10 cm, i kness of iv) The top layer consisted of stones of size less than 2 em compacted to a thickness 0 Oy Thea coed fished so tal be io slope of paventent surface was also 4 in 36. ‘The Macadam and Telford methods of coastrection differ considerably though both the methods were put forward in the early nineteenth century.HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING i “The two methods have been compared here : ‘Macadam method lope The subgrade was given a cross 5 Sie 38 to felite subgrade drainage. _____HskH | (i) The bottom layer of pavement or the ‘The subgrade was hence subgrade proper. Heavy foundation st ny Kept horizontal > drainage 1 OES Of vane subsbase course consid of broken | sizes, about 17 em towards | stones of tess than 5 cm size to | and 22 om towards the sot CW | uniform thickness equal to 10 cm | hand packed and Prepared to seme only sub-base course, es Base and surface courses consisted of broken stones of smaller sizes to ‘compacted thickness of 10 and 5 em respectively and the top surface was iven a cross slope of | in 36. (iv) The total thickness of pavement construction was kept uniform from edge to centre to a minimum value of only 25 em. a Two layers of broken compacted over the foun before laying the weari cm thick with a cross sto ‘The total thickness of consinici varied from about 35 cm at to about 4l cm at the centre, Gi) stones yey dation stones 8 course, 4 PE OF Li 2.1.7 Further Developments Macadam's method of construction gained recognition as a scientific method construction and hence was adopted by various countries with slight modifications, One Of the most popular methods which is even now prevalent in many countries is the wate howd macadam (WBM) construction, known after Macadam’s technique. In this rahod {fe broken stones ofthe base course and surface cours, if any, are bound by the sone lust in presence of moisture and hence the name. WBM roads are in use in Indie both a finished pavement surface for minos lopted in our country include the bitum ion macadam. been given in the Chapter, ‘Highway Construction’ WBM roads several dust palliatives inet varying degrees of success, could not last long, lading heavy oils and bituminous materials were tied on | the edge ‘The details of the construction methods heve HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA ‘The use of cement concrete for 1 bituminous mixes. The cement con loads expected on the roads even i long service lite. extensively used in our country at present. Utilisation of locally available and the struction. In this respect there is good Hon and other low cost pavement materials There are $2268 techniques of sil stabilization which have been explained ina later chapter ofthe book. ‘The choice ofthe method of stabilization depends on several factors such ws the soit Pe, availability of stabilizers, climatic conditions, the component of pavement which is being constructed and the traffic. 2.2 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA 2.2.1 Roads in Ancient India ‘The excavations of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have revealed the existence of roads in {India as early as 25 to 35 centuries B.C. Old records reveal that in early periods the roads were considered indispensable for administrative and military purposes. The ancient ") Scriptures refer to the existence of roads during the Aryan period inthe fourth century BC. Kautilya the fist prime minister of Emperor Chandra Gupta Maurya, laid down the rules in the literary piece titled ‘Arthasasira. Rules have been mentioned bout |} regulating the depth of roads for various purposes and for different kinds of traffic. “Mention has been made regarding the punishment for obstructing roads. In the beginning +} of fifth century A.D. emperor Ashoka had improved the roads and the facilities for the travelers. | 2.2.2 Roads in Mughal Period During the Pathan and Mughal periods, the roads of India were greatly improved. Some of the highways either built or maintained by Mughals received great appreciation from the foreign visitors who visited india during that periods. Roads were built running from North-West to the Easter areas through the Gangetic plains, linking also the coastal and central parts. 2.2.3 Roads in Nineteenth Century At the beginning of British rule, the conditions of roads deteriorated. ‘The economic and political shifts caused damage to a great extent in the maintenance of the inl transportation, The fall of Mughal empire led therefore to the seant attention to communication. Prior to the introduction of railways, a number of trunk erie metalled and bridges were provided. this was mainly. done fon the remains: ose _ which existed, under the supervision of the British Military Engineers. In fact these ‘connected important military and business centres.16 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING Military maintenance was not quite adequate and in 1865 was Governor-General formed the Public Works Department form that exists today. The construction of the Grand Trunk Ro, new department. Immediately with the development of Government was shifted from road development except for the railway was gaining the privileges Lord Dathousie, when he in more or less the same tad was undertaken by this railways, attention of the Providing feeder roads and 2.2.4 Jayakar Committee and the Recommendations ‘After te first World War, motor Vehicles using the roads increased a better road network which can carry both bullock car traffic and mar, bites existing roads when not capable to withstand the mixed tafe conditions. A resslunes yas psd by both Chambers of the Indian Legislature 1927 forthe appomme soe Cormmitee to examine and report on the question of road development in India, ia fesporse 10 the resolution, Indian Road Development committee was appointed by tke government with M4.R. Jayakar as Chairman, in 1927, The Jayakar Committee submitted its report by the year 1928. ‘The most important recommendations made by the committee are : 7 (The road development in the country should be considered as a national interest as this has become beyond the eapacity of provincial governments and local bodies, (0) An extra tax should be levied on petrol from the road users to develop a road development fund called Central Road Fund, (iid A semi-official technical body should be formed to poo! technical know how from vais Darts of the country and to act as an advisory body on various aspects of roads, (0) A research organisation should be instituted to carry out research and developmen relopment work and [Link] available for consultations, » Most of the recommendations of the Jayakar Committee were accepted by the Goverment, and the major items were implemented subsequently. ‘The Central Road pain was formed by the year 1929, the semb-oficial technical body called the Indian Rods Shonen was formed in 1934 and the Central Road Research Institute was started Central Road Fund Based on the authority of a resolutio Road Fund (C.R.F.) was formed on 1 ‘ - , road experi id research on road and bridge projects of ‘periments an alloted by the Central Govemnient t0 the various ete acul' a rainare tin OF fevenue collected, The accounts of the Gon 1 Read Funda capentined by the Accountant General of Central Revenues iat te cnaret oy BE Spree 8 exercised by the Roads Wing of Ministry of Tent be sal Ree of collection of the levy towards the Ci Sis Sf ables of te © CRF has been revised in order to augment the HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA Indian Roads Congress n ‘At the instance of central government a semi-fficial i Roads Congress (IRC) was formed in 1934, ‘This, it ae renee coe one recommendations made by the Jayakar Committee. ‘The indian Reads Congress was constituted to provide a forum for regular ‘Pooling of experience and ideas on all matters affecting the planning, construction and maintenance of roads in India, to recommend standard specifications and to provide a platform for the expression ‘of professional opinion on matters relating to road engineering including such questions 2s those of organisation and administration. The IRC has played important role in the formulation of the three 20-year road development plans in India. Now the Indian Roads Congress has become an active body of national importance controlling specifications, standardisation and recommendations on materials, design and construction of roads and bridges. The IRC publishes journals, research publications, standards specifications guidelines and ‘other special publications on various aspect of Highway Engineering, ‘The technical activities of the IRC are mainly carried out by the Highway research Board and several committees and subcommittees consisting of experts in each subject. ‘The IRC works in close collaboration with Roads Wing of the Ministry of Surface Transport, Government of India. Economic depression during the thirties of this century delayed the road development programmes. During this period the share from the Central Road Fund was almost the only source for highway financing. During the second world war intensive efforts were made to develop the road net work essential required for strategic considerations, ‘These projects were substantially supported by defence services funds. ‘Affer the second world war, there was a revolution in respect of automobiles using the roads in our country and a large number of military vehicles started plying on the roads. ‘Thus the road development could not cope up with rapid increase in road vehicles end so the existing roads started deteriorating fast. The need for proper highway plannit g was urgently felt by this time by the authorities. Motor Vehicle Act In 1939 the Motor Vehicles Aet was brought into effect by Government of India to regulate the road traffic in the orm of tra: awsordinanes and regulations. Te tee phases primarily covered are control of the driver, vehicle ownership and vehicle ‘operation on roads and in traffic stream. The Motor Vehicle Act has been appended with ‘several ordinances subsequently. The Motor Vehicles Act has been revised in the year 1988 2.2.5 Nagpur Road Conference je Engi the states and provinces was convened in ference of the Chief Engineers of all the stat ; iis by the Government of india t agp nine of te ii Ronis Cogs i vt lan for the count . nase the fit od evelopment pln forthe county sole, ss = ging ond ern Fo Pan hai lan, popularly known as * dal development pla Poe a eet yar development pose fr tepid 14262 ae iv carr the end of this plan the target road length aimed a ras . ‘square km area of the country,18 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING ring the first and second five-year plan periods (1951-56 5 eat nragranais systematic and hence the Nagh Dy the development programme also was systematic an e Nagpur plan targeeg 8d Lito, road length wa: .d about two years ahead, in 1961 meeting of the Chief Engineers of the central and state Governments w, consider the future road development programme, A committee was appoin conve the Second Twentyear Road Development plan starting from the year Toe sto ‘0 prepare Central Road Research Institute Inthe year 1950 the Central Road Research Institute (CRRI) was st y h tar for research in various aspect of highway engineering. It may be indicaed tet New Delhi recommendations of Jayakar Committee report was to set up a central o; One of the: research and dissemination of information eanisation foe The CRRI is one of the national laboratories of the Council of Scier : tii P Research; the institute is mainly engaged in applied research and offers tects usta N i a technical adv 'oslate governments and the industries on various problems concerning rode National Highway Act tn 1956 the National Highway Act was passed, The main features of the act ae (i) the responsibility of development and mai (NH) lintenance of th ic ig be provisionally taken by the central ‘government, ss bl e (ii) the central government to be empower red to declare any other hi omit any of the existing national highvoys one a on MgbWaY 25 NH orto ways from the list. 2.2.6 Second Twenty Year Road Development Plan 1961-81 The second twenty a seine Talal ond development plan forthe period 1961-81 was initiated by forward to the Coma) nooo at the meeting ofthe Chief Engineers and the same was Bombay Road Plan The eeemment._ This road development plan is also known as Bombay Hon lan gave due consideration to the development that are taking ment tha! have to take place in our country in various felds during the ending 1980-8) was en "a. An outlay of Rs. 5, level, The constr S382 for this second tw .200 crores for the period During the third five l ieunk eee pele eee 1961-66, the annual plans 1966-69 and the pace The al ea en ond evelopment in India continued at a steady '¢ density of road sara re length being das km per 100 4 = ia, te he? an immediate need to prepare ae Nt REM Development Plan1961-81.. THIS ourtry by then However, dus ey thd long term roa develouen pa forthe 1974-78, annual Plans 1978.80 man ing Policies duri : , he third Jong term road devel eth vive ys 35th pean o SS development plan got delay. ° 1980-85, the preparation of He The Third Tweng wenty Ye repared by a comnite ‘ongress and also at the Iso at th ‘Council of the Indian Roads oF the Country in the year 1984. HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA 19 Highway Research Board ‘The Highway Research Board of the Indian Roads Congress was set up in 1973 with a view to give proper direction and guidance to road research activites in India. The board is expected to act as a national body for co-ordination and promotion of highway research. The Highway Research Board (HRB) has recommended suitable financial allocation of research by central and state governments and has chosen high priority research schemes for being taken up first. ‘The objective of IRC Highway Research Board are : () Toascertain the nature and extent of research required. (ii) To correlate research information from various organisations in India and broad with a view to exchange publications and information on roads. (ii). "To co-ordinate and conduct correlation services. (iv) To collect and disseminate results on research (¥) To channelise consultative services ‘There are three technical committees of the HRB for (i) identification, monitoring and research application (ji) road research evaluation and dissemination and (iii) bridge research, evaluation and dissemination, 2.2.7 National Transport Policy Committee ‘The Government of India appointed the National Transport Policy Committee (NTPC) in the year 1978 to prepare a comprehensive national transport policy for the country for the next decade or so, keeping in view the objectives and priorities set out in the five year plans. The NTPC report was made available in the year 1980 and many of the major recommendations of this report have been accepted by the Govemument of India. Some of the important recommendations of the NTPC report relate to the liberalisation of the transport sector, inclusion of transport in the priority sector, optimal in-er-modal mix between railway and road transport based on resource-cost consideration and energy conservation. A number of suggestions were made on the road development, these include the need to take into account the requirements of roads in rural, hilly and tribal areas in the next perspective road development plans, strengthening of National Highway system, increase in funds for the maintenance of roads and to connect all the villages with all-weather low-cost roads within next twenty years. Separate recommendations were also made for various factors connected with the development and growth of road transport by the year 2001. 2.2.8 Third Twenty Year Road Development Plan 1981-2001 ‘The Third Twenty Year Road Development plan 1981-2001 was prepared by the Road Wing of the Ministry of Shipping and Transport with the active co-operation from a number of organisations and experts in the field of Highway Engineering and ‘Transportation, This document was released during the 45th Annual Session and the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the Indian Road Congress in February 1985 at Lucknow. ‘Therefore this road development, plan for 1981-2001 is also called ‘Lucknow Road Plan’. ‘This plan has been prepared keeping in view the growth pattern envisaged in variousts Which were ji ; © Riven vo tangent Sets ionmenal Tato incceasing the total road length ¢ vt | oe sthe year 1981 1027.02.00 km yr i om 46 km per 1009, kn ine Sty theyear 200). As the developntent of National ied 6 566 | - oY vo twenty year road development pl ti get length of NH tobe competed ty Pe swear ine 7 [1977-78 329 Review of Highway Development in India after Independence (ageoest [sox [asx ed independence on 1Sth August 1947, the total road fe 2.3 NECESSITY OF HIGHWAY PLANNING cosrmy was 3.88226 kam withthe density of road length working out to about, (0053, bm area, out of this the Length of surfaced roads was only about 36, te fre rae of ead development i th country has improved considera sd length in the country increased from 3,97,600 km € km by the year 1980481 in the year 1950 In the present era planning is considered as a pre-requisite before mnempting acy development programme. This is particularly true for any engineering work, = planning is the basic requirement for any new project or an expansion programme Thus highway planning is also a basic need for highway development. Particularly planning is of great importance when the funds available are limited whereas the total requirement fs mach higher. This is actually the problem in all developing countries like India as the bes ion of available funds has to be made in a systematic and planned way ‘The objects of highway planning are briefly given below : ‘There has also been a tremendous pressure on road transportati rt ; ie aa in umber of ad vies and considerable increase in feight oa pri ‘amied by roads during the above thirty year period. The total renewal of pavement layer: ae L. number of motor ‘ i onstage ancora am ates mama ° Tahaan ice ee af ic on roads increased from about 5.5 to over 104 bill ‘and the vehicle operation costs are to be given due consideration. mca ds (Gi) To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads which rool pt nha coe Son ‘mutant oman (ii) To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as crores during ° theabove tiny year period, the main criterion for phasing the road development programme. ‘The growth of total road iv) * k (iv) To plan for future requirements and improvements of roads in view of anticipated & ahr he pera face) fd length andthe length of surfaced os | developments SEremu from road transport due to taxatyoe enone given in Table 2.1. The 1 (¥) Towork out financing system. Seclpmet and maintenance expendi a total expenditure on roads incl eisai istengSREtIe Iomay be seen that only goose te centre and the sates a 24 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS 8 spent on development and eaten @ fraction of the revenue from road tran 2A Types of Roads ‘enance of roads, 4 é ae Than development of National High ‘The different types of roads are classified into two categories, depending on whether Ise edge int tec il Bas not been atthe dese they can be used during different seasons ofthe year: deve ty Road Plan in Toad length by the end of Nagpur Road Pl (i) All-weather roads and lopment 198) : Plans, the length of Nit 0d tHe targets ofthe two twenty yest fora hieh propor e* 24 fll short of both the plan targe's- AS He Consiuctionof ene OF defame it the country, provision has Ho OE tional length of NE ten existing NH system and also for BY for the growing traffic needs upto We (ii) Fair-weather roads. All weather roads are those which are negotiable during. all ‘weather, except at major river crossing: where interruption to traffic is permissible1" 8 (ii) unsurfaced roads which are not Surfacing, “The ends ih ae, Provided with bituminous or cement 4 with bituminous surfacing are also called oct ped § ch roads. 2.4.2 Methods of Classification of Roads ‘The roads are generally classified on the following basis : (a) Traffic volume (b) Load transported or tonnage (c) Location and function ‘The classification based on traffic volume or tonn: eran 2 ic age have been arbitrarily fixed different agencies and there may not be a common agreement regarding the Tine foreach of classification group. Based on the traffic volume, the roads are classified as heavy, medium and light traffic roads. ‘These terms are relative and so the limits under each class Should be clearly defined and expressed as vehicles per day etc. Likewise the Slassification based on load or tonnage is also relative and the roads may be classified 2s ‘lass I, Il ete. or class A, B etc. and the limits may be expressed as tonnes per day. ‘The classification based on location and function should therefore be a more acceptable classification for a country as they may be defined-clearly. The Nagpur Road Plan classified the roads in India based on location ‘and function into following five categories and described in section 2.4.3. (i) National Highways (NH) (ii) State Highways (SH) i) Major District Roads (MDR) (iv) Other District Roads (ODR) and (») Village Roads (VR) 2.4.3 Classification of Roads by Nagpur Road Plan a (i) National Highways (NH) are main highways running through the ey a OE ighways an sof large § reauth of India, connecting major. ports, orci highways, capt re, ia fystrial and tourist centres including rosds required for strategic movements 7 st . tefande of India: CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS. a twas agreed that a fst step Natlonal Tails should be constweied the Centre and that ner these should be converted into roads to sit the traffic conditions, It as Aheciied that national highways should be ‘the frame on which the entire road spec nication shoul be based and that these highways may Mt necessarily be of same Specification, but they must give an ‘uninterrupted road communication through out India Pe ould connect the entire road network. ‘AIL the national Righways are assigned the respective numbers The highway connecting Delli-Ambala-Amritsar 8 denoted as NH-1. where bifurcation of this, Fighway beyond -Jalandar to Srinagar and Urt is denoted NH-I-A. The highway eng, Maduri and Rameswaram is NH-49 and Bombay-ARra road is NH-3. A map Showing National Highways is given in Plate [ Gi) Stave Highways (SH) are atrial ronds of a state, connect with the national pighoays of adjacem sae, distriet head quaers and import sis ‘within the state and aie asthe main arteries for traffic to and from district roads- “These highways are considered as main arteries of commerce by roads within 2 state or ‘a similar geographical unit. In some places they may even oP heavier traffic than some eae ronal highways bu this will nt alter their designation or fencton. ‘The NH and Gir have the same design speed and geometric design specifications. (ii). Major District Roads (MDR) are important roads within © district serving areas of production and markets and connecting those with each othe) of with the main fighways of @ dist. The MDR has lower speed and geometric sian specifications than NHVSH. (iv), Other District Roads (ODR) are roads serving rural areas of production and providing the with outlet to market cenzes, taluk head quarters biock development rad quarters or other main roads. These are of lower design specifications than MDR. (§) Tillage Roads (VR) are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each ‘other to the nearest road of a higher category. It-was specified that these village roads should be in essence farm tracks, but it was desited that the prevalent practice of leaving such tracks to develop and maintain by themselves should be replaced by a plan for a designed and regulated system. ‘A general note was assigned by the Nagpur Road Conference regarding the economics ‘ofroad construction that all roads of whatever type oF class, should be so constructed that fhaintenance and capital costs over a period of 20 years will be minimum. | The responsibility of construction and maintenance of national highways was decided to be ‘withthe central government; it was stated that "Centre should select the national highways ‘and trails, accord priorities and pay forall construction and maintenance”. 244 Modified Classi 1981-2001 ‘The roads in the country are now classified into three classes, for the purpose of transport planning, functional identification, earmarking administrative jurisdietions and assigning prierties on a road net work viz; (9) Primary system (ii) Secondary system and (iii) Tertiary system or rural roads, jon of Road System by Third Road Development Plan,HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLA Prima a (a) Expressway and (National Highways (NH) system consists OF Wo category Expressways are a se WS are a separate class of hy ; Standards and are meant as through ra anna With supeto arate te 10 be provided with divided "8, EY high fhe ROAD PATTERNS 5 ‘These have been shown in Fig. 2.5 a,b,c, d,e& £, am nou BS 3 » 7 | SE Separations at cross roads and fencin ignaae® va i thicles. Expressways may be owned! by oe highways shal peed lepending on whether the route is 4 National High = vent ars == The Secondary system consists of two categories os Hlth, (a) State Highways (SH) and i a (©) Major District Reads (MDRy The Tertiary system are Tural roads and is : (a) Other District Road (ODR} Met cont ot Sa (6) Village Roads (VR) : The urban roads, other than expressways, are classified as: @ Arterial roads (ii) Sub-arterial roads (iii) Collector streets and (¥) Local streets imaril ‘on a contis Areerials and sub-artefals are streets primarily for tous tations om routey. but the sub-arterials have a lower level of matic mois he ei ‘ Collector streets provide access to arterial streets h Spat y from and to local streets which provide access to abuting Prope ris iS 2.5 ROAD PATTERN! i ows : ‘The various road patterns may be classified as fo (a) Rectangular or block patter (b) Radial or star and block pattem {c) Radial or sar and circular pattern Rectingular or block pattern (b) Radial or star and block pattern “S = O aos Co (©) Radial or star and circular pattern fact ‘finding surveys. The planning based on the factual data may be considered sound. ie inet for planning and these studies ‘The factual studies point to an intelligent approach relied should be carried out if the highway programme is to be protected from inconsistent shor sighted policies.28 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING Te planing sures consist of the flowing stiles; he deals shown in ig 4 (a) Economic studies , PREPARATION OF PLANS » (b) Financial studies (i) Sources of income and estimated revenue from taxation on road wanspont (c) Traffic of road use studies (ii) Living standards (@) Engineering studies (iil) Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle repstation and fines (iv) Future trends in financial aspects. PLANNING SURVEYS Economic Population; its distribution and cla (©) Traffic or Road Use Studies , nan , studies population growth Listing of ogricain stot, JT All the details of the existing traffic, their volume and pattern of flow should be known, wericultural and indus | before any improvement could be planned. Traffic surveys should be carried out in the development, their future trends-classifica of these details; other activities viz. Income wnt banking, post office etc. e whole area and on selected routes and locations in order to collect the following particulars : : i raffic vol in vehicles day, il % i Financial DataCollested Source of income, Revenue ftom taxation on Oe ee Aba cl eines Studies lust Confirm To transport. Living standard, future trends-detals 9 ‘Adequacy, — vehi, ce ‘Asoo ‘chicle registration, Court fees and Local taxes ete, Origin and destination studies (iii) Traffic flow patterns Teapiee Availability, Traffic volume, traffic flow pattems: O and D studies. pera Accessibility Mass transportation facilities, Accidents - their (iv) Mass transportation facilities ui tre i s Food ase of vehicular traffic, passenger trips aif (0) Accident their cost analysis and causes Engineering iad Sesion “and “at hes (vi) Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic; trend in traffic panem + alignment studies, Cl ion q studies “Types of roads in use: Maintenance pr FS Leet Fv) Growth of passenger trips andthe trend inthe choice of modes. (@) Engineering Studies {All details of the topography, soil and other problems such as drainage, construccion ‘and maintenance problems should be investigated before a scientific plan or programme is, suggested. The studies include : (@ Topographic surveys ii) Soll surveys Location and classification of existing roads (iv) Estimation of possible developments in all aspects due to the proposed highway development. (v) Road life studies (vi) Traffic-studies-Origin and Destination studies (vii) Special problems in drainage, construction and maintenance of roads. ‘Thus all the above studies for collecting the factual data for highway planning are known as fact finding surveys. The details collected are tabulated and plotted on the ‘maps of the area under planning, topography studies; Road life studies. Fig. 2.7 Details of Planning Surveys (@) Economic Studies classified in groups. (ii) Trend, ‘of population ‘growth, Agricultural in r "ald industrial products and their listing in classified groups, area Wis | (iv) Industrial and agricultural development and (W) Existing fa (vi) Per capita income, (b) Financial Studies ‘The financial studies are te ‘essential to 5 3 income and the manner in wh; study th i b be collected eleacn' * Mbich funds for the ® various financial aspects like SoUress . Project may be mobilized. The detail future trends, 2.7 PREPARATION OF PLANS alignment and other details ofthe road development programme, daring the fact finding surveys should be presented in the form rawings are prepared showing the various details of the area as Before finalising the the information collected of plans. Usually four 4 listed below.30 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING, PLANT General area plan showing almost all existing detai tating road network and drainage structure, river, cop’! EREPARAIIOB DE HISATRTEAN AND 18 ERASING, u towns and villages with the population; commereint lake Lf some target of road length has been fixed for the hs ome target ofr xed for the county on the basis of aren or agricultural activities are also shown in this map, population and production or both, the same may be taken as « guide for deciding the foal length ofthe road sytem in each lematve propos. In in the gt rod Tengths were decided by the Nagpur road plan formulae for the period 193-63 and by the second 20-year road development plan for the period 1961-81, as mentioned sa Ar. 228 ‘and 2.2.6 and also as described in Art. 2.10, These plan formulae for finding the road length are based on population and areas divide into different categories, depending on development achieved. “The next step is to compare the various alternate proposals of road systems in hand and to select the one which may be considered as best under the plan period This i a {Quite difficult problem as the decision has to be a balanced one. In ariving at the best road system out of the alternate proposals, it is desirable to make use of the concept of “saturation system based on U. S. system of highway planning. ‘After deciding the optimum road length for a plan period the final step is the phasing of the road development plan by fixing up the priorities for the construction of different road links, Saturation system In this system the optimum road length is calculated for area, based on the concept of obtaining maximum utility per wait length of road. Hence ths system is ealled saturation “yistem or maximum utility system. ‘The factors which are taken for obtaining the wility per unit length of road are : (0) Population served by the road network (b) Productivity served by the net work i) Agricultural products (Gi) Industrial products “The following steps may be followed to find the road net work having maximum utility per unit length by the saturation system. ‘Step (i) Population units. Since the area under consideration may consist of villases and towns with different populations, itis required to group these into some convenient population ranges and to assign some reasonable values of utility units to each range of populations served. For example, villages having population range between 1001 and +5000 may be grouped together and be assigned one utility unit pe village. Similarly the ‘various villages and towns may be grouped in different population ranges and be assigned suitable utility units as given below : PLANT This plan includes the distribution of population groups j the categories made in the appropriate plan. #°¢0rdangg PLAN IIL — This plan shows the locations of places with their productivity. ‘ive quanti PLANIV This plan shows the existing road network with r ‘i traffic lines ebuaned from Origin and Destination studies of eon? received from different sources may also be shown in this oe : 2.8 INTERPRETATION OF PLANNING SURVEYS The various details collected from the planning surveys and presented in the ‘eal plans should be interpreted in a scientific way before arrivis development programme. where svi Od The data collected could be inte ae preted and used for the following imponag | (i) To arrive at the road net-work, out of the sever meee ral alternate possible systems, (ii) To fix up priority of the construction it i Projects, so as to phase the el plan ofan area in different period of time such as five year plans sioeapal (iii) To assess the actual road use by i y studying the traffic flow 7 __ therfore sow areas of congestion which ned immediate a (iv) Based on the traffic type and inten Pavement and cross drainage structure data and the past ‘experience, (vy) Ce i ) Compson of he cress may be obtained on the basis of thir economic at Th refore suggest the arcas of immediate need for 1H ity and the performance of existing » A new structure may be designed using. (vi) On statis is in Statistical basis, the data obtained infact finding surveys may be analysed fort future trends in development weal y pment of an area i i i hich in tum generate higher wate eenace rent in productivity and pop future planning, ‘This information may be useful in ity unit = 025 Population less than $00, ut 501 to 1000, utility unit = 0.50 1001 t0 2000, utility unit = 1.00 2001 to $000, utility unit = 2,00 te. yas and villages sith From plan I of population prepared earlier, the number of towns and ith pepsin ranges served by each oad system is found and then converted in sy ts served by each road. Thus the total number of unis based on population ‘obtained for each road system proposed. proposed. In each Is and improvement of isting roads Bt cee Sen a Possible changes in future are kept in vieg Pe) a4 all other details, both existiNe