All economic activities namely primary,

Unit-III secondary, tertiary and quaternary, revolve

Chapter-6 around obtaining and utilising resources
necessary for survival.
Secondary activities add value to natural
resources by transforming raw materials into
valuable products. Cotton in the boll has limited
use but after it is transformed into yarn,
becomes more valuable and can be used for

ed
making clothes. Iron ore, cannot be used;
directly from the mines, but after being
converted into steel it gets its value and can be
used for making many valuable machines,
tools, etc. The same is true of most of the

h
materials from the farm, forest, mine and the
sea. Secondary activities, therefore, are
Secondary Activities

pu T
concerned with manufacturing, processing and

is
re R construction (infrastructure) industries.

MANUFACTURING
MANUFA

bl
Manufacturing involves a full array of
E
production from handicrafts to moulding iron
and steel and stamping out plastic toys to
assembling delicate computer components or
be C

space vehicles. In each of these processes, the

common characteristics are the application of
power, mass production of identical products
o N

and specialised labour in factory settings for

the production of standardised commodities.
Manufacturing may be done with modern
power and machinery or it may still be very
primitive. Most of the Third World countries still
©

‘manufacture’ in the literal sense of the term. It

is difficult to present a full picture of all the
manufacturers in these countries. More
emphasis is given to the kind of ‘industrial’
activity which involves less complicated systems
of production.

Characteristics of Modern Large Scale

Manufacturing
Modern large scale manufacturing has the
tt

following characteristics:

Specialisation of Skills/Methods of
no

Production
Under the ‘craft’ method factories produce only
a few pieces which are made-to-order. So the
costs are high. On the other hand, mass
production involves production of large Organisational Structure and Stratification
quantities of standardised parts by each worker
Modern manufacturing is characterised by:
performing only one task repeatedly. (i) a complex machine technology
(ii) extreme specialisation and division of
labour for producing more goods with less
‘Manufacturing’ Industry and effort, and low costs
‘Manufacturing Industry’ (iii) vast capital
(iv) large organisations
Manufacturing literally means ‘to
make by hand’. However, now it (v) executive bureaucracy.

ed
includes goods ‘made by machines’.
It is essentially a process which Uneven Geographic Distribution
involves transforming raw materials Major concentrations of modern manufacturing
into finished goods of higher value have flourished in a few number of places. These
for sale in local or distant markets. cover less than 10 per cent of the world’s land

h
Conceptually, an industry is a area. These nations have become the centres of

pu T
geographically located manufacturing economic and political power. However, in terms
unit maintaining books of accounts

is
of the total area covered, manufacturing sites
and, records under a management are much less conspicuous and concentrated
re R
system. As the term industry is
comprehensive, it is also used as
on much smaller areas than that of agriculture
due to greater intensity of processes. For

bl
synonymous with ‘manufacturing’ example, 2.5 sq km of the American corn belt
When one uses terms like ‘steel
E
usually includes about four large farms
industry’ and ‘chemical industry’ one employing about 10-20 workers supporting
thinks of factories and processes. 50-100 persons. But this same area could
But there are many secondary
be C

contain several large integrated factories and

activities which are not carried on in employ thousands of workers.
factories such as what is now called
the ‘entertainment industry’ and
o N

Why do Large-scale Industries choose

Tourism industry, etc. So for clarity
different locations?
the longer expression ‘manufacturing
industry’ is used. Industries maximise profits by reducing
costs. Therefore, industries should be located
©

at points where the production costs are

Mechanisation minimum. Some of the factors influencing
Mechanisation refers to using gadgets which industrial locations are as under:
accomplish tasks. Automation (without aid of
human thinking during the manufacturing Access to Market
process) is the advanced stage of mechanisation. The existence of a market for manufactured
Automatic factories with feedback and closed- goods is the most important factor in the location
loop computer control systems where machines of industries. ‘Market’ means people who have a
are developed to ‘think’, have sprung up all over demand for these goods and also have the
the world.
tt

purchasing power (ability to purchase) to be able

to purchase from the sellers at a place. Remote
Technological Innovation areas inhabited by a few people offer small
Technological innovations through research markets. The developed regions of Europe, North
no

and development strategy are an important America, Japan and Australia provide large
aspect of modern manufacturing for quality global markets as the purchasing power of the
control, eliminating waste and inefficiency, and people is very high. The densely populated
combating pollution. regions of South and South-east Asia also

46 Fundamentals of Human Geography

provide large markets. Some industries, such Communication is also an important need
as aircraft manufacturing, have a global market. for industries for the exchange and
The arms industry also has global markets. management of information.

Access to Raw Material Government Policy

Raw material used by industries should be Governments adopt ‘regional policies’ to
cheap and easy to transport. Industries based promote ‘balanced’ economic development and
on cheap, bulky and weight-losing material hence set up industries in particular areas.
(ores) are located close to the sources of raw

ed
material such as steel, sugar, and cement Access to Agglomeration Economies/
industries. Perishability is a vital factor for the Links between Industries
industry to be located closer to the source of
Many industries benefit from nearness to a
the raw material. Agro-processing and dairy
leader-industry and other industries. These
products are processed close to the sources of

h
benefits are termed as agglomeration
farm produce or milk supply respectively.
economies. Savings are derived from the

pu T
linkages which exist between different

is
Access to Labour Supply
industries.
Labour supply is an important factor in the These factors operate together to determine
re R
location of industries. Some types of industrial location.

bl
manufacturing still require skilled labour.
Increasing mechanisation, automation and
E
flexibility of industrial processes have reduced Foot Loose Industries
the dependence of industry upon the labours.
Foot loose industries can be located
be C

Access to Sources of Energy in a wide variety of places. They are

not dependent on any specific raw
Industries which use more power are located material, weight losing or otherwise.
o N

close to the source of the energy supply such They largely depend on component
as the aluminium industry. parts which can be obtained
Earlier coal was the main source of energy, anywhere. They produce in small
today hydroelectricity and petroleum are also quantity and also employ a small
important sources of energy for many labour force. These are generally not
©

industries. polluting industries. The important

factor in their location is accessibility
Access to Transportation and by road network.
Communication Facilities
Speedy and efficient transport facilities to carry
raw materials to the factory and to move finished Classification of Manufacturing Industries
goods to the market are essential for the Manufacturing industries are classified on the
development of industries. The cost of transport basis of their size, inputs/raw materials,
plays an important role in the location of output/products and ownership (Fig. 6.1).
tt

industrial units. Western Europe and eastern

North America have a highly developed transport Industries based on Size
system which has always induced the
concentration of industries in these areas. Modern The amount of capital invested, number of
no

industry is inseparably tied to transportation workers employed and volume of production

systems. Improvements in transportation led to determine the size of industry. Accordingly,
integrated economic development and regional industries may be classified into household or
specialisation of manufacturing. cottage, small-scale and large-scale.

Secondary Activities 47
48

ed
Fundamentals of Human Geography

h
pu T
is
re R
bl
E
be C
N
to ©

Fig. 6.1 : Classification of Industries

ot
HOUSEHOLD INDUSTRIES OR Some common everyday products
COTT
COTTA GE MANUF
TTA ACTURING
MANUFA produced in this sector of manufacturing
include foodstuffs, fabrics, mats, containers,
It is the smallest manufacturing unit. The tools, furniture, shoes, and figurines from wood
artisans use local raw materials and simple lot and forest, shoes, thongs and other articles from
tools to produce everyday goods in their homes leather; pottery and bricks from clays and stones.
with the help of their family members or part- Goldsmiths make jewellery of gold, silver and
time labour. Finished products may be for bronze. Some artefacts and crafts are made out of
consumption in the same household or, for sale bamboo, wood obtained locally from the forests.
in local (village) markets, or, for barter. Capital

ed
and transportation do not wield much influence Small Scale Manufacturing
as this type of manufacturing has low
commercial significance and most of the tools Small scale manufacturing is distinguished
are devised locally. from household industries by its production
techniques and place of manufacture (a

h
workshop outside the home/cottage of the

pu T
producer). This type of manufacturing uses

is
local raw material, simple power-driven
machines and semi-skilled labour. It provides
re R employment and raises local purchasing power.

bl
Therefore, countries like India, China, Indonesia
and Brazil, etc. have developed labour-intensive
E
small scale manufacturing in order to provide
employment to their population.
be C
o N
©

Fig. 6.2 (a) : A man making pots in his courtyard-

example of household industry in Nagaland

Fig. 6.3: Products of cottage industry on sale

in Assam

Large Scale Manufacturing

tt

Large scale manufacturing involves a large

market, various raw materials, enormous
energy, specialised workers, advanced
technology, assembly-line mass production and
no

large capital. This kind of manufacturing

developed in the last 200 years, in the United
Fig. 6.2 (b) : A man weaving a bamboo basket by the
Kingdom, north-eastern U.S.A. and Europe. Now
roadside in Arunachal Pradesh it has diffused to almost all over the world.

Secondary Activities 49
 On the basis of the system of large scale
manufacturing, the world’s major industrial
regions may be grouped under two broad types,
namely
(i) traditional large-scale industrial regions
which are thickly clustered in a few more
developed countries.
(ii) high-technology large scale industrial
regions which have diffused to less
developed countries.

ed
Fig. 6.5: Tea Garden and a Tea Factory in the Nilgiri
Hills of Tamil Nadu

h
pu T
is
re R Agri-business is commercial farming
on an industrial scale often financed
by business whose main interests lie

bl
outside agriculture, for example, large
E
corporations in tea plantation
business. Agri-business farms are
mechanised, large in size, highly
be C

Fig. 6.4 : Passenger car assembly hires at a plant of structured, reliant on chemicals, and
the Motor Company in Japan
may be described as ‘agro-factories’.
o N

Industries based on Inputs/Raw Materials

On the basis of the raw materials used, the (b) Mineral based Industries
industries are classified as: (a) agro-based; (b)
mineral based; (c) chemical based; (d) forest These industries use minerals as a raw material.
based: and (e) animal based. Some industries use ferrous metallic minerals
©

which contain ferrous (iron), such as iron and

(a) Agro based Industries steel industries but some use non-ferrous
Agro processing involves the processing of raw metallic minerals, such as aluminium, copper
materials from the field and the farm into finished and jewellery industries. Many industries use
products for rural and urban markets. Major non-metallic minerals such as cement and
agro-processing industries are food processing, pottery industries.
sugar, pickles, fruits juices, beverages (tea, coffee
and cocoa), spices and oils fats and textiles (c) Chemical based Industries
(cotton, jute, silk), rubber, etc.
Such industries use natural chemical minerals,
tt

Food Processing e.g. mineral-oil (petroleum) is used in petro-

chemical industry. Salts, sulphur and potash
Agro processing includes canning, producing
cream, fruit processing and confectionery. While industries also use natural minerals. Chemical
no

some preserving techniques, such as drying, industries are also based on raw materials
fermenting and pickling, have been known since obtained from wood and coal. Synthetic fibre,
ancient times, these had limited applications to plastic, etc. are other examples of chemical based
cater to the pre-Industrial Revolution demands. industries.

50 Fundamentals of Human Geography

(d) Forest based Raw Material using INDUSTRIES BASED ON OWNERSHIP
BASED
Industries
(a) Public Sector Industries are owned and
The forests provide many major and minor managed by governments. In India, there
products which are used as raw material. were a number of Public Sector
Timber for furniture industry, wood, bamboo Undertakings (PSUs). Socialist countries
and grass for paper industry, lac for lac have many state owned industries. Mixed
industries come from forests. economies have both Public and Private
sector enterprises.
(b) Private Sector Industries are owned by

ed
individual investors. These are managed
by private organisations. In capitalist
countries, industries are generally owned
privately.
(c) Joint Sector Industries are managed by

h
joint stock companies or sometimes the

pu T
private and public sectors together

is
establish and manage the industries. Can
you make a list of such industries?
re R
bl
Traditional Large-Scale Industrial Regions
E
These are based on heavy industry, often
Fig. 6.6: A pulp mill in the heart of the Ketchikan’s located near coal-fields and engaged in metal
timber area of Alaska
smelting, heavy engineering, chemical
be C

manufacture or textile production. These

(e) Animal based Industries industries are now known as smokestack
Leather for leather industry and wool for industries. Traditional industrial regions can
be recognised by:
o N

woollen textiles are obtained from animals.

• High proportion of employment in
Besides, ivory is also obtained from
manufacturing industry.
elephant’s tusks. High-density housing, often of inferior
type, and poor services.
©

Industries Based On Output/Product Unattractive environment, for example,

You have seen some machines and tools made pollution, waste heaps, and so on.
of iron or steel. The raw material for such • Problems of unemployment, emigration
machines and tools is iron and steel. Which is and derelict land areas caused by closure
itself an industry. The industry whose products of factories because of a worldwide fall in
demand.
are used to make other goods by using them
as raw materials are basic industries. Can you
The Ruhr Coal-field, Germany
identify the links? Iron/steel machines
for textile industry clothes for use by This has been one of the major industrial
tt

consumers. regions of Europe for a long time. Coal and iron

The consumer goods industries produced and steel formed the basis of the economy, but
as the demand for coal declined, the industry
goods which are consumed by consumers
started shrinking. Even after the iron ore was
no

directly. For example, industries producing

exhausted, the industry remained, using
breads and biscuits, tea, soaps and toiletries, imported ore brought by waterways to the Ruhr.
paper for writing, televisions, etc. are consumer The Ruhr region is responsible for 80 per
goods or non-basic industries. cent of Germany’s total steel production.

Secondary Activities 51
Changes in the industrial structure have led to Iron and Steel Industry
the decay of some areas, and there are problems
The iron and steel industry forms the base of
of industrial waste and pollution. The future
all other industries and, therefore, it is called a
prosperity of the Ruhr is based less on the
basic industry. It is basic because it provides
products of coal and steel, for which it was
raw material for other industries such as
initially famous, and more on the new
machine tools used for further production. It
industries like the huge Opel car assembly
may also be called a heavy industry because it
plant, new chemical plants, universities. Out-
uses large quantities of bulky raw materials and
of-town shopping centres have appeared
its products are also heavy.

ed
resulting in a ‘New Ruhr’ landscape.
Iron is extracted from iron ore by smelting
in a blast furnace with carbon (coke) and
Concept of High Technology Industry
limestone. The molten iron is cooled and
High technology, or simply high-tech, is the moulded to form pig iron which is used for
latest generation of manufacturing activities. It converting into steel by adding strengthening

h
is best understood as the application of materials like manganese.

pu T
intensive research and development (R and D) The large integrated steel industry is

is
efforts leading to the manufacture of products traditionally located close to the sources of raw
of an advanced scientific and engineering materials – iron ore, coal, manganese and
re R
character. Professional (white collar) workers limestone – or at places where these could be

bl
make up a large share of the total workforce. easily brought, e.g. near ports. But in mini steel
These highly skilled specialists greatly mills access to markets is more important than
E
outnumber the actual production (blue collar) inputs. These are less expensive to build and
workers. Robotics on the assembly line, operate and can be located near markets
computer-aided design (CAD) and because of the abundance of scrap metal, which
be C

manufacturing, electronic controls of smelting is the main input. Traditionally, most of the steel
and refining processes, and the constant was produced at large integrated plants, but
development of new chemical and mini mills are limited to just one-step process –
o N

pharmaceutical products are notable examples steel making – and are gaining ground.
Distribution : The industry is one of the
of a high-tech industry.
most complex and capital-intensive industries
Neatly spaced, low, modern, dispersed,
and is concentrated in the advanced countries
office-plant-lab buildings rather than massive
©

of North America, Europe and Asia. In U.S.A,

assembly structures, factories and storage
most of the production comes from the north
areas mark the high-tech industrial landscape. Appalachian region (Pittsburgh), Great Lake
Planned business parks for high-tech start-ups region (Chicago-Gary, Erie, Cleveland, Lorain,
have become part of regional and local Buffalo and Duluth) and the Atlantic Coast
development schemes. (Sparrows Point and Morisville). The industry
High-tech industries which are regionally has also moved towards the southern state of
concentrated, self-sustained and highly Alabama. Pittsburg area is now losing ground.
specialised are called technopolies. The Silicon It has now become the “rust bowl” of U.S.A. In
Valley near San Francisco and Silicon Forest Europe, U.K., Germany, France, Belgium,
tt

near Seattle are examples of technopolies. Are Luxembourgh, the Netherlands and Russia are
some technopolies developing in India? the leading producers. The important steel
Manufacturing contributes significantly to centres are Scun Thorpe, Port Talbot,
the world economy. Iron and steel, textiles, Birmingham and Sheffield in the U.K.;
no

automobiles, petrochemicals and electronics Duisburg, Dortmund, Dusseldorf and Essen

are some of the world’s most important in Germany; Le Creusot and St. Ettienne
manufacturing industries. in France; and Moscow, St. Petersburgh,
Lipetsk, Tula, in Russia and Krivoi Rog, and

52 Fundamentals of Human Geography

Donetsk in Ukraine. In Asia, the important and the volume of production increases. Cotton
centres include Nagasaki and Tokyo-Yokohama textile mill sector is highly capital intensive and
in Japan; Shanghai, Tienstin and Wuhan in produces fine clothes in bulk.
China; and Jamshedpur, Kulti-Burnpur, Cotton textile manufacturing requires good
Durgapur, Rourkela, Bhilai, Bokaro, Salem, quality cotton as raw material. India, China,
Visakhapatnam and Bhadravati in India. U.S.A, Pakistan, Uzbekistan, Egypt produce
Consult your atlas to locate these places/ more than half of the world’s raw cotton. The
centres. U.K, NW European countries and Japan also
produce cotton textile made from imported
Cotton Textile Industry yarn. Europe alone accounts for nearly half of

ed
the world’s cotton imports. The industry has to
Cotton textile industry has three sub-sectors face very stiff competition with synthetic fibres
i.e. handloom, powerloom and mill sectors. hence it has now shown a declining trend in
Handloom sector is labour-intensive and many countries. With the scientific advancement
provides employment to semi-skilled workers. and technological improvements the structure

h
It requires small capital investment. Why did of industries changes. For example, Germany

pu T
Mahatma Gandhi propagate Khadi as part of recorded constant growth in cotton textile
the independence movement? This sector

is
industry since Second World War till the
involves spinning, weaving and finishing of the seventies but now it has declined. It has shifted
re R
fabrics. The powerloom sector introduces
machines and becomes less labour intensive
to less developed countries where labour costs
are low.

bl
E
be C
o N

EXERCISES

1. Choose the right answer from the four alternatives given below.
©

(i) Which one of the following statements is wrong?

(a) Cheap water transport has facilitated the jute mill industry along
the Hugli.
(b) Sugar, cotton textiles and vegetable oils are footloose industries.
(c) The development of hydro-electricity and petroleum reduced, to a great
extent, the importance of coal energy as a locational factor for
industry.
(d) Port towns in India have attracted industries.
(ii) In which one of the following types of economy are the factors of production
tt

owned individually ?
(a) Capitalist (c) Socialist
(b) Mixed (d) None
no

(iii) Which one of the following types of industries produces raw materials
for other industries?
(a) Cottage Industries (c) Basic Industries
(b) Small-scale Industries (d) Footloose Industries

Secondary Activities 53
 (iv) Which one of the following pairs is correctly matched ?
(a) Automobile industry … Los Angeles
(b) Shipbuilding industry … Lusaka
(c) Aircraft industry … Florence
(d) Iron and Steel industry … Pittsburgh
2. Write a short note on the following in about 30 words.
(i) High-Tech industry
(ii) Manufacturing

ed
(iii) Footloose industries
3. Answer the following in not more than 150 words.
(i) Differentiate between primary and secondary activities.
(ii) Discuss the major trends of modern industrial activities especially in
the developed countries of the world.

h
(iii) Explain why high-tech industries in many countries are being attracted

pu T
to the peripheral areas of major metropolitan centres.

is
(iv) Africa has immense natural resources and yet it is industrially the most
backward continent. Comment.
re R Project/Activity

bl
(i) Carry out a survey in your school premises of the factory-made goods
E
used by students and the staff.
(ii) Find out the meaning of the terms bio-degradable and non-
biodegradable. Which kind of material is better to use? Why?
be C

(iii) Look around and make a list of the global brands, their logos and
products.
o N
©
tt
no

54 Fundamentals of Human Geography