• TEEE 4203 STABILITY AND HIGH VOLTAGE

SYSTEMS

Lecture 4b. CONTROL OF REACTIVE

POWER
AND VOLTAGE

1539pk
 Reactive Power and Voltage Control
Control objectives contributing to efficient and reliable operation of power system:
• Voltage at terminals of all equipment are within acceptable limits
• both utility and customer equipment designed to operate at certain voltage rating
• prolonged operation outside allowable range could cause them damage

• System stability is satisfactory

• voltage levels and reactive power control have significant impact on stability

• The reactive power flow is minimized so as to reduce I 2R and I 2X losses to a

practical minimum
• ensures transmission system operates efficiently

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 2

 Production and Absorption of Reactive Power (Q)
• Synchronous Generators
• can generate or absorb Q depending on excitation
• capability limited by field current, armature current, and end-region heating limits
• automatic voltage regulator continuously adjusts excitation to control armature voltage
• primary source of voltage support!

• Overhead lines
• at loads below natural or surge impedance load (SIL), produce Q
• at loads above SIL, absorb Q
• Underground cables
• have high SIL due to high capacitance
• always loaded below SIL, and hence generate Q
cont'd
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 3
 Production and Absorption of Q (cont'd)

• Transformers
• absorb Q due to shunt magnetizing reactance and series leakage inductance
• Loads
• a typical "load bus" is composed of a large number of devices
• composite characteristics are normally such that a load bus absorbs Q
• industrial loads usually have shunt capacitors to improve power factor
• As power flow conditions vary, reactive power requirements of transmission
network vary
• Since Q cannot be transmitted over long distances, voltage control has to be
effected using special devices dispersed throughout the system

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 4

 Methods of Voltage Control
• Control of voltage levels is accomplished by controlling the production, absorption,
and flow of reactive power at all levels in the system

• Generating units provide the basic means of voltage control

• Additional means are usually required to control voltage throughout the system:
• sources or sinks of reactive power, such as shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, synchronous
condensers, and static var compensators (SVCs)

• line reactance compensators, such as series capacitors

• regulating transformers, such as tap-changing transformers and boosters

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER cont'd 5

 Methods of Voltage Control (cont'd)

• Shunt capacitors and reactors, and series capacitors provide passive compensation
• are either permanently connected to the transmission and distribution system, or switched
• contribute to voltage control by modifying the network characteristics

• Synchronous condensers and SVCs provide active compensation; the reactive power
absorbed/ supplied by them are automatically adjusted so as to maintain voltages of
the buses to which they are connected
• together with the generating units, they establish voltages at specific points in the system
• voltages at other locations in the system are determined by active and reactive power flows
through various circuit elements, including the passive compensating devices

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 6

 Objectives of Reactive Power Compensation
• To control voltage and/or improve maximum power transfer capability
• Achieved by modifying effective line parameters:

• characteristic impedance,
L
ZC =
C

• electrical length, θ = βl

• The voltage profile is determined by ZC

• The maximum power that can be transmitted depends on ZC as well as β

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 7

 Electrical length
• Electrical length is often used in working with transmission line designs prior to establishing
the physical length of a line. The electrical length of a transmission line is expressed either as
a fraction of a wavelength or in degrees (or radians), where a wavelength corresponds to 360◦
(or 2π radians). So if β is the phase constant of a signal on a transmission line and ℓ or θ is its
physical length, the electrical length of the line in radians is βℓ.
EXAMPLE .
• A transmission line is 10 cm long and at the operating frequency the phase constant β is 30
m−1 and the wavelength is 40 cm. What is the electrical length of the line?
Solution:
Let the physical length of the line be ℓ = 10 cm = 0.1 m. Then the electrical length of the line is
ℓe = βℓ = (30 m−1) × 0.1 m = 3 radians. The electrical length can also be expressed in terms of
wavelength noting that 360◦ corresponds to 2π radians which corresponds to λ. Thus ℓe = (3
radians) = 3 × 180/π = 171.9◦ or as ℓe = 3/(2π) λ = 0.477 λ.
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 8
 Shunt Reactors

• Used to compensate the undesirable voltage effects associated with line capacitance
• limit voltage rise on open circuit or light load
• Shunt compensation with reactors:
• increases effective ZC
• reduces the effective natural load , i.e., voltage at which flat voltage profile is achieved
• They are connected either:
• directly to the lines at the ends, or
• to transformer tertiary windings; conveniently switched as var requirements vary
• Line reactors assist in limiting switching surges
• In very long lines, at least some reactors are required to be connected to lines

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 9

 Shunt Capacitors
• Used in transmission systems to compensate for I 2X losses
• Connected either directly to H.V. bus or to tertiary winding of transformers
• Normally distributed throughout the system so as to minimize losses and voltage drops
• Usually switched: a convenient means of controlling voltage
• Shunt capacitor compensation of transmission lines in effect
• decreases ZC
• increases θ, i.e., electrical length
• Advantages: low cost and flexibility of installation and operating
• Disadvantages: Q output is proportional to square of the voltage; hence Q output reduced at
low voltages

• Shunt capacitors are used extensively in distribution systems for power factor correction and
feeder voltage control
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 10
 Series Capacitors
• Connected in series with the line
• Used to reduce effective inductive reactance of line
• increases maximum power
• reduces I 2X loss
• Series capacitive compensation in effect reduces both:
• characteristic impedance ZC, and
• electrical length θ
• Reactive power produced increases with increasing power transfer
• Self regulating !
• Typical applications
• improve power transfer compatibility
• alter load division among parallel lines
• voltage regulation
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 11
 Relative Performance of Shunt and Series Caps

(a) Power transfer as a function of transmission angle δ

Compensation chosen to
keep Vm at 1.0 pu when P =
1.4 Po
Po = natural load

(b) Midpoint voltage as a function of power transfer

Figure 1 Performance of 600 km line with and without passive compensation

 Conclusions from Results Presented in Fig. 1
• With shunt capacitor compensation (chosen to keep midpoint voltage at 1.0 pu
when P = 1.4 Po)
• maximum power transfer capability increased to 1.58 pu of natural power (SIL); represents an
increase of 0.16 pu over the uncompensated case
• voltage regulation is poor, i.e., the voltage magnitude is very sensitive to variations in power
transfer

• With series capacitor compensation (chosen to keep mid point voltage at 1.0 pu
when P = 1.4 Po)
• maximum power transfer capability increased to 2.65 pu
• voltage regulation significantly improved
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 13
 Compensation Requirements
• In all cases it is not required to satisfy both the objectives of:
• increasing the power level at which the voltage profile is flat; and
• decreasing electrical length θ in order to improve power transfer level

• Short lines may require voltage support, i.e., increase natural load
• This may be achieved by shunt capacitors, provided θ does not become excessive as a result

• Lines longer than 500 km cannot be loaded up to natural load because of excessive θ
• In such cases, reduction of θ is the first priority

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 14

 Synchronous Condenser
• A synchronous machine running without a prime mover or a mechanical load
• Depending on field excitation, it can either absorb or generate vars
• With a voltage regulator, it can automatically adjust vars to maintain constant voltage
• Started as an induction motor and then synchronized
• Normally connected to tertiary windings of transformers
• Unlike a SVC, a synchronous condenser has an internal voltage
• Speed of response not as fast as that of an SVC
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 15
 Static VAR Compensators (SVC)
• Shunt connected static var generators and/or absorbers whose outputs are varied so as to
control specific power system quantities

• The term static is used to denote that there are no moving or rotating components
• Basic types of SVCs:
• thyristor-controlled reactor
• thyristor-switched capacitor
• saturated reactor

• A static var system (SVS) is an aggregation of SVCs and mechanically switched capacitors or
reactors whose outputs are coordinated

• When operating at its capacitive limit, an SVC behaves like a simple capacitor
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 16
 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)
• Can be based on a voltage-sourced or current-sourced converter
• Figure below shows one with voltage-sourced converter

• driven by a dc voltage source: capacitor

• Effectively an alternating voltage source behind a coupling reactance

• controllable in magnitude
• Can be operated over its full output current range even at very low (typically 0.2 pu)
system voltage levels
• Requires fewer harmonic filters and capacitors than an SVC, and no reactors
• significantly more compact
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 17
 Comparative Summary of Alternative Forms
of Compensation
• Switched shunt capacitor compensation generally provides the most economical reactive
power source for voltage control
• ideally suited for compensation of transmission lines if reduction of ZC, rather than reduction of line
length θ is the primary consideration
• however, heavy use of shunt capacitor compensation could result in poor voltage regulation and may
have an adverse effect on system stability

• Series capacitor is self-regulating, i.e., its reactive power output increases with line loading
• ideally suited for applications where reduction of line length (θ) is the primary consideration
• improves voltage regulation and system stability
• A combination of series and shunt capacitors may provide the ideal form of compensation
in some cases
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 18
 Comparative Summary (cont'd)

• A static var compensator (SVC) is ideally suited for applications requiring direct and rapid
control of voltage
• has advantage over series capacitors where compensation is required to prevent voltage sag at a bus
involving multiple lines; total cost may be less than that for series compensation of each of the lines

• When an SVC is used to permit a high power transfer over a long distance, the possibility
of instability when the SVC is pushed to its reactive limit must be recognized
• when operating at its capacitive limit, the SVC becomes a simple capacitor
• An SVC has limited overload capability and has higher losses than series capacitor
compensation
• STATCOM overcomes some of the limitations of an SVC

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 19

 Tap-Changing Transformers
• Transformer with tap-changing facilities constitute an important means of controlling voltages
throughout the power system
• Control of a single transformer will cause changes in voltages at its terminals
• in turn this influences reactive power flow
• resulting effect on the voltages at other buses will depend on network configuration and load/generation
distribution

• Coordinated control of the tap changers of all transformers interconnecting the subsystems
required to achieve overall desired effect
• During high system load conditions, network voltages are kept at highest practical level to
• minimize reactive power requirements
• increase effectiveness of shunt capacitors and line charging

cont'd

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 20

 Tap-Changing Transformers
• The highest allowable operating voltage of the transmission network is governed by
• requirement that insulation levels of equipment not be exceeded
• need to take into consideration possible switching operations and outage conditions
• During light load conditions, it is usually required to lower network voltages
• reduce line charging
• avoid under-excited operation of generators
• Transformers with under-load tap-changers (ULTC) are used to take care of daily, hourly,
and minute-by-minute variations in system conditions
• Off-load tap-changing transformers are used to take care of long-term variations due to
system expansion, load growth, or seasonal changes

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 21

 Distribution System Voltage Regulation
• Substation bus regulation
• substation transformer equipped with ULTC facilities to control secondary voltage
• alternatively, substation may have a separate voltage regulator

• Feeder regulation
• feeder regulators control the voltage of each feeder
• older units are the induction type - provide accurate and continuous control; however, they are
costly and have been superseded by step type regulator
• step voltage regulator (SVR) is basically an autotransformer with taps or steps in the series
winding; however, it is purely a voltage control device and not used for voltage transformation
CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 22
 Implementation of Overall Reactive Power
Control
• Effect of reactive power control is felt mostly locally:
• equipment for supplying Q at appropriate points throughout the system is necessary

• Coordination of the overall scheme is a complex task:

• approach is still largely based on operator experience and off-line load flow studies
• implementation of automated schemes with optimum dispatch is feasible and
practical methods are being pursued

CONTROL OF REACTIVE POWER 23