10 Probability

10.1 Sample Spaces and Probability

10.2 Independent and Dependent Events
10.3 Two-Way Tables and Probability
10.4 Probability of Disjoint and Overlapping Events
10.5 Permutations and Combinations
10.6 Binomial Distributions

Class Ring (p. 583)

Horse Racing (p.

(p 571)
SEE the Big Idea

Tree Growth (p. 568)

Jogging (p. 557)

hing (p.
Coaching
C oachi (p. 552)
552)

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 Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency
Finding a Percent
Example 1 What percent of 12 is 9?
a p
—=— Write the percent proportion.
w 100
9 p
—=— Substitute 9 for a and 12 for w.
12 100
9
⋅
100 — = 100 —
12
p
100 ⋅ Multiplication Property of Equality.

75 = p Simplify.

So, 9 is 75% of 12.

Write and solve a proportion to answer the question.

1. What percent of 30 is 6? 2. What number is 68% of 25? 3. 34.4 is what percent of 86?

Making a Histogram
Example 2 The frequency table shows the ages of people at a gym. Display the data in
a histogram.

Age Frequency Step 1 Draw and label the axes.

10–19 7 Step 2 Draw a bar to represent the frequency of each interval.
20–29 12
Ages of People at the Gym
30–39 6 14 Include any
40–49 4 12 interval with
10 a frequency
Frequency

50–59 0 8 of 0. The bar

60–69 3 There is no 6 height is 0.
4
space between
the bars of a 2
histogram. 0
10–19 20–29 30–39 40–49 50–59 60–69
Age

Display the data in a histogram.

4. Movies Watched per Week
Movies 0–1 2–3 4–5
Frequency 35 11 6

5. ABSTRACT REASONING You want to purchase either a sofa or an arm chair at a furniture
store. Each item has the same retail price. The sofa is 20% off. The arm chair is 10% off,
and you have a coupon to get an additional 10% off the discounted price of the chair. Are
the items equally priced after the discounts are applied? Explain.

Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

535

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 Mathematical Mathematically proficient students apply the mathematics they know to

Practices solve real-life problems.

Modeling with Mathematics

Core Concept
Likelihoods and Probabilities
The probability of an event is a measure of the likelihood that the event will occur.
Probability is a number from 0 to 1, including 0 and 1. The diagram relates likelihoods
(described in words) and probabilities.

Equally likely to
Words Impossible happen or not happen Certain
Unlikely Likely

Fraction 0 1 1 3 1
4 2 4
Decimal 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
Percent 0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

Describing Likelihoods

Describe the likelihood of each event.

Probability of an Asteroid or a Meteoroid Hitting Earth

Name Diameter Probability of impact Flyby date
a. Meteoroid 6 in. 0.75 Any day
b. Apophis 886 ft 0 2029
1
c. 2000 SG344 121 ft —
435 2068–2110

SOLUTION
a. On any given day, it is likely that a meteoroid of this size will enter Earth’s atmosphere.
If you have ever seen a “shooting star,” then you have seen a meteoroid.
b. A probability of 0 means this event is impossible.
1
c. With a probability of —
435
≈ 0.23%, this event is very unlikely. Of 435 identical asteroids,
you would expect only one of them to hit Earth.

Monitoring Progress
In Exercises 1 and 2, describe the event as unlikely, equally likely to happen or not happen,
or likely. Explain your reasoning.
1. The oldest child in a family is a girl.
2. The two oldest children in a family with three children are girls.
3. Give an example of an event that is certain to occur.

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 10.1 Sample Spaces and Probability
Essential Question How can you list the possible outcomes in
the sample space of an experiment?
The sample space of an experiment is the set of all possible outcomes for
that experiment.

Finding the Sample Space of an Experiment

Work with a partner. In an experiment,
three coins are flipped. List the possible
outcomes in the sample space of
the experiment.

Finding the Sample Space of an Experiment

Work with a partner. List the possible outcomes in the sample space of
the experiment.
a. One six-sided die is rolled. b. Two six-sided dice are rolled.

Finding the Sample Space of an Experiment

Work with a partner. In an experiment,
a spinner is spun. 1 4

3 2 5

5
a. How many ways can you spin a 1? 2? 3? 4? 5?

5 3
b. List the sample space.
2
c. What is the total number of outcomes? 5 4 3

Finding the Sample Space of an Experiment

Work with a partner. In an experiment, a bag
contains 2 blue marbles and 5 red marbles. Two
marbles are drawn from the bag.
a. How many ways can you choose two blue? a red
then blue? a blue then red? two red?
1 2
b. List the sample space.
LOOKING FOR 1 2

A PATTERN c. What is the total number of outcomes? 3 5

4
To be proficient in math,
you need to look closely Communicate Your Answer
to discern a pattern
5. How can you list the possible outcomes in the sample space of an experiment?
or structure.
6. For Exploration 3, find the ratio of the number of each possible outcome to
the total number of outcomes. Then find the sum of these ratios. Repeat for
Exploration 4. What do you observe?

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 10.1 Lesson What You Will Learn
Find sample spaces.
Find theoretical probabilities.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Find experimental probabilities.
probability experiment, p. 538
outcome, p. 538
Sample Spaces
event, p. 538
sample space, p. 538 A probability experiment is an action, or trial, that has varying results. The possible
results of a probability experiment are outcomes. For instance, when you roll a
probability of an event, p. 538
six-sided die, there are 6 possible outcomes: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. A collection of one
theoretical probability, p. 539
or more outcomes is an event, such as rolling an odd number. The set of all possible
geometric probability, p. 540
outcomes is called a sample space.
experimental probability, p. 541
Previous
tree diagram Finding a Sample Space

You flip a coin and roll a six-sided die. How many possible outcomes are in the
sample space? List the possible outcomes.

SOLUTION
Use a tree diagram to find the outcomes in the sample space.

ANOTHER WAY Coin flip Heads Tails

Using H for “heads” and
T for “tails,” you can list the
outcomes as shown below. Die roll 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 2 3 4 5 6
H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6
T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 The sample space has 12 possible outcomes. They are listed below.
Heads, 1 Heads, 2 Heads, 3 Heads, 4 Heads, 5 Heads, 6
Tails, 1 Tails, 2 Tails, 3 Tails, 4 Tails, 5 Tails, 6

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

Find the number of possible outcomes in the sample space. Then list the
possible outcomes.

1. You flip two coins. 2. You flip two coins and roll a six-sided die.

Theoretical Probabilities
The probability of an event is a measure of the likelihood, or chance, that the
event will occur. Probability is a number from 0 to 1, including 0 and 1, and can be
expressed as a decimal, fraction, or percent.

Equally likely to
Impossible happen or not happen Certain
Unlikely Likely

0 1 1 3 1
4 2 4
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%

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 The outcomes for a specified event are called favorable outcomes. When all
outcomes are equally likely, the theoretical probability of the event can be found
using the following.
ATTENDING TO
Number of favorable outcomes
PRECISION Theoretical probability = ———
Total number of outcomes
Notice that the question
uses the phrase “exactly The probability of event A is written as P(A).
two answers.” This phrase
is more precise than saying
“two answers,” which may Finding a Theoretical Probability
be interpreted as “at least
two” or as “exactly two.” A student taking a quiz randomly guesses the answers to four true-false questions.
What is the probability of the student guessing exactly two correct answers?

SOLUTION
Step 1 Find the outcomes in the sample space. Let C represent a correct answer
and I represent an incorrect answer. The possible outcomes are:

Number correct Outcome

0 IIII
1 CIII ICII IICI IIIC
exactly two
2 IICC ICIC ICCI CIIC CICI CCII
correct
3 ICCC CICC CCIC CCCI
4 CCCC

Step 2 Identify the number of favorable outcomes and the total number of outcomes.
There are 6 favorable outcomes with exactly two correct answers and the total
number of outcomes is 16.
Step 3 Find the probability of the student guessing exactly two correct answers.
Because the student is randomly guessing, the outcomes should be equally
likely. So, use the theoretical probability formula.
Number of favorable outcomes
P(exactly two correct answers) = ———
Total number of outcomes
6
=—
16
3
=—
8
The probability of the student guessing exactly two correct answers is —38 ,
or 37.5%.

The sum of the probabilities of all outcomes in a sample space is 1. So, when you
know the probability of event A, you can find the probability of the complement of
event A. The complement of event A consists of all outcomes that are not in A and is
denoted by A —. The notation A— is read as “A bar.” You can use the following formula
—
to find P(A ).

Core Concept
Probability of the Complement of an Event
The probability of the complement of event A is
—) = 1 − P(A).
P(A

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 Finding Probabilities of Complements

When two six-sided dice are rolled, there

are 36 possible outcomes, as shown. Find
the probability of each event.
a. The sum is not 6.
b. The sum is less than or equal to 9.

SOLUTION
5 31
a. P(sum is not 6) = 1 − P(sum is 6) = 1 − —
36
=—
36
≈ 0.861
6 30
b. P(sum ≤ 9) = 1 − P(sum > 9) = 1 − —
36
=—
36
= —56 ≈ 0.833

Some probabilities are found by calculating a ratio of two lengths, areas,

or volumes. Such probabilities are called geometric probabilities.

Using Area to Find Probability

You throw a dart at the board shown. Your dart is equally likely to hit any point
inside the square board. Are you more likely to get 10 points or 0 points?
3 in.
SOLUTION
10 The probability of getting 10 points is
5
2
Area of smallest circle π 32
P(10 points) = —— = —
Area of entire board 182
⋅
9π π
= — = — ≈ 0.0873.
324 36
0
The probability of getting 0 points is
Area outside largest circle
P(0 points) = ———
Area of entire board
18 − (π 92)
= ——
2

182
⋅
324 − 81π
=—
324
4−π
=—
4
≈ 0.215.

You are more likely to get 0 points.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

3. You flip a coin and roll a six-sided die. What is the probability that the coin
shows tails and the die shows 4?
—).
Find P(A
1
4. P(A) = 0.45 5. P(A) = —4
6. P(A) = 1 7. P(A) = 0.03
8. In Example 4, are you more likely to get 10 points or 5 points?
9. In Example 4, are you more likely to score points (10, 5, or 2) or get 0 points?

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 Experimental Probabilities
An experimental probability is based on repeated trials of a probability experiment.
The number of trials is the number of times the probability experiment is performed.
Each trial in which a favorable outcome occurs is called a success. The experimental
probability can be found using the following.
Number of successes
Experimental probability = ——
Number of trials

Finding an Experimental Probability

Spinner Results Each section of the spinner shown has the same area. The
spinner was spun 20 times. The table shows the results. For
red green blue yellow which color is the experimental probability of stopping on
5 9 3 3 the color the same as the theoretical probability?

SOLUTION
The theoretical probability of stopping on each of the four colors is —4l .
Use the outcomes in the table to find the experimental probabilities.
5
P(red) = —
20
= —14 P(green) = —9
20

3 3
P(blue) = —
20
P(yellow) = —
20

The experimental probability of stopping on red is the same as the

theoretical probability.

Solving a Real-Life Problem

In the United States, a survey of U.S. Adults with Pets

2184 adults ages 18 and over found that 1000
1328 of them have at least one pet. The 916
Number of adults

types of pets these adults have are shown 800

in the figure. What is the probability that a 677
pet-owning adult chosen at random 600

has a dog? 400

SOLUTION 200 146

93
The number of trials is the number of 0
pet-owning adults, 1328. A success is Dog Cat Fish Bird
a pet-owning adult who has a dog. From
the graph, there are 916 adults who said
that they have a dog.
916 229
P(pet-owning adult has a dog) = — = — ≈ 0.690
1328 332
The probability that a pet-owning adult chosen at random has a dog is about 69%.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

10. In Example 5, for which color is the experimental probability of stopping on

the color greater than the theoretical probability?
11. In Example 6, what is the probability that a pet-owning adult chosen at random
owns a fish?

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 10.1 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE A number that describes the likelihood of an event is the __________ of
the event.

2. WRITING Describe the difference between theoretical probability and experimental probability.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3– 6, find the number of possible outcomes 10. PROBLEM SOLVING The age distribution of a
in the sample space. Then list the possible outcomes. population is shown. Find the probability of
(See Example 1.) each event.
3. You roll a die and flip three coins. Age Distribution
Under 5: 7% 5–14: 13%
4. You flip a coin and draw a marble at random
65+: 13%
from a bag containing two purple marbles and
15–24: 14%
one white marble.
55–64: 12%
5. A bag contains four red cards numbered 1 through 25–34: 13%
4, four white cards numbered 1 through 4, and four 45–54: 15%
black cards numbered 1 through 4. You choose a card 35–44: 13%
at random.
a. A person chosen at random is at least 15 years old.
6. You draw two marbles without replacement from b. A person chosen at random is from 25 to
a bag containing three green marbles and four black 44 years old.
marbles.
11. ERROR ANALYSIS A student randomly guesses the
7. PROBLEM SOLVING A game show airs on television answers to two true-false questions. Describe and
five days per week. Each day, a prize is randomly correct the error in finding the probability of the
placed behind one of two doors. The contestant wins student guessing both answers correctly.
the prize by selecting the correct door. What is the

✗
probability that exactly two of the five contestants
win a prize during a week? (See Example 2.) The student can either guess two
incorrect answers, two correct answers,
or one of each. So the probability of
guessing both answers correctly is —13.

12. ERROR ANALYSIS A student randomly draws a

number between 1 and 30. Describe and correct the
error in finding the probability that the number drawn
8. PROBLEM SOLVING Your friend has two standard
is greater than 4.
decks of 52 playing cards and asks you to randomly

✗
draw one card from each deck. What is the probability
that you will draw two spades? The probability that the number is less
3 1
than 4 is —
30
, or —
10
. So, the probability that
9. PROBLEM SOLVING When two six-sided dice are the number is greater than 4 is 1 − — 1
,
10
rolled, there are 36 possible outcomes. Find the or —9
.
10
probability that (a) the sum is not 4 and (b) the sum
is greater than 5. (See Example 3.)

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 13. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS 17. REASONING Refer to the spinner shown. The spinner
You throw a dart at the is divided into sections with the same area.
board shown. Your dart is
a. What is the theoretical
equally likely to hit any 30 4
probability that the spinner 6
point inside the square 18 in. 27
stops on a multiple of 3?
board. What is the 24 9
probability your dart 6 in. b. You spin the spinner 30 times.
lands in the yellow It stops on a multiple of 21 12
18 15
region? (See Example 4.) 18 in. 3 twenty times. What is the
experimental probability of
14. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS The map shows stopping on a multiple of 3?
the length (in miles) of shoreline along the Gulf of
c. Explain why the probability you found in
Mexico for each state that borders the body of water.
part (b) is different than the probability you
What is the probability that a ship coming ashore at a
found in part (a).
random point in the Gulf of Mexico lands in the
given state?
18. OPEN-ENDED Describe a real-life event that has a
probability of 0. Then describe a real-life event that
has a probability of 1.
MS AL
19. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS A survey of 2237 adults
TX LA 44 mi 53 mi
397 mi ages 18 and over asked which sport is their favorite.
367 mi FL The results are shown in the figure. What is the
770 mi probability that an adult chosen at random prefers
Gulf of Mexico auto racing? (See Example 6.)

Favorite Sport
a. Texas b. Alabama 805
800
Number of adults

c. Florida d. Louisiana 671

600
15. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS You roll a six-sided die
400
60 times. The table shows the results. For which 291 291
number is the experimental probability of rolling 200
179
the number the same as the theoretical probability?
(See Example 5.) 0
ll

ll

ng

er
al
ba

ba

th
b

ci
ot

se

ot

Ra

O
Six-sided Die Results
Ba
Fo

Fo

o
ut
o

ge
Pr

A
lle
Co

Sport
11 14 7 10 6 12

16. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS A bag contains 5 marbles 20. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS A survey of 2392 adults
that are each a different color. A marble is drawn, ages 18 and over asked what type of food they would
its color is recorded, and then the marble is placed be most likely to choose at a restaurant. The results
back in the bag. This process is repeated until 30 are shown in the figure. What is the probability that an
marbles have been drawn. The table shows the results. adult chosen at random prefers Italian food?
For which marble is the experimental probability Survey Results
of drawing the marble the same as the theoretical
American
probability?
239 670 Italian
Drawing Results 167 Mexican
white black red green blue 383 526 Chinese
5 6 8 2 9 407 Japanese
Other

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 21. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS Refer to the board in 24. MAKING AN ARGUMENT You flip a coin three times.
Exercise 13. Order the likelihoods that the dart lands It lands on heads twice and on tails once. Your friend
in the given region from least likely to most likely. concludes that the theoretical probability of the coin
A. green B. not blue landing heads up is P(heads up) = —23. Is your friend
correct? Explain your reasoning.
C. red D. not yellow
25. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS
22. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS Refer to the chart A sphere fits inside a cube so that it
below. Order the following events from least likely touches each side, as shown. What
to most likely. is the probability a point chosen at
random inside the cube is also inside
Four - Day Forecast the sphere?
Friday Saturday Sunday Monday

26. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? y

Chance of Rain Chance of Rain Chance of Rain Chance of Rain Consider the graph of f shown.
2 x
5% 30% 80% 90% What is the probability that the f
graph of y = f (x) + c intersects −2
the x-axis when c is a randomly
A. It rains on Sunday. −4
chosen integer from 1 to 6? (2, −4)
B. It does not rain on Saturday. Explain.

C. It rains on Monday.
D. It does not rain on Friday. 27. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS A manufacturer tests
1200 computers and finds that 9 of them have defects.
23. USING TOOLS Use the figure in Example 3 to answer Find the probability that a computer chosen at random
each question. has a defect. Predict the number of computers with
defects in a shipment of 15,000 computers. Explain
a. List the possible sums that result from rolling two your reasoning.
six-sided dice.
b. Find the theoretical probability of rolling each sum. 28. THOUGHT PROVOKING The tree diagram shows a
c. The table below shows a simulation of rolling sample space. Write a probability problem that can
two six-sided dice three times. Use a random be represented by the sample space. Then write the
number generator to simulate rolling two answer(s) to the problem.
six-sided dice 50 times. Compare the experimental
Box A Box B Outcomes Sum Product
probabilities of rolling each sum with the
theoretical probabilities. 1 (1, 1) 2 1
1
2 (1, 2) 3 2
A B C 1 (2, 1) 3 2
1 First Die Second Die Sum 2
2 (2, 2) 4 4
2 4 6 10
1 (3, 1) 4 3
3 3 5 8 3
2 (3, 2) 5 6
4 1 6 7
5

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Find the product or quotient. (Section 7.3)

4x9y 2xy x+3
29. — —2y y ⋅
3x 2x3
30. —3
—
3x2 ⋅
8y
31. —
4 x −2 ⋅
(x2 − 7x + 6)

2y y 3x x+1 3x2 + 2x − 13
32. — ÷ — 33. — ÷ — 34. —— ÷ (x2 + 9)
5x 6x 12x − 11 5x 4 x

544 Chapter 10 Probability

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 10.2 Independent and Dependent Events
Essential Question How can you determine whether two
events are independent or dependent?
Two events are independent events when the occurrence of one event does not
affect the occurrence of the other event. Two events are dependent events when
the occurrence of one event does affect the occurrence of the other event.

Identifying Independent and Dependent Events

Work with a partner. Determine whether the events are independent or dependent.
Explain your reasoning.
REASONING a. Two six-sided dice are rolled.
ABSTRACTLY b. Six pieces of paper, numbered 1 through 6,
To be proficient in math, are in a bag. Two pieces of paper are selected
you need to make sense one at a time without replacement.
of quantities and their
relationships in problem
situations.

Finding Experimental Probabilities

Work with a partner.
a. In Exploration 1(a), experimentally estimate the probability that the sum of the
two numbers rolled is 7. Describe your experiment.
b. In Exploration 1(b), experimentally estimate the probability that the sum of the
two numbers selected is 7. Describe your experiment.

Finding Theoretical Probabilities

Work with a partner.
a. In Exploration 1(a), find the theoretical probability that the sum of the two numbers
rolled is 7. Then compare your answer with the experimental probability you found
in Exploration 2(a).
b. In Exploration 1(b), find the theoretical probability that the sum of the two numbers
selected is 7. Then compare your answer with the experimental probability you
found in Exploration 2(b).
c. Compare the probabilities you obtained in parts (a) and (b).

Communicate Your Answer

4. How can you determine whether two events are independent or dependent?
5. Determine whether the events are independent or dependent. Explain your
reasoning.
a. You roll a 4 on a six-sided die and spin red on a spinner.
b. Your teacher chooses a student to lead a group, chooses another student to lead
a second group, and chooses a third student to lead a third group.

Section 10.2 Independent and Dependent Events 545

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 10.2 Lesson What You Will Learn
Determine whether events are independent events.
Find probabilities of independent and dependent events.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Find conditional probabilities.
independent events, p. 546
dependent events, p. 547
Determining Whether Events Are Independent
conditional probability, p. 547
Two events are independent events when the occurrence of one event does not affect
Previous the occurrence of the other event.
probability
sample space
Core Concept
Probability of Independent Events
Words Two events A and B are independent events if and only if the probability
that both events occur is the product of the probabilities of the events.
Symbols P(A and B) = P(A) P(B) ⋅

Determining Whether Events Are Independent

A student taking a quiz randomly guesses the answers to four true-false questions.
Use a sample space to determine whether guessing Question 1 correctly and guessing
Question 2 correctly are independent events.

SOLUTION
Using the sample space in Example 2 on page 539:
8
P(correct on Question 1) = —
16
= —12 8
P(correct on Question 2) = —
16
= —12
4
P(correct on Question 1 and correct on Question 2) = —
16
= —14

⋅
Because —12 —12 = —14 , the events are independent.

Determining Whether Events Are Independent

A group of four students includes one boy and three girls. The teacher randomly
selects one of the students to be the speaker and a different student to be the recorder.
Use a sample space to determine whether randomly selecting a girl first and randomly
selecting a girl second are independent events.

SOLUTION
Number
Outcome Let B represent the boy. Let G1, G2, and G3 represent the three girls. Use a table to list
of girls
the outcomes in the sample space.
1 G1B BG1
Using the sample space:
1 G2B BG2
9
1 G3B BG3 P(girl first) = —
12
= —34 P(girl second) = —9
12
= —34
2 G1G2 G2G1 6
P(girl first and girl second) = —
12
= —12
2 G1G3 G3G1
2 G2G3 G3G2
⋅
Because —34 —34 ≠ —12 , the events are not independent.

546 Chapter 10 Probability

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 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

1. In Example 1, determine whether guessing Question 1 incorrectly and guessing

Question 2 correctly are independent events.
2. In Example 2, determine whether randomly selecting a girl first and randomly
selecting a boy second are independent events.

Finding Probabilities of Events

In Example 1, it makes sense that the events are independent because the second guess
should not be affected by the first guess. In Example 2, however, the selection of the
second person depends on the selection of the first person because the same person
cannot be selected twice. These events are dependent. Two events are dependent
events when the occurrence of one event does affect the occurrence of the other event.
MAKING SENSE OF The probability that event B occurs given that event A has occurred is called the
PROBLEMS conditional probability of B given A and is written as P(B  A).
One way that you can find
P(girl second  girl first)
is to list the 9 outcomes
in which a girl is chosen
Core Concept
first and then find the Probability of Dependent Events
fraction of these outcomes Words If two events A and B are dependent events, then the probability that
in which a girl is chosen both events occur is the product of the probability of the first event and
second: the conditional probability of the second event given the first event.
G1B G2B G3B
⋅
Symbols P(A and B) = P(A) P(B  A)
G1G2 G2G1 G3G1 Example Using the information in Example 2:
G1G3 G2G3 G3G2
⋅
P(girl first and girl second) = P(girl first) P(girl second  girl first)

= —
9
12 ⋅ 6
—9 = 1
—2

Finding the Probability of Independent Events

As part of a board game, you need to spin the spinner, which is divided into equal

8 1 parts. Find the probability that you get a 5 on your first spin and a number greater
than 3 on your second spin.
2 3
6 7

SOLUTION
4 5 Let event A be “5 on first spin” and let event B be “greater than 3 on second spin.”
The events are independent because the outcome of your second spin is not affected
by the outcome of your first spin. Find the probability of each event and then multiply
the probabilities.

P(A) = —18 1 of the 8 sections is a “5.”

P(B) = —58 5 of the 8 sections (4, 5, 6, 7, 8) are greater than 3.

⋅ ⋅
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B) = —18 —58 = —
5
64
≈ 0.078

So, the probability that you get a 5 on your first spin and a number greater than 3
on your second spin is about 7.8%.

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 Finding the Probability of Dependent Events

A bag contains twenty $1 bills and five $100 bills. You randomly draw a bill from
tthe bag, set it aside, and then randomly draw another bill from the bag. Find the
pprobability that both events A and B will occur.
Event A: The first bill is $100. Event B: The second bill is $100.

SOLUTION
S
T events are dependent because there is one less bill in the bag on your second draw
The
tthan on your first draw. Find P(A) and P(B  A). Then multiply the probabilities.
5
P(A) = —
25
5 of the 25 bills are $100 bills.
4
P(B  A) = —
24
4 of the remaining 24 bills are $100 bills.

⋅
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B  A) = —5 4
25 24 ⋅
1 1 1
— = —5 —6 = —
30 ⋅
≈ 0.033.

So, the probability that you draw two $100 bills is about 3.3%.

Comparing Independent and Dependent Events

You randomly select 3 cards from a standard deck of 52 playing cards. What is the
probability that all 3 cards are hearts when (a) you replace each card before selecting
the next card, and (b) you do not replace each card before selecting the next card?
Compare the probabilities.
STUDY TIP SOLUTION
The formulas for
finding probabilities Let event A be “first card is a heart,” event B be “second card is a heart,” and event C
of independent and be “third card is a heart.”
dependent events can a. Because you replace each card before you select the next card, the events are
be extended to three independent. So, the probability is
or more events.
⋅ ⋅
13 13 13 1
⋅ ⋅
P(A and B and C) = P(A) P(B) P(C) = — — — = — ≈ 0.016.
52 52 52 64
b. Because you do not replace each card before you select the next card, the events are
dependent. So, the probability is

⋅ ⋅
P(A and B and C) = P(A) P(B  A) P(C  A and B)

⋅ ⋅
13 12 11 11
= — — — = — ≈ 0.013.
52 51 50 850

1 11
So, you are — ÷ — ≈ 1.2 times more likely to select 3 hearts when you replace
64 850
each card before you select the next card.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

3. In Example 3, what is the probability that you spin an even number and then an
odd number?
4. In Example 4, what is the probability that both bills are $1 bills?
5. In Example 5, what is the probability that none of the cards drawn are hearts
when (a) you replace each card, and (b) you do not replace each card? Compare
the probabilities.

548 Chapter 10 Probability

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 Finding Conditional Probabilities

Using a Table to Find Conditional Probabilities

A quality-control inspector checks for defective parts. The table shows the results of
Pass Fail
the inspector’s work. Find (a) the probability that a defective part “passes,” and
Defective 3 36 (b) the probability that a non-defective part “fails.”
Non-defective 450 11
SOLUTION
Number of defective parts “passed”
a. P(pass  defective) = ———
Total number of defective parts
3 3 1
= — = — = — ≈ 0.077, or about 7.7%
3 + 36 39 13

Number of non-defective parts “failed”

b. P(fail  non-defective) = ————
Total number of non-defective parts
11 11
= — = — ≈ 0.024, or about 2.4%
450 + 11 461

STUDY TIP You can rewrite the formula for the probability of dependent events to write a rule for
Note that when A and B finding conditional probabilities.
are independent, this rule
still applies because ⋅
P(A) P(B  A) = P(A and B) Write formula.
P(B) = P(B  A). P(A and B)
P(B  A) = — Divide each side by P(A).
P(A)

Finding a Conditional Probability

At a school, 60% of students buy a school lunch. Only 10% of students buy lunch and
dessert. What is the probability that a student who buys lunch also buys dessert?

SOLUTION
Let event A be “buys lunch” and let event B be “buys dessert.” You are given
P(A) = 0.6 and P(A and B) = 0.1. Use the formula to find P(B  A).
P(A and B)
P(B  A) = — Write formula for conditional probability.
P(A)
0.1
=— Substitute 0.1 for P(A and B) and 0.6 for P(A).
0.6
1
= — ≈ 0.167 Simplify.
6

So, the probability that a student who buys lunch also buys dessert is
about 16.7%.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

6. In Example 6, find (a) the probability that a non-defective part “passes,” and
(b) the probability that a defective part “fails.”
7. At a coffee shop, 80% of customers order coffee. Only 15% of customers order
coffee and a bagel. What is the probability that a customer who orders coffee also
orders a bagel?

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 10.2 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. WRITING Explain the difference between dependent events and independent events, and give an
example of each.

2. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE The probability that event B will occur given that event A has occurred is
called the __________ of B given A and is written as _________.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3 –6, tell whether the events are In Exercises 7–10, determine whether the events are
independent or dependent. Explain your reasoning. independent. (See Examples 1 and 2.)
3. A box of granola bars contains an assortment of 7. You play a game that involves
flavors. You randomly choose a granola bar and eat it. spinning a wheel. Each section
Then you randomly choose another bar. of the wheel shown has the
Event A: You choose a coconut almond bar first. same area. Use a sample space
to determine whether randomly
Event B: You choose a cranberry almond bar second.
spinning blue and then green are
independent events.
4. You roll a six-sided die and flip a coin.
Event A: You get a 4 when rolling the die. 8. You have one red apple and three green apples in a
Event B: You get tails bowl. You randomly select one apple to eat now and
when flipping another apple for your lunch. Use a sample space to
the coin. determine whether randomly selecting a green apple
first and randomly selecting a green apple second are
independent events.

9. A student is taking a multiple-choice test where

each question has four choices. The student randomly
guesses the answers to the five-question test. Use a
5. Your MP3 player contains hip-hop and rock songs.
sample space to determine whether guessing
You randomly choose a song. Then you randomly Question 1 correctly and Question 2 correctly are
choose another song without repeating song choices. independent events.
Event A: You choose a hip-hop song first.
Event B: You choose a rock song second. 10. A vase contains four white roses and one red rose.
You randomly select two roses to take home. Use
a sample space to determine whether randomly
selecting a white rose first and randomly selecting a
white rose second are independent events.

11. PROBLEM SOLVING You # 

 "  
play a game that involves   /,    
  3   
spinning the money   6 
  

  

1
  



  

  
 

wheel shown. You spin



5


the wheel twice. Find

  

  
 

  
 




 

6. There are 22 novels of various genres on a shelf. You the probability that you 5
 




1
get more than $500 on

  6 
randomly choose a novel and put it back. Then you   ,3    


randomly choose another novel. your first spin and then go   /

 "  
 
bankrupt on your second spin. # 
Event A: You choose a mystery novel.
(See Example 3.)
Event B: You choose a science fiction novel.

550 Chapter 10 Probability

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 12. PROBLEM SOLVING You play a game that involves 18. NUMBER SENSE Events A and B are dependent.
drawing two numbers from a hat. There are 25 pieces Suppose P(B  A) = 0.6 and P(A and B) = 0.15.
of paper numbered from 1 to 25 in the hat. Each Find P(A).
number is replaced after it is drawn. Find the
probability that you will draw the 3 on your first draw 19. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS You randomly select
and a number greater than 10 on your second draw. three cards from a standard deck of 52 playing
cards. What is the probability that all three cards are
13. PROBLEM SOLVING A drawer contains 12 white face cards when (a) you replace each card before
socks and 8 black socks. You randomly choose 1 sock selecting the next card, and (b) you do not replace
and do not replace it. Then you randomly choose each card before selecting the next card? Compare the
another sock. Find the probability that both events A probabilities. (See Example 5.)
and B will occur. (See Example 4.)
Event A: The first sock is white. 20. ANALYZING RELATIONSHIPS A bag contains 9 red
marbles, 4 blue marbles, and 7 yellow marbles. You
Event B: The second sock is white. randomly select three marbles from the bag. What
is the probability that all three marbles are red when
14. PROBLEM SOLVING A word game has 100 tiles, (a) you replace each marble before selecting the next
98 of which are letters and 2 of which are blank. marble, and (b) you do not replace each marble before
The numbers of tiles of each letter are shown. selecting the next marble? Compare the probabilities.
You randomly draw 1 tile, set it aside, and then
randomly draw another tile. Find the probability 21. ATTEND TO PRECISION The table shows the number
that both events A and B will occur. of species in the United States listed as endangered
Event A: −9 −2 −8 −2 and threatened. Find (a) the probability that a
The first tile randomly selected endangered species is a bird, and
−2 −9 −2 −2
is a consonant. (b) the probability that a randomly selected mammal
−2 −1 −1 −1 is endangered. (See Example 6.)
Event B:
−4 −1 −6 −2
The second tile
− 12 −4 −4 −1 Endangered Threatened
is a vowel.
−2 −2 −6 −2 Mammals 70 16
−3 −6 − 4 Blank Birds 80 16
Other 318 142
15. ERROR ANALYSIS Events A and B are independent.
Describe and correct the error in finding P(A and B).
22. ATTEND TO PRECISION The table shows the number

✗
of tropical cyclones that formed during the hurricane
P(A) = 0.6 P(B) = 0.2
seasons over a 12-year period. Find (a) the probability
P(A and B) = 0.6 + 0.2 = 0.8 to predict whether a future tropical cyclone in the
Northern Hemisphere is a hurricane, and (b) the
16. ERROR ANALYSIS A shelf contains 3 fashion probability to predict whether a hurricane is in the
magazines and 4 health magazines. You randomly Southern Hemisphere.
choose one to read, set it aside, and randomly choose
Type of Tropical Northern Southern
another for your friend to read. Describe and correct
Cyclone Hemisphere Hemisphere
the error in finding the probability that both events A
and B occur. tropical depression 100 107
Event A: The first magazine is fashion. tropical storm 342 487
Event B: The second magazine is health. hurricane 379 525

✗ P(A) = —37 P(B  A) = —47

⋅
P(A and B) = —37 —47 = —
12
49
≈ 0.245
23. PROBLEM SOLVING At a school, 43% of students
attend the homecoming football game. Only 23%
of students go to the game and the homecoming
dance. What is the probability that a student who
attends the football game also attends the dance?
17. NUMBER SENSE Events A and B are independent. (See Example 7.)
Suppose P(B) = 0.4 and P(A and B) = 0.13. Find P(A).

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 24. PROBLEM SOLVING At a gas station, 84% of 28. THOUGHT PROVOKING Two six-sided dice are rolled
customers buy gasoline. Only 5% of customers buy once. Events A and B are represented by the diagram.
gasoline and a beverage. What is the probability that a Describe each event. Are the two events dependent or
customer who buys gasoline also buys a beverage? independent? Justify your reasoning.

25. PROBLEM SOLVING You and 19 other students

6
volunteer to present the “Best Teacher” award at a 5
school banquet. One student volunteer will be chosen 4
to present the award. Each student worked at least 3
1 hour in preparation for the banquet. You worked 2 A
for 4 hours, and the group worked a combined total 1
of 45 hours. For each situation, describe a process B
that gives you a “fair” chance to be chosen, and find 1 2 3 4 5 6
the probability that you are chosen.
a. “Fair” means equally likely. 29. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A football team is
b. “Fair” means proportional to the number of hours losing by 14 points near the end of a game. The team
each student worked in preparation. scores two touchdowns (worth 6 points each) before
the end of the game. After each touchdown, the coach
must decide whether to go for 1 point with a kick
26. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? A bag contains one red marble (which is successful 99% of the time) or 2 points with
and one blue marble. The diagrams show the possible a run or pass (which is successful 45% of the time).
outcomes of randomly choosing two marbles using
different methods. For each method, determine
whether the marbles were selected with or
without replacement.
a. 1st 2nd b. 1st 2nd
Draw Draw Draw Draw

a. If the team goes for 1 point after each touchdown,

what is the probability that the team wins?
loses? ties?
b. If the team goes for 2 points after each touchdown,
what is the probability that the team wins?
loses? ties?
27. MAKING AN ARGUMENT A meteorologist claims c. Can you develop a strategy so that the coach’s
that there is a 70% chance of rain. When it rains, team has a probability of winning the game
there is a 75% chance that your softball game will be that is greater than the probability of losing?
rescheduled. Your friend believes the game is more If so, explain your strategy and calculate the
likely to be rescheduled than played. Is your friend probabilities of winning and losing the game.
correct? Explain your reasoning.
30. ABSTRACT REASONING Assume that A and B are
independent events.
a. Explain why P(B) = P(B  A) and P(A) = P(A  B).
b. Can P(A and B) also be defined as P(B) P(A  B)?
Justify your reasoning.
⋅

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Solve the equation. Check your solution. (Skills Review Handbook)

9 3
31. —
10
x = 0.18 32. —14 x + 0.5x = 1.5 33. 0.3x − —5 x + 1.6 = 1.555

552 Chapter 10 Probability

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 10.3 Two-Way Tables and Probability
Essential Question How can you construct and interpret
a two-way table?

Completing and Using a Two-Way Table

Work with a partner. A two-way table displays the same information as a Venn
diagram. In a two-way table, one category is represented by the rows and the other
category is represented by the columns.
Survey of 80 Students The Venn diagram shows the results of a survey in which 80 students were asked
whether they play a musical instrument and whether they speak a foreign language.
Use the Venn diagram to complete the two-way table. Then use the two-way table to
Speak a
Play an answer each question.
foreign
instrument
16 language
Play an Instrument Do Not Play an Instrument Total
25 30
Speak a Foreign
9 Language

Do Not Speak a
Foreign Language

Total

a. How many students play an instrument?

b. How many students speak a foreign language?
c. How many students play an instrument and speak a foreign language?
d. How many students do not play an instrument and do not speak a foreign language?
e. How many students play an instrument and do not speak a foreign language?

Two-Way Tables and Probability

Work with a partner. In Exploration 1, one student is selected at random from the
80 students who took the survey. Find the probability that the student
a. plays an instrument.
MODELING WITH b. speaks a foreign language.
MATHEMATICS c. plays an instrument and speaks a foreign language.
To be proficient in math,
d. does not play an instrument and does not speak a foreign language.
you need to identify
important quantities e. plays an instrument and does not speak a foreign language.
in a practical situation and
map their relationships Conducting a Survey
using such tools as
diagrams and Work with your class. Conduct a survey of the students in your class. Choose two
two-way tables. categories that are different from those given in Explorations 1 and 2. Then summarize
the results in both a Venn diagram and a two-way table. Discuss the results.

Communicate Your Answer

4. How can you construct and interpret a two-way table?
5. How can you use a two-way table to determine probabilities?

Section 10.3 Two-Way Tables and Probability 553

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 10.3 Lesson What You Will Learn
Make two-way tables.
Find relative and conditional relative frequencies.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use conditional relative frequencies to find conditional probabilities.
two-way table, p. 554
joint frequency, p. 554
Making Two-Way Tables
marginal frequency, p. 554
joint relative frequency, A two-way table is a frequency table that displays data collected from one source
that belong to two different categories. One category of data is represented by rows
p. 555
and the other is represented by columns. Suppose you randomly survey freshmen and
marginal relative frequency,
sophomores about whether they are attending a school concert. A two-way table is one
p. 555
way to organize your results.
conditional relative frequency,
p. 555 Each entry in the table Attendance
is called a joint frequency.
Previous Attending Not Attending
The sums of the rows and
conditional probability
columns are called Freshman 25 44

Class
marginal frequencies,
which you will find in Sophomore 80 32
READING Example 1.
A two-way table is also joint frequency
called a contingency table,
or a two-way frequency Making a Two-Way Table
table.
In another survey similar to the one above, 106 juniors and 114 seniors respond. Of
those, 42 juniors and 77 seniors plan on attending. Organize these results in a two-way
table. Then find and interpret the marginal frequencies.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Find the joint frequencies. Because 42 of the 106 juniors are attending,
106 − 42 = 64 juniors are not attending. Because 77 of the 114 seniors
are attending, 114 − 77 = 37 seniors are not attending. Place each joint
frequency in its corresponding cell.
Step 2 Find the marginal frequencies. Create a new column and row for the sums.
Then add the entries and interpret the results.

Attendance

Attending Not Attending Total

Junior 42 64 106 106 juniors responded.

Class

Senior 77 37 114 114 seniors responded.

Total 119 101 220 220 students

were surveyed.

119 students are attending. 101 students are not attending.

Step 3 Find the sums of the marginal frequencies. Notice the sums 106 + 114 = 220
and 119 + 101 = 220 are equal. Place this value at the bottom right.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

1. You randomly survey students about whether they are in favor of planting a
community garden at school. Of 96 boys surveyed, 61 are in favor. Of 88 girls
surveyed, 17 are against. Organize the results in a two-way table. Then find and
interpret the marginal frequencies.

554 Chapter 10 Probability

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 Finding Relative and Conditional Relative Frequencies
You can display values in a two-way table as frequency counts (as in Example 1) or as
relative frequencies.

Core Concept
Relative and Conditional Relative Frequencies
STUDY TIP A joint relative frequency is the ratio of a frequency that is not in the total row or
Two-way tables can display the total column to the total number of values or observations.
relative frequencies based A marginal relative frequency is the sum of the joint relative frequencies in a
on the total number of row or a column.
observations, the row
totals, or the column A conditional relative frequency is the ratio of a joint relative frequency to the
totals. marginal relative frequency. You can find a conditional relative frequency using a
row total or a column total of a two-way table.

Finding Joint and Marginal Relative Frequencies

INTERPRETING Use the survey results in Example 1 to make a two-way table that shows the joint and
marginal relative frequencies.
MATHEMATICAL
RESULTS SOLUTION
Relative frequencies To find the joint relative frequencies, divide each frequency by the total number of
can be interpreted students in the survey. Then find the sum of each row and each column to find the
as probabilities. The marginal relative frequencies.
probability that a
randomly selected student Attendance
is a junior and is not About 29.1% of the
attending the concert Attending Not Attending Total students in the survey
is 29.1%. 42 64 are juniors and are not
Junior — ≈ 0.191 — ≈ 0.291 0.482 attending the concert.
Class

220 220
77 37
Senior — = 0.35 — ≈ 0.168 0.518 About 51.8% of the
220 220
students in the survey
Total 0.541 0.459 1 are seniors.

Finding Conditional Relative Frequencies

Use the survey results in Example 1 to make a two-way table that shows the
conditional relative frequencies based on the row totals.

SOLUTION
Use the marginal relative frequency of each row to calculate the conditional relative
frequencies.

Attendance
Given that a student is
Attending Not Attending
a senior, the conditional
0.191 0.291 relative frequency
Junior — ≈ 0.396 — ≈ 0.604
Class

0.482 0.482 that he or she is not

0.35 0.168 attending the concert is
Senior — ≈ 0.676 — ≈ 0.324
0.518 0.518 about 32.4%.

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 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

2. Use the survey results in Monitoring Progress Question 1 to make a two-way table
that shows the joint and marginal relative frequencies.
3. Use the survey results in Example 1 to make a two-way table that shows the
conditional relative frequencies based on the column totals. Interpret the
conditional relative frequencies in the context of the problem.
4. Use the survey results in Monitoring Progress Question 1 to make a two-way table
that shows the conditional relative frequencies based on the row totals. Interpret
the conditional relative frequencies in the context of the problem.

Finding Conditional Probabilities

You can use conditional relative frequencies to find conditional probabilities.

Finding Conditional Probabilities

A satellite TV provider surveys customers in three cities. The survey asks whether
they would recommend the TV provider to a friend. The results, given as joint relative
frequencies, are shown in the two-way table.
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected
Location
customer who is located in Glendale will recommend
Glendale Santa Monica Long Beach the provider?
Response

Yes 0.29 0.27 0.32 b. What is the probability that a randomly selected
customer who will not recommend the provider is
No 0.05 0.03 0.04 located in Long Beach?
c. Determine whether recommending the provider to a
friend and living in Long Beach are independent events.

SOLUTION
P(Glendale and yes) 0.29
a. P(yes  Glendale) = —— = — ≈ 0.853
P(Glendale) 0.29 + 0.05
INTERPRETING
MATHEMATICAL So, the probability that a customer who is located in Glendale will recommend
RESULTS the provider is about 85.3%.
The probability 0.853 P(no and Long Beach) 0.04
is a conditional relative b. P(Long Beach  no) =——= —— ≈ 0.333
P(no) 0.05 + 0.03 + 0.04
frequency based on
a column total. The So, the probability that a customer who will not recommend the provider is
condition is that the located in Long Beach is about 33.3%.
customer lives in Glendale.
c. Use the formula P(B) = P(B  A) and compare P(Long Beach) and
P(Long Beach  yes).
P(Long Beach) = 0.32 + 0.04 = 0.36
P(Yes and Long Beach) 0.32
P(Long Beach  yes) = —— = —— ≈ 0.36
P(yes) 0.29 + 0.27 + 0.32

Because P(Long Beach) ≈ P(Long Beach  yes), the two events are
independent.

556 Chapter 10 Probability

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 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

5. In Example 4, what is the probability that a randomly selected customer who is

located in Santa Monica will not recommend the provider to a friend?
6. In Example 4, determine whether recommending the provider to a friend and
living in Santa Monica are independent events. Explain your reasoning.

Comparing Conditional Probabilities

A jogger wants to burn a certain number

Reaches Does Not
of calories during his workout. He maps
Goal Reach Goal

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣

out three possible jogging routes. Before
each workout, he randomly selects a Route A ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
route, and then determines the number of
calories he burns and whether he reaches Route B ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣

̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇̇
his goal. The table shows his findings. ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
Route C ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
Which route should he use?

SOLUTION
Step 1 Use the findings to make a two-way Result
table that shows the joint and marginal
relative frequencies. There are a total Reaches Does Not
Total
of 50 observations in the table. Goal Reach Goal

Step 2 Find the conditional A 0.22 0.12 0.34

Route
probabilities by
B 0.22 0.08 0.30
dividing each joint
relative frequency in
C 0.24 0.12 0.36
the “Reaches Goal”
column by the marginal Total 0.68 0.32 1
relative frequency in its
corresponding row.
P(Route A and reaches goal) 0.22
P(reaches goal  Route A) = ——— = — ≈ 0.647
P(Route A) 0.34

P(Route B and reaches goal) 0.22

P(reaches goal  Route B) = ——— = — ≈ 0.733
P(Route B) 0.30

P(Route C and reaches goal) 0.24

P(reaches goal  Route C) = ——— = — ≈ 0.667
P(Route C) 0.36

Based on the sample, the probability that he reaches his goal is greatest when he
uses Route B. So, he should use Route B.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

7. A manager is assessing three employees

Exceed Meet
in order to offer one of them a promotion.
Expectations Expectations

∣ ∣
Over a period of time, the manager
records whether the employees meet or Joy ∣̇̇∣̇∣̇∣̇ ̇∣̇̇∣̇̇∣̇̇∣̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇
∣̇̇∣̇∣̇∣̇ ̇∣̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇

exceed expectations on their assigned

tasks. The table shows the manager’s Elena ̇∣ ∣ ∣
̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇̇ ̇
∣∣∣ ∣∣∣∣ ̇∣̇∣
̇̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣
∣̇̇∣̇∣̇∣̇ ̇∣̇̇∣̇̇∣̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇

results. Which employee should be

offered the promotion? Explain.
Sam ̇∣ ∣ ∣
̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣ ∣∣∣∣ ∣
̇̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇̇ ̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇ ∣
∣̇̇∣̇∣̇∣̇ ̇∣̇̇∣̇

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 10.3 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE A(n) _____________ displays data collected from the same source
that belongs to two different categories.

2. WRITING Compare the definitions of joint relative frequency, marginal relative frequency, and
conditional relative frequency.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3 and 4, complete the two-way table. USING STRUCTURE In Exercises 7 and 8, use the
two-way table to create a two-way table that shows
3. Preparation the joint and marginal relative frequencies.
Did Not 7.
Studied Total Dominant Hand
Study
Pass Left Right Total
Grade

Gender
Fail 10 Female 11 104 115

Total 38 50 Male 24 92 116

Total 35 196 231
4. Response
8. Gender
Yes No Total
Student 56 Male Female Total
Role

Experience

Teacher 7 10 Expert 62 6 68
Total 49 Average 275 24 299
Novice 40 3 43
5. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS You survey Total 377 33 410
171 males and 180 females at Grand Central Station
in New York City. Of those, 132 males and 151 9. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Use the survey
females wash their hands after using the public rest results from Exercise 5 to make a two-way table that
rooms. Organize these results in a two-way table. shows the joint and marginal relative frequencies.
Then find and interpret the marginal frequencies. (See Example 2.)
(See Example 1.)
10. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS In a survey,
49 people received a flu vaccine before the flu season
and 63 people did not receive the vaccine. Of those
who receive the flu vaccine, 16 people got the flu.
Of those who did not receive the vaccine, 17 got the
flu. Make a two-way table that shows the joint and
marginal relative frequencies.

6. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A survey asks

60 teachers and 48 parents whether school uniforms
reduce distractions in school. Of those, 49 teachers
and 18 parents say uniforms reduce distractions in
school. Organize these results in a two-way table.
Then find and interpret the marginal frequencies.

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 11. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A survey finds ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 15 and 16, describe
that 110 people ate breakfast and 30 people skipped and correct the error in finding the given conditional
breakfast. Of those who ate breakfast, 10 people felt probability.
tired. Of those who skipped breakfast, 10 people
felt tired. Make a two-way table that shows the City
conditional relative frequencies based on the Washington,
breakfast totals. (See Example 3.) Tokyo London Total
D.C.

Response
12. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Use the survey Yes 0.049 0.136 0.171 0.356
results from Exercise 10 to make a two-way table that No 0.341 0.112 0.191 0.644
shows the conditional relative frequencies based on Total 0.39 0.248 0.362 1
the flu vaccine totals.

13. PROBLEM SOLVING Three different local hospitals 15. P(yes  Tokyo)
in New York surveyed their patients. The survey
asked whether the patient’s physician communicated
efficiently. The results, given as joint relative
frequencies, are shown in the two-way table.
✗ P(Tokyo and yes)
P(yes | Tokyo) = ——
P(Tokyo)
0.049
(See Example 4.) = — ≈ 0.138
0.356
Location
Glens Falls Saratoga Albany 16. P(London  no)

✗
Response

Yes 0.123 0.288 0.338

P(no and London)
No 0.042 0.077 0.131 P(London | no) = ——
P(London)
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected 0.112
= — ≈ 0.452
patient located in Saratoga was satisfied with the 0.248
communication of the physician?
b. What is the probability that a randomly selected 17. PROBLEM SOLVING You want to find the quickest
patient who was not satisfied with the physician’s route to school. You map out three routes. Before
communication is located in Glens Falls? school, you randomly select a route and record
c. Determine whether being satisfied with the whether you are late or on time. The table shows your
communication of the physician and living in findings. Assuming you leave at the same time each
Saratoga are independent events. morning, which route should you use? Explain.
(See Example 5.)
14. PROBLEM SOLVING A researcher surveys a random
On Time Late
∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣
sample of high school students in seven states. The
survey asks whether students plan to stay in their Route A ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇ ̇̇̇̇
home state after graduation. The results, given as joint
Route B ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
∣∣∣
̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣

relative frequencies, are shown in the two-way table. ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇

Location
Route C ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇
̇̇̇̇

North Other
Nebraska 18. PROBLEM SOLVING A teacher is assessing three
Carolina States
groups of students in order to offer one group a prize.
Response

Yes 0.044 0.051 0.056 Over a period of time, the teacher records whether the
No 0.400 0.193 0.256 groups meet or exceed expectations on their assigned
tasks. The table shows the teacher’s results. Which
a. What is the probability that a randomly selected group should be awarded the prize? Explain.
student who lives in Nebraska plans to stay in his
or her home state after graduation? Exceed Meet
Expectations Expectations
b. What is the probability that a randomly selected
Group 1 ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇

student who does not plan to stay in his or her home ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇ ̇̇̇̇
state after graduation lives in North Carolina? ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇
Group 2
∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣∣∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇
c. Determine whether planning to stay in their home Group 3 ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇̇ ̇
state and living in Nebraska are independent events.
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 19. OPEN-ENDED Create and conduct a survey in your 23. MULTIPLE REPRESENTATIONS Use the Venn diagram
class. Organize the results in a two-way table. Then to construct a two-way table. Then use your table to
create a two-way table that shows the joint and answer the questions.
marginal frequencies.
Dog Owner Cat Owner
20. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? A research group surveys
parents and coaches of high school students about 57 25
whether competitive sports are important in school. 36
The two-way table shows the results of the survey.
92
Role
Parent Coach Total a. What is the probability that a randomly selected
person does not own either pet?
Important

Yes 880 456 1336

No 120 45 165 b. What is the probability that a randomly selected
person who owns a dog also owns a cat?
Total 1000 501 1501
24. WRITING Compare two-way tables and Venn
a. What does 120 represent?
diagrams. Then describe the advantages and
b. What does 1336 represent? disadvantages of each.
c. What does 1501 represent?
25. PROBLEM SOLVING A company creates a new snack,
N, and tests it against its current leader, L. The table
21. MAKING AN ARGUMENT Your friend uses the table shows the results.
below to determine which workout routine is the best.
Your friend decides that Routine B is the best option Prefer L Prefer N
because it has the fewest tally marks in the “Does Not
Current L Consumer 72 46
Reach Goal” column. Is your friend correct? Explain
your reasoning. Not Current L Consumer 52 114

Reached Does Not The company is deciding whether it should try to

Goal Reach Goal improve the snack before marketing it, and to whom
Routine A ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇
̇̇̇̇
̇̇̇̇
∣∣∣
̇̇̇
̇̇̇
the snack should be marketed. Use probability to
explain the decisions the company should make when
Routine B ∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇
∣∣
̇̇
the total size of the snack’s market is expected to
∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣∣
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
(a) change very little, and (b) expand very rapidly.
Routine C ̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇
∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇
̇̇̇̇

26. THOUGHT PROVOKING Bayes’ Theorem is given by

22. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS A survey asks
students whether they prefer math class or science
class. Of the 150 male students surveyed, 62% prefer
P(A  B) = ——.
P(B)
⋅
P(B  A) P(A)

math class over science class. Of the female students

Use a two-way table to write an example of Bayes’
surveyed, 74% prefer math. Construct a two-way table
Theorem.
to show the number of students in each category if
350 students were surveyed.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Draw a Venn diagram of the sets described. (Skills Review Handbook)

27. Of the positive integers less than 15, set A consists of the factors of 15 and set B consists of
all odd numbers.
28. Of the positive integers less than 14, set A consists of all prime numbers and set B consists of
all even numbers.
29. Of the positive integers less than 24, set A consists of the multiples of 2 and set B consists of
all the multiples of 3.

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 10.1–10.3 What Did You Learn?

Core Vocabulary
probability experiment, p. 538 geometric probability, p. 540 joint frequency, p. 554
outcome, p. 538 experimental probability, p. 541 marginal frequency, p. 554
event, p. 538 independent events, p. 546 joint relative frequency, p. 555
sample space, p. 538 dependent events, p. 547 marginal relative frequency, p. 555
probability of an event, p. 538 conditional probability, p. 547 conditional relative frequency,
theoretical probability, p. 539 two-way table, p. 554 p. 555

Core Concepts
Section 10.1
Theoretical Probabilities, p. 538
Probability of the Complement of an Event, p. 539
Experimental Probabilities, p. 541

Section 10.2
Probability of Independent Events, p. 546
Probability of Dependent Events, p. 547
Finding Conditional Probabilities, p. 549

Section 10.3
Making Two-Way Tables, p. 554
Relative and Conditional Relative Frequencies, p. 555

Mathematical Practices
1. How can you use a number line to analyze the error in Exercise 12 on page 542?
2. Explain how you used probability to correct the flawed logic of your friend in
Exercise 21 on page 560.

Study Skills

Making a Mental
Cheat Sheet
• Write down important information on note cards.
• Memorize the information on the note cards, placing the
ones containing information you know in one stack and the
ones containing information you do not know in another
stack. Keep working on the information you do not know.

561

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 10.1–10.3 Quiz

1. You randomly draw a marble out of a bag containing 8 green marbles, 4 blue marbles,
12 yellow marbles, and 10 red marbles. Find the probability of drawing a marble that is
not yellow. (Section 10.1)

—). (Section 10.1)

Find P(A
8
2. P(A) = 0.32 3. P(A) = —9 4. P(A) = 0.01

5. You roll a six-sided die 30 times. A 5 is rolled 8 times. What is the theoretical probability
of rolling a 5? What is the experimental probability of rolling a 5? (Section 10.1)

6. Events A and B are independent. Find the missing probability. (Section 10.2)
P(A) = 0.25
P(B) = _____
P(A and B) = 0.05

7. Events A and B are dependent. Find the missing probability. (Section 10.2)
P(A) = 0.6
P(B  A) = 0.2
P(A and B) = _____

8. Find the probability that a dart thrown at the circular target shown will hit the given region.
Assume the dart is equally likely to hit any point inside the target. (Section 10.1) 6
a. the center circle
b. outside the square 2

c. inside the square but outside the center circle 6

9. A survey asks 13-year-old and 15-year-old students about their

eating habits. Four hundred students are surveyed, 100 male students Survey Results
and 100 female students from each age group. The bar graph shows 64
Number of students

the number of students who said they eat fruit every day. 62 Male
(Section 10.2) 60 Female

a. Find the probability that a female student, chosen at random 58

from the students surveyed, eats fruit every day. 56

54
b. Find the probability that a 15-year-old student, chosen at
52
random from the students surveyed, eats fruit every day.
50

13 years old 15 years old

10. There are 14 boys and 18 girls in a class. The teacher allows the
Age
students to vote whether they want to take a test on Friday or on
Monday. A total of 6 boys and 10 girls vote to take the test on
Friday. Organize the information in a two-way table. Then find
and interpret the marginal frequencies. (Section 10.3)

11. Three schools compete in a cross country invitational. Of the 15 athletes on your team,
9 achieve their goal times. Of the 20 athletes on the home team, 6 achieve their goal
times. On your rival’s team, 8 of the 13 athletes achieve their goal times. Organize the
information in a two-way table. Then determine the probability that a randomly selected
runner who achieves his or her goal time is from your school. (Section 10.3)

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 10.4 Probability of Disjoint and
Overlapping Events
Essential Question How can you find probabilities of disjoint and
overlapping events?
Two events are disjoint, or mutually exclusive, when they have no outcomes
in common. Two events are overlapping when they have one or more outcomes
in common.

Disjoint Events and Overlapping Events

Work with a partner. A six-sided die is rolled. Draw a Venn diagram that relates
MODELING WITH the two events. Then decide whether the events are disjoint or overlapping.
MATHEMATICS a. Event A: The result is an even number.
To be proficient in math, Event B: The result is a prime number.
you need to map the b. Event A: The result is 2 or 4.
relationships between Event B: The result is an odd number.
important quantities in a
practical situation using
such tools as diagrams.

Finding the Probability that Two Events Occur

Work with a partner. A six-sided die is rolled. For each pair of events,
find (a) P(A), (b) P(B), (c) P(A and B), and (d) P(A or B).
a. Event A: The result is an even number.
Event B: The result is a prime number.
b. Event A: The result is 2 or 4.
Event B: The result is an odd number.

Discovering Probability Formulas

Work with a partner.
a. In general, if event A and event B are disjoint, then what is the probability that
event A or event B will occur? Use a Venn diagram to justify your conclusion.
b. In general, if event A and event B are overlapping, then what is the probability that
event A or event B will occur? Use a Venn diagram to justify your conclusion.
c. Conduct an experiment using a six-sided die. Roll the die 50 times and record the
results. Then use the results to find the probabilities described in Exploration 2.
How closely do your experimental probabilities compare to the theoretical
probabilities you found in Exploration 2?

Communicate Your Answer

4. How can you find probabilities of disjoint and overlapping events?
5. Give examples of disjoint events and overlapping events that do not involve dice.

Section 10.4 Probability of Disjoint and Overlapping Events 563

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 10.4 Lesson What You Will Learn
Find probabilities of compound events.
Use more than one probability rule to solve real-life problems.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry
compound event, p. 564 Compound Events
overlapping events, p. 564
When you consider all the outcomes for either of two events A and B, you form the
disjoint or mutually exclusive
union of A and B, as shown in the first diagram. When you consider only the outcomes
events, p. 564 shared by both A and B, you form the intersection of A and B, as shown in the second
Previous diagram. The union or intersection of two events is called a compound event.
Venn diagram
A B A B A B

Union of A and B Intersection of A and B Intersection of A and B

is empty.
To find P(A or B) you must consider what outcomes, if any, are in the intersection of A
and B. Two events are overlapping when they have one or more outcomes in common,
STUDY TIP as shown in the first two diagrams. Two events are disjoint, or mutually exclusive,
when they have no outcomes in common, as shown in the third diagram.
If two events A and B
are overlapping, then
the outcomes in the
intersection of A and B are
counted twice when P(A)
Core Concept
and P(B) are added. So, Probability of Compound Events
P(A and B) must be If A and B are any two events, then the probability of A or B is
subtracted from the sum.
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B).
If A and B are disjoint events, then the probability of A or B is
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B).

Finding the Probability of Disjoint Events

A card is randomly selected from a standard deck of 52 playing cards. What is the
probability that it is a 10 or a face card?

SOLUTION
Let event A be selecting a 10 and event B be selecting a face card. From the diagram,
A B A has 4 outcomes and B has 12 outcomes. Because A and B are disjoint, the
10♠ 10♥ Κ♠Κ♥Q♠Q♥
probability is
10♦ 10♣ Κ♦Κ♣Q♦Q♣ P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) Write disjoint probability formula.
J♠ J♥
J♦ J♣
4 12
=—+— Substitute known probabilities.
52 52
16
=— Add.
52
4
=— Simplify.
13
≈ 0.308. Use a calculator.

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 Finding the Probability of Overlapping Events
COMMON ERROR
A card is randomly selected from a standard deck of 52 playing cards. What is the
When two events A and B
probability that it is a face card or a spade?
overlap, as in Example 2,
P(A or B) does not equal SOLUTION
P(A) + P(B).
Let event A be selecting a face card and event B
A B
be selecting a spade. From the diagram, A has Κ♥Q♥J♥ Κ♠ 10♠9♠8♠
12 outcomes and B has 13 outcomes. Of these, Κ♦Q♦J♦ Q♠ 7♠6♠5♠4♠
3 outcomes are common to A and B. So, the Κ♣Q♣J♣ J♠ 3♠2♠A♠
probability of selecting a face card or a spade is
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B) Write general formula.
12 13 3
=—+—−— Substitute known probabilities.
52 52 52
22
=— Add.
52
11
=— Simplify.
26
≈ 0.423. Use a calculator.

Using a Formula to Find P (A and B)

Out of 200 students in a senior class, 113 students are either varsity athletes or on the
honor roll. There are 74 seniors who are varsity athletes and 51 seniors who are on
the honor roll. What is the probability that a randomly selected senior is both a varsity
athlete and on the honor roll?

SOLUTION
Let event A be selecting a senior who is a varsity athlete and event B be selecting a
74
senior on the honor roll. From the given information, you know that P(A) = — 200
,
51 113
P(B) = —200
, and P(A or B) = —
200
. The probability that a randomly selected senior is
both a varsity athlete and on the honor roll is P(A and B).
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B) Write general formula.
113 74 51
— = — + — − P(A and B) Substitute known probabilities.
200 200 200
74 51 113
P(A and B) = — + — − — Solve for P(A and B).
200 200 200
12
P(A and B) = — Simplify.
200
3
P(A and B) = —, or 0.06 Simplify.
50

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

A card is randomly selected from a standard deck of 52 playing cards. Find the
probability of the event.
1. selecting an ace or an 8 2. selecting a 10 or a diamond
3. WHAT IF? In Example 3, suppose 32 seniors are in the band and 64 seniors are
in the band or on the honor roll. What is the probability that a randomly selected
senior is both in the band and on the honor roll?

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 Using More Than One Probability Rule
In the first four sections of this chapter, you have learned several probability rules.
The solution to some real-life problems may require the use of two or more of these
probability rules, as shown in the next example.

Solving a Real-Life Problem

The American Diabetes Association estimates that 8.3% of people in the United States
have diabetes. Suppose that a medical lab has developed a simple diagnostic test
for diabetes that is 98% accurate for people who have the disease and 95% accurate
for people who do not have it. The medical lab gives the test to a randomly selected
person. What is the probability that the diagnosis is correct?

SOLUTION
Let event A be “person has diabetes” and event B be “correct diagnosis.” Notice that
the probability of B depends on the occurrence of A, so the events are dependent.
When A occurs, P(B) = 0.98. When A does not occur, P(B) = 0.95.
A probability tree diagram, where the probabilities are given along the branches, can
help you see the different ways to obtain a correct diagnosis. Use the complements of
events A and B to complete the diagram, where A — is “person does not have diabetes”
—
and B is “incorrect diagnosis.” Notice that the probabilities for all branches from the
same point must sum to 1.

Event B:
Event A: 0.98
Correct diagnosis
Person has
0.083 diabetes. Event B:
0.02 Incorrect diagnosis
Population of
United States
Event B:
0.917 0.95
Event A: Correct diagnosis
Person does not
have diabetes. Event B:
0.05 Incorrect diagnosis

To find the probability that the diagnosis is correct, follow the branches leading to
event B.
— and B)
P(B) = P(A and B) + P(A Use tree diagram.
—) —)
= P(A) ⋅ P(B  A) + P(A ⋅ P(B A Probability of dependent events
= (0.083)(0.98) + (0.917)(0.95) Substitute.
≈ 0.952 Use a calculator.

The probability that the diagnosis is correct is about 0.952, or 95.2%.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

4. In Example 4, what is the probability that the diagnosis is incorrect?

5. A high school basketball team leads at halftime in 60% of the games in a season.
The team wins 80% of the time when they have the halftime lead, but only 10% of
the time when they do not. What is the probability that the team wins a particular
game during the season?

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 10.4 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

—
1. WRITING Are the events A and A disjoint? Explain. Then give an example of a real-life event
and its complement.

2. DIFFERENT WORDS, SAME QUESTION Which is different? Find “both” answers.

How many outcomes are in the intersection of A and B?

How many outcomes are shared by both A and B? A B

How many outcomes are in the union of A and B?

How many outcomes in B are also in A?

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3–6, events A and B are disjoint. 10. PROBLEM SOLVING Of 162 students honored at
Find P(A or B). an academic awards banquet, 48 won awards for
mathematics and 78 won awards for English. There
3. P(A) = 0.3, P(B) = 0.1 4. P(A) = 0.55, P(B) = 0.2
are 14 students who won awards for both mathematics
1 1 2 1 and English. A newspaper chooses a student at
5. P(A) = —3 , P(B) = —4 6. P(A) = —3 , P(B) = —5
random for an interview. What is the probability that
the student interviewed won an award for English or
7. PROBLEM SOLVING mathematics?
Your dart is equally
likely to hit any point ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 11 and 12, describe and
inside the board shown. correct the error in finding the probability of randomly
You throw a dart and drawing the given card from a standard deck of
pop a balloon. What 52 playing cards.
is the probability that
11.

✗ P(heart or face card)

the balloon is red or
blue? (See Example 1.) = P(heart) + P(face card)
13 12 25
8. PROBLEM SOLVING You and your friend are among =—
52
+—
52
=—
52
several candidates running for class president. You
estimate that there is a 45% chance you will win 12.
and a 25% chance your friend will win. What is the
probability that you or your friend win the election? ✗ P(club or 9)
= P(club) + P(9) + P(club and 9)
13
=—
52
+—4
52
+—1
52
9
=—
26
9. PROBLEM SOLVING You are performing an
experiment to determine how well plants grow
under different light sources. Of the 30 plants in
In Exercises 13 and 14, you roll a six-sided die. Find 
the experiment, 12 receive visible light, 15 receive
P(A or B).
ultraviolet light, and 6 receive both visible and
ultraviolet light. What is the probability that a plant in 13. Event A: Roll a 6.
the experiment receives visible or ultraviolet light? Event B: Roll a prime number.
(See Example 2.)
14. Event A: Roll an odd number.
Event B: Roll a number less than 5.

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 15. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS A group of 40 trees in a 19. PROBLEM SOLVING You can win concert tickets from
forest are not growing properly. A botanist determines a radio station if you are the first person to call when
that 34 of the trees have a the song of the day is played, or if you are the first
disease or are being damaged person to correctly answer the trivia question. The song
by insects, with 18 trees having of the day is announced at a random time between
a disease and 20 being damaged d 7:00 and 7:30 a.m. The trivia question is asked at
by insects. What is the a random time between 7:15 and 7:45 a.m. You
probability that a randomly begin listening to the radio station at 7:20. Find the
selected tree has both a disease probability that you miss the announcement of the
and is being damaged by song of the day or the trivia question.
insects? (See Example 3.)

20. HOW DO YOU SEE IT?

Are events A and B A B
16. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS A company paid overtime
disjoint events?
wages or hired temporary help during 9 months of
Explain your
the year. Overtime wages were paid during 7 months,
reasoning.
and temporary help was hired during 4 months. At the
end of the year, an auditor examines the accounting
records and randomly selects one month to check the
payroll. What is the probability that the auditor will
select a month in which the company paid overtime 21. PROBLEM SOLVING You take a bus from your
wages and hired temporary help? neighborhood to your school. The express bus arrives
at your neighborhood at a random time between
17. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS A company is focus testing 7:30 and 7:36 a.m. The local bus arrives at your
a new type of fruit drink. The focus group is 47% neighborhood at a random time between 7:30 and
male. Of the responses, 40% of the males and 54% of 7:40 a.m. You arrive at the bus stop at 7:33 a.m. Find
the females said they would buy the fruit drink. What the probability that you missed both the express bus
is the probability that a randomly selected person and the local bus.
would buy the fruit drink? (See Example 4.)

18. DRAWING CONCLUSIONS The Redbirds trail the

Bluebirds by one goal with 1 minute left in the hockey
game. The Redbirds’ coach must decide whether to
remove the goalie and add a frontline player. The
probabilities of each team scoring are shown
in the table.
Goalie No goalie

Redbirds score 0.1 0.3

22. THOUGHT PROVOKING Write a general rule
Bluebirds score 0.1 0.6 for finding P(A or B or C) for (a) disjoint and
(b) overlapping events A, B, and C.
a. Find the probability that the Redbirds score and
the Bluebirds do not score when the coach leaves
the goalie in. 23. MAKING AN ARGUMENT A bag contains 40 cards
numbered 1 through 40 that are either red or blue. A
b. Find the probability that the Redbirds score and card is drawn at random and placed back in the bag.
the Bluebirds do not score when the coach takes This is done four times. Two red cards are drawn,
the goalie out. numbered 31 and 19, and two blue cards are drawn,
c. Based on parts (a) and (b), what should the numbered 22 and 7. Your friend concludes that red
coach do? cards and even numbers must be mutually exclusive.
Is your friend correct? Explain.
Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

Write the first six terms of the sequence. (Section 8.5)

n(n − 1) n −1 (n + 1)a
24. a1 = 4, an = 2an − 1 + 3 25. a1 = 1, an = — 26. a1 = 2, a2 = 6, an = ——
an − 1 an − 2

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 10.5 Permutations and Combinations
Essential Question How can a tree diagram help you visualize the
number of ways in which two or more events can occur?

Reading a Tree Diagram

Work with a partner. Two coins are flipped and the spinner
is spun. The tree diagram shows the possible outcomes. 1 2
3
H T Coin is flipped.

H T H T Coin is flipped.

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Spinner is spun.

a. How many outcomes are possible?

b. List the possible outcomes.

Reading a Tree Diagram

Work with a partner. Consider the tree diagram below.

A B

1 2 3 1 2 3

X Y X Y X Y X Y X Y X Y

A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B A B

CONSTRUCTING a. How many events are shown? b. What outcomes are possible for each event?
VIABLE ARGUMENTS c. How many outcomes are possible? d. List the possible outcomes.
To be proficient in math,
you need to make
conjectures and build a Writing a Conjecture
logical progression of Work with a partner.
statements to explore the
truth of your conjectures. a. Consider the following general problem: Event 1 can occur in m ways and event 2
can occur in n ways. Write a conjecture about the number of ways the two events
can occur. Explain your reasoning.
b. Use the conjecture you wrote in part (a) to write a conjecture about the number of
ways more than two events can occur. Explain your reasoning.
c. Use the results of Explorations 1(a) and 2(c) to verify your conjectures.

Communicate Your Answer

4. How can a tree diagram help you visualize the number of ways in which two
or more events can occur?
5. In Exploration 1, the spinner is spun a second time. How many outcomes
are possible?

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 10.5 Lesson What You Will Learn
Use the formula for the number of permutations.
Use the formula for the number of combinations.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry Use combinations and the Binomial Theorem to expand binomials.
permutation, p. 570
n factorial, p. 570
Permutations
combination, p. 572
Binomial Theorem, p. 574 A permutation is an arrangement of objects in which order is important. For instance,
the 6 possible permutations of the letters A, B, and C are shown.
Previous
Fundamental Counting ABC ACB BAC BCA CAB CBA
Principle
Pascal’s Triangle Counting Permutations

Consider the number of permutations of the letters in the word JULY. In how many
ways can you arrange (a) all of the letters and (b) 2 of the letters?

SOLUTION
a. Use the Fundamental Counting Principle to find the number of permutations of the
REMEMBER letters in the word JULY.
Fundamental Counting
Principle: If one event permutations (
1st letter )(
2nd letter )(
Number of = Choices for Choices for Choices for Choices for
3rd letter 4th letter )( )
can occur in m ways and
another event can occur in
=4 3 2 1⋅ ⋅ ⋅
n ways, then the number = 24
of ways that both events
⋅
can occur is m n. The
Fundamental Counting
There are 24 ways you can arrange all of the letters in the word JULY.

Principle can be extended b. When arranging 2 letters of the word JULY, you have 4 choices for the first letter
to three or more events. and 3 choices for the second letter.

( )(
Number of = Choices for Choices for
permutations 1st letter 2nd letter )
=4 3 ⋅
= 12

There are 12 ways you can arrange 2 of the letters in the word JULY.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

1. In how many ways can you arrange the letters in the word HOUSE?
2. In how many ways can you arrange 3 of the letters in the word MARCH?

⋅ ⋅ ⋅
In Example 1(a), you evaluated the expression 4 3 2 1. This expression can be
written as 4! and is read “4 factorial.” For any positive integer n, the product of the
integers from 1 to n is called n factorial and is written as

⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
n! = n (n − 1) (n − 2) . . . 3 2 1.
As a special case, the value of 0! is defined to be 1.
In Example 1(b), you found the permutations of 4 objects taken 2 at a time. You can
find the number of permutations using the formulas on the next page.

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 Core Concept
Permutations
USING A Formulas Examples
GRAPHING The number of permutations of The number of permutations of
CALCULATOR n objects is given by 4 objects is
Most graphing
calculators can calculate
nPn = n!. 4P4 ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
= 4! = 4 3 2 1 = 24.

permutations. The number of permutations of The number of permutations of

n objects taken r at a time, where 4 objects taken 2 at a time is
4 nPr 4
24
r ≤ n, is given by
n! 4P2
4!
(4 − 2)!
⋅ ⋅
4 3 2!
= — = — = 12.
2!
4 nPr 2 nPr = —.
(n − r)!
12

Using a Permutations Formula

Ten horses are running in a race. In how many different ways can the horses finish
first, second, and third? (Assume there are no ties.)

SOLUTION
To find the number of permutations of 3 horses chosen from 10, find 10P3.
10!
10P3 = — Permutations formula
(10 − 3)!
10!
=— Subtract.
7!

= —— ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
10 9 8 7!
7!
Expand factorial. Divide out common factor, 7!.
STUDY TIP
= 720 Simplify.
When you divide
out common factors, There are 720 ways for the horses to finish first, second, and third.
remember that 7! is a
factor of 10!.
Finding a Probability Using Permutations

For a town parade, you will ride on a float with your soccer team. There are 12 floats
in the parade, and their order is chosen at random. Find the probability that your float
is first and the float with the school chorus is second.

SOLUTION
Step 1 Write the number of possible outcomes as the number of permutations of the
12 floats in the parade. This is 12P12 = 12!.
Step 2 Write the number of favorable outcomes as the number of permutations of the
other floats, given that the soccer team is first and the chorus is second. This
is 10P10 = 10!.
Step 3 Find the probability.
10! Form a ratio of favorable
P(soccer team is 1st, chorus is 2nd) = —
12! to possible outcomes.
10! Expand factorial. Divide
= ——
⋅ ⋅
12 11 10! out common factor, 10!.
1
=— Simplify.
132

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 Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

3. WHAT IF? In Example 2, suppose there are 8 horses in the race. In how many
different ways can the horses finish first, second, and third? (Assume there are
no ties.)
4. WHAT IF? In Example 3, suppose there are 14 floats in the parade. Find the
probability that the soccer team is first and the chorus is second.

Combinations
A combination is a selection of objects in which order is not important. For instance,
in a drawing for 3 identical prizes, you would use combinations, because the order
of the winners would not matter. If the prizes were different, then you would use
permutations, because the order would matter.

Counting Combinations

Count the possible combinations of 2 letters chosen from the list A, B, C, D.

SOLUTION
List all of the permutations of 2 letters from the list A, B, C, D. Because order is not
important in a combination, cross out any duplicate pairs.

AB AC AD BA BC BD BD and DB are
CA CB CD DA DB DC the same pair.

There are 6 possible combinations of 2 letters from the list A, B, C, D.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

5. Count the possible combinations of 3 letters chosen from the list A, B, C, D, E.

In Example 4, you found the number of combinations of objects by making

an organized list. You can also find the number of combinations using the
following formula.
USING A GRAPHING
CALCULATOR
Most graphing
calculators can calculate Core Concept
combinations.
Combinations
4 nCr 2 Formula The number of combinations of n objects taken r at a time,
6 where r ≤ n, is given by
n!
nCr = —.
⋅
(n − r)! r!
Example The number of combinations of 4 objects taken 2 at a time is

4C2
4!
= —— = — = 6.
4 3 2!⋅ ⋅
⋅ ⋅ ⋅
(4 − 2)! 2! 2! (2 1)

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 Using the Combinations Formula

You order a sandwich at a restaurant. You can choose 2 side dishes from a list of 8.
How many combinations of side dishes are possible?

SOLUTION
The order in which you choose the side dishes is not important. So, to find the number
of combinations of 8 side dishes taken 2 at a time, find 8C2.
8!
Check 8C2 = —— Combinations formula
⋅
(8 − 2)! 2!
8 nCr 2 8!
=— Subtract.
28
⋅
6! 2!
8 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 6!
=— Expand factorials. Divide out common factor, 6!.
6! ⋅ (2 ⋅ 1)
= 28 Multiply.

There are 28 different combinations of side dishes you can order.

Finding a Probability Using Combinations

A yearbook editor has selected 14 photos, including one of you and one of your friend,
to use in a collage for the yearbook. The photos are placed at random. There is room
for 2 photos at the top of the page. What is the probability that your photo and your
friend’s photo are the 2 placed at the top of the page?

SOLUTION
Step 1 Write the number of possible outcomes as the number of combinations of
14 photos taken 2 at a time, or 14C2 , because the order in which the photos
are chosen is not important.
14!
14C2 = —— Combinations formula
⋅
(14 − 2)! 2!
14!
=— Subtract.
⋅
12! 2!
14 ⋅ 13 ⋅ 12!
= —— Expand factorials. Divide out common factor, 12!.
12! ⋅ (2 ⋅ 1)
= 91 Multiply.
Step 2 Find the number of favorable outcomes. Only one of the possible
combinations includes your photo and your friend’s photo.
Step 3 Find the probability.
1
P(your photo and your friend’s photos are chosen) = —
91

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

6. WHAT IF? In Example 5, suppose you can choose 3 side dishes out of the list of
8 side dishes. How many combinations are possible?
7. WHAT IF? In Example 6, suppose there are 20 photos in the collage. Find the
probability that your photo and your friend’s photo are the 2 placed at the top
of the page.

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 Binomial Expansions
In Section 4.2, you used Pascal’s Triangle to find binomial expansions. The table
shows that the coefficients in the expansion of (a + b)n correspond to combinations.
n Pascal’s Triangle Pascal’s Triangle Binomial Expansion
as Numbers as Combinations
0th row 0 1 0C0 (a + b)0 = 1
1C0 1C1 (a + b) = 1a + 1b
1st row 1 1 1 1

2nd row 2 1 2 1 2 0 2C1 2C2

C (a + b)2 = 1a2 + 2ab + 1b2
3rd row 3 1 3 3 1 3C0 3C1 3C2 3C3 (a + b)3 = 1a3 + 3a2b + 3ab2 + 1b3

The results in the table are generalized in the Binomial Theorem.

Core Concept
The Binomial Theorem
For any positive integer n, the binomial expansion of (a + b)n is
(a + b)n = nC0 anb0 + nC1 an − 1b1 + nC2 an − 2b2 + … + nCn a0bn.
Notice that each term in the expansion of (a + b)n has the form nCr an − rbr,
where r is an integer from 0 to n.

Using the Binomial Theorem

a. Use the Binomial Theorem to write the expansion of (x2 + y)3.

b. Find the coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of (3x + 2)10.

SOLUTION
a. (x2 + y)3 = 3C0(x2)3y0 + 3C1(x2)2y1 + 3C2(x2)1y2 + 3C3(x2)0y3

= (1)(x6)(1) + (3)(x 4)(y1) + (3)(x2)(y2) + (1)(1)(y3)

= x 6 + 3x 4y + 3x2y2 + y3

b. From the Binomial Theorem, you know

(3x + 2)10 = 10C0(3x)10(2)0 + 10C1(3x)9(2)1 + … + 10C10(3x)0(2)10.

Each term in the expansion has the form 10Cr(3x)10 − r(2)r. The term containing x 4
occurs when r = 6.

10C6(3x) (2) = (210)(81x 4)(64) = 1,088,640x 4

4 6

The coefficient of x4 is 1,088,640.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

8. Use the Binomial Theorem to write the expansion of (a) (x + 3)5 and
(b) (2p − q)4.
9. Find the coefficient of x5 in the expansion of (x − 3)7.
10. Find the coefficient of x3 in the expansion of (2x + 5)8.

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 10.5 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. COMPLETE THE SENTENCE An arrangement of objects in which order is important is called
a(n) __________.

2. WHICH ONE DOESN’T BELONG? Which expression does not belong with the other three? Explain
your reasoning.

7! 7!
— 7C5 7C2 —
⋅
2! 5! (7 − 2)!

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3– 8, find the number of ways you can 19. PROBLEM SOLVING You and your friend are 2 of
arrange (a) all of the letters and (b) 2 of the letters in 8 servers working a shift in a restaurant. At the
the given word. (See Example 1.) beginning of the shift, the manager randomly assigns
one section to each server. Find the probability that
3. AT 4. TRY
you are assigned Section 1 and your friend is assigned
Section 2. (See Example 3.)
5. ROCK 6. WATER
20. PROBLEM SOLVING You make 6 posters to hold up at
7. FAMILY 8. FLOWERS
a basketball game. Each poster has a letter of the word
TIGERS. You and 5 friends sit next to each other in a
In Exercises 9–16, evaluate the expression.
row. The posters are distributed at random. Find the
5P2 7P3
9. 10. probability that TIGERS is spelled correctly when
you hold up the posters.
11. 9P1 12. 6P5

13. 8P6 14. 12P0

15. 30P2 16. 25P5

17. PROBLEM SOLVING Eleven students are competing

in an art contest. In how many different ways can
the students finish first, second, and third?
In Exercises 21–24, count the possible combinations of r
(See Example 2.)
letters chosen from the given list. (See Example 4.)
18. PROBLEM SOLVING Six friends go to a movie theater. 21. A, B, C, D; r = 3 22. L, M, N, O; r = 2
In how many different ways can they sit together in a
row of 6 empty seats? 23. U, V, W, X, Y, Z; r = 3 24. D, E, F, G, H; r = 4

In Exercises 25–32, evaluate the expression.

25. 5C1 26. 8C5

27. 9C9 28. 8C6

29. 12C3 30. 11C4

31. 15C8 32. 20C5

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 33. PROBLEM SOLVING Each year, 64 golfers participate 41. CRITICAL THINKING Compare the quantities 50C9 and
in a golf tournament. The golfers play in groups of 4. 50C41 without performing any calculations. Explain
How many groups of 4 golfers are possible? your reasoning.
(See Example 5.)
42. CRITICAL THINKING Show that each identity is true
for any whole numbers r and n, where 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
a. nCn = 1
b. nCr = nCn − r
c. n + 1Cr = nCr + nCr − 1

43. REASONING Consider a set of 4 objects.

34. PROBLEM SOLVING You want to purchase vegetable a. Are there more permutations of all 4 of the objects
dip for a party. A grocery store sells 7 different flavors or of 3 of the objects? Explain your reasoning.
of vegetable dip. You have enough money to purchase b. Are there more combinations of all 4 of the objects
2 flavors. How many combinations of 2 flavors of or of 3 of the objects? Explain your reasoning.
vegetable dip are possible?
c. Compare your answers to parts (a) and (b).

ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 35 and 36, describe and 44. OPEN-ENDED Describe a real-life situation where the
correct the error in evaluating the expression. number of possibilities is given by 5P2. Then describe
a real-life situation that can be modeled by 5C2.

✗
35.

11! 11! 45. REASONING Complete the table for each given value
11P7 = —
(11 − 7)
= — = 9,979,200
4 of r. Then write an inequality relating nPr and nCr .
Explain your reasoning.

r=0 r=1 r=2 r=3

✗
36.

9! 9! 3 Pr
9C4 = — = — = 3024
(9 − 4)! 5! 3 Cr

46. REASONING Write an equation that relates nPr and

REASONING In Exercises 37– 40, tell whether the nCr.Then use your equation to find and interpret the
question can be answered using permutations or 182P4
value of —.
combinations. Explain your reasoning. Then answer 182C4
the question.
47. PROBLEM SOLVING You and your friend are in the
37. To complete an exam, you must answer 8 questions studio audience on a television game show. From
from a list of 10 questions. In how many ways can an audience of 300 people, 2 people are randomly
you complete the exam? selected as contestants. What is the probability that
you and your friend are chosen? (See Example 6.)
38. Ten students are auditioning for 3 different roles in
a play. In how many ways can the 3 roles be filled?

39. Fifty-two athletes are competing in a bicycle race.

In how many orders can the bicyclists finish first,
second, and third? (Assume there are no ties.)

40. An employee at a pet store needs to catch 5 tetras

in an aquarium containing 27 tetras. In how many
groupings can the employee capture 5 tetras?

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 48. PROBLEM SOLVING You work 5 evenings each 69. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS
week at a bookstore. Your supervisor assigns you A polygon is convex when
diagonal
5 evenings at random from the 7 possibilities. What no line that contains a
is the probability that your schedule does not include side of the polygon
working on the weekend? contains a point in the
interior of the polygon.
REASONING In Exercises 49 and 50, find the probability Consider a convex vertex
of winning a lottery using the given rules. Assume that polygon with n sides.
lottery numbers are selected at random.
a. Use the combinations formula to write an
49. You must correctly select 6 numbers, each an integer expression for the number of diagonals in an
from 0 to 49. The order is not important. n-sided polygon.
b. Use your result from part (a) to write a formula
50. You must correctly select 4 numbers, each an integer
for the number of diagonals of an n-sided convex
from 0 to 9. The order is important. polygon.
In Exercises 51– 58, use the Binomial Theorem to write 70. PROBLEM SOLVING You are ordering a burrito with
the binomial expansion. (See Example 7a.) 2 main ingredients and 3 toppings. The menu below
51. (x + 2)3 52. (c − 4)5 shows the possible choices. How many different
burritos are possible?
53. (a + 3b)4 54. (4p − q)6

55. (w3 − 3)4 56. (2s4 + 5)5

57. (3u + v2)6 58. (x3 − y2)4

In Exercises 59–66, use the given value of n to find

the coefficient of xn in the expansion of the binomial.
(See Example 7b.) 71. PROBLEM SOLVING You want to purchase 2 different
59. (x − 2)10, n=5 60. (x − 3)7, n=4 types of contemporary music CDs and 1 classical
music CD from the music collection shown. How
61. (x2 − 3)8, n = 6 62. (3x + 2)5, n = 3 many different sets of music types can you choose for
your purchase?
63. (2x + 5)12, n = 7 64. (3x − 1)9, n = 2

65. (— x − 4)
1
2
11
,n=4 66. (— x + 6) , n = 3
1
4
6 Contemporary Classical
Blues Opera
67. REASONING Write the eighth row of Pascal’s Country Concerto
Triangle as combinations and as numbers. Jazz Symphony
Rap
68. PROBLEM SOLVING The first four triangular numbers
Rock & Roll
are 1, 3, 6, and 10.
a. Use Pascal’s Triangle to write the first four
72. PROBLEM SOLVING Every student in your history
triangular numbers as combinations.
class is required to present a project in front of the
1 class. Each day, 4 students make their presentations in
1 1 an order chosen at random by the teacher. You make
your presentation on the first day.
2 1 1
13 1 3 a. What is the probability that you are chosen to be
the first or second presenter on the first day?
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1 b. What is the probability that you are chosen to
be the second or third presenter on the first day?
b. Use your result from part (a) to write an explicit Compare your answer with that in part (a).
rule for the nth triangular number Tn.

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 73. PROBLEM SOLVING The organizer of a cast party 77. PROBLEM SOLVING Consider a standard deck of
for a drama club asks each of the 6 cast members to 52 playing cards. The order in which the cards are
bring 1 food item from a list of 10 items. Assuming dealt for a “hand” does not matter.
each member randomly chooses a food item to bring,
a. How many different 5-card hands are possible?
what is the probability that at least 2 of the 6 cast
members bring the same item? b. How many different 5-card hands have all 5 cards
of a single suit?

74. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? A bag contains one green

marble, one red marble, and one blue marble. The 6 2
diagram shows the possible outcomes of randomly
drawing three marbles from the bag without
replacement.

1st Draw 2nd Draw 3rd Draw

78. PROBLEM SOLVING There are 30 students in your

class. Your science teacher chooses 5 students
at random to complete a group project. Find the
probability that you and your 2 best friends in the
science class are chosen to work in the group. Explain
how you found your answer.

79. PROBLEM SOLVING Follow the steps below to

a. How many combinations of three marbles can be explore a famous probability problem called the
drawn from the bag? Explain. birthday problem. (Assume there are 365 equally
likely birthdays possible.)
b. How many permutations of three marbles can be
drawn from the bag? Explain. a. What is the probability that at least 2 people share
the same birthday in a group of 6 randomly chosen
people? in a group of 10 randomly chosen people?
75. PROBLEM SOLVING You are one of 10 students
b. Generalize the results from part (a) by writing
performing in a school talent show. The order of the
a formula for the probability P(n) that at least
performances is determined at random. The first
2 people in a group of n people share the same
5 performers go on stage before the intermission.
birthday. (Hint: Use nPr notation in your formula.)
a. What is the probability that you are the last
c. Enter the formula from part (b) into a graphing
performer before the intermission and your rival
calculator. Use the table feature to make a table of
performs immediately before you?
values. For what group size does the probability
b. What is the probability that you are not the first that at least 2 people share the same birthday first
performer? exceed 50%?

76. THOUGHT PROVOKING How many integers, greater

than 999 but not greater than 4000, can be formed
with the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4? Repetition of digits
is allowed.

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

80. A bag contains 12 white marbles and 3 black marbles. You pick 1 marble at random.
What is the probability that you pick a black marble? (Section 10.1)
81. The table shows the result of flipping two coins 12 times. For what
outcome is the experimental probability the same as the theoretical HH HT TH TT
probability? (Section 10.1) 2 6 3 1

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 10.6 Binomial Distributions
Essential Question How can you determine the frequency of each
outcome of an event?

Analyzing Histograms
Work with a partner. The histograms show the results when n coins are flipped.

STUDY TIP 3 3
2
When 4 coins are flipped
1 1 1 1 1 1
(n = 4), the possible
n=1 n=2 n=3
outcomes are
0 1 0 1 2 0 1 2 3
TTTT TTTH TTHT TTHH Number of Heads Number of Heads Number of Heads

THTT THTH THHT THHH

10 10
HTTT HTTH HTHT HTHH
HHTT HHTH HHHT HHHH.
The histogram shows the 6
numbers of outcomes 5 5
having 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 4 4
heads.

1 1 1 1
n=4 n=5
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5
Number of Heads Number of Heads

a. In how many ways can 3 heads occur when 5 coins are flipped?
b. Draw a histogram that shows the numbers of heads that can occur when 6 coins
are flipped.
c. In how many ways can 3 heads occur when 6 coins are flipped?

Determining the Number of Occurrences

Work with a partner.
a. Complete the table showing the numbers of ways in which 2 heads can occur
LOOKING FOR when n coins are flipped.
A PATTERN
To be proficient in math, n 3 4 5 6 7
you need to look closely
to discern a pattern or Occurrences of 2 heads
structure.
b. Determine the pattern shown in the table. Use your result to find the number of
ways in which 2 heads can occur when 8 coins are flipped.

Communicate Your Answer

3. How can you determine the frequency of each outcome of an event?
4. How can you use a histogram to find the probability of an event?

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 10.6 Lesson What You Will Learn
Construct and interpret probability distributions.
Construct and interpret binomial distributions.
Core Vocabul
Vocabulary
larry
random variable, p. 580 Probability Distributions
probability distribution, p. 580
A random variable is a variable whose value is determined by the outcomes of a
binomial distribution, p. 581
probability experiment. For example, when you roll a six-sided die, you can define
binomial experiment, p. 581 a random variable x that represents the number showing on the die. So, the possible
Previous values of x are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. For every random variable, a probability distribution
histogram can be defined.

Core Concept
Probability Distributions
A probability distribution is a function that gives the probability of each
possible value of a random variable. The sum of all the probabilities in a
probability distribution must equal 1.

Probability Distribution for Rolling a Six-Sided Die

x 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1 1 1 1 1
P (x) —6 —6 —6 —6 —6 —6

Constructing a Probability Distribution

Let x be a random variable that represents the sum when two six-sided dice are rolled.
Make a table and draw a histogram showing the probability distribution for x.

SOLUTION
STUDY TIP
Step 1 Make a table. The possible values of x are the integers from 2 to 12. The
Recall that there are 36 table shows how many outcomes of rolling two dice produce each value of x.
possible outcomes when Divide the number of outcomes for x by 36 to find P(x).
rolling two six-sided
dice. These are listed in x (sum) 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Example 3 on page 540.
Outcomes 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
1 1 1 1 5 1 5 1 1 1 1
P (x) —
36
—
18
—
12
—9 —
36
—6 —
36
—9 —
12
—
18
—
36

Step 2 Draw a histogram where the intervals are given by x and the frequencies are
given by P(x).

Rolling Two Six-Sided Dice

P(x)
1
6
Probability

1
9

1
18

0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 x
Sum of two dice
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 Interpreting a Probability Distribution

Use the probability distribution in Example 1 to answer each question.

a. What is the most likely sum when rolling two six-sided dice?
b. What is the probability that the sum of the two dice is at least 10?

SOLUTION
a. The most likely sum when rolling two six-sided dice is the value of x for which
P(x) is greatest. This probability is greatest for x = 7. So, when rolling the two
dice, the most likely sum is 7.
b. The probability that the sum of the two dice is at least 10 is
P(x ≥ 10) = P(x = 10) + P(x = 11) + P(x = 12)
3 2 1
=—
36
+—
36
+—
36
6
=—
36

= —16
≈ 0.167.

The probability is about 16.7%.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

An octahedral die has eight sides numbered 1 through 8. Let x be a random

variable that represents the sum when two such dice are rolled.

1. Make a table and draw a histogram showing the probability distribution for x.
2. What is the most likely sum when rolling the two dice?
3. What is the probability that the sum of the two dice is at most 3?

Binomial Distributions
One type of probability distribution is a binomial distribution. A binomial
distribution shows the probabilities of the outcomes of a binomial experiment.

Core Concept
Binomial Experiments
A binomial experiment meets the following conditions.
• There are n independent trials.
• Each trial has only two possible outcomes: success and failure.
• The probability of success is the same for each trial. This probability is denoted
by p. The probability of failure is 1 − p.
For a binomial experiment, the probability of exactly k successes in n trials is
P(k successes) = nCk p k(1 − p)n − k.

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 Constructing a Binomial Distribution

According to a survey, about 33% of people ages 16 and older in the U.S. own an
electronic book reading device, or e-reader. You ask 6 randomly chosen people
(ages 16 and older) whether they own an e-reader. Draw a histogram of the binomial
ATTENDING TO distribution for your survey.
PRECISION
When probabilities are SOLUTION
rounded, the sum of the The probability that a randomly selected person has an e-reader is p = 0.33. Because
probabilities may differ you survey 6 people, n = 6.
slightly from 1.
P(k = 0) = 6C0(0.33)0(0.67)6 ≈ 0.090 Binomial Distribution for Your Survey

P(k = 1) = 6C1(0.33)1(0.67)5 ≈ 0.267 P(k)

0.30

Probability
P(k = 2) = 6C2(0.33)2(0.67)4 ≈ 0.329
0.20
P(k = 3) = 6C3(0.33)3(0.67)3 ≈ 0.216
0.10
P(k = 4) = 6C4(0.33)4(0.67)2 ≈ 0.080
0
P(k = 5) = 6C5(0.33)5(0.67)1 ≈ 0.016 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 k
Number of persons
P(k = 6) = 6C6(0.33)6(0.67)0 ≈ 0.001 who own an e-reader
A histogram of the distribution is shown.

Interpreting a Binomial Distribution

Use the binomial distribution in Example 3 to answer each question.

a. What is the most likely outcome of the survey?
b. What is the probability that at most 2 people have an e-reader?
COMMON ERROR
SOLUTION
Because a person may not
have an e-reader, be sure a. The most likely outcome of the survey is the value of k for which P(k) is greatest.
you include P(k = 0) when This probability is greatest for k = 2. The most likely outcome is that 2 of the
finding the probability 6 people own an e-reader.
that at most 2 people b. The probability that at most 2 people have an e-reader is
have an e-reader.
P(k ≤ 2) = P(k = 0) + P(k = 1) + P(k = 2)
≈ 0.090 + 0.267 + 0.329
≈ 0.686.

The probability is about 68.6%.

Monitoring Progress Help in English and Spanish at BigIdeasMath.com

According to a survey, about 85% of people ages 18 and older in the U.S. use the
Internet or e-mail. You ask 4 randomly chosen people (ages 18 and older) whether
they use the Internet or e-mail.

4. Draw a histogram of the binomial distribution for your survey.

5. What is the most likely outcome of your survey?
6. What is the probability that at most 2 people you survey use the Internet
or e-mail?

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 10.6 Exercises Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Vocabulary and Core Concept Check

1. VOCABULARY What is a random variable?

2. WRITING Give an example of a binomial experiment and describe how it meets the conditions of
a binomial experiment.

Monitoring Progress and Modeling with Mathematics

In Exercises 3– 6, make a table and draw a histogram USING EQUATIONS In Exercises 9–12, calculate the
showing the probability distribution for the random probability of flipping a coin 20 times and getting the
variable. (See Example 1.) given number of heads.
3. x = the number on a table tennis ball randomly 9. 1 10. 4
chosen from a bag that contains 5 balls labeled “1,”
3 balls labeled “2,” and 2 balls labeled “3.” 11. 18 12. 20

4. c = 1 when a randomly chosen card out of a standard 13. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS According to
deck of 52 playing cards is a heart and c = 2 otherwise. a survey, 27% of high school students in the
United States buy a class ring. You ask 6 randomly
5. w = 1 when a randomly chosen letter from the chosen high school students whether they own a
English alphabet is a vowel and w = 2 otherwise. class ring. (See Examples 3 and 4.)

6. n = the number of digits in a random integer from

0 through 999.

In Exercises 7 and 8, use the probability distribution to

determine (a) the number that is most likely to be spun
on a spinner, and (b) the probability of spinning an even
number. (See Example 2.)
7. Spinner Results a. Draw a histogram of the binomial distribution for
P(x) your survey.
1
2 b. What is the most likely outcome of your survey?
Probability

1 c. What is the probability that at most 2 people have

4
a class ring?
0
1 2 3 4 x 14. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS According to a
Number on spinner survey, 48% of adults in the United States believe that
Unidentified Flying Objects (UFOs) are observing
8. our planet. You ask 8 randomly chosen adults whether
Spinner Results
they believe UFOs are watching Earth.
P(x)
1
2
a. Draw a histogram of the binomial distribution for
Probability

your survey.
1
3 b. What is the most likely outcome of your survey?
1
6
c. What is the probability that at most 3 people
believe UFOs are watching Earth?
0
5 10 15 20 25 x
Number on spinner

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 ERROR ANALYSIS In Exercises 15 and 16, describe and 19. MAKING AN ARGUMENT The binomial distribution
correct the error in calculating the probability of rolling shows the results of a binomial experiment. Your
a 1 exactly 3 times in 5 rolls of a six-sided die. friend claims that the probability p of a success must
be greater than the probability 1 − p of a failure. Is

✗
15.
your friend correct? Explain your reasoning.
P(k = 3) = 5C3 —16 ( )5 − 3 ( —56 )3
≈ 0.161 Experiment Results
P(x)
0.30

✗
16.

Probability
P(k = 3) = —16 ( )3 ( —56 )5 − 3 0.20
≈ 0.003
0.10

17. MATHEMATICAL CONNECTIONS At most 7 gopher 0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6x
holes appear each week on the farm shown. Let x
x-value
represent how many of the gopher holes appear in the
carrot patch. Assume that a gopher hole has an equal
chance of appearing at any point on the farm.
20. THOUGHT PROVOKING There are 100 coins in a bag.
Only one of them has a date of 2010. You choose
a coin at random, check the date, and then put the
coin back in the bag. You repeat this 100 times. Are
you certain of choosing the 2010 coin at least once?
0.8 mi Explain your reasoning.
0.5 mi

21. MODELING WITH MATHEMATICS Assume that having

a male and having a female child are independent
0.3 mi 0.3 mi
events, and that the probability of each is 0.5.
a. Find P(x) for x = 0, 1, 2, . . . , 7. a. A couple has 4 male children. Evaluate the validity
of this statement: “The first 4 kids were all boys,
b. Make a table showing the probability distribution
so the next one will probably be a girl.”
for x.
b. What is the probability of having 4 male children
c. Make a histogram showing the probability
and then a female child?
distribution for x.
c. Let x be a random variable that represents the
number of children a couple already has when they
18. HOW DO YOU SEE IT? Complete the probability have their first female child. Draw a histogram of
distribution for the random variable x. What is the the distribution of P(x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ 10. Describe
probability the value of x is greater than 2? the shape of the histogram.

x 1 2 3 4 22. CRITICAL THINKING An entertainment system

P(x) 0.1 0.3 0.4 has n speakers. Each speaker will function properly
with probability p, independent of whether the
other speakers are functioning. The system will
operate effectively when at least 50% of its
speakers are functioning. For what values of p is
a 5-speaker system more likely to operate than a
3-speaker system?

Maintaining Mathematical Proficiency Reviewing what you learned in previous grades and lessons

List the possible outcomes for the situation. (Section 10.1)

23. guessing the gender of three children 24. picking one of two doors and one of three curtains

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 10.4–10.6 What Did You Learn?

Core Vocabulary
compound event, p. 564 permutation, p. 570 random variable, p. 580
overlapping events, p. 564 n factorial, p. 570 probability distribution, p. 580
disjoint events, p. 564 combination, p. 572 binomial distribution, p. 581
mutually exclusive events, p. 564 Binomial Theorem, p. 574 binomial experiment, p. 581

Core Concepts
Section 10.4
Probability of Compound Events, p. 564

Section 10.5
Permutations, p. 571
Combinations, p. 572
The Binomial Theorem, p. 574

Section 10.6
Probability Distributions, p. 580
Binomial Experiments, p. 581

Mathematical Practices
1. How can you use diagrams to understand the situation in Exercise 22 on page 568?
2. Describe a relationship between the results in part (a) and part (b) in Exercise 74
on page 578.
3. Explain how you were able to break the situation into cases to evaluate the validity
ity of the
statement in part (a) of Exercise 21 on page 584.

Performance Task

A New Dartboard
You are a graphic artist working for a company on a new design for
the board in the game of darts. You are eager to begin the project,
but the team cannot decide on the terms of the game. Everyone
agrees that the board should have four colors. But some want the
probabilities of hitting each color to be equal, while others want them
to be different. You offer to design two boards, one for each group.
How do you get started? How creative can you be with your designs?

To explore the answers to these questions and more, go to

BigIdeasMath.com.

5
585
85

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 10 Chapter Review
10.1 Sample Spaces and Probability (pp. 537–544)
Dynamic Solutions available at BigIdeasMath.com

Each section of the spinner shown has the same area. The spinner Spinner Results
was spun 30 times. The table shows the results. For which color green 4
is the experimental probability of stopping on the color the
same as the theoretical probability? orange 6
red 9
SOLUTION blue 8
The theoretical probability of stopping on each of the five colors is —15 . yellow 3
Use the outcomes in the table to find the experimental probabilities.
4 2 6
P(green) = —
30
=—
15
P(orange) = —
30
= —15 P(red) = —
9
30
=—3
10
8
P(blue) = —
30
4
=—
15
3
P(yellow) = —
30
=—1
10

The experimental probability of stopping on orange is the same as the theoretical probability.

1. A bag contains 9 tiles, one for each letter in the word HAPPINESS. You
choose a tile at random. What is the probability that you choose a tile with
the letter S? What is the probability that you choose a tile with a letter other
5
than P?
2 in.
2. You throw a dart at the board shown. Your dart is equally likely to hit any 10
point inside the square board. Are you most likely to get 5 points, 10 points, 4 in.
or 20 points? 20
6 in.

10.2 Independent and Dependent Events (pp. 545–552)

You randomly select 2 cards from a standard deck of 52 playing cards. What is the probability that
both cards are jacks when (a) you replace the first card before selecting the second, and (b) you do not
replace the first card. Compare the probabilities.

SOLUTION
Let event A be “first card is a jack” and event B be “second card is a jack.”
a. Because you replace the first card before you select the second card, the events are independent.
So, the probability is

⋅ 4 4 16
52 52 2704 ⋅1
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B) = — — = — = — ≈ 0.006.
169
b. Because you do not replace the first card before you select the second card, the events are
dependent. So, the probability is

⋅ 4 3 12
⋅1
P(A and B) = P(A) P(B  A) = — — = — = — ≈ 0.005.
52 51 2652 221
1 1
So, you are — ÷ — ≈ 1.3 times more likely to select 2 jacks when you replace the first card
169 221
before you select the second card.

Find the probability of randomly selecting the given marbles from a bag of 5 red, 8 green,
and 3 blue marbles when (a) you replace the first marble before drawing the second, and
(b) you do not replace the first marble. Compare the probabilities.
3. red, then green 4. blue, then red 5. green, then green

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 10.3 Two-Way Tables and Probability (pp. 553–560)

A survey asks residents of the east and west sides of a city whether they support the construction of
a bridge. The results, given as joint relative frequencies, are shown in the two-way table. What is the
probability that a randomly selected resident from the east side will support the project?

Location
East Side West Side

Response
Yes 0.47 0.36

No 0.08 0.09

SOLUTION
Find the joint and marginal relative frequencies. Then use these values to find the
conditional probability.
P(east side and yes) 0.47
P(yes  east side) = —— = — ≈ 0.855
P(east side) 0.47 + 0.08
So, the probability that a resident of the east side of the city will support the project is
about 85.5%.

6. What is the probability that a randomly selected resident who does not support the project in
the example above is from the west side?
7. After a conference, 220 men and 270 women respond to a survey. Of those, 200 men and
230 women say the conference was impactful. Organize these results in a two-way table.
Then find and interpret the marginal frequencies.

10.4 Probability of Disjoint and Overlapping Events (pp. 563–568)

Let A and B be events such that P(A) = —23 , P(B) = —12 , and P(A and B) = —13 . Find P(A or B).

SOLUTION
P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A and B) Write general formula.
2 1 1
= + −
—3 —2 —3 Substitute known probabilities.
5
= —6 Simplify.
≈ 0.833 Use a calculator.

8. Let A and B be events such that P(A) = 0.32, P(B) = 0.48, and P(A and B) = 0.12.
Find P(A or B).
9. Out of 100 employees at a company, 92 employees either work part time or work 5 days each
week. There are 14 employees who work part time and 80 employees who work 5 days each
week. What is the probability that a randomly selected employee works both part time and
5 days each week?

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 10.5 Permutations and Combinations (pp. 569–578)

A 5-digit code consists of 5 different integers from 0 to 9. How many different codes are possible?

SOLUTION
To find the number of permutations of 5 integers chosen from 10, find 10P5.
10!
10P5 =— Permutations formula
(10 – 5)!
10!
=— Subtract.
5!
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
10 9 8 7 6 5!
= ——
5!
Expand factorials. Divide out common factor, 5!.

= 30,240 Simplify.

There are 30,240 possible codes.

Evaluate the expression.

10. 7P6 11. 13P10 12. 6C2 13. 8C4

14. Use the Binomial Theorem to write the expansion of (2x + y2)4.
15. A random drawing will determine which 3 people in a group of 9 will win concert tickets.
What is the probability that you and your 2 friends will win the tickets?

10.6 Binomial Distributions (pp. 579–584)

According to a survey, about 21% of adults in the U.S. visited an art museum last year. You ask
4 randomly chosen adults whether they visited an art museum last year. Draw a histogram of the
binomial distribution for your survey.

SOLUTION
The probability that a randomly selected Binomial Distribution
person visited an art museum is p = 0.21. P(k)
Because you survey 4 people, n = 4. 0.40

P(k = 0) = 4C0(0.21)0(0.79)4 ≈ 0.390

Probability

0.30

P(k = 1) = 4C1(0.21)1(0.79)3 ≈ 0.414 0.20

P(k = 2) = 4C2(0.21)2(0.79)2 ≈ 0.165 0.10

P(k = 3) = 4C3(0.21)3(0.79)1 ≈ 0.029 0.00

0 1 2 3 4 k

P(k = 4) = 4C4 (0.21)4(0.79)0 ≈ 0.002 Number of adults who visit the art museum

16. Find the probability of flipping a coin 12 times and getting exactly 4 heads.
17. A basketball player makes a free throw 82.6% of the time. The player attempts 5 free throws.
Draw a histogram of the binomial distribution of the number of successful free throws. What is
the most likely outcome?

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 10 Chapter Test
You roll a six-sided die. Find the probability of the event described. Explain your reasoning.
1. You roll a number less than 5. 2. You roll a multiple of 3.

Evaluate the expression.

3. 7P2 4. 8P3 5. 6C3 6. 12C7

7. Use the Binomial Theorem to write the binomial expansion of (x + y2)5.

8. You find the probability P(A or B) by using the equation P(A or B) = P(A) + P(B) − P(A and B).
Describe why it is necessary to subtract P(A and B) when the events A and B are overlapping.
Then describe why it is not necessary to subtract P(A and B) when the events A and B are disjoint.

⋅
9. Is it possible to use the formula P(A and B) = P(A) P(B  A) when events A and B are
independent? Explain your reasoning.
10. According to a survey, about 58% of families sit down for a family dinner at least four
times per week. You ask 5 randomly chosen families whether they have a family dinner at
least four times per week.
a. Draw a histogram of the binomial distribution for the survey.
b. What is the most likely outcome of the survey?
c. What is the probability that at least 3 families have a family dinner four times per week?

11. You are choosing a cell phone company to sign with for the next Satisfied Not Satisfied
2 years. The three plans you consider are equally priced. You ask
several of your neighbors whether they are satisfied with their
Company A ∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇
̇̇̇̇
∣∣
̇̇
̇̇

current cell phone company. The table shows the results. According Company B ∣∣∣∣
̇̇̇̇
∣∣∣
̇̇̇

∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇∣ ∣∣̇∣∣∣ ̇
̇̇̇̇ ̇̇̇
to this survey, which company should you choose? ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇̇
Company C ̇̇̇̇ ̇ ̇̇̇̇

12. The surface area of Earth is about 196.9 million square miles. The land area is about
57.5 million square miles and the rest is water. What is the probability that a meteorite that
reaches the surface of Earth will hit land? What is the probability that it will hit water?
13. Consider a bag that contains all the chess pieces in a set, as shown in the diagram.

King Queen Bishop Rook Knight Pawn

Black 1 1 2 2 2 8
White 1 1 2 2 2 8

a. You choose one piece at random. Find the probability that you choose a black piece or a queen.
b. You choose one piece at random, do not replace it, then choose a second piece at random. Find
the probability that you choose a king, then a pawn.

14. Three volunteers are chosen at random from a group of 12 to help at a summer camp.
a. What is the probability that you, your brother, and your friend are chosen?
b. The first person chosen will be a counselor, the second will be a lifeguard, and the third will
be a cook. What is the probability that you are the cook, your brother is the lifeguard, and
your friend is the counselor?

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 10 Cumulative Assessment

1. According to a survey, 63% of Americans consider themselves sports fans. You

randomly select 14 Americans to survey.
a. Draw a histogram of the binomial distribution of your survey.
b. What is the most likely number of Americans who consider themselves
sports fans?
c. What is the probability at least 7 Americans consider themselves sports fans?

2. Order the acute angles from smallest to largest. Explain your reasoning.

1
tan θ1 = 1 tan θ2 = —
2

— 23
√3 tan θ4 = —
tan θ3 = — 4
3

38 —
tan θ5 = — tan θ6 = √ 3
5

3. You order a fruit smoothie made with 2 liquid ingredients and 3 fruit ingredients from
the menu shown. How many different fruit smoothies can you order?

4. Which statements describe the transformation of the graph of f (x) = x3 − x

represented by g(x) = 4(x − 2)3 − 4(x − 2)?

A a vertical stretch by a factor of 4

○
1
B a vertical shrink by a factor of —4
○
1
C a horizontal shrink by a factor of —4
○
D a horizontal stretch by a factor of 4
○
E a horizontal translation 2 units to the right
○
F a horizontal translation 2 units to the left
○

590 Chapter 10 Probability

hsnb_alg2_pe_10ec.indd 590 2/5/15 2:10 PM

 5. Use the diagram to explain why the equation is true.
A B
P(A) + P(B) = P(A or B) + P(A and B)

1 1 1 1
6. For the sequence −—2 , −—4 , −—6 , −—8 , . . . , describe the pattern, write the next term,
graph the first five terms, and write a rule for the nth term.

7. A survey asked male and female students about whether they prefer to take gym class
or choir. The table shows the results of the survey.

Class
Gym Choir Total
Gender

Male 50

Female 23
Total 49 106

a. Complete the two-way table.

b. What is the probability that a randomly selected student is female and
prefers choir?
c. What is the probability that a randomly selected male student prefers
gym class?

8. The owner of a lawn-mowing business has three mowers. As long as one of the
mowers is working, the owner can stay productive. One of the mowers is unusable
10% of the time, one is unusable 8% of the time, and one is unusable 18% of the time.
a. Find the probability that all three mowers are unusable on a given day.
b. Find the probability that at least one of the mowers is unusable on a
given day.
c. Suppose the least-reliable mower stops working completely. How does this
affect the probability that the lawn-mowing business can be productive on
a given day?

9. Write a system of quadratic inequalities whose solution y

is represented in the graph. (0, 4)

−4 2 4 x
−2

−6
(0, −6)

Chapter 10 Cumulative Assessment 591

hsnb_alg2_pe_10ec.indd 591 2/5/15 2:10 PM