Materials used in electronic industry

Table. A brief overview of important substrate used in semiconductor technology (Ref.1,

page no. 26)

Table. Resistivity and work function of some metal and alloys used in solid state electronics
(Ref.1, page. 217 & Ref.2)
Material Resistivity (µΩ-cm) Work function (eV)
Aluminium (Al -Bulk) 2.7 4.28
Aluminium (Al -Thin films) 0.2-0.3 -
Titanium (Ti) 40 4.33
Tungsten (W) 5.6 4.55
Ti-W 15-20 -
Gold (Au) 2.44 5.1
Silver (Ag) 1.56 4.26
Copper (Cu) 1.77 4.53
Platinum (Pt) 10.6 5.65
Chromium (Cr) 12.5 4.5
Molybdenum (Mo) 5.34 4.6
Nickel (Ni) 6.99 5.15
Tin (Sn) 10.9 4.42
Palladium (Pd) 10.5 5.12
Platinum Silicide (PtSi) 28-35 -
Nickel Silicide (NiS2) 50 -

1
 Table. Bread down electric field in some materials (Ref.1, page no. 115)

Table. Bandgap along with electron and hole mobilities in several semiconductors (Ref.1,
page no. 106)

2
Table. Lattice constants and density of some semiconductors (Ref.1, page no. 536)

Table. Electron and hole masses for several semiconductors (Ref.1, page no. 540)

3
Fig. Band gap and cut off wavelengths for several semiconductors. The semiconductors band
gap range starts from 0.2 to well above 3.0 eV providing versatile detection system (Ref.1,
page no 194).

Fig. A survey of advanced bipolar devices (Ref.1, page no. 346)

4
Table. Energy gaps of some semiconductors along with their temperature dependence (Ref.1,
page no. 539)

Table. Compositional dependence of the energy gaps of the binary III-IV ternary alloys at
300K (Ref.1, page no. 541).

5
PCB Materials
A printed circuit board (PCB) is a set of copper tracks suitably drawn on an insulating
support and used to connect the components that constitute the electronic circuit. The base
material is formed by the copper sheet of appropriate dimensions and the insulating part that
can be in different types according to the performance; the classic Bakelite is the insulating
material which is cheaper and has less performance.

Fig. Printed circuit board (PCB) battery controller (Ref.3)

Substrates commonly used are the following:

• Polyamide/fiberglass;
• FR4
• KAPTON: flexible and lightweight, used for specific applications (displays, keyboards).

The polyamides are known for its thermal stability, chemical resistance, and excellent
mechanical properties. The compounds are reinforced with glass fiber or graphite to a high
flexural strength up to 345MPa.

FR4 substrate is most commonly used to make circuit boards; formed from glass fibers and
copper joined by an epoxy resin. It is the most common material used in electronics and
mechanics, lightweight with high resistance to mechanical stress, and good resistance to
thermal shock of short duration.
Kapton is a polyamide film developed by DuPont which is enabled to remain stable for
temperatures ranging from -269 oC to 400 oC. It’s used as well as in flexible printed circuits
even in the astronauts space and suits to ensure thermal protection.

6
 PCB coating is of fundamental importance; coating is made through the special protective
resins and consists in the assembling in the PCB with a resin film that crystallizes at a certain
temperature. It forms a single body with the substrate and welded components, isolates them
from the external elements. The main goal is to obtain a barrier of insulation for electronic
components, so that the PCB can run in any operating mode; in this way, the damage is
limited due to mechanical stress, humidity, and more.

The resins used are in acrylic-based and silicone, which is selected according to the operating
environment.

The main characteristics of the most common resins used can be listed in the
following:

• Epoxy resins:

– Good moisture and temperature resistance;

– Thermal shock resistance.

• Resins puliuretaniche:

– Moisture and thermal shock resistance;

– Low temperature resistance;

• Silicone resins:

– Excellent electrical conductivity;

– Non-economic;

Polyurethane resins are preferred when PCBs are formed by relatively delicate components
such as ferrites that might be interfering RF signals. Silicone resins, however, are very
expensive for its excellent electrical capacity and are used when the PCB operates at high
temperatures (higher than 180 oC) (Ref.4, page no. 56-57)

7
Ceramic capacitors

The exact formulas of the different ceramics used in ceramic capacitors vary from one
manufacturer to another. The ceramic dielectrics are made of a variety of titanates, zirconates
and oxides (and many other things as well). Common ingredients include titanium dioxide,
barium titanate and strontium titanate. Ceramic capacitor values range from as low as a few
Picofarads to around 0.1 microfarads.

Table. Ceramic materials for ceramic capacitors [Ref.5]

Chemical formula Relative permittivity

MgNb2O6 21
ZnNb2O6 25
MgTa2O6 28
ZnTa2O6 38
(ZnMg)TiO3 32
(ZrSn)TiO4 37
Ba2Ti9O20 40
TiO2 86
SrTiO3 310
Pb[ZrxTi1-x]O3 -

Fig. Ceramic capacitor types (Ref.5&6)

8
Type of Electrolytic Capacitors

Depending upon electrode material and the electrolyte, electrolytics can be categorized as:

Wet aluminium electrolytic capacitors

AC aluminium electrolytic capacitors

Dry aluminium electrolytic capacitors

Wet tantalum capacitors

.
ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Dry tantalum capacitors

Tantalum polymer capacitors

Niobium oxide capacitors.

ALUMINIUM ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Aluminium electrolytic capacitors are characterized by the following components:

Anode: aluminium – etched and formed aluminium foil/mechanically formed shapes

Electrolyte: solid/liquid /paste chemicals – Act as de facto cathode terminal
Kraft or manila paper as electrolyte carrier
Dielectric: oxide layer film on anode
Cathode: etched foil/can – serves mainly as current collector from electrolyte.
Connection leads: tabs
Terminal disc – This is generally rubber bonded bakelite disc.
Pressure vent – either built up in disc, or as separate plug. Generally, in small DC capacitors,
the can bottom is grooved to crack open in case of failure

Fig. Aluminium electrolytic capacitors for various types (Ref.7)

9
TANTALUM ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS

Tantalum is a chemical element with the symbol Ta and atomic number 73. A rare, hard,
blue-grey, lustrous metal, tantalum is highly corrosion resistant and occurs naturally in the
mineral tantalite, always together with the chemically similar niobium. The chemical
inertness of tantalum makes it a valuable substance for laboratory equipment and a substitute
for platinum, but its main use today is in tantalum capacitors in electronic equipment.

Tantalum capacitors are available in the following varieties:

Tantalum foil electrolytic capacitors

Wet tantalum capacitors: capacitors with porous anodes and liquid electrolytes

Dry tantalum capacitors: capacitors with porous electrodes and solid electrolytes.

Fig. Tantalum capacitors for various types (Ref.7)

TANTALUM POLYMER CAPACITORS

While the first patented tantalum capacitor was claimed to have ESR of roughly 2.0 ohms, a
similar capacitor today has ESR of about 0.1 ohms. Today's digital electronics frequently
require capacitors to have still lower ESR in the low milliohms. A substantial part of the ESR
of a tantalum capacitor comes from its solid electrolyte material MnO. While MnO is
substantially more conductive than almost all wet electrolytes, especially at low temperatures,
search was on for higher conductivity materials to replace MnO. This led to the development
of the conductive polymer polyethylene-dioxy-thiophene (PEDT) which has up to 100 times
MnO 's conductivity and has generally acceptable compatibility with tantalum pentoxide, the
tantalum capacitor's dielectric.

10
 Fig. Tantalum polymer capacitors for various types (Ref.7)

NIOBIUM OXIDE CAPACITORS

Niobium oxide capacitors are a recent development, and these are used in place of tantalum
due to certain advantages. Niobium (atomic number 41) is a sister metal to tantalum, and it
has a lot of similar features. Niobium is more abundant in nature as compared with tantalum,
and costs are low. Niobium oxide has been found to have better features for production of
capacitors, and can be manufactured on the same machines. It exhibits a metal like
conductivity and can be produced with simpler and higher yielding powder manufacturing
techniques. Niobium oxide has the advantage of high ignition resistance and safety through
its efficient self-arresting failure mechanism, and capacitors made from this material have
better steady state reliability. They are better suited for reflow soldering. These capacitors
may slowly drive out tantalum capacitors in many applications.

Advantages of NbO capacitors

Manufactured using existing tantalum processing plant

Non-burn characteristics – failed devices guaranteed not to burn up to rated voltage, designed
to eliminate smoke.
Halogen free and compatible with lead-free directives (EC)
Reliability 2 –5 times better than Al electrolytic capacitors – up to 500 K hours. MTBF up to
50 times higher
Sizes much smaller and thinner than Al capacitors
Reduced voltage de-rating
Temperature up to 125°C
Rated voltage under 10 V

11
 Fig. Niobium oxide capacitors for various types (Ref.7)
Table. Properties of Tantalum-equivalent solid electrolyte capacitors

Mica Capacitors
Mica capacitors, which are now obsolete in many applications, were in use in the early 20th
century. They consisted of sheets of mica and copper foil sandwiched together and clamped.
However, mica capacitors are currently used in some low power RF designs, and pulse
(snubber) applications, but advances in ceramic capacitor performance have slowly eroded
mica's traditional edge in these areas over the years. Perhaps more importantly, mica
capacitors tend to be bulky – a result of the relatively low dielectric constant. For example, a
300 pF dipped mica capacitor may be as much as 16 times larger (in volume) than a good 300
pF MLC (NPO) capacitor.

They were often used for vacuum tube equipment like radio transmitters. Mica capacitors do
not have high values of capacitance, and can be relatively expensive.

12
 Dipped mica capacitors (Ref.8)

Fig. Mica capacitors are available in the following types:

Silver mica capacitor

Stacked mica capacitor
Dipped mica capacitors
Moulded/potted mica capacitors
Trimmers

Fig. Commercial mica capacitors (Ref.8)

Fig. Moulded mica capacitors (Ref.8)

13
 Table. Colour codes for capacitors (Ref.8)

Electronic grade capacitors

Capacitors perform various functions in circuits like timers, filter, decoupling, bypass
applications, tuning circuits, biasing circuits, RFI suppression and a host of others. They
come in different varieties, sizes, ratings, types, dielectrics, configurations and terminations
to suit individual applications and environments. There are fixed and variable capacitors in
different dielectrics, electrolytic capacitors with aluminium, titanium and niobium electrodes,
ceramic and mica capacitors of different grades to choose from. Mounting of capacitors can
be done by clamps, brackets, direct soldering onto the PCB through radial or axial leads,
while SMD capacitors are directly soldered on to PCB through reflow soldering.
Capacitors in Modern applications

Different types of capacitors using different types of dielectrics are only able to operate
within a particular frequency range (Ref.9).

14
 Fig. Dielectrics and their frequency range (Ref.9)

Plastic film capacitors

There are two types of plastic capacitors

Polystyrene capacitors

Polycarbonate capacitors

Polystyrene capacitors

These capacitors use polystyrene film as the dielectric. This type of capacitor is not for use in
high-frequency circuits, because they are wound like a coil and are inductive. They are suited
well in filter circuits or timing circuits which run at several hundred kHz or less. The colour
of the electrode in transparent film capacitor is the colour of metal used for foil. Aluminum
foil gives silver colour, copper gives red and tin is a silver coloured electrode. The capacitor
on the left has a height of 10 mm, is 5 mm thick, and is rated 100 pF, the one in the middle
has a height of 10 mm, 5.7 mm thickness, and is rated 1000 pF, and that on the right has a
height of 24 mm, is 10 mm thick, and is rated 10,000 pF. Styroflex capacitors, as these are
called, have no polarity. These capacitors are highly stable.

15
 Fig. Polystyrene capacitors [Ref.9]

Polycarbonate capacitors

Polycarbonate capacitors have been used in a wide variety of applications because of the
superior performance offered. Typically they are used in applications where precision
capacitors are needed (<5%). They are generally used in electronics circuits such as filters, as
well as for timing and precision coupling applications. Polycarbonate capacitors can also be
used for AC applications. They are sometimes found in switching power supplies. Although
the dissipation factor is low, the current must be restricted to prevent them from overheating,
although they can tolerate temperature better than many other types of capacitor.

Polycarbonate capacitor replacements

With polycarbonate capacitors being less widely available these days since the Bayer
Corporation ceased production of polycarbonate for use as a dielectric, a number of
alternative types of capacitor have been sought, especially for use in some military
applications. A variety of types can be used as almost direct replacements:

Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN)

Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS)
Polyimide (PI)
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Of these, polyphenylene sulphide, PPS is being widely used in many areas as an almost direct
replacement

Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS)

PPS has a superior, overall capacitance stability with temperature over the whole range. The

16
ESR performance at room temperature over the frequency range from 100 to 100,000 Hz for
polyphenylene sulphide is superior to polycarbonate. A PPS device may run hotter than a PC
device without any problem in some AC applications. PPS, unlike PC, can operate without
degradation at capacitor temperatures exceeding +125°C in DC application.

Polyethylene naphthalate (PEN)

Other films mentioned above (PI and PTFI) are in the development stage, and not common as
of now. Polyimide (PI) film appears very promising, with working temperature of up to
250°C, and it has properties similar to polyester films. The film thickness available is up to 3
microns. Its high cost relegates it to use in high temperature applications.

Glass capacitors

Glass dielectric capacitors are viewed as specialist capacitors, and in view of their properties,
they offer real advantages in many applications over all other forms of capacitor. Their
combination of robustness and high tolerance is a rare combination that sets them above all
other forms of component. It is only their size and cost that limits their use. Glass capacitors
are used where the ultimate performance is required for RF circuits. The dielectric offers very
high levels of performance. Typically, a glass capacitor will have a relatively low capacitance
values between fractions of a pF up to 2000–3000 pF. As such these capacitors are used
mainly in radio frequency circuit design.

The construction of glass dielectric capacitors is relatively straightforward to understand. The

capacitor consists of three basic elements: the glass dielectric, aluminium electrodes and the
encapsulation. However, the assembly of the glass capacitors is undertaken in a manner that
ensures the required performance is obtained.

Fig. Glass capacitors [Ref.9]

17
Vacuum Capacitors

These are used for ratings over 5 kV and up to 50 kV. They are used in equipment such as
high-powered broadcast transmitters, amateur radio RF amplifiers and large antenna tuning
units and couplers. They also find use in high voltage and high current network matching
circuits. One application of vacuum capacitor is in the manufacture of LCD panels – thin-
model, big-screen televisions. The LCD technology is used for photovoltaic power generating
panel
manufacturing. Vacuum capacitors are incorporated in the impedance matching network of
RF generators for plasma generation. They are used in chemical ingredients analyzers and
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). RF generators are used in semiconductor manufacturing
processes of physical vapour deposition (PVD), chemical vapour deposition (CVD), and
etching, with vacuum capacitors used in the impedance matching network. These capacitors
play a part in communications equipment, transmission systems for short and medium wave
broadcasting, aircraft antenna tuners used in harsh environments, and various mobile
communications equipment. They are used in particle accelerators and basic science research
facilities.

Fig. High Voltage vacuum capacitors [Ref.9]

Trimmers

Small variable capacitor operated by screwdriver (for instance, to precisely set a resonant
frequency at the factory and then never be adjusted again) is called trimmer capacitors or in
old language, a 'padder capacitor'. This capacitor uses a springy material for the plates. The
assembly is held together by a small screw. The plates are so springy that if there is no screw
to hold, they would fly apart. There is a dielectric material between the plates, usually mica,
but polypropylene film or ceramics are also used. The distance between plates is altered by
tightening or loosening the screw, thereby changing the capacitance value.

Capacitance variation depends on the number of plates and size of trimmer, and usually
ranges from 1.4 to 10.0 pF and from 5.5 to 65 pF

18
 Fig. Trimmer types [Ref. 9]

Resistors

Special components called resistors are made for the express purpose of creating a precise
quantity of resistance for insertion into a circuit. They are typically constructed of metal wire
or carbon, and engineered to maintain a stable resistance value over a wide range of
environmental conditions.

Real resistors look nothing like the zig-zag symbol. Instead, they look like small tubes or
cylinders with two wires protruding for connection to a circuit. Here is a sampling of
different kinds and sizes of resistors.

Fig. Fixed value resistors [Ref.10]

19
Variable Resistors

Variable resistors must have some physical means of adjustment, either a rotating shaft or
lever that can be moved to vary the amount of electrical resistance. These resistors are called
potentiometers, which can be used as variable resistors.

Fig. Variable resistors [Ref.10]

How to calculate the resistance values?

Resistance value is shown by a series of coloured bands, read from left to right

20
Power Rating of Resistors

Because resistors dissipate heat energy as the electric currents through them overcome the
“friction” of their resistance, resistors are also rated in terms of how much heat energy they
can dissipate without overheating and sustaining damage. Naturally, this power rating is
specified in the physical unit of “watts.” Most resistors found in small electronic devices such
as portable radios are rated at 1/4 (0.25) watt or less. The power rating of any resistor is
roughly proportional to its physical size.

Resistor Materials

Resistors can be found in a variety of different materials, each one with its own properties
and specific areas of use. Most electrical engineers use the types found below:

Wire wound (WW)

Wire Wound Resistors are manufactured by winding resistance wire around a non-conductive
core in a spiral. They are typically produced for high precision and power applications. The
core is usually made of ceramic or fiberglass and the resistance wire is made of nickel-
chromium alloy and are not suitable for applications with frequencies higher than 50kHz.
Low noise and stability with respect to temperature variations are standard characteristics of
Wire Wound Resistors. Resistance values are available from 0.1 up to 100 kW, with
accuracies between 0.1% and 20%.

Fig. Wire wound resistors [Ref. 11]

Metal Film

Nichrome or tantalum nitride are typically used for metal film resistors. A combination of a
ceramic material and a metal typically make up the resistive material. The resistance value is
changed by cutting a spiral pattern in them film, much like carbon film with a laser or
abrasive. Metal film resistors are usually less stable over temperature than wire wound
resistors, but handle higher frequencies better.

Fig. Metal film resistor [Ref. 12]

21
Metal Oxide Film

Metal oxide resistors use metal oxides such as tin oxide, making them slightly different from
metal film resistors. These resistors are reliable and stable and operate at higher temperatures
than metal film resistors. Because of this, metal oxide film resistors are used in applications
that require high endurance.

Fig. Metal oxide film resistor [Ref.13]

Ceramic Carbon Resistors (CCR)

Until the 1960s Carbon Composition Resistors were the standard for most applications. They
are reliable, but not very accurate (their tolerance cannot be better than about 5%). A mixture
of fine carbon particles and non-conductive ceramic material are used for the resistive
element of CCR Resistors. The substance is moulded into the shape of a cylinder and baked.
The dimensions of the body and the ratio of carbon to ceramic material determine the
resistance value. More carbon used in the process means there will be a lower resistance.
CCR resistors are still useful for certain applications because of their ability to withstand high
energy pulses, a good example application would be in a power supply.

Fig. Ceramic carbon resistors [Ref.11]

22
Carbon Film

Carbon film resistors have a thin carbon film (with a spiral cut in the film to increase the
resistive path) on an insulating cylindrical core. This allows for the resistance value to be
more accurate and also increases the resistance value. Carbon film resistors are much more
accurate than carbon composition resistors. Special carbon film resistors are used in
applications that require high pulse stability.

Fig. Carbon film resistor [Ref.13]

Solar energy storage

Lead acid is the most common and widely available battery technology that can be used as
energy storage in residential and commercial PV power systems. Even though lead acid
batteries are not expensive, their efficiency and cycle life are low compared to the alternative
battery technologies such as Lithium-ion, molten-salt and flow batteries. Out of these
technologies, Lithium ion batteries have the highest efficiency and cycle life. Therefore, they
have become the number one choice in consumer electronic and automobile industries.
However, cost of Lithium-ion batteries are still at the high side and therefore not a very
popular choice in PV systems. This has created a technology gap in energy storage especially
for commercial and utility scale PV power systems. On the other hand, flow battery
technologies such as Zinc-Bromide, Vanadium-Redox, and Iron Chromium and molten-salt
battery technologies such as Sodium-Sulfur and Sodium-Nickel are moderate in cost,
efficiency, and cycle life. Therefore, these technologies are becoming the popular choice for
energy storage in commercial and utility-scale PV power systems as shown in Fig given
below.

23
Fig. Power capacity vs technological maturity of various storage methods [Ref.14, page no.
303]

Fig. Comparison of rated power, energy content and discharge time of different electrical
energy storage technologies [Ref.14, ]

24
Fig. Comparison of storage systems in terms of discharge time, energy capacity ratings (a),
and rated power (b) (PHS, pumped-hydro storage; CAES, compressed air energy storage;
FCHS, hydrogen storage coupled with fuel cells; SMES, superconducting magnetic energy
storage; L/A, lead-acid batteries; Ni-Cd, nickel-cadmium batteries; Na-S, advanced sodium-
sulfur batteries; Li-ion, lithium-ion batteries; VRB, vanadium redox battery; Zn-Br, zinc-
bromine; SC, supercapacitor) [Ref.14, Page no. 302]

25
Fig. Pumped-hydro storage configuration. (1) PV park and/or wind park, (2) electricity grid,
(3) lower reservoir, (4) pumping system, (5) upper reservoir, (6) reversible hydroelectric
machines, and (7) electricity consumption. [Ref.14, page no. 304]

Table. Main characteristics of several storage systems [Ref.14, page no. 307]

26
Fig. Various energy storage solutions as a function of investment costs per unit of energy or
unit of power [Ref.14, page no. 311].

Table.2. Main cost parameters of several storage systems [Ref.14, page no. 313]

27
Battries for energy storgae application

Tab. Classification of battries and their applications [Ref.15, page no. 96, and 102]

28
Table Strengths and weaknesses of lead-acid, Li-ion, NiMH and NiCd batteries [Ref.16]

Battery type Strengths Weaknesses

Lead-acid + Relatively low initial cost - Modest specific energy and
+ Mature technology power
+Large number of - Short cycle life
manufacturers worldwide - High O&M requirements
+Reliance on abundant - Performance sensitive to
cheap materials temperature
+ Satisfactory round-trip - Limited reliability
efficiency - Long charging time
+ No memory effect - Safety concerns; gas
+ Low self-discharge rate release
+ Proven efficiency of - Reliance on hazardous lead
recycling schemes
Li-ion + Outstanding specific High initial cost
energy and power - Advanced BMS required
+ Long calendar and cycle - Safety concerns; thermal
lives runaway incidents
+ High roundtrip efficiency - Material bottleneck
+ Low O&M requirements concerns; lithium and cobalt
+ Satisfactory operating - Currently weak recovery
temperature ranges and recycling schemes
+ High reliability
+ Technological diversity;
several chemistries
+ Intensive global R&D
efforts
+ Chemistries with eco-
friendly materials available
+ Reasonable self-discharge
rate
+ Relatively fast recharge
NiMH + Moderate initial cost - High self-discharge rate
+ Satisfactory specific - Slight memory effect
energy and power - Relatively short cycle life
+ Satisfactory round-trip - Currently weak recovery
efficiency and recycling schemes
+ Low O&M requirements
+ High reliability
+ Reliance on eco-friendly
materials
+ Good safety record
+ Satisfactory operating
temperature ranges
+ Relatively fast recharge
NiCd + Relatively low initial cost - Modest specific energy and
+ Outstanding calendar and power
cycle lives - Memory effect
+ Mature technology - Relatively low round-trip

29
 + High reliability efficiency
+ Low O&M requirements - Reliance on hazardous
+ Reasonable self-discharge cadmium
rate
+ Good safety record
+ Extensive operating
temperature ranges
+ Relatively fast recharge

Lithium ion batteries for vechile application

Table Li-ion battery market in GWh/year, past development and future prospectives (Ref.16).

Table. Levels of automotive electrification (Ref.17, page no. 20)

Table – Most relevant elements for lithium ion battery sector [16]
30
 Element Li-ion Abundant Global 2016 mine Li-ion Future
battery rank reverse production industry prospective
component [Mt] share
Aluminium Cathode foil, 3 11000 57,600,000 <1% Not Critical
(Al) NCA
electrode
Iron (Fe) LFP cathode 4 82000 1,360,000,000 <1% Not Critical
Titanium LTO anode 9 498 3.960,000 <1% Not Critical
(Ti)
Phosphoru LFP cathode 11 12000 47,000,000 <1% Not Critical
s (P)
Manganese LMO 12 690 16,00,000 <1% Not Critical
(Mn) cathode
Carbon (C) Convectiona 15 250 1,200,00 Around Not Critical
l electrode, 3%
electrolyte
Nickel (Ni) NMC and 24 78 2,250,000 1-2% Not Critical
NCA
cathodes
Copper Anode foil 26 720 19,400,000 <1% Not Critical
(Cu)
Cobalt LCO, NMC 32 7 123,000 30% Critical
(Co) and NCA
electrodes
Lithium All cathodes, 33 14 37,800 39% Not Critical
(Li) electrolyte

Table. Metal composition in different types of batteries [Ref.15, page no. 97]

31
Table. Conversion factors to convert Lithium compounds grades into Lithium metal grades
[Ref. 18, page no. 2]

32
Fig. Main characteristic of commercial Li ion batteries, Lithium cobalt oxide (LCO), Lithium
manganese oxide (LMO), Lithium iron Phosphate (LFP), Lithium Nickel cobalt aluminium
oxide (NCA), Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide (NMC) [Ref.16]

33
Thermal runaway of the cells

Fig. Mass split (mass%) of the main conmponent of the three cell species [Ref.19, page no.
43]

34
Fig. OCV profile of the three cells [Ref.19, page no. 43]

Fig. Detected components of the produced gases (mol%) [Ref.19, page no. 47]

35
Fig. Temperature-ventgas profiles. Note that the x axis is trimmed to the relavent
temperature range [Ref.19, page no.48]
Table. Lithium ion chemistries [Ref. 20, page no. 77]

36
 Fig. Comparing of some potential anode material for lithium ion batteries [Ref.21]

Table. Several commercial EV and PHEV in 2017 and their key characteristics using lithium
ion batteries [Ref.16]

Manufacture Name EV/PHE Battery Capacity E E

r V Chemistry (KWh) Engine Range
P (kW) (Km)
Tesla Tesla Model EV NCA 75 245 405
S75D
Tesla Model EV NCA 90 311 445
S90D
Tesla Model EV NCA 102 451 510
S100D
Tesla Model EV NCA 102 567 505
SP100D

Toyota Toyota Prius PHEV NMC 8.8 20 40

Prime
General Chevrolet EV NMC 60 149 350
Motors Bolt EV
ChevroletVolt PHEV NMC 18.4 111 85

Volkswagen VW e-Golf EV NMC 35.8 100 195

VW e-up EV NMC 18.7 60 110
VW Golf PHEV NMC 8.8 75 45
GTE
VW Passat PHEV NMC 9.9 85 45
GTE
Audi AudiA3 PHEV NMC 8.8 76 35
Sportbacke-
torn
Audi Q7e- PHEV NMC 17.3 94 55
tron

Porsche Porsche PHEV NMC 10.8 71 35

Cayenne SE-
Hybrid
Porsche PHEV NMC 9.4 100 40
Panamera 4E-
Hybrid
Nissan Nissan Leaf EV NMC 30 80 170
Hyundai Hyundai PHEV NMC 8.9 45 50
Ioniq Plug –in
Hyundai
Ioniq Electric EV NMC 28 88 165

Ford Ford Focus EV NMC 33.5 107 180

Electric

37
 Ford C-Max 30
Energi PHEV NMC 7.6 88
Fiat Fiat 500e EV NMC 24 83 135
BMW BMWi3 EV NMC 33 127 180
Daimler Mercedes- EV NCA 36 132 165
Benz B-Class
e Drive
Smart Fortwo EV NMC 18 60 120
Electric drive
Kia Kia Soul EV EV NMC 27 82 145
Renault Renault Zoe EV NMC 41 68 230
Karma Karma PHEV NMC 21.4 106 80
Revero
BYD BYD E6 EV LFP 82 89 390
Mitsubishi Mitsubishi-i- EV NMC 16 49 95
MiEV
Mitsubishi PHEV NMC 12 119 45
Outlander

Fig. Power density vs energy density of various electrochemical energy storage system [Ref.
22]

38
 Batteries for E-bicycles and E-Scooters

Fig. Use of different battery chemistry for light vehicles [Ref.23, page no. 539]

Batteries for heavy trucks

Heavy truck batteries have the same leadeacid chemistry as car batteries,but are designed
differently and optimized for different use cases. Combined, the monoblocs that make up a
truck battery have almost 10 times greater volume than those found on a typical car. This
extra volume is required to store enough energy to power heating, lighting and entertainment
during extended periods at the roadside.

Dual voltage systems may allow a future global harmonization that combines the good
cranking
efficiency at 24 V with cost-efficient 12-V ancillaries that share economies of scale with car
applications. In Europe, heavy truck batteries are split into three sizes, and there is a gradual
move toward larger capacities. Compared with car batteries, truck batteries use thicker plates
and support a greater amount of active-material. For a long time, truck batteries were in a
central-chassis position, but now need to support an end-of-chassis location after being
displaced to make room for exhaust after-treatment systems.

Recently, heavy trucks have started to benefit from maintenance-free technology, first
introduced to the car battery market around 20 years ago. In recent years steps have also been
taken to improve on standard maintenance-free technology, including the use of special
carbon additives in advanced maintenance-free designs, allowing acid stratification to be
minimized.

For heavy trucks, there is increasing commercial pressure to reduce the likelihood of
breakdowns and the overall need for servicing. A dual 24-V battery system is proposed,
which relies on gel monoblocs to power electrical equipment and on spiral-wound AGM
monoblocs to start the engine. Both batteries are optimized for the task they perform,

39
allowing for enhanced reliability and durability at lower weight than a general-purpose
flooded battery.

Table. Comprasion of standard versus dual battery system [Ref.24, page no. 525 ]

Fig. Electronic architecture of dual battery system [Ref.24, page no. 523]

40
Fig. Spiral bound –wound absorptive glass mat (AGM) strater battery used in dual battery
system [Ref.24, page no. 523]

Lead acid battery for future automobiles

41
Fig. (A) Design of a gel battery used as the service battery in the dual battery system; (B)
Cross-section of a gel battery; (C) Exide Equipment Gel is an example of a truck battery
using gel technology [Ref. 24, page no. 524]
Nickel–metal hydride and nickel–zinc batteries for hybrid electric vehicles and battery
electric vehicles

Several different battery chemistries, including lead–acid, nickel–zinc (NiZn), and nickel–
metal hydride (NiMH), were explored, and NiMH was selected for further development.
NiMH became the enabling technology for the high-power, wide operating temperature range
hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) application. It continues to dominate this market today,
providing cost-effective life-of-vehicle performance. More than 6 million vehicles have been
placed in service with NiMH batteries since market introduction in 1997.

The MH electrode

A MH alloy is typically made up of multiple elements with formulas that can vary depending
on the alloy family. The MH electrode consists of one of three basic types of alloy families:
● AB5 (LaCePrNdNiCoMnAl),
● A2B7 (LaCePrNdSmMgNiCoMnAlZr),
● AB2 (VTiZrNiCrCoMnAlSn)

AB5 type alloys (capacity: 290–320 mAh/g) are the most common types of alloy used today.
The ability of AB5 alloys to store hydrogen is considerably lower than A2B7 or AB2. The key
advantages of the AB5 alloys include lower raw-material cost, ease of material activation and
cell formation, and greater flexibility in methods of electrode processing. It is common for
the ratio of La/Ce to vary to emphasize high discharge rate capability, cycle life, or power.
A2B7 alloy capacity may range from 335 to 400 mAh/g. Processing methods play a key role
in these alloys as they have a tendency to form phases with an AB5 crystal structure. Often Ce
is excluded from the alloy in an effort to prevent the precipitation of these unwanted phases.
The addition of Sm in exchange for La reduces cost whereas Mg has been shown to play a
role in increasing capacity.
AB2 alloy capacity may range from 385 to 450 mAh/g. These alloys may suffer from higher
rates of self-discharge owing to the solubility of vanadium oxide in the electrolyte and have
more difficulty in regard to activation/formation. The concentration of Co, Mn, Al, and Sn
additives are important for improving activation, formation, and long cycle life. The ratio of
hexagonal C14 to cubic C15 crystal structure is important for improving capacity or power.

The zinc electrode [Ref. 25, page no. 105]

NiZn battery technology has been studied many years for its potential for higher energy and
lower costs compared to other Ni-based chemistries. However, commercialization has been
problematic because of issues with short circuit, cycle life, and gas recombination in a sealed
cell. Many solutions to these problems have been proposed with varying degrees of success.
The zinc electrode is typically a composition of zinc oxide mixed with additives (zinc metal,
zinc alloys, carbon, conductive polymers, etc.) designed to improve initial conductivity and
the anticorrosive properties of the electrode. Perhaps one of the most extensively used oxide
additives has been calcium oxide. This material has the benefit of combining with the zinc
oxide to create a calcium zincate that is a much less soluble discharge product than the
normal zinc hydroxides. The weight of calcium oxide added may be as much as 25 wt.% of

42
the active zinc. This significantly increases the weight of the negative electrode and decreases
cell energy density. There may also be electrode kinetic factors that restrict the effectiveness
of this additive to lower rate discharges and charges.

Zinc electrode fabrication is similar to MH electrode as both can use pressed powder or
pasted powder methods. The electrode is manufactured using similar styles of substrate
material (perforated foil, foam, or expanded metal) and is typically made of copper or copper-
plated materials. Substrates have generally incorporated a surface layer that inhibits hydrogen
evolution at the zinc potential and is stable under conditions where the negative electrode
undergoes polarization

The nickel hydroxide electrode [Ref. 25, page no. 106]

Nickel hydroxide cathodes are similar to those used in Ni-based batteries such as NiFe and
NiCd more than 100 years ago. However, while still fundamentally the same today's high-
performance nickel hydroxide, a key component of the positive electrode, is more advanced.
Improvements continue to be made in areas such as capacity and utilization, power and
discharge rate capability, cycle life, high-temperature charging efficiency, and cost.

Nickel hydroxide is made in a precipitation reactor where nickel salts can react with other
chemicals to produce a high-density spherical powder particle. Additives such as cobalt and
zinc (typically with amounts of cobalt and zinc of about 1–5% each) are added to enhance
performance. Key physical parameters of nickel hydroxide within a chemical formula include
tap density (~2.2 g/cm3), particle size (average particle size of about 10 μm), surface area
(~10–20 m2/g), and crystallinity (~110 Å).

Advantages and disadvantages of NiMH and NiZn batteries in HEVs and battery
electric vehicles [Ref. 25,page no. 115]

In HEV applications, specific energy is less important and power is emphasized. The power-
designed battery must be able to withstand exposure to high-current pulses during both
charge and discharge. The battery typically operates between 50% and 70% SOC and uses
only a fraction of its available energy (SOC swing of 2–10% typically). Here the primary
purpose of the battery is not pure EV style mileage. Instead, it is used to capture and store
regenerative braking energy for assisting the acceleration of the vehicle to improve fuel
economy. Therefore, the specific power goal for battery developers is to achieve >1000
W/kg, which Ni-based battery chemistries more than meet.

EV/PHEV batteries are typically designed to emphasize energy over power. The battery is
designed to swing between 20% and 100% SOC, thereby using 80% of its available energy.
The motivation is to achieve the highest specific energy possible which maximizes vehicle
range and minimizes the weight penalty associated with the addition of batteries. Hence, the
design provides a lower threshold power of ~200 W/kg but at higher specific energy
compared to HEV packs (45 Wh/kg for HEV vs. >65 Wh/kg for PHEV/EV). Here, Ni-based
batteries are at a disadvantage in terms of weight and size, in addition to performance
characteristics.

43
Environmental and safety issues with NiMH and NiZn batteries [Ref.25, page no. 122]

As with all HEV/PHEV/EV battery technologies using high-voltage batteries, shock hazards
are of concern. Where high voltages are involved, care must be taken to isolate the batteries
from potential shorting points. Isolation begins at the cell level by employing plastic cell
cases instead of metal, if possible. If metal cans are the preferred choice, the metal-cased cells
must have some kind of insulative coating that is stable and free of pinholes. Battery modules
must be isolated from the battery tray; cell and module interconnecting straps should also be
isolated from the battery tray. Air-cooled battery packs can become contaminated by airborne
particulates (such as dirt and salt), and pack case design must take this into consideration.

Other potential safety issues include:

● Generation of potentially explosive gases,
● Exposure to alkaline electrolyte.
NiMH and NiZn are environmentally safe battery technologies and can be recycled.

Table. Nickel based Chemistries [Ref. 20, page no. 72 ]

44
Table. Compression of absorbed glass mat (AGM) design and NiZn batteries for micro
hybrid [Ref.25, page no. 124]

NiMH batteries are presently being introduced in stationary energy storage applications such
as telecommunications backup power. Whereas NiMH loses out to Li-ion in EV applications
due to battery weight, these stationary energy storage applications value cost, safety, life, and
reliability. The long track record of high reliability demonstrated by NiMH in HEVs under
practical aggressive environments has drawn attention to NiMH in making inroads in this
market, especially where deep discharge requires frequent replacement of lead–acid. NiMH
competes very well when total cost of ownership is considered. In applications requiring a
10-year life, NiMH may even compete with lead–acid on an initial cost basis because lead–
acid must be significantly oversized to limit DOD.
Although some consider Ni-based batteries to be mature technology, the US Department of
Energy is betting on significant next-generation improvement.

Table.Compression of key parameters for energy storage systems [Ref. 16].

PHS- Pump Hydroelectric Storage, CAES- Compared Air Energy Storage, VRB- Vanadium redox batteries

45
Table –Compression of technical and other features of lead acid and Li-ion batteries for
energy storage service [Ref. 16]

Fig. Change in automotive technology in the years of 2020 [Ref. 26, page no. 99]

46
 Fig. Development of the battery market on pack level (1990–2020), different applications
[Ref. 26, page no. 100]
Rechargeable lithium batteries for aerospace applications [Ref. 27]

Lithium/lithium-ion (Li/Li-ion) batteries are an increasingly used battery type in aerospace as

replacements to heavier and lesser-performing batteries such as nickel–cadmium (NiCd) and
lead-acid (PbSO4) as they are uniquely qualified with superior performance characteristics,
durability, and reliability through a wide range of operating and storage conditions, large life
cycles, and low mass (Li is the lightest metal, with an atomic mass of 6.941) and volume
combinations. A few examples of popular lithium energy storage chemical compositions
considered by modern aerospace are:

 Lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO2),

 Lithium manganese oxide (LMO),

 Lithium sulfur (LiS),

 Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4),

 Lithium–air (Li–air).

47
 Fig. Types of energy storage for grid scale units [Ref. 28, page no. 202]

Supercapacitors (Electric double layer capacitors/ Hybrid/ Pseudocapacitors)

Supercapacitors are devices capable of managing high power rates compared to batteries.
Although supercapacitors provide hundred to many thousand times higher power in the same
volume, they are notable to store the same amount of charge as batteries do, which is usually
3–30 times lower. This makes supercapacitors suitable for those applications in which power
bursts are needed, but high energy storage capacity is not required. Supercapacitors can also
be included within a battery- based ESS to decouple the power and energy characteristics of
the ESS, thus improving the sizing while fulfilling the power and energy requirements, and
probably enlarging its lifetime.

48
 Fig. Classification of different supercapacitors [Ref.29]

Fig. Publication on supercapacitors based on materials [Ref. 29]

49
Fig. Energy vs Power plot for different power sources [Ref. 29]

Fig. Classification of electrolyte for supercapacitors [Ref. 29]

50
Table. Comparison table among selected electrochemical energy storage technologies
[Ref.29]

Table. Comprasion between batteries and supercapacitors [Ref.29]

51
Fig. Comparison of capacitance and operating voltage for various electrode materials and
electrolytes [Ref. 29]

Electrode materials for supercapacitors

The most important electrode materials are carbon based materials, metal oxides, and
conducting polymers.
Carbon based materials are activated carbon, carbide derived carbon, carbon nanotubes
(CNTs), graphene and mesoporous carbons.

52
Table. BET surface area for different carbon precursors used for supercapacitors [Ref. 30]

Fig. Diagram of possible applications of biomass and organic waste Metal Oxides [Ref.30]

53
Metal oxides have high specific capacitance and conductivity, making them suitable for
electrode fabrication focused on high energy and high power supercapacitors. There are
several different metal oxide materials used for electrode fabrication such as RuO 2, IrO2 ,
MnO2 , NiO, Co2O3, SnO2, V2O5, MoOx . The most studied ones are ruthenium and
manganese oxides.

Conducting Polymers

Conducting polymers which are used to fabricate the supercapacitors polypyrrole (PPy) and
polyimides (PI).

Table- Different products offered by super capacitor manufactures [Ref.30]

Magnetic materials
There are two types of magnetic materials, hard magnets and soft magnets

Hard magnets

Applications of hard magnets

1. Magnetic Circuits 2. Materials 3. Static Applications 4. Dynamic Applications with

Mechanical Recoil 5. Dynamic Applications with Active Recoil 6. Microsystems

54
Table- Properties of hard magnetic materials [Ref. 31, page no. 497]

Soft magnets

Applications of soft magnets

1. Losses 2. Materials 3. Static Applications 4. Low-frequency Applications 5. High-

frequency Applications

Table- Soft Magnetic materials and typical values some basic magnetic parameters [Ref. 32,
page no. 33 ]

55
Table- Physical parameters in representative amorphous alloys [Ref. 32, page no.57]

Table – Properties of some basic Fe-Ni and Fe-Co alloys [Ref.32, page no. 63]

Table- Properties of basic spinel ferrites [Ref.32, page no. 69]

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