Distinguished Author Series

Sealing Tubular Connections

by C.A. BoIffrass, SPE

C.A. Boiffrass is a consulting mechanical engineer and owner of Thread Technology

Inti. A specialist in fluid containment and conveyance equipment, he has designed
and built pressure vessels for extensive service conditions, including high pressure,
low vacuum, and temperature extremes. While working for Gray Tool Co. and then
Union Carbide IntI., Bolffrass designed and built high-pressure compressors, reactors,
valves, and autofrettage stations. He joined Hydril Co. in 1971, and was tubular prod-
ucts manager and chief engineer of tubular products until 1982. Bol/frass holds a BS
degree in mechanical engineering from Texas A&M U.

Introduction
Perhaps the most efficient method for connecting of closely fitted, freshly machined surfaces and to
tubes that require subsequent disconnection is helical seal or to plug the leak passages. For many years
threads. In fact, the Standardization Committee of the thread dope for pipe threads was concocted of an
American Petroleum Inst. was formed to develop organic oil and "red" or "white" lead and
interchangeability standards for pipe connections be- sometimes graphite. As oilfield service grew more
tween manufacturers. Oil Country Tubular Goods severe (leakage became more severe), thread
(OCTG) are intended to withstand high external lubricants changed, but their basic mission-to resist
loads, including fluids under pressure. Therefore, galling and to provide a seal-has not. 1-5
connections use seals that contain or ·exclude Thread lubricant for rotary shouldered connections
pressurized fluids. can be replenished during trips, but casing and tubing
OCTG connections are essentially pressure vessels service exposes thread lubricants to two new
that comprise threads, seals, and stop shoulders. Low elements-time at temperature and reactive fluids.
design factors and external and internal clearance are Thread lubricants tend to deteriorate with temperature
the unique application criteria. Seals for these over time. In addition, casing and tubing connections
connections take two general forms-those affected by are expected to seal more than drilling fluids. Some
the threads and those established separate from the of the fluids sealed are chemically reactive with the
threads. The tribological distinction is whether the organic base of thread lubricants. Thus, threaded
seal is initiated by plugging the clearances manufac- connections are faced with damming up the leak
tured between mating threads or by intimately fitting passages against fluids that can deteriorate the thread
metal or plastic seals and seats together to form an lubricant.
interface. As an example, both conditions are found
API pipe threads that are expected to seal are the
in 8-Round threads, where the root/crest clearances
8-Round (and 100Round) and the Buttress, depicted in
are manufactured leak passages and the flanks are
Fig. 1 (line pipe vee threads will not be addressed,
intimately fitted metal seals.
except to caution that they are relegated to service at
less than 5,000 psig [35 MPa] by API Specification
Sealability
6A). The leak passages are helical capillaries that can
Any discussion of tribological leak passages should be sealed if they are dammed at a single location
begin with the fluid to be sealed and the allowable along the passage. The 8-Round thread has two such
leakage. "Sealability" usually refers to the rating of leakage passages that are formed by the root-crest
a sealing system, such as the fluids that can be clearances. The Buttress leakage passage is a single,
contained or excluded without significant leakage. trapezoidal, helical passage at the stab flanks that can
"Leak-tightness" indicates the performance limit of a have about two to three times greater cross-sectional
seal, such as "no visible water for 15 minutes," "no area than both 8-Round leak passages. The Buttress
visible nitrogen bubbles for 3 minutes, " or "10 - 5 thread interface can change under severe axial
atmospheric cubic centimeters per second (atm cm3/s) compression to create a new helical leakage passage
helium . " at the load flanks as well (Fig. 2).
Tubulars have been produced with threaded Metal and plastic seals have long been used for
connections for more than a century. Traditionally, a sealing fluids, but only sparingly on pipe connections.
lubricant has been used to resist the galling tendency Such "positive" seals (without visible leakage
Copyright 1985 Society of Petroleum Engineers passages) cost more, but they seal produced fluids at

JUNE 1985 955

 Fig. 2-Buttress thread configuration after severe axial com-
pression.

centimeters per second (atm cm 3 Is) of helium at a

pressure differential expressed in psig. 7
Fig. l-(a) Round thread casing and tubing thread configuration. An audible leak: is approximately 1 ~al/hr of air,
(b) Buttress thread casing thread configuration. which is also approximately 1 atm cm Is of helium.
The leak passage that will not leak: water and most
liquids will pass approximately 8.3 oz/yr of a light
hydrocarbon or 3 X 10 - 3 atm cm 3 I s of air. This is
temperature and over time. This raises inevitable approaching the bubble-tight limit (defined as the
questions for production engineers. Given the fluids smallest visible stream of bubbles). Pneumatic flow
and temperatures that are expected during production measurement has provided some interesting
and treating, and the life expectancy of a well, is it benchmarks. 8-10
more economical to use API thread-sealed 1. Turbulent flow occurs at greater than 10 -2 atm
connections with API modified thread compound or cm 3 /s.
to select connections with plastic or metal seals? This 2. Laminar flow occurs from 10 -1 to 10 -6 atm
discussion is intended to help answer this broad cm 3 Is.
question. 3. Molecular flow occurs at less than 10 -5 atm
cm 3 /s.
Fluid Leakage Phenomena Two useful data extrapolations are made in Table
Sea1ability of connections is a function of the sealed 1. Note the variation in flow rates between gases,
fluid characteristics and of the allowable leakage rate, with helium as a base. About 1.8 times as much
or leak-tightness. A fluid leak essentially requires a methane will flow through the same orifice as helium
pressure differential and a flow passage. Since surface at 78°F [25.5°C] and 100% concentration in the
tension and viscosity of the sealed fluid considerably viscous mode. Then note the effect that viscosity and
affect the leak-tightness of a seal, most liquids are surface tension have on viscous flow when compared
easier to seal than are gases. Further, hydrogen can to molecular flow. Nearly twice as much water vapor
pass through the pipe wall by permeation as well as as helium will flow through the viscous-size orifice,
by pneumatic flow through a sealing interface. Gas where only about half as much water vapor as helium
permeation of the pipe wall is important because it will flow through the molecular-size orifice. Though
can cause leakage measurement errors. these charts present an important comparison, the
To evaluate leak-tightness of connection seals, a flow differences are on the order of two or three,
method is needed that facilitates comparison of whereas the viscous and molecular flow regimes
results. 6 "Bubble-tightness" is a simple and differ over the typical leakage range by orders of
relatively sensitive test method, but its flow rate is magnitude. Tests have demonstrated that most leaks
difficult to quantify. Gaseous flow measurement often in OCTG, where the seals are assembled properly,
is conducted in other industries both for qualification fall into the range of 10 -2 to 10 -6 atm cm 3 Is.
of designs and acceptance of production components. Metal seals with coatings can achieved lower leakage
The mass spectrometer developed by British physicist values, well into the molecular flow regime. 11
1.1. Thompson in 1912 provides quantitative measure-
ments. It typically is used with a chemically inert Fluid Sealing Requirements
tracer gas to measure connection leak-tightness. Seal design may be separated into two aspects-the
Helium is a light gas of small molecules that can tribological and the structural. The tribological aspect
penetrate small holes and move rapidly. Also, it is involves surface topography, base materials and
present in the atmosphere only in minute quantities (5 coatings (including lubricants), and reaction forces.
ppm). The helium mass spectrometer is an analog The structural aspect involves component geometry,
comparator that is calibrated with certified leakage fit, and external forces, which includes both the
sources. Pressure and time are variables of the initiation and the maintenance of the sealing interface.
system. Units are expressed as atmospheric cubic These aspects are not actually separable, but the

956 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 TABLE 1-FLOW RATE FACTORS:
HELIUM AT 78°F [25.5°C] AND 100%

Gas Viscous Flow Molecular Flow

Air 1.08 0.37
Argon 0.88 0.32
Freon 22 0.85
H 2 0 vapor 2.09 0.47
Hydrogen 2.23 1.41
Methane 1.79
Neon 0.63 0.45
Nitrogen 1.12 0.37

THREAD LENGTH

distinction between the roles of tribological attributes Fig. 3-Thread contact pressure on interference fitted cylinders.
and structural attributes is important to define leakage
potential and, therefore, sealing requirements.
The tribological issue with thread seals is two-fold.
The obvious issue is damming the helical clearance thread flanks so that the sealed fluid can move past
passages. Some authors contend that a passage with a these metal seals are the limiting forces. Whether this
0.003-in. [0.07-mm] equivalent cross-sectional occurs at interference contact pressure equal to the
diameter will contain fluid pressure when dammed sealed fluid pressure or at zero pressure depends on
with API modified thread lubricant. This belief is the geometry surrounding the thread seals that allows
based on the leakage passage being a capillary type of the sealed fluid to lift the seals from their seats. The
configuration, where the length of damming lubricant greater value is used by designers because the value
provides significant resistance to the driving force- of contact pressure equal to the sealed fluid pressure
the square of the differential pressure. This "tortuous is both conservative and convenient.
path" undoubtedly will resist the flow of liquids or The sealability of thread seals should be relegated
gases over a short time at room temperature. to liquids or gases over short time intervals because
However, time allows gases to permeate the organic we depend on the capability of an organic grease to
grease base (approximately two-thirds by volume l2 ) dam helical leakage passages that are present by
of the lubricant. Time also allows the grease base to design. "Positive" seals, on the other hand, begin
harden and to shrink. Higher temperature also with the premise of eliminating such visible leakage
reduces the resistance of the lubricant to the flow of passages from the outset. Plastic rings or metal seals
sealed fluids. Thread seals leak tribologically when are both positive seals, from the tribological
the grease base of the lubricant shrinks, evaporates, viewpoint. For example, if two sealing surfaces are
flows away, or is decomposed by other fluids. ground flat within one light band, then polished to a
The less obvious tribological issue is the wedging mirror finish and loaded perpendicular to each other,
of 8-Round flanks or Buttress roots and crests, which a 10 -6 atm cm 3 /s helium flow rate can be effected
constitute metal seals. The tribological aspects of this with a unit contact stress less than the yield strength
issue generally are ignored because of the more of the softer metal in contact. 17 Recall that 10- 6 atm
obvious leak passages. Recent work suggests that cm 3 /s is the molecular flow regime and should be
axial tension or bending loads can separate these more than adequate to seal downhole fluids. For
"metal" seal, thread flanks. 13 This predicted mode acceptable surface finish to be ignored as a parameter
of leakage currently is undergoing industry for precision machined seals and yet to achieve the
investigation. Radial separation of flanks is also the molecular leakage rate of helium, the unit contact
mechanism by which minor thread galling can cause stress must be in the range of three times the yield
leakage, even when it does not prohibit assembly to strength of the softer material in contact.
position (vanish cone or triangle). Positive seals leak tribologically when the minute
The structural issue of thread seals has been topographic passages allow the sealed fluid to flow.
addressed over many years of discussion in API. 14,15 An initial seating stress is necessary to close these
It is based on the theory of interference-fitted cylin- minute surface leak passages and to establish the
ders and is published in API Bull. 5C3. 16 It is a sealing interface. Coatings of either plastic or
rating equation and, like other API pipe rating malleable metal can significantly increase the
equations, is a simplified, uniaxial representation. It tribologicalleak-tightness value of metal seals.
defines contact pressure over the middle section of Typical examples are sintered Teflon, plated tin, or
the threads (Fig. 3). The ends of interference-fitted silver. Metal seals have been shown to repeatably seal
cylinders do not follow this equation, but the 10 - 8 atm cm 3 / s of helium with such coatings. This
mismatch of pin and box tapers always leaves the is more than sufficient to seal downhole fluids. Such
middle section of the assembled threads in coatings should be thin (less than 0.002 in. [0.05
interference, and the equation represents this. mm]) to present a negligible structural cross section
Thread seals leak structurally when the mating to the sealed fluid pressure.
members begin to separate from one another. Fluid Positive seals leak structurally the same as thread
forces that can reduce the contact pressure between seals do-when the sealing interface begins to lose
JUNE 1985 957
contact pressure so that the sealed fluid pressure The sealing limitation of EVE is with the grease
reinforces separation of the seal/seat interface. base of the thread lubricant. Tubing connections often
Pressure-energized seals are unique in that they will are exposed to fluids that can react chemically with
seal when section stresses are well into the plastic the lubricant-cleaning solvents, condensates,
strength range of the base metal, demonstrating that carbonic acid, hydrogen sulfide, and ethane are some
the principle is a sound one. Such seals are examples. 18 Tubing strings sometimes are exposed to
misshapen and ruined in the process, however, so high temperatures-250 to 450°F [121 to 232°C]-
that subsequent sealing after releasing the fluid which can dry out the grease base or decrease its
pressure is impractical. resistance to sealed fluid flow, particularly of gases
or condensates. For these reasons API EUE often is
Thread Seals limited in service to 250°F [121°C], to gases where
Thread seals are the workhorse of our industry. the driving force (square of the differential pressure)
When manufactured and assembled properly, they is less than 3,500 psig [24 MPa], or to liquids less
will seal liquids and gases that are not grease solvents than 5,000 psig [35 MPa], unless the service is
at reasonable pressure and temperature. When pin and relatively short term (less than 30 days). Connection
box threads are manufactured, they cannot, as a pressure ratings easily exceed these values with
practical matter, be a mirror-image fit to each other. higher-strength tubulars.
Threading tools wear each time they are used. These service ranges might be extended if a soft,
Therefore, each thread is different from the next, as dense, malleable metal such as tin were used to plate
are the threads of each machine-tool pass. These the coupling. Carefully manufactured and assembled
differences are minute, but production threads cannot 8-Round threads that have adequate coupling
be mated at random with a perfect fit that eliminates thickness have demonstrated the ability to seal
any helical clearance betweeen them. These variations 30,000-psig [6-gPa] pressure when coated with a
are far less than normal thread-fit tolerances, but the sintered Teflon dispersion or with soft metals such as
principle involved is important to sealing. tin or silver. However, API connections are limited
Knowing that a perfect fit is impossible, and is also in coupling thickness (OD clearance) and thread
undesirable because of the galling that small length (gauge standardization). In addition, when
protrusions could cause when mating threads are threads are electroplated, the metal deposits build
wedged together during assembly, designers select unevenly (greatest on crests and least on roots of
some thread features for close fits and others for 8-Round). Heavy metal plating of API thread seals is
clearance fits. Thus, 8-Round thread fit has clearance fast becoming a thing of the past. The extra effort
at roots and crests so that flanks can wedge tightly and precision required usually is expended only for
together. The tight-fitting flanks become metal-to- special applications or for a metal-sealed connection.
metal seals. Plastic seals also may be added to extend the service
Conversely, if all surfaces were designed to fit range for EVE but not easily.
tightly, then the protrusions and variations that occur Teflon-fIlled lubricant sometimes is used to reduce
during normal manufacturing operations could galling of EUE connections. The author's experience
prohibit flanks from engaging when roots and crests with galling of the traditional (high
interfere. The two helical root/crest clearances are the carbon/manganese) normalized steels is that improper
better features to have clearance because they are of lubricant, poor doping practice, or poorly shaped or
smaller cross section and easier to seal than flank: finished threads is usually the culprit. However, EUE
separation clearances would be. threads that are made from low-hardness quenched
and tempered steel have an increased tendency to
API EUE Tubing Seals. API EUE is a good design gall. If Teflon-fIlled lubricant is used, lower torque
for sealability. With upset tensile efficiency of ap- values will be required to assemble the connections to
proximately 115 % of pipe body, tubing can be pulled the last scratch position.
on or bent without yielding connection threads. If
threads are not deformed plastically, then they will API Long Thread Coupled (LTC) Seals. API LTC
not loosen and allow flanks to open new leakage (STC) casing has several sealability problems that
passages. EUE does not. These essentially involve longer
EUE connections should be assembled to position threads and restricted coupling OD's. Also, casing is
for maximum sealing efficiency. Torque values are not upset because it is not designed to be pulled on
provided as a guide for warm-weather assembly with (stretched) as is tubing. Longer threads allow the
API modified lubricant because visual control of the toleranced mismatch of tapers to play a role in
connection is difficult during assembly. However, sealability. At the extreme combinations of pin and
position always controls over torque because it box tapers, either the pin-end or the coupling-end
determines the interface contact pressure (leak threads will have little or no contact. 13 This means
resistance). Assembly tolerance is within one tum of that the only consistency of contact pressure for
the vanish cone (last scratch) position, but prudence sealing is in the middle section of the thread.
indicates torque to last scratch unless the maximum The intemal-pressure-rating formula is derived as a
recommended torque value must be exceeded to do uniaxial circumferential stress for infinite-length cylin-
so. ders (greater than one-fourth pipe diameter). This
958 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
 TORQUE
& TURNS
WINDOW

Fig. 5-Multiple taper coupling.

ASSEMBLY TURNS

I I
ASSEMBLY DURATION (SEC)

Fig. 4-Torque vs. turns vs. time plot.

equation 16 is for internal pressure sealability and Fig. 6-Multiple taper coupling with pin·end plastic seal.
assumes the worst-case coupling thickness, near the
end of the coupling. This raises a dilemma in that
connection leak-resistance ratings can fall below those and Tube for tensile efficiency improvement. 20 In
of API 5AX pipe materials. Some have proposed that 1953 U.S. Steel patented a thread lead mismatch for
altered coupling tapers be used to ensure that the sealing improvement. 21 The API version does not use
internal seal occurs in the thick section of the cou- the lead variation. U.S. Steel plates Buttress threads
pling. 14 ,19 This would restore the ratings for API with malleable tin for sealability. Some concern has
5AX materials (C95 and P11O) while maintaining the emerged for the lead and zinc from API thread
original coupling OD values. compound forming a eutectic with tin plate, which
The maximum internal-pressure leak resistance is can liquid-metal embrittle high-strength steel at tem-
achieved by maximum thread interference. This peratures more than 350°F [177°C]. A lubricant that
occurs at the yield strength of the end-of-pin section. does not contain lead or zinc could eliminate this
One problem is that any external pressure on the concern. For Buttress threads that are not plated with
yielded pin section will further deform the section so tin, the sealability is not good for gases or
that the interference fit resulting from assembly is condensates or temperature.
reduced. Since the thread interference still may be It generally is conceded that the API 8-Round
adequate to seal the external pressure at the end of thread form seals better than the API Buttress thread
the coupling, the loss is only to the internal-pressure because (1) the single Buttress leak passage can be
leak resistance at the end-of-pin location. two to three times larger equivalent cross section than
Likewise, the external-pressure sealing resistance is both 8-Round root/crest leak passages and (2) only
controlled by end-of-coupling section yielding, and half the Buttress threads are full form (depth) to
this value may be reduced by yielding the end of the contribute a tortuous path for sealing (10 to 12
coupling during an internal pressure test. However, threads). Soft metal can fill this gap but the cost is
the middle section of threads is not at either extreme significant. Consequently, metal seals have found a
of fit because of taper mismatch but only as a result better application role with Buttress threads.
of assembly position. Thus, the API leak equation Assembly torque values can vary widely for
probably provides an adequate leak-resistance rating interference threads. Thread finish, type of dope,
when the connection is manufactured and assembled doping practice, and tong speed can affect connection
to position properly. torque significantly. 22,23 For example, when fast tong
Torque and turn measurements can be used to speed is allowed, maximum torque can be reached
monitor these parameters. 15 A maximum/minimum before minimum turns (rejected makeup). However,
torque and maximum/minimum turns window may be the same connection could achieve acceptable
used to monitor leak-resistance parameters and a time assembly because a slow makeup speed would allow
plot may be used to establish a reference torque from it to reach the minimum-turns requirement. Break-out
which to count turns (Fig. 4). However, it also must torque as a function of makeup torque is a stronger
be recognized that 8-Round thread makeup is affected function of dope quantity, service time, and tempera-
by taper fit, doping practice, and makeup practice. ture for 8-Round threads. More robust threads, such
Multiple-taper couplings have been proposed (1) to as Buttress and shouldering connections, usually yield
increase the internal pressure rating, (2) to increase a break-out torque that is closer to the assembly
external pressure sealability, (3) to reduce makeup torque. API threads should be assembled to position
position variation by torque, and (4) to locate plastic (vanish cone or triangle) rather than by torque alone
seals outside of the mating threads (Figs. 5 and 6).19 for best sealing.
API Buttress Seals. Buttress casing threads were Metal-To-Metal Seals. Metal seals first appeared in
provided to API by U.S. Steel Co. in 1959. The the oil patch on rotary shouldered connection and on
thread was patented in 1936 by Youngstown Sheet flush-type casing. Extreme Line and its forerunner,
JUNE 1985 959
 Fig. 7-API Extreme Line casing thread sections.

Spang-Seal® , used a metal seal and seat to overcome spectrometer leak detector can provide leakage flow
thread sealing limitations. Extreme Line is an rates for qualification testing of product concepts.
integral, upset casing connection where the box Second, and more importantly, will a 56-oz/yr leak
thickness is too thin to allow a full pipe-body be more likely to wash out and increase the
pressure-rated thread seal for all sizes. Therefore, the equivalent cross section of the leakage passage than a
threads were "cleared" so that they would not trap 5.6-oz/yr leak? It may depend on how small the
fluids, and a metal-to-metal seal was used near the entrained sand size is that can flow through the
connection ID. By the same token, the outer shoulder respective orifice sizes. Nonetheless, this is the
was not intended to seal (Fig. 7). It is an excess important question to be addressed about allowable
torque shoulder, where the pin roots-box crests carry connection leakage.
the normal assembly torque.
Hydril ™ Flush-Joint also was a forerunner of Allowable Leakage Rating
metal-to-metal seal connections because the internal The response to the term "allowable" leakage is
pressure rating of a thread seal in a flush-type often emotional and similar to that for "eccentricity."
connection is based on the box thickness, or only For example, only hypothetical dimensions can be
about half the pipe rating. Therefore, a metal-to-metal perfectly concentric. Therefore, concentricity is really
seal is used near the connection ID to seal internal a reflection of our ability to measure eccentricity.
fluid pressure. Flush-type connections originally were Likewise, our ability to measure leakage is such that
not designed to seal high-strength casing pressure. no sealing interface is absolutely leak-free. Therefore,
The function of metal seals in OCTG connections is allowable leakage should be defined in OCTG, as
to contain or to exclude drilling, production, or other industries have done. The allowable leakage of
treatment fluids. Structural functionality is adequate oxygen from a space vehicle may be on the order of
when the relative movement at the seallseat interface 10 - 2 to 10 -4 atm cm 3 Is because these are practical
is controlled and sealing contact pressure is not losses. The allowable leakage from nuclear reactor
allowed to reduce more than the sealed fluid pressure equipment may be 10 -6 atm cm 3 Is because that
that is striving to leak across it. The dimensional fit amount of radiation is controllable or not harmful.
of sealing surfaces must be adequate both to establish The allowable leakage from drill-through tubulars
and to maintain the seal. Practical dimensional could be based on sealability of the average thread
tolerancing for mechanical parts limits the seal, say 10- 2 to 10- 3 atm cm 3 /s helium. This is
interchangeability of positive-stop shoulders to one not because drilling fluids would leak at these values,
pair in a connection. but because properly manufactured and assembled
The tribology of the sealing surfaces and the threaded connections should provide this kind of
sealing materials will determine the gaseous leak rate gaseous leakage rate. Production tubulars should
of metal seals and, thus, their desired form. From the provide lower rates, say 10-4 to 10- 5 atm cm 3 /s
tribological point of view, reasonably machined helium for liquids and 10 - 5 to 10 - 6 atm cm 3 Is
surfaces [63 root mean square (RMS)] with a unit helium for gases. These values were not selected
sealing stress of about half the yield strength of the because the amount of fluid lost is critical, but
softer material in contact will seal helium at a rate of because of the presumption that leakage in these
10- 3 atm cm 3 /s (56 oz/yr).17,24 With a 16 RMS regimes will not wash out or enlar~e the leak
surface roughness the helium rate iml'roves by an passage.
order of magnitude to 10-4 atm cm Is or 5.6 oz/yr. That hypothesis is statistically unproven, but the
The important point is not whether one wishes to leak-tightness of existing metal seal connections has
allow 5.6 or 56 oz/yr of "helium equivalent" been tested. Limited testing indicates that the leak
methane to leak to the annulus (10.08 or 100.8 oz/yr rate of uncoated seals is on the order of 10 -4 to
of methane). The issue is two-fold. 10 -5 atm cm 3 Is at 2,200 psig [15 MPa] helium.
First, we now have a method for rating seals in a Silver-plated or Teflon-coated metal seals can easily
common environment that is convenient for the evalu- seal well into the molecular leakage range at 10 -6 to
ation of design concepts. Thus, the helium mass- 10 -8 atm cm 3 Is at 2,200 psig [15 MPa] heliumY A
960 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
major testing facility has produced limited data that
include thennal shock effects on six different metal
seal connections at a leak-tightness calibration of
10-4 atmcm 3 /s. 25
Fig. 8-Sliding metal seals do not limit interchangeability.
Metal SeaIing Criteria
It is well known that mechanical part tolerances limit
the interchangeability of positive-stop shoulders to
one pair. Therefore, multiple seals or shoulders in a allow the seal and seat to burnish together adequately
connection must be fitted to avoid "stack-up" of to resist gas leakage in the 10- 4 atm cm 3 /s range.
tolerances during assembly. Thus, one advantage of Rather than relying on seal-to-seat burnishing to
sliding metal seals becomes apparent. The tolerances reduce the minute leak passages, some seal
of multiple sliding seals do not add to each other but manufacturers apply 0.001 to 0.002 in. [0.03 to 0.05
may be superimposed, as contrasted with the mm] of malleable metal as an electrodeposit or a
tolerances of additional stop shoulders or shouldering similar amount of Teflon as a carefully deposited
metal seals (Fig. 8). dispersion onto a unique surface pattern that is then
Metal seals in tubular connections generally take sintered. These coatings will significantly increase the
the form of sliding or shouldering metal seals. Both leak-tightness rating of metal seals. 11,17,30
depend on interference that is predetermined by the Lubricants aid metal seals to resist galling during
design concept for initiation of the sealing interface assembly. However, there is some evidence that the
during assembly. This interference is essentially metal particles in API modified, or Teflon particles
diametral strain developed by geometrical fit for that sometimes are used instead, can become wedged
sliding metal seals, whereas shouldering metal seals between the seal/seat interface during assembly rather
use mostly axial strain developed by assembly torque than being forced away as grease is. These particles
for both initiation and maintenance of the sealing could conceivably cause localized seal standoff and
interface. leakage. An advantage of sliding seals is the ability to
Bridgman' s 26 unsupported-area sealing concept wipe away such particles when seating (burnishing)
provides an important characteristic for sliding metal- during assembly.
to-metal seals. A pressure-energized seal can use The basic theory for contact pressure of a short,
relatively low unit stress (self-energization) to initiate interference-fitted cylinder (metal pin nose seal) is the
the seal because the sealed fluid pressure increases same as for two infinite cylinders, which is used by
the contact pressure at the sealing interface and often API. However, the formulation must be adjusted to
at a rate greater than the increase in fluid account for the open-end cylinder in contact over less
pressure. 26-29 Fig. 9 depicts the difference in per- than 10% of pipe diameter for end-of-pin metal seals.
formance between a pressure-energized seal (Line
AB) and an interference seal (Line AD), where the Finite-Element Analysis of Seals
latter will leak at Point C. Such seals require an Finite-element methods provide an excellent technique
initial self-energizing preload of minimal value (Point for correlating internal strains to boundary strains,
A). A low initial unit stress provides resistance to and they are less expensive and far less time-
galling as well as to yielding of the pin members consuming than photoelastic methods. They allow us
during pressurization. to simulate the inside of the material or an interface,
Metal-to-metal seals use a relatively short sealing but the view inside is a theoretical one. As such, it
area (flow-path length) as compared to the tortuous requires proof by testing.
path of thread seals. Thus, the sealing contact stress Finite-element programs can be as accurate as we
must be controlled to create an adequate initial want them to be because they are verified by physical
seating value. For example, half the yield strength of tests. As each test improves our knowledge of
the softer material in contact can seat the seal, or accuracy, we alter the program input for subsequent

u
e:.. +
w LINE OP: Pc/Pf = 1.0; LEAKAGE IS IMMINENT
a: p
::J
C/)
C/)
w LINE AS: Pc/Pf>1.0; FIELD IS PRESSURE ENERGIZED
a:
a..
I- LINE AD: Pc/Pf < 1.0; FIELD IS NOT PRESSURE ENERGIZED
a
«
I- A
z POINT A: Pc/Pf = 1.0; INITIAL Pc FROM ASSEMSLY
o o +
a
-l o INTERNAL FLUID PRESSURE (Pt) POINT C: Pc/Pf = 1.0; LEAKAGE IS IMMINENT
«
w
C/) Fig. 9-Pressure energization of metal seals.

JUNE 1985 961

 ~~
~--~~~~~~1~~~
Fig. 10-Sliding metal seal with "phonograph" finish. Fig. 12-Stop shoulder isolates sliding metal seal from external
loads.

Fig. 11-Shouldering metal seal with wedge angle for seal in- Fig. 13-Negative angle load flank (hooked) threads.
itiation.

comparison to the test output. For example, tubes are The first problem is that thread fit must be in
a simple configuration, and significant test data have tolerance for the pin end to be energized. This is con-
substantiated the validity of strength-of-materials trolled by assembly to position, much as API Buttress
equations for predicting strains from fluid pressure is assembled to a triangle. Some metal seal buttress
and other forces. It does not surprise us to learn that threads do not use a position marker, however, and
most any finite-element analysis (FEA) of this simple consequently the end-of-pin seal sometimes is
configuration can provide close correlation with preloaded inadequately to resist subsequent lift-off by
previous theory. In contrast, a tubular connection is a external tensile loads. Axial tensile loads affect
complex configuration. FEA of connections should be different seal concepts (geometry) in different ways.
verified by test strains. Each new connection Some designs isolate the primary seal from axial
configuration requires validation by testing when the movement quite effectively. Thus, axial tension loads
components are not true models of each other. actually increase seal interference.
Some would say that the current areas for caution Conversely, other geometric designs use axial
in FEA are those associated with large elastic or compressive loading to energize the seal. 37 Since the
plastic strains. I would add that my own concern is operation of this type of seal is a component of the
quite different-it is the application of FEA data axial movement, subsequent tensile loads can unload
whose accuracy has not been verified by physical the primary seal. A reduction of seal contact pressure
testing. Finite-element techniques are particularly resulting from tensile loading can allow gas leakage.
useful in confirming the strength-of-materials theory This may be attenuated by shaping the seal/seat to
relating to seal contact forces and finite areas of rely more on diametral interference than on radial
contact. 13,32-35. force developed from axial interference at a shoulder.
Pressure energization of seals also can be used to
Metal Seal Buttress attenuate such limitations from axial interference.
Another use of metal seals with OCTG came in 1955, The second problem is more subtle. If the primary
when Armco introduced Seal-Lock, ™ whereby the seal is wedged onto its seat by end-of-pin shoulder
gas-tight limitations of Buttress were resolved using a contact, then any external fluid that leaks through the
sliding metal seal with a "phonograph" finish (Fig. threads to this point cannot be vented to the pipe
10). 36 This seal relies on diametral interference for bore. This pressure could cause thread disengagement
initial energization. New versions of metal seal if a reduction in the internal pressure occurred with
buttress followed. One improvement used the concept high tensile load.
of wedging the primary seal into its seat with an end- One method of isolating the initial energization of
of-pin angle (Fig. 11). This seal relies on axial the primary seal from subsequent external loading is
interference to create a radial force for initial shown in Fig. 12.33 The shoulder provides a positive
energization. Probably neither of these seals pressure- stop for interference control, so that the seal is not
energizes significantly because of their close proxim- unloaded by external tension. However, seal leak-
ity to interference-fitted threads. The reliance of the tightness is only a function of radial interference,
improved seal on an end-of-pin shoulder angle for since the shoulder also prevents the seal from
self-energization presents two new design problems. pressure energizing.

%2 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

 Fig. 15-Plastic gasket free to expand radially.

as much as elastomers and "0" rings had decades

before. Gaskets are used to dam sealing passages.
Teflon's elastic properties (memory) and bulk flow
resistance also make it good gasket material.
The design rule is that fluid leakage will occur
when the fluid pressure is equal to the gasket
Fig. 14-Totally encapsulated plastic gasket. pressure. If the gasket is encapsulated (Fig. 14), then
the leakage pressure can be increased significantly
over the gasket pressure that is created by only gasket
A superior method for loading the sliding seal properties (Fig. 15). The reason is that the gasket in
against its seat is the use of "hooked" threads, or Fig. 15 can be extruded inward or outward by the
those with negative-angle load flanks (Fig. 13).31,38 flange forces or the fluid pressure and, therefore, is
When tension is applied to hooked threads, the pin limited to the gasket strength. This is why flange
and box connectors are pulled together radially. This gaskets are usually steel reinforced and made very
radial loading also acts to increase seal contact thin. When the gasket is encapsulated, as in Fig. 15,
pressure during axial tension, rather than to decrease the gasket pressure is increased by the preload forces
it. Seal-Lock threads are hooked, as are several other so that the gasket can resist fluid pressure equal to its
connections. Hooked threads complicate gauging, initial (or subsequent) preload.
however, and manufacturers are reluctant to When Teflon rings are placed between threads, the
incorporate negatively angled load flanks with intent is to restrict their flow (encapsulate them) so
threads. that they can be energized during assembly to the
The traditional OCTG-connection market is same average interface pressure as the threads (Fig.
changing. What was once only API and "special 16). This may be accomplished by sizing the plastic
purpose" is rapidly becoming API, "metal seal volume greater than the groove volume. Seal-ring
buttress casing," and "special purpose." This is molding tolerances are about 5 % on diameter, which
caused more by the need for better sealing Buttress will create an overfill of about 5 % if no underfIll is
connections, and less by a requirement for metal seal allowed. Complicating the problem is the fact that
casing connections. The successful marketing of metal different lots of Teflon cause different results in
seal buttress connections on casing by steel mills over molding dimensions. These issues can be resolved,
the past 10 years has helped this market entity to however, by machining seal rings to size.
emerge. The more insidious problem is the effect of
This "mill-premium" casing connection will easily eccentricity between groove and threads. The Teflon
fit the plain-end, external threading requirements of gasket can be squeezed to fIll volume tolerances in
steel-mill production facilities and could become an the radial and axial directions, but it cannot move
inventory item for general service. Because of circumferentially to accept significant eccentricity.
significant gauging and inventory requirements, This means that great care must be used when cutting
however, its cost should be greater than that of API seal-ring grooves into existing couplings. If grooves
Buttress. API Extreme Line is essentially a special- are cut in the same chucking operation as the threads,
purpose connection because of greater costs associated the technical problem is eliminated, although an eco-
with the manufacture of box connectors on pipe and nomic problem is generated.
the inventory of upset and integral connectors with Fluorocarbons have thermal coefficients of
metal seals. expansion (contraction) that are 6 to 10 times those
for steel. This presents another problem for the
Plastic Seals designer in that high flowing temperature can create
Largely because of its chemical inertness, Teflon enough expansion pressure from the Teflon to
changed the seal industry after World War IT, almost separate the pin and box threads and extrude the
JUNE 1985 963
[A -1}-8
~iL~ ~ _~ "'" "'"
!rS -H~~".~
Fig. 17-Teflon wedge ring-Hardy/Griffin connection.
~ j..,. 10° MAX ANGLE (OPTIONAL)
Fig. 16-API SR13 seal ring coupling. fluid pressure. Traditionally used to seal high fluid
pressure where elastic deformation of the structural
seal components becomes dimensionally significant to
edges of the seal ring from its groove. Upon cooling, maintenance of the sealing interface.
the seal ring contracts but its shape has changed, and
it is no longer tight in its groove. A loose seal ring Mean Free Path: The average distance that a
can result in leakage. moleCule travels between successive collisions with
If the seal ring is not encapsulated at the thread other molecules in the gas phase.
interface pressure all around (too loose at one spot),
then the groove provides a circular leak passage for Metal-To-Metal Seal: Seals constructed of two
the fluid to move around until it passes across the metallic members rather than one or more elastomeric
groove at the loose seal-ring location and leaks at low or other nonmetallic components. Coatings are not
pressure. But if a loose gasket retains some contact considered to alter metal-to-metal seals unless their
pressure, it may then be energized by the sealed fluid thickness provides structural limitation.
pressure, as a Bridgman wedge seal. 26
Many Teflon seals are used as Bridgman seals, or Molecular Flow: The flow of a gas through a leak
wedge rings. Perhaps the forerunner in the oilpatch passage where the mean free path of the gas is
was the Hardy-Griffin connection in 1958 (Fig. 17). greater than the largest cross-sectional dimension of
This concept places a Teflon seal ring between the leak passage.
mating metal surfaces so that the sealed fluid pressure
forces the ring into a narrow, decreasing volume. The Pressure Energization (of Seals): An increase of
ring is free to expand or to contract with temperature contact pressure at the sealing interface that is caused
in the direction of fluid flow so that the metal by an increase of pressure of the fluid being sealed
surfaces are not stressed significantly by thermal and occurs at a rate greater than the increase of
effects. They are stressed by the sealed fluid sealed fluid pressure.
pressure. And when the sealed fluid pressure is re-
moved, the seal ring remains energized into the Resilient Seal: A seal that is energized elastically,
narrow cavity by its memory. The sealing capability usually by geometric fit or by pressure. Sometimes
of plastic seals in this configuration are limited only used to characterize the deforming nature of
by their surrounding boundaries. Tubular and elastomer or plastic seals in comparison with metal
wellhead connections often use this principle for seals.
plastic or elastomer sealing.
Self Energization (of Seals): The initial energization
Conclusions of surfaces at the sealing interface by direct means
such as geometric fit and elastic material deformation
The job of seal selection for downhole tubular
resulting from component assembly rather than by
connections can be simple when we are sealing most
fluids for short time periods or liquids at less than indirect means such as pressure energization.
5,000 psig [35 MPa]. Higher-pressure seals for gases Shouldering Metal Seal: Sealing system where the
or condensates complicate matters. Positive metal or assembly fit of the seal and seat is determined by
plastic seals can be relied on to seal adequately, but stops or shoulders integral with the seal and seat.
the selection process becomes more extensive. This
discussion of tubular seals should help to place the Sliding Metal Seal: Sealing system where the
often complex picture of seal selection into better assembly fit of the seal and seat is determined by
perspective. stops or shoulders separate from the seal and seat.
Glossary Tribology: The science of surfaces in contact,
Bridgman (Wedge Ring) Seal: Metal seal particularly involving friction, wear, and lubrication.
components arranged to provide a narrowing cavity
that causes malleable metal, elastomeric, or visco- Unsupported Area Principle: Phenomena discovered
elastic seals to be wedged into the cavity by sealed by Percy Bridgman, U.S. Nobel Laureate in Physics
964 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
(1946), whereby seals are energized by exposing an 20. Seigle, J.C.: "Pipe Joint," U.S. Patent 2,051,499 (Aug. 18, 1936).
area to the sealed fluid pressure that is greater than 21. Webb, S.: "Sealed Threaded Pipe Joint," U.S. Patent 2,772,102
(Nov. 27, 1956).
the sealing area resisting or supporting the load
22. Hawke, M.C.: "Predicting Makeup Torque of Threaded Tapered
created by the exposed area and pressure. Connections and Evaluation of Coefficients of Friction, " paper SPE
13068 presented at the 1984 Annual Technical Conference and Ex-
Viscous Flow: The flow of gas through a leak hibition, Houston, Sept. 16-19.
passage where the mean free path of the gas is 23. Yazaki, Y. et al.: "Experimental Analysis of Leak Resistance of
API Connections Under Different Make-Up Conditions, " Technical
smaller than the smallest cross-sectional dimension of Research Office, Yawata Works, Nippon Steel Corp. (Jan. 1981).
the leak passage. 24. Rathbun, F .0.: "Five Regimes of Metal-to-Metal Sealing," Proc.,
Conference on Design of Leak-Tight Separable Fluid Connectors,
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1. "Effect of Various Combinations of Combined Tensile and Bend-
25. Weekers, E.E.A.J. and Kastelein, H.J.: "Performance Testing of
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in Bending," Report of the API Joint Tensile Test Program, U.S.
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2. Kemler, E.N.: "Factors Influencing The Leakage Resistance of
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Threaded Pipe Joints, " Drill. and Prod. Prac., API, Dallas (1946). York City (1971).
3. Texter, H.G.: "Why Oil-Well Tubing and Casing Fail: Part 2-Why
27. Crain, R.L., Latham, R.E., and Bollfrass, C .A.: "Basic Interface
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4. Thomas, P.D. and Bartok, A.W.: "Leak Resistance of Casing Joints
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28. Latham, R.E., Bollfrass, C.A., and Brown, R.T.: "Seal Rings,"
5. Wais, J. Jr.: "Recent Developments in Casing Standards and
U.S. Patent 3,325,176 (June 13, 1967).
Design," Drill. and Prod. Prac., API, Dallas (May 1947) 249.
29. MacArthur, M.D.: "Casing Joint Having Metal-to-Metal Sealing
6. Bazergui, A. and Marchand, L.: "PVRC Milestone Gasket Tests-
Means Responsive to Fluid Pressure," U.S. Patent 2,992,019 (July
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8. Grimes, L.E.: "Laboratory Leakage Measurement Techniques on
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Separable Connectors," Proc., Conference on Design of Leak-Tight
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Separable Fluid Connectors, Marshall Space Flight Center, Hunts-
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Premium Connection Design Conditions," Sumitomo Metal Indus-
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35. Sato, T., Hori, M., and Ichihara, T.: "Finite Element Analysis of
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for Sealing," Proc. Conference on Design of Leak-Tight Separable
Fluid Connectors, Marshall Space Flight Center, HuntsvIlle, AL This paper- is SPE 14040. Distinguished Author Series articles are general, descr~p~ive
presentations that summarize the state of the art in an area of tec~nolo~y by descn~mg
(Aug. 4, 1965), 145-54. recent developments for readers who are not specialists in the tOpiCS diSCUSsed. Wntten
18. Prengman, R.D.: "Thread Compounds-How Do They Work?", by individuals recognized as experts in the areas, these articles provide key references to
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Purpose: To infonn the general readership of recent advances in various area~ of
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JUNE 1985 965