Camila Vangh-egas
Study Guide Exam 4
How does weight, SES and gender affect puberty? Create a timeline of pubertal changes.
- Weight: overweight children will start puberty earlier- underweight children will start
much later- their body is in a “survive mode”
- Culture also has a big part in adolescence. Those cultures that push work and other
adult behavior earlier will have a shorter adolescence. 1) early adolescence (11-14)-
this period of rapid pubertal change. 2) middle adolescence (14-16) pubertal changes
are now nearly complete. 3) Late adolescence (16-18)- the young person achieves full
adult appearance and anticipates assumption of adult roles.
Gender- Girls= adrenal androgens influence height spurt, stimulate growth of
underarm and pubic hair estrogens released by ovaries contribute to height spurt by
stimulating GH- which caused breasts, uterus, and vagina to mature, the body to take
on feminine proportions, and fat to accumulate, and regulation of the menstrual cycle.
Boys= maturing testes release large quantity of the androgen testosterone, which leads
to muscle growth, body and facial hair, and other male sex characteristics.
Androgens(testosterone) exert a GH- enhancing effect (contributes to gains in body
size). The testes secret small amounts of estrogen (some boys may experience to
temporary breast enlargement.
Pubertal changes- 1) overall body growth and 2) maturation of sexual characteristics.
- SES: those who come from a low SES or poverty-stricken areas puberty will be delayed.
Girls and boys with a history of family conflict, harsh parenting, parental separation, or
single mothers tend to reach puberty early. Those with arm, stable family ties reach
puberty relatively late.
How does being an early maturing teen affect their behavior?
-they are more confident and but sometimes get in to an older crowd and could get in trouble.
-early maturing boys tend to be more confident socially and better athletes than late-maturing
boys
-girls who mature early develop a lower self-esteem and poorer self-evaluation than on-time-
maturing girls
-early maturing girls are more likely to engage in delinquent behavior
-early maturation has been related to problem behaviors among girls who have had a history of
difficulties prior to adolescents
What has sports participation for boys and girls changed over the past five decades?
Sports have become very competitive. More girl sports are offered. Boys are more pressured to
do more sports- girls play more but do not feel as much pressure to play. US government
provides funding and there is more equality. 1960 women more involved in sports.
More equality.
What are the consequences of sleep deprivation?
- You will have more stress, depression, hallucinations, lack of function, worse grades in
school.
What are some of the similarities and differences between anorexia and bulimia?
- Anorexia nervosa- eating disorder in which young people starve themselves
because of a compulsive fear of getting fat. 1 percent of North American and
Western European teenage girls are affected and 10 to 15 percent for boys (half of
which are gay or bisexual). This may be because they don’t want the bulky strong
appearance. Individuals with anorexia have an extremely distorted body image.
Even when they are underweight, they see themselves as to heavy. To enhance
weight loss, they exercise strenuously. They lose 25 to 50% of body fat. Girls will
experience delayed menarche or disrupted menstrual cycles. Malnutrition causes
pale skin, brittle discolored nails, fine dark hairs all over the body, and extreme
sensitivity to cold. If it continues, the heart muscles can shrink, the kidneys can
fail, and irreversible brain damage and loss of bone mass can occur. 5% die
(physical complication or suicide).
- Bulimia Nervosa- young people (mainly girls, but gay and bisexual boys are
vulnerable) engage in binge eating, followed by compensatory efforts to avoid
wight gain, such as deliberate vomiting, purging with laxatives, excessive exercise,
or fasting. Affects 2 to 4 percent of teenage girls, only 5 percent of whom
previously suffered from anorexia. Bulimia is influenced by heredity. Overweight
and early menarche increase the risk. Treatment is easier than anorexia, with the
help of support groups, nutrition education, training in changing earing habits, and
anti-anxiety, antidepressant and appetite-control medication.
- Binge-eating disorder- binging at lease one a week for three months or longer,
without compensatory purging, exercise, or fasting. Binging is associated with
social adjustment difficulties, and many binge eaters experience sever emotional
distress and suicidal thoughts. Effective treatments resemble those used for
bulimia.
How do North American parents approach the discussion of sexuality with their children?
They tend to not approach the subject.
Who is more likely to engage in early sexual activity?
- Those from low SES household, single mothers, girls who get in trouble a lot/ juvey
What should school and community programs include to reduce drug experimentation?
- Making kids aware of the health problems that may arise from this situation,
through experimentation and information.
Why don’t teens use contraception?
- Teenagers often fail to apply this reasoning to everyday situations. In the midst of
everyday peer pressure and heighten emotion, self-regulation is difficult for
teenagers, who often overlook the potential consequences of risky behaviors. They
are lease likely to use condoms in relatively new relationships in which they feel
high trust or love and are having sex often.
- Teenagers usually just do not think about those things, and if they do, they are
extremely concerned of what others' opinions are of them. They are also very
spontaneous and passionate and don’t know how to get contraception. They also do
not think of what early parenthood would be like, and how it will affect their lives,
not just now, but in the future as well. About 12% of US girls and 5% of US boys say
that they were pressured into having intercourse when they were unwilling. But, when
teenagers have a good, open relationship with their parents, safe sex is more likely to
occur, if they have sex.
- qs
Understand personal fable, working memory capacity, imaginary audience, metacognition
& inhibition.
-
- Working memory- increases, enabling more information to be held in mind at
once and combined into increasingly complex, efficient representations, “open
possibilities for growth”.
- Inhibition- Both of irrelevant stimuli and of well learned responses in situations
where they are inappropriate—improves, supporting gains in attention and
reasoning
- attention becomes more selective and focused on relevant information inflexible--
better adapted to the changing demands of tasks.
- planning on complex tasks with multiple steps improves, becoming better
organized and efficient.
- strategies become more effective, enhancing storage, representation, and retrieval
of information.
- knowledge increases easing strategy use
- metacognition (awareness of thought) expands, leading to new insights into
effective strategies for acquiring information and solving problems.
- cognitive self-regulation improves, yielding better moment by moment
monitoring, evaluation, and redirection of thinking.
- Imaginary audience - work revolves around the teen- inflated ego-- everyone is
looking at me. page 392 – everyone is looking at me- what I am wearing what I am
saying.
- Person fable- there is no way people can understand what you are going through
What techniques may be helpful in minimizing high school dropout?
- Supplementary academic instruction and counseling that offer personalized
attention. Warm, caring teacher-student relationships
- High quality vocational education- integrate academic and job-related instructions
so students see the relevance of classroom experiences to their future goals.
- Efforts to address the many factors in students’ lives related to leaving school
early. Strengthen parent involvement, offer flexible work-study arrangements, and
provide on-site childcare for teenage parents.
- Participate in extracurricular activities- they will feel more attached to their school.
They can be more involved with smaller school number. Moderate (not excessive)
participation in arts, community service, or vocational development activities
promotes diverse aspects of adjustment. It will improve academic performance,
reduce antisocial behavior, more favorable self-esteem and initiative, and increased
peer acceptance.
Comment on the gender gap in verbal abilities, writing mathematics and spatial abilities.
- Boys are naturally better at math, and girls are usually better at English and writing.
- Girls have more spatial skills than men.
- Girls talk first than men, generally read better
- Boys are more likely to have dyslexia or a stutter
How must vocational education be taught to be the most successful?
- Academic and career focus learning. Students can see the application of what they are
learning. Page 463.The more you make their applicable learning easier and applied in
your life, it is easier to learn.
How can we help high school dropouts?
- Supplementary academic instruction and counseling that offer personalized
attention. Warm, caring teacher-student relationships
- High quality vocational education- integrate academic and job-related instructions
so students see the relevance of classroom experiences to their future goals.
- Efforts to address the many factors in students’ lives related to leaving school
early. Strengthen parent involvement, offer flexible work-study arrangements, and
provide on-site childcare for teenage parents.
- Participate in extracurricular activities- they will feel more attached to their school.
They can be more involved with smaller school number. Moderate (not excessive)
participation in arts, community service, or vocational development activities
promotes diverse aspects of adjustment. It will improve academic performance,
reduce antisocial behavior, more favorable self-esteem and initiative, and increased
peer acceptance.
What is Erikson’s crisis for adolescence?
According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social
in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of identity in
society, and helping the next generation prepare for the future. He extends on Freudian thoughts
by focusing on the adaptive and creative characteristic of the ego, and expanding the notion of
the stages of personality development to include the entire lifespan.
How does self-esteem change in adolescence? How about self-concept?
- SELF CONCEPT
- In early adolescence they unify separate traits (smart, and curious) in to more
abstract descripts (intelligent). But these generalizations are not interconnected and
are often contradictory. By late adolescence, cognitive changes enable teenagers to
combine their traits into an organized system. (I have a fairly quick temper). Their
use of qualifiers reveals an increasing awareness that psychological qualities can
vey from one situation to the next.
- Compared with school-age children, teenagers place more emphasis on social
virtues, such as being friendly, considerate, kind and cooperative—traits that
reflect adolescents’ increasing concern with being viewed positively by others.
- Self-concept: Starting to recognize inconsistencies, caring more about social
virtues. Later teens can organize and combine traits.
- Self- esteem: Most people have higher self-esteem in mid to late teens, social
environment has a lot of influence.
What contributes to high self-esteem?
- SELF-ESTEEM
- Teenagers add several new dimensions of self-evaluation—close friendships,
romantic appeal, and job competence.
- Level of general self-esteem also changes. Teenagers often assert that they have
become more mature capable, personable, and attractive.
- Teenagers with mostly favorable self-esteem profiles tend to be well-adjusted,
whereas low self-esteem in all areas is linked to adjustment difficulties.
- Authoritative parenting continues to predict stable, favorable self-esteem, as does
encouragement from teachers.
- European-American teenagers’ self-esteem is less positive than that of African-
American teenagers, who may benefit from greater extended family support and
ethnic pride.
- Teenagers who attend school or live in neighborhoods where their ethnic group is
well represented have fewer self-esteem problems.
Differentiate between the paths to identity and give examples.
2 key criteria- exploration and commitment.
FOUR IDENTITY STATUSES
1) Identity achievement- commitment to values and goals following a period of
exploration.
2) Identity moratorium- exploration without having reached commitment.
3) Identity foreclosure—commitment in the absence of exploration.
4) Identity diffusion- characterized by lack of both exploration and commitment.
Some young people remain in one status, whereas other experience multiple status
transition. And the pattern often varies across identity domains, such as sexual
orientation, vocation, and religious and political values.
Give examples of each stage of Kohlberg’s theory of Moral Development.
Stage 1: The punishment and obedience orientation: this is where we try to avoid punishment
from authority.'
Stage 2: The instrumental purpose orientation: children start to become aware that people
have different perspectives on moral dilemmas, and understand reciprocity as equal exchange
of favors.
Stage 3: the "good boy and good girl" orientation or the morality of interpersonal
cooperation: desire to obey rules because of social harmony, which individuals want to
maintain affection and approval of friends and relatives.
Stage 4: The social order maintaining orientation: rules must be enforced in the same
evenhanded fashion for everyone, and each member of society has a personal duty to uphold
them.
Stage 5: The social contract orientation: laws and rules are flexible instruments.
Stage 6: The universal ethical principle orientation: individuals typically mention abstract
principles as respect for the worth and dignity of each person.
What helps individuals to reach higher levels of moral reasoning?
- Moral reasoning- going to college is the highest. Page 417. Progresses to higher
stages the longer the person stays in school. The longer you are in college the more
you grasp
What was Gilligan’s argument against Kohlberg’s theory?
She argued that Kohlberg's classification of moral judgment is centered on principles of justice
and rights which are valued more by males than by females, rather than on values of caring and
responsibility for others, which are more central to females.
What characteristic of friendship is most valuable to teens?
- Loyalty, kindness is the most important. Compared with school-age children,
teenagers place more emphasis on social virtues, such as being friendly,
considerate, kind and cooperative—traits that reflect adolescents’ increasing
concern with being viewed positively by others.
- Girls: emotional closeness, just get together and talk, while their interactions contain
more self-disclosure and supportive statements.
Boys: gather for an activity, discussions focus on achievements in sports and school
and involve more competition and conflict.
What's the difference between a clique and a crowd and what is their impact on the teen?
- Cliques- groups of about five to seven members who are friends and, therefore,
usually resemble one another in family background, attitudes, values, and interests.
- Among wester adolescents attending high schools with complex social structures,
often several cliques with similar values form a larger, more loosely organized
group called a crowd.
- As adolescents settle on personal and goals, they no longer feel a need to
broadcast, through dress, language, and preferred activities, who they are.
What are gender differences in depression and suicide?
Depression is moderately heritable, the onset of depression in girls is more closely
associated with hormonal changes of puberty that with age. This suggests that the
impact of estrogens on the adolescent brain is involved.
Girls are more prone to depression than boys. Besides greater stress reactivity, girls’
gender typed coping styles—passivity, dependency, and tendency to ruminate on
anxieties and problems.
- Boys have more risk factors for suicide, including substance abuse and aggression.
Girls make more unsuccessful suicide attempts and use methods from which they
are more likely to be revived such as a sleeping pill overdose. Boys often choose
techniques that lead to instant death, (firearms, hanging). Lesbian, gay, bisexual
and transgender are at high risk, attempting suicide three times as often as other
adolescence.
What do we know about teen delinquency and life patterns of criminality?
Describe senescence.
- Senescence is a biological process that causes a progressive deterioration of structure
and function of all organs chronologically. ... It is thought that senescence is a
potential cause for the development of various age-related disorders such as cancer,
cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disorders.
What are telomeres?
are "caps" at the ends of chromosomes that protect your genes from being eroded each time a
cell divides. Specifically, they are repeating bases and proteins at the tips of chromosomes.
What is true about free-radical damage?
Free-radical damage increases with age, no clear evidence indicates that it triggers biological
aging. Rather, it may at times contribute to longevity.
Free radicals are not a major contributor to DNA mutations, cellular damage, and reduced
longevity. To the contrary, in some species, elevated free-radical activity—as long as it does not
reach toxic levels—is associated with longer life, likely because it serves as a “stress signal” that
activates DNA repair systems within cells.
What is atherosclerosis, vital capacity and T cells?
- Atherosclerosis- clogged arteries.
- Vital capacity- how much air you have in your lungs at a given time
- T-cells are the generals and kill bad things in your body.
How is weight loss maintained? When do a substantial number of people in the US gain
weight?
A treatment that promotes lasting behavior changes.
- A lifestyle changes to a nutritious diet low in calories, plus regular exercise. Calorie
reduction rather than dietary composition predicts weight loss, though restricting
sugar and fat yield substantial health benefits. Adding an hour of brisk walking will
aid in weight loss.
- Training participants to keep an accurate record of food intake and body weight.
Keeping a food journal helps you understand how much you REALLY eat every day.
Following a portion-controlled serving size will help control intake and will aid in
weight loss.
- Social support- group or individual counseling and encourage from friends and
relatives help sustain weight- loss efforts by fostering self-esteem and self- efficacy
- Teaching problem-solving skills. Most overweight adults do not realize that because
their body has adapted to over-weight, difficult periods requiring high self-control
and patience are inevitable in successful weight loss. Acquiring cognitive and
behavioral strategies for coping with tempting situations and periods of slowed
progress is associated with long-term change.
- Extended intervention- longer treatments that include the components listed here
grant people time to develop new habits. 25-40 weeks.
How many sexual partners have most adults been with in the past year?
2?
Know stats about sexual coercion and effective prevention and treatment programs for it.
Official statistics show that incidence rates of sexual coercion have been rising during
recent decades, partly due to an increased ability of women to label these experiences,
report them, and seek help. Also the growth of women with regard to personal and
economic freedom has increased their ability to challenge male power..
Self-defense as a means of prevention of sexual coercion has been widely accepted and
applauded. Preventive strategies, must go beyond individual solutions and also address
the underlying social problems.
Socio-situational factors that contribute to rape involve several factors that have helped to
maintain male dominance.
The role played by social institutions in tolerating sexual coercion by legitimizing
behaviors such as male dominance is another important contributing factor. T
he economic institution that is structured so that women are dependent on men makes it
harder for women to escape oppression and victimization.
Devaluation of housework and child care as well as the family structure, and division of
labor in the family, especially lack of involvement of men in child care, promotes
circumstances that can spawn sexual coercion behaviors. Objectification of women by the
media also contributes to the risk of sexual violence.
Which adults are better at coping with stress?
people tend to cope with stress more effectively as they move from early to middle adulthood.
They may become more realistic about their ability to change situations and more skilled at
anticipating stressful events and at preparing to manage them, also exercise
Define pragmatic thought, dualistic thinking, relativistic thinking, commitment within
relativistic thinking, and cognitive-affective complexity.
Epistemic cognition= epistemic means “of or about knowledge”- refers to our
reflections on how we arrived at facts, beliefs, and ideas.
Dualistic thinking- dividing information, values and authority into right and wrong,
good and bad, we and they.
Relativistic thinking- viewing all knowledge as embedded in a framework of thought.
Aware of diversity of opinions on many topics, they gave up the possibility of absolute
truth in favor of multiple truths, each relative to its context. Thinking can be more
flexible and tolerant. Ideas are really individualized, and you begin to have respect for
how great their thought could be, without it being absolute. Relativistic thinking leads
to the realization that one's own beliefs are often subjective because several
frameworks and may satisfy the criterion of internal logical consistency. Giving up
the possibility of absolute truth.
Commitment within relativistic thinking- the most mature individuals progress
towards this. Instead of choosing between opposing views. They try to formulate a
more personally satisfying perspective that synthesizes contradictions. Mature thinkers
willingly revise their internal belief system when presented with relevant evidence.
Commitment within relativistic thinking involves information gathering cognitive style
in pursuit of personally meaningful beliefs values and goals essential to help identity
development.
Pragmatic thought- a structural advance in which logic becomes a tool for solving
real-world problems.
Cognitive-affective complexity—awareness of conflicting positive and negative
feelings and coordination of them in a complex, organized structure that recognizes the
uniqueness of individual experiences. Cognitive-affective complexity promotes greater
awareness of one’s own and others’ perspectives and motivations. Making sense of
both positive and negative feelings, it helps people regulate intense emotion and,
therefore think rationally bout real-world dilemmas, even those that are laden with
negative information.
Know the periods of vocational development.
1) Fantasy period. In early and middle childhood, Children gain insight into career
options by fantasizing about them their preferences guided largely by familiarity
glamour and excitement bear little relation to the decisions they will eventually
make.
2) the tentative period: between ages 11 and 16, adolescents think about cruise in
more complex ways, at first in terms of interest, and soon as they become more
aware of personal and educational requirements for different vocations in terms of
their abilities and values.
3) The realistic period: By the late teens and early 20s, with the economic and
practical realities of adulthood just around the corner, now people start to narrow
their options. A first step is often further exploration-- gathering more information
about possibilities that blend with their personal characteristics. in the final phase
crystallization, they focus on a general vocational category an experiment for a
time before settling on a single occupation.
Know the Holland personality types inside and out!
1) Investigative person—who enjoys working with ideas, is likely to select a scientific
occupation. (Anthropologist, physicist, or engineer)
2) Social person- he likes interacting with people, gravitates toward Human Services
(counseling, social work, or teaching.)
3) Realistic person- who prefers real-world problems and working with objects, tend
to choose a mechanical occupation (construction, plumbing, or surveying)
4) artistic person - who is emotional and high in need for individual expression, looks
toward an artistic field (writing, music, or the visual arts)
5) conventional person- who likes well-structured tasks and value material
possessions and social status, has traits well suited to certain business fields.
(accounting, banking, or quality control)
6) enterprising person- who is adventurous, persuasive comma and a strong leader, is
drawn to sales and supervisory positions or to politics.
How do American employers view high school graduates?
American employers regard recent high school graduates as unprepared for skilled business and
industrial occupations and manual trades.
What contributes to emerging adults’ psychological well-being?
Autonomy-supportive parenting in particular—an empathic approach in which parents recognize
the weighty decisions the young person faces and encourage personally valued choices—is
linked to emerging adults’ psychological well-being
What is Erikson’s conflict for early adulthood?
In Erikson’s theory, the psychological conflict of midlife, which is resolved positively if the
adult can integrate personal goals with the welfare of the larger social world. The resulting
strength is the capacity to give to and guide the next generation
Understand the italicized words in Levinson’s Seasons of Life theory.
-Most young people construct a dream—an image of themselves in the adult world
that guides their decision making.
- form a relationship with a mentor who facilitates realization of their dream—often a
senior colleague at work but occasionally a more experienced friend, neighbor, or
relative.
How does parent-child attachment style impact future love relationships?
. A child whose first experience is of a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver return to
assume that this is how relationships are meant to be. They will then seek out functional
relationships and behave functionally within them
In arranged marriages, what helps love grow over time?
In interviews with arranged-marriage couples from diverse countries who reported that their love
gradually grew over time, the contributing factor most often mentioned was commitment.
Participants explained that commitment helped bring about other qualities that strengthened their
love, including good communication, accommodation (caring and concern), and pleasurable
physical intimacy.
Which group has the highest number of other-sex friends?
- Highly educated-employed women have the highest number of other-sex friends.
Characterize the typical U.S. adult living at home with their parents today.
- Still financial dependent, in between phases. Single. Other countries (Italy- age 30)
What is the most consistent predictor of marital stability?
Age of marriage is the most consistent predictor of marital stability. Young people who marry in
their teens to mid-twenties are more likely to divorce than those who marry later
What are the different types of marriage? How do couples juggle home responsibilities?
Traditional marriages- involving a clear division of roles—husband as head of
household responsibility for family economic well-being, wife as caregiver and
homemaker—still exist in Western nations.
Egalitarian marriages- partners relate as equals, sharing power and authority. Both
try to balance the time and energy they devote to their occupations, their children, and
their relationship.
Women spend nearly twice as much time as men on housework.
They women does most of the household responsibility when she gets home from work
487- marital satisfaction.
What are characteristics of those who are voluntarily childless?
Voluntary childlessness in not always permanent condition. Many people decide early
that they do not want to be parents and stick to their plans. But most make their
decision after they are married and have developed a lifestyle they do not want to give
up. Later, some change their minds. The voluntarily childless are usually highly
educated, have prestigious occupations, are very committed to their work, and are less
traditional in gender-role attitudes. Voluntarily childless adults are just as content with
their lives as parents who have warm relationships with their children. Childlessness
seems to interfere with adjustment and life satisfaction only when it is beyond a
person’s control.
The majority of U.S. married couples who cohabitated first will divorce. Which population
is an exception?
Lesbian and gay cohabiters are exceptions to the high risk for breakup just described. The legal
right to marry, granted to same-sex couples throughout the United States in 2015, is so recent
that many already viewed their cohabiting relationships as symbols of long-term commitment
What does research say about factors relating to divorce?
Background factors that increase the chances of divorce are younger age at marriage, being
previously divorced, and having parents who had divorced—all of which are linked to marital
difficulties. For example, couples who married at younger ages are more likely to report
infidelity and jealousy. And research conducted in diverse industrialized nations consistently
confirms that parental divorce elevates risk of divorce in the next generation, in part because it
promotes child adjustment problems and reduces commitment to the norm of lifelong marriage
How are African-American mothers different?
Single motherhood is especially prevalent among African-American young women, who are
considerably more likely than white women to give birth outside of marriage and less likely to
live with the baby’s father. As a result, more than half of births to black mothers in their twenties
are to women without a partner, compared with about 14 percent of births to white women
What relationship can aid in career progress?
489- those who had a male mentor are more likely to succeed (biggest help). Female to have a
higher male mentor. There are more men who are CEO’s 499-500
Are the majority of women, with children, stay-at-home moms?
Only one in five in married-couple families now have a stay-at-home mother.
Compared with employed mothers, those staying at home tend to be younger, less well-educated,
and Latina or Foreign born
-page 389- propositional thought abstract Can’t see it you know three is something there-
you just don’t know what it looks like.
