ITM UNIVERSITY GWALIOR

ASSINMENT
ON
ENTOMOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO SUBMITTED BY

Mr. NARESH DHAKAD NISHA DUBEY

(ASST. PROF DEPT. OF BAGN1AG16099

ENTOMOLOGY)
BSc(ag) 8th sem
WHAT IS INSECT-

Insects are animals that have roamed the earth for at least 300 million years, so
they have been around way before dinosaurs.   Dinosaurs are extinct, but insects
are still with us and some have changed very little since the days of the dinosaurs.

With over 1,000,000 different kinds, insects have the honor of being the most
numerous of all life forms on earth, and if you go out looking for them, they can be
found almost everywhere.  

Insects are related to other common creatures such as crabs, crayfish, spiders,
millipedes, centipedes and scorpions.  All of these animals are in a special group
called the phylum Arthropoda (which means “jointed foot”). 

Even though insects and other arthropods, such as lobsters, do not look alike, all
arthropods share the following characteristics: 

1. A segmented body…much like a worm but with special groups of segments

called “tagmata”
2. Paired segmented appendages (legs)
3. Bilateral symmetry (the right and left half look the same)
4. An external skeleton that is molted as the animal grows
What makes insects different than spiders, crabs and scorpions?

For more details about insect anatomical characteristics, visit the Basic Insect
Morphology page.
WHAT IS PETS-

A pest is any animal or plant detrimental to humans or human concerns. The term
is particularly used for creatures that damage crops, livestock and forestry, or
cause a nuisance to people, especially in their homes. Humans have modified the
environment for their own purposes and are intolerant of other creatures
occupying the same space when their activities impact adversely on human
objectives. Thus, an elephant is unobjectionable in its natural habitat but a pest if
it tramples crops.

Some animals are disliked because they bite or sting; snakes, wasps, ants, bed

bugs, fleas and ticks belong in this category. Others enter the home thus invading
our own private space; these include houseflies, which land on and contaminate
food, beetles which tunnel into the woodwork, and other animals that scuttle about
on the floor at night, like cockroaches, rats and mice, which are often associated
with insanitary conditions.

 Sceliphron destillatorius

Pest Insect
 Pest is a destructive insect or another animal
An insect is a small arthropod which has six legs an
which attacks food, crops or livestock.
Organization Level
Pests are vertebrates, invertebrates, plants,
Insects are arthropods
animals and insects
Control
Insecticides used as a control factor for insects.
They are controlled by pesticides
predatory and parasitic insects
Effect in Agriculture
They harm the crops by reproducing pests They are beneficial to crop production as bees play
Effects
Pests are always destructive Insects may be harmful or may be beneficial
Examples
Mites, ticks, mosquitoes, bed bugs, lice,
Honey bee, wasp, ladybird, spider, sting bugs
termites

Economic entomology is a field of entomology, which involves the study

of insects that benefit or harm humans, domestic animals, and crops. Insects that
cause losses are termed as pests. Some species can cause indirect damage by
spreading diseases and these are termed as vectors. Those that are beneficial
include those reared for food such as honey, substances such as lac or pigments
and for their role in pollinating crops and controlling pests.

In the 18th century many works were published on agriculture. Many contained
accounts of pest insects. In France Claude Sionnest (1749–1820) was a notable
figure.
[Harmful insect]
insects considered pests of some sort occur among all major living orders with the
exception
of Ephemeroptera (mayflies), Odonata, Plecoptera (stoneflies), Embioptera (websp
inners), Trichoptera (caddisflies), Neuroptera (in the broad sense),
and Mecoptera (also, the tiny groups Zoraptera, Grylloblattodea,
and Mantophasmatodea). Conversely, of course, essentially all insect orders
primarily have members which are beneficial, in some respects, with the exception
of Phthiraptera (lice), Siphonaptera (fleas), and Strepsiptera, the three orders whose
members are exclusively parasitic.
Insects are considered pests for a variety of reasons, including direct damage by
feeding on crop plants in the field or by infesting stored products, indirect damage
by spreading viral diseases of crop plants (especially by sucking insects such
as leafhoppers), spreading disease among humans and livestock, and annoyance to
humans. Examples of insects regarded as pests include the phylloxera, migratory
locusts, the Colorado potato beetle, the boll weevil, Japanese
beetle, aphids, mosquitoes, cockroaches, the Western corn rootworm, and some fly
species.
In the past entomologists working on pest insects attempted to eradicate species.
This rarely worked except in islands or controlled environments and raised ethical
issues. Over time the language changed to terms like control and management. The
indiscriminate use of toxic and persistent chemicals and the resurgence of pests in
the history of cotton growing in the US has been particularly well studied.
Beneficial insects
Main article: Beneficial insects
Honey is perhaps the most economically valuable product from
insects. Beekeeping is a commercial enterprise in most parts of the world and
many forest tribes have been dependent on honey as a major source of nutrition.
Honeybees can also act as pollinators of crop species. Many predators and
parasitoid insects are encouraged and augmented in modern agriculture.
Silk is extracted from both reared caterpillars as well as from the wild
(producing wild silk). Sericulture deals with the techniques for efficient silkworm
rearing and silk production. Although new fabric materials have substituted silk in
many applications, it continues tobe the material of choice for surgical sutures.
Lac was once extracted from scale insects but is now replaced by synthetic
substitutes. The dye extracted from cochineal insects was similarly replaced by
technological advances. The idea of insects as human food, entomophagy, widely
practised in traditional societies, has been proposed as a solution to meet the
growing demand for food, but has not gained widespread acceptance in the West.
Economic Importance of Insects
Insects as Pollinators:
Pollination is often considered to be the most useful activity of insects, for human
begins. “The total value of pollination services rendered by all insects globally has
been estimated to be in excess of $100 billion annually (2003 valuation).” (Insect
biodiversity, 2009). Pollination is required by most of the higher plants, to produce
seed for preparation. Of the different pollinating agents, insects are an important
one. The term ‘entomophilous,’ refers to the flowers pollinated by insects. The fact
that insects and flowering plants are known to be evolving together for an
approximate two hundred million years must have something to be with the greater
percentage of entomophilous plants. During the course of evolution, the
relationship shared between the flowering plants and the insects has developed
Insects as Predators/ Role in Biological Control
Biological control refers to the use of a living organism to control a species pest.
The group of insects which attack the injurious species (insect pest) are probably of
most importance, economically. Biological control through insects, involve the use
of the predator species parasite species and disease, to attack the harmful insects.
There are three main ways to achieve the biological control. The three approaches
include, According to Orr, Bambara & Baker (2006): “Classical Biological
Control (importation) involves traveling to the country or area from which a newly
introduced pest originated and returning with some of the natural enemies that
attacked it and kept it from being a pest there …” Augmentation is a method of
increasing the population of a natural enemy which attacks a pest. Conservation
of natural enemies is an important part in any biology control effort. This
involves identifying any factors that limit the effectiveness of a particular natural
enemy and changing them to help the beneficial species. Another way biological
control can be implemented is by raising sterile males in captivity and then
releasing them as and when desired. into a state of interdependence, being more of
the kind of mutualistic (of mutual benefit).

Insects as Bio-indicators: The broad insect spectrum, reflecting the overall

biodiversity, can be used successfully enough, as biological indicators. Moreover,
in some regions, there are indicator species. A butterfly “… acts as a litmus test of
our environment, giving as forewarning of pollution or other kinds of habited
degradation.” Butterflies are generally regarded as ecological indicators
Some insects have proved useful as pollution indicators. Soot or other forms of
particulate carbon, constitute important air pollutants. “A Recent Classical Study
carried out around Manchester used the Peppered Moth (Biston betularia). The
occurrence of the three morphs (colour forms) - pale (typical), dark and
intermediate was thought to be related to the colour of the bark of local birch trees.
With increased air pollution, and a high soot content, the tree bark became
discoloured and dark (sooty), and the numbers of the dark form (carbonaria)
increased. However, in clean areas the pale form still predominated.”

Insects as Producers:
Inks and Dyes – Certain insect species can be used to cultivate and/ extract dyes.
The most important of these are the cochineal insects. Cochineal is a red dye
produced from the body of the insects. “Historically, adult female Mediterranean
scales, Kermes iticies and K. vermilio; Oriental lac insects, Kerria lacca; Central
European scales, Porphyrophora polonica; and New world cochineal scales,
Dactylopius coccus, were used in the preparation of red dye by a number of
indigenous populations.” (Irwin and Kampmeier, 2002, p.10.). Oak trees (Quercus
infectoria Olivier) in Asia and Persia, produce Aleppo galls. “The trees produce
gall tissues in response to the chemical substance secreted by the larvae of tiny
wasps (Cynips gallae tinctoriae Olivier; Hymenoptera: Cynipidae) that infest the
trees.”
Lac – This is a resinous substance, produced by a scale insect Laccifer lacca
Cockrell, 1924. Ber (Ziziphus mauritiana), Dhak (Butea monosperma) and Kusum
(Schleichera olessa) are the common host trees of the lac insect in India, beside
Acacia sp. (Thorn tree) and Ficus religiosa (Peepal). The female lac scales infest
the branches (young twigs) of the preferred host tree and cover their bodies with a
resinous secretion that hardens to form a shield.
Silk and Sericulture – The techniques involved in the efficient rearing of silk
worm and in silk production together constitute what is known as ‘sericulture.’
Bombyx mori (L.), is commonly referred to as the ‘Silk worm’ or the ‘Mulberry
Silkworm’ as it feeds on the leaves of the mulberry tree, or the ‘Oriental
Silkworm’, as in the Orient, sericulture has built up around this insect, and its
secretion. B. mori occurs in different racial forms. Hill (1997) states that: “The
four major races are: the Chinese (both univolline and bivoltine forms), the
Japanese (both univoltine and bivoltine forms) the European (univolline) and the
Tropical race (multi voltine).”
Honey and Apiculture – A typical bee hive will have a queen bee, worker bees
(females) and drones (males). The queen bee is responsible for reproduction and
the purpose of drones in a hive is to fertilise the queen. All kinds of work of a bee
hive are done by the worker bees. One of their important jobs is the collection of
nectar. As the worker honey bees fly to innumerable number of flowers, they
consume as much nectar as possible, from each of them. On returning to the hive,
these worker bees pass on their collected nectar to the worker bees inside the hive.
It is through the action of enzymes that the nectar is converted into honey. When
foraging, honey bees collect pollen as well.
Insects as Vectors of Disease:

Insects are more popular causative agents, when we consider insect involvement in
diseases, except on a few occasions when they themselves cause an infection.
Insects are thus, vectors (carriers) of pathogens like bacteria, virus, fungi,
helminthes (flukes tape worms, round worms): which in turn are the cause of the
diseases, occurring in man, animals and plants. The Order Diptera might be
considered most important in this regard, because this contains the mosquitoes and
the flies, responsible for transmission of disease, in most cases. Order orders of
Insects include Pthiraptera (biting and sucking lice), Siphonaptera (Fleas),
Hemiptera (true bugs), beside any others.

Integrated pest management (IPM)

IPM is a holistic approach to sustainable agriculture that focuses on managing

insects, weeds and diseases through a combination of cultural, physical, biological
and chemical methods that are cost effective, environmentally sound and socially
acceptable.1 This includes the responsible use of crop protection and plant biotech
products

IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of pests

or their damage through a combination of techniques such as biological control,
habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant
varieties. Pesticides are used only after monitoring indicates they are needed
according to established guidelines, and treatments are made with the goal of
removing only the target organism. Pest control materials are selected and applied
in a manner that minimizes risks to human health, beneficial and nontarget
organisms, and the environment.

Components of IPM

The major components of IPM in increasing order of complexity are as under:

Cultural practices:
Cultural methods of pest control consist of regular farm operations in such a way
which either destroy the pests or prevent them from causing economic loss. The
various cultural practices are as under.
a. Preparation of nurseries or main fields free from pest infestation by
removing plant debris, trimming of bunds, treating of soil and deep summer
ploughing which kills various stages of pests.
b. Testing of soil for nutrients deficiencies on the basis of which fertilizers
should be applied.
c. Selection of clean and certified seeds and treating seeds with fungicide or
bio-pesticides before sowing for seed borne disease control.
d. Selection of seeds of relatively pest resistant/tolerant varieties which play a
significant role in pest suppression.
e. Adjustment of time of sowing and harvesting to escape peak season of pest
attack.
f. Rotation of crops with non-host crops. It helps in reduction of incidence of
soil borne diseases.
g. Proper plant spacing which makes plants more healthy and less susceptible
to pests.
h. Optimum use of fertilizer. Use of FYM and bio-fertilizers should be
encouraged.
i. Proper water management as the high moisture in soil for prolonged period
is conducive for development of pests especially soil borne diseases.
j. Proper weed management. It is well-known fact that most of weeds beside
competing with crop for micro nutrients also harbor many pests.
k. Setting up yellow pan sticky traps for white flies and aphids at far above
canopy height.
l. Synchronized sowing. Here community approach is required to sow the
crops simultaneously in vast area so that pest may not get different staged crops
suitable for its population build up and if pest appears in damaging proportion,
control operation could be applied effectively in whole area.
m. Growing trap crops on the borders or peripheries of fields. There are certain
crops which are preferred more by a pest species are known as trap crops for that
pest. By growing such crops on the border of the fields, pest population develop
there which can be either killed by using pesticides or its natural enemies are
allowed to develop there for natural control.
n. Inter-cropping or multiple cropping wherever possible. All the crops are not
preferred by each pest species and certain crops act as repellents, thus keeping
the pest species away from preferred crops resulting in reduction of pest
incidence.
o. Harvesting as close as to ground level. This is because certain
developmental stages of insect pests/diseases remain on the plant parts which act
as primary inoculum for the next crop season. Hence, harvesting crops at ground
level will lessen the incidence of pests in next season.
p. Before planting, nursery plants be sprayed/dipped in copper fungicide/ bio
pesticide solutions to protect the plants from soil borne diseases.
q. While pruning fruit trees, remove crowded/dead/broken/diseased branches
and destroy them. Do not pile them in the orchards which may act as source of
pest infestation.
r. Large pruning wounds should be covered with Bordeaux paste/paint to
protect the plants from pest/disease attack.
s. Keeping bee hives or placing flower bouquets of pollinizer cultivars
facilitate better pollination and subsequent fruit set.
t. Selection of high yielding varieties for different crops.
u. Selection of comparatively pest resistant/tolerant varieties.
Mechanical practices:
a. Removal and destruction of egg masses, larvae, pupae and adults of insect
pests and diseased parts of plants wherever possible.
b. Installation of bamboo cage cum bird perchers in the field and placing
parasitized egg masses inside them for conservation of natural enemies and
withholding of pest species wherever possible.
c. Use of light traps and destruction of trapped insects.
d. Use of rope for dislodging leaf feeding larvae e.g. caseworm and leaf
folders.
e. Installation of bird scarer in the field where required.
f. Installation of bird perchers in the field for allowing birds to sit and feed on
insects and their immature stages viz., eggs, larvae and pupae.
g. Use of pheromones for mating disruption and kill zone creation.
h. Use of pheromone traps for monitoring and suppression of pest population.
i. Use of pheromone traps for mass trapping.
Regulatory practices:
In this process regulatory rules framed by Govt. are brought into force under which
seeds and infested plant materials are not allowed to enter the country or from one
part to other parts of the country. These are known as quarantine methods and are
of two types i.e. domestic and foreign quarantine.
Biological practices:
Biological control of insect pests and diseases through biological means is most
important component of IPM. In broader sense, biocontrol is use of living
organisms to control unwanted living organisms (pests). In other words, deliberate
use of parasitoids, predators and pathogens to maintain pest population at level
blow those causing economic loss either by introducing a new bioagent into the
environment of pest or by increasing effectiveness of those already preset in the
field.
Parasitoids:
These are the organisms which lay eggs in or on the bodies of their hosts and
complete their life cycles on host bodies as a result of which hosts die. A parasitoid
may be of different type depending on the host developmental stage in or on which
it completes its life cycle. For example, egg, larval, pupal, adult, egg-larval and
larval pupal parasitoids. Example are different species of Trichogramma,
Apanteles, Bracon, Chelonus, Brachemeria, Pseudogonotopus etc.
Predators:
These are free living organisms which prey upon other organisms for their food.
Examples are different species of spiders, dragon flies, damsel flies, lady bird
beetles, Chrysopa species, birds etc.
Bio-pesticides:
These are micro-organisims which infest and cause diseases in their hosts as a
result of which hosts are killed. Major groups of pathogens are fungi, viruses and
bacteria. Some nematodes also cause diseases in some insect pests. Important
examples of fungi are different species of Hirsutella, Beauveria, Nomurae and
Metarhizium which have been reported to infest and kill large number of insects
 (upto 90%) in the fields. Among viruses, most important examples are of nuclear
polyhedrosis virus (NPV) and granulosis viruses. Outbreak of viruses in
armyworms, cut worms, leaf folders, hairy caterpillars and plant hoppers have been
reported many times. Among bacteria, Bacillus thuringiensis (B.t.) and B. popillae
are very common examples.

Diseases of pests can be mass multiplied in the laboratory at a low cost in liquid or
powdered formulations that can be sprayed like ordinary chemical pesticides.
These formulations are known as bio-pesticides. The different types of biocontrol
practices are grouped as under:-
o Introduction
In this process, a new species of bio-agent is introduced into a locality for its
establishment against its host. This is done only after thorough laboratory
examination and field trials for its efficacy.
o Augmentation
In this process, the population of natural enemies already present in the area is
increased by releasing either laboratory reared or field collected bio-agents of
same species in such number as would require to suppress the pest population in
that area.
o Conservation
This is most important component of biological control and plays a major role in
pest suppression. In this process, natural enemies present in the nature are
protected from being killed. The different practices required to protect the natural
enemies are as below:

o Collection of parasitised egg masses and placing them in bamboo

cage-cum-bird perchers for allowing emergence of parasitoids and withholding of
pest larvae.
o Educating farmers through field days, radios & TV to differentiate
pests and defenders and sparing the defenders during field sprays
o Chemical spray should be adopted as last resort and that too after
observing pest defender ratio.
o Use of broad spectrum pesticides should be avoided.
o Only selective and relatively environmental friendly (REF) pesticides
should be used where necessary.
o As far as possible strip or spot application of pesticides be carried out.
o Adjustment of time of sowing and harvesting to avoid the peak season
of pest attack.
o Growing trap crop on the borders of main fields before the actual
sowing of crop to trap pest and develop natural enemies.
o Root dip/seedling treatment for gall midge prone area.
o Crop rotation and inter-cropping also help in conservation of
defenders.
o Recommended dose and concentration of pesticides should be used.

Chemical practices:
Use of chemical pesticides is the last resort when all other methods fail to keep the
pest population below economic loss. Although there is a great advancement in
pest management research, yet pesticides would continue to play an important role
in crop protection in view of complexity of pest problems. Therefore, use of
pesticides should be need based, judicious, based on pest surveillance to minimise
not only the cost involved, but also to reduce associated problems. While going for
chemical control, we must understand thoroughly what to spray, when to spray,
where to spray and how to spray, keeping in mind the following points.

o Pest defender ratio must be observed.

o Relatively safer pesticides should be selected e.g. neem based and
biopesticides.
o If pest is present in strips or isolated patches, whole field should not
be sprayed.
Relevance of IPM practices are more important in vegetable and fruit crops
because of their unique mode of consumption by human being. CIB&RC approved
pesticides should be used against target pest for recommended crops. Farmers
should not use another pesticide until waiting periods of first pesticides completes
and crop should be harvest after completion of waiting period. We have to be more
careful and cautious in applying pest control practices in field crops..

Chemical control
A) Commonly used pestiside

Brand name Type Active ingredient Chemical group WHO

Class

DAP Insecticid Diammonium Organophosphate II

e phosphate

Nuvan/Dichlorvo Insecticid 2,2-dichlorovinyl Organophosphate II

s e dimethyl phosphate

20-20-20 Insecticid Permethrin Pyrethroids II

e

Rogor Insecticid Dimethoate Organophosphate II

e

Coragen Insecticid Chlorantraniliprole Anthranilic

e diamides
Brand name Type Active ingredient Chemical group WHO
Class

M-45 Insecticid Mancozeb Dithiocarbamate U

e

Imida Insecticid Imidacloprid Neonicotinoid II

e

Ridomil gold Fungicide Mefanozem Dithiocarbamate U

CMIT/MIT Fungicide Isothiazolin Biocide U

Precautions for using pesticides

Legal responsibility
The user is legally responsible for any damage due to misuse of pesticides.
Responsibility extends to effects caused by drift, runoff, or residues.
Transportation
Do not ship or carry pesticides together with food or feed in a way that allows
contamination of the edible items. Never transport pesticides in a closed passenger
vehicle or in a closed cab.
Storage
Keep pesticides in original containers until used. Store them in a locked cabinet,
building, or fenced area where they are not accessible to children, unauthorized
persons, pets, or livestock. DO NOT store pesticides with foods, feed, fertilizers, or
other materials that may become contaminated by the pesticides.
Container disposal
Dispose of empty containers carefully. Never reuse them. Make sure empty
containers are not accessible to children or animals. Never dispose of containers
where they may contaminate water supplies or natural waterways. Consult your
county agricultural commissioner for correct procedures for handling and disposal
of large quantities of empty containers.
Protection of nonpest animals and plants
Many pesticides are toxic to useful or desirable animals, including honey bees,
natural enemies, fish, domestic animals, and birds. Crops and other plants may also
be damaged by misapplied pesticides. Take precautions to protect nonpest species
from direct exposure to pesticides and from contamination due to drift, runoff, or
residues. Certain rodenticides may pose a special hazard to animals that eat
poisoned rodents.
Posting treated fields
For some materials, restricted entry intervals are established to protect field
workers. Keep workers out of the field for the required time after application and,
when required by regulations, post the treated areas with signs indicating the safe
re-entry date. Check with your county agricultural commissioner for latest
restricted entry interval.
Preharvest intervals
Some materials or rates cannot be used in certain crops within a specified time
before harvest. Follow pesticide label instructions and allow the required time
between application and harvest.
Permit requirements
Many pesticides require a permit from the county agricultural commissioner before
possession or use. When such materials are recommended, they are marked with an
asterisk (*) in the treatment tables or chemical sections of this publication.
Maximum residue levels
Before applying pesticides to crops destined for export, check maximum residue
levels (MRLs) of the importing country.
Processed crops
Some processors will not accept a crop treated with certain chemicals. If your crop
is going to a processor, be sure to check with the processor before applying a
pesticide.
Crop injury
Certain chemicals may cause injury to crops (phytotoxicity) under certain
conditions. Always consult the label for limitations. Before applying any pesticide,
take into account the stage of plant development, the soil type and condition, the
temperature, moisture, and wind. Injury may also result from the use of
incompatible materials.
Personal safety
Follow label directions carefully. Avoid splashing, spilling, leaks, spray drift, and
contamination of clothing. NEVER eat, smoke, drink, or chew while using
pesticides. Provide for emergency medical care IN ADVANCE as required by
regulation.
Principle

Cultural operation plays an important role in controlling the pests. Care should be
taken to see that the recommended pesticide, its concentration and method and
time of application are followed in order to achieve pest suppression. Following
application of insecticide on mulberry, the pest receives the insecticide load by
diffusion through body integument or by entry through food. As a result, the
metabolic activities of the pest get hampered leading to its death.

Requirements

 Pest attacked mulberry garden

 Insecticide (commercial grade)
 SprayerWater
 Measuring cylinder
 Buckets
 Hand gloves
 Mask
 Gumboot
  Water pot

Procedure

a) Requirement of Spraying Solution (insecticide) for One Acre of Garden ”

Required insecticide spray solution: 180 litres ” Required concentration (%): 0.076
(leaf roller and wingless grass hopper), 0.15 (Bihar hairy caterpillar) and 0.2
(mealy bug) ” Required quantity of commercial insecticide formulation: 180 ml
(leaf roller and wingless grass hopper), 360 ml (Bihar hairy caterpillar) and 473 ml
(mealy bug). b) Preparation of Recommended Concentration of Spray Solution ”
Add the required quantity of commercial insecticide to a small quantity of water
and adjust the final volume of the spray solution to 180 litres by adding water. ”
Stir the spray solution for uniform distribution of the insecticide in the diluent
(water). Spray the insecticide solution using a sprayer till the leaves become wet

c) Field Testing of Prepared Spray SolutionSelect

 a few plots with pest infestation.

 Spay the formulations as per recommendation, in few selected plots.
 Keep the few infested plots without spaying.
 Observe the difference after a given time and record the readings in the table

Results

% Pest suppression due to spraying of insecticide = ______________%

PRECAUTIONS
  Do not allow children and persons having wounds to prepare and spray
insecticide solution.
 Do not mix the insecticide by hand; use rod / stick for mixing.
 Do not spray insecticide solution without wearing protective devices.
 Do not allow the insecticide solution to run-off from the leaf.
 Do not spray the insecticide during hot hours of the day.
 Do not spray against the wind and during rainy days
 Do not blow the nozzle with mouth to remove the clog, instead use the
needle.
 Do not harvest leaves without observing the safe / waiting period.

Method of calibration of machine(sprayers an dusters).

The origin of the word “calibration” is the matching of the bullet size to the size of
the canon barrel - in other words a preparation that is necessary to ensure a desired
well defined result. For spraying, calibration is necessary to ensure targeted,
optimal use of plant protection products, minimum risk to the crop, consumer, and
environment and to avoid excess spray liquid at the end of the spray job. This
paper describes a practical method for calibration of field crop sprayers orchard
sprayers and hand held sprayers as well as some aspects of calibration that may
need further discussion and clarification: So far there are no well documented
general answers telling at what wear rate nozzles should be changed, how chemical
injection systems can be calibrated efficiently and safely.

Introduction. In practice sprayer calibration is a method to check end ensure that:

1. The volume of spray liquid mixed in the spray tank will fit exactly with the
area to be treated - leaving no left over volume to be disposed. Calibration
will prove if:

− The nozzles are worn a little and the pressure needs to be readjusted. − The
nozzles are worn out and need to be changed

− The speed is correct. The tractor speedometer may be incorrect (dependent

on e.g. tyre size).

− The pressure gauge is incorrect or there is a pressure drop from gauge to

nozzles that needs to be accounted for.
2. The nozzles are performing well (no damaged nor blocked nozzles).

3. The boom is adjusted correctly – correct height and in level.

4. the sprayer is in good shape and with no leakages.

5. Precise dose rates of plant protection products can be calculated and applied.

There is so far no standard for sprayer calibration, what parameters must be

included in the calibration, how it should be carried out or what tools and
accuracy is recommended.

The following describes a basic, low tech method aiming to check the sprayer
regarding the above mentioned aspects.

However there is also a more holistic point of view from which a full
calibration preparing the sprayer for the desired well defined result would
include choice of droplet energy (a result of nozzle size, type and air assistance)
adapted to target and weather conditions like wind speed, temperature and
humidity. Traditionally the nozzle selection is dealt with separately from what
is normally included in the calibration procedure. This paper suggests that
future calibration encounters the total spray account as an aim to optimise on-
target deposit and hereby minimising any off-target deposit, as described in
figure 1 (Jørgensen and Witt 1997)
Field sprayer calibration – checking volume rate

Always start with a clean sprayer with clean water in the tank. For safety
reasons nozzle checking should take place over an area covered with grass or
other vegetation in the field. Always use gloves when touching the sprayer even
though it has been cleaned. Personal Protective Equipment [such as gloves,
coverall, boots] is intended for precautionary use only. Remember to take off
gloves and any other Personal Protective Equipment – especially if
contaminated - every time you enter the tractor.

Every time a sprayer is calibrated make records of: tractor, tyre size, speed,
gear, RPM, nozzle type and size, calibration pressure, theoretical and measured
nozzle flow (l/min) and volume rate (l/ha).

A. Choice of spraying parameters: The agrochemical label often suggests an all

round efficient volume rate – l/ha. However own experience, special weather
conditions and local research or need for high capacity may often lead to
choosing an alternative - often lower - volume rate. Also driving speed can be
very individual – some farmers look for high capacity through higher driving
sped -others use a low speed to minimise drift and increase crop penetration.
For uneven ground or simple boom suspensions lower forward speed is
recommended. Often volume rate and driving speed are decided first – then the
nozzle choice is limited to the possibilities within the accepted pressure range
(normally 2 to 2.5 bar for conventional nozzles).

B. Check driving speed:

• Measure 100 meters. It may be useful to have some ‘permanent’ markers that
are located in a convenient place (in a field or field like conditions).

• From the table in the tractor you find the gear to achieve the speed you want at
a given rpm.

• Drive the measured distance (with a ½ filled tank) and measure the time.

• Calculate the speed:

Distance driven (m) x 3.6 = km/h

Time (sec)

• If the speed check does not lead to the desired speed either choose another
gear and check speed again or change the rpm to reach the required speed:

RPM from speed check x required speed (km/h) = New RPM to

get the required speed*

(km/h) from speed check

*The pto-RPM should not exceed 540. If agitation is still acceptable the pto,
RPM can be reduced down to about 400 as a minimum (that is – 25%). Some
tractors and sprayer pumps run at around 1000 rpm at the PTO in stead of 540
rpm.

C. Calculate the required nozzle flow and choose nozzle size:

Checked speed (km/h) x Water rate (l/ha) x nozzle spacing (m) = Flow for
each nozzle (l/min)

600
Find a suitable nozzle size in a nozzle catalogue

D. Check liquid system

• Always use clean water for calibration.

• Mount the chosen nozzles on the boom.

• Turn on the sprayer and spray at minimum 8 bar whilst you check the liquid
system for any leakages.

• Check the agitation

• Nozzle performance. Always take a good look at the whole boom performing
– try to have the sun behind the nozzles – and see if any nozzles are damaged or
maybe partly blocked. “Stripes” in the spraying pattern is a sign of wear, and all
nozzles should be changed.

E. Check nozzle output

• Set the pressure.

• Adjust even pressure valves on all boom sections.

• Measure the nozzle output for one minute.

• Repeat - measuring at least 2 nozzles for every boom section.

• Calculate average nozzle output.

If the nozzle output is not that required (and the nozzles are not worn more than
10 %)

pressure can be readjusted

F. Based on the size of area to be treated the volume of the total spray mix and
how much plant protection product to add can now be calculated.

Field sprayer calibration – checking nozzle wear and uniformity

Wear test – all nozzles

1 Fix a new nozzle on the boom (same brand, type and size as the ones you
want to check). This is your reference nozzle

2 Check the flow of this nozzle at your spray pressure.

3 Calculate the maximum tolerated average flow

= flow for new nozzle + 10 % = l/min for new nozzle x 1.10

4 Check all nozzles at 3 bar

5 Calculate average. Sum of nozzle flows / number of nozzles

Uniformity

1. Calculate the maximum and minimum accepted limits for individual nozzle
flows: +/- 5 % of the average measured above.

2. Check that all measured flows for the individual nozzles are within the
limits. If one or more nozzles have higher deviations than + or – 5 % all nozzles
must be changed.

Wear test – quick-test during the season:

A quick check-up during the season can be useful (but it still remains very
important to carry out the full nozzle test for both wear and uniformity as
specified at least at the beginning af a season). Measure the flow rate for a
sample of nozzles – could be 2 nozzles per boom section - and check that
individual flow for the measured nozzles does not exceed the worst case
situation of more than 10% average wear plus a further 5 % deviation allowed
for individual nozzles. Maximum wear (10 %) + maximum deviation (5 %) =
15 % meaning that 15 % increase in single nozzle output can be tolerated in the
quick-test.

When to change to new nozzles:

 When the average nozzle flow has increased by more than 10 % compared to
the flow from a new nozzle – all nozzles must be changed to new ones. Does
one or more nozzles deviate more than +/- 5 % compared to the average flow, it
is sufficient to shift these nozzles if the average nozzle flow is increased less
that 5 % compared to new nozzles. If the average flow has increased by more
than 5 % and one or more single nozzle flows deviate more than +/- 5 % ALL
nozzles on the boom must be changed.

How often must a sprayer be calibrated?

Before spraying with a new set of nozzles, new volume rate, new speed, new
tyres, new pressure or any new field or equipment conditions:

• Check driving speed.

• Check nozzle flow and pressure. Once a year (and before inspections) Hardi
recommends a thorough check:

• Check driving speed.

• Check all nozzles.

ƒ if average output has increased more than 10% compared to new nozzles:
change all nozzles. ƒ if there is more than +/- 5 % deviation in nozzle output,
change all nozzles. During the season frequent quick-checks are recommended:

• Check 2 nozzles per boom section if one nozzle has more than 15 % increase
in flow, change all nozzles. The basic calibration as described above is based on
following assumptions:

• Average nozzle flow (l/min) may not exceed output from new nozzles + 10 %

. • Single nozzle flow may not exceed output from new nozzles + 15 %.

Tools for quick calibration and boom distribution measurement

Many sprayer manufacturers are aware that the formula for calculation of total
nozzle flow based on nozzle spacing, driving speed and the wanted volume rate
(l/ha) is not very handy in practise. Therefore different aids have been made,
like calibration wheels and rulers where the most used formulas are integrated.
Also little programmes for PC and PDA are available for free download from
some sprayer manufacturers. One of the more advanced examples is Calipilot
from Hardi International. The Calipilot offers all necessary calculations for
calibration and adding of plant protection product. Also nozzle wear is dealt
with. The programme is available from the Hardi homepage.

Also more advanced tools that take calibration beyond the crude measuring jug
are available: from handheld units for measuring, saving and processing the
nozzle flow rates to more or less advanced spray tables, some for simultaneous
measurement of nozzles from a boom section and for visualising the
distribution to advanced models that automatically read and process data for
each 10 cm of a whole boom offering data like coefficience of variation as a
description of boom distribution.

Electric control of valves and sprayer computers are making life more easy for
sprayer operators – however speed monitors may be faulty either do to errors
when setting or if not calibrated to specific tyres. Increase in flow rate due to
nozzle wear may be encountered for automatically when setting a wanted
volume rate – however the individual nozzles still need to be checked for wear
and performance.
Chemical injection systems - Calibration method

When spraying with chemical injection there are 2 or more pumps and a main
water tank as well as chemical tanks contributing to the total flow. The injection
pump can either be a higher pressure or a low pressure pump system
(http://www.freepatentsonline.com/EP1289668.html):

• High pressure injection pump: can inject chemical close to the spray nozzle as
it has sufficiently high pressure to overcome the pressure of the pumped water.
Unfortunately, however, this makes calibration of the injection system difficult:
any change in the back pressure of the system affects the output of the injection
pump.

• Low pressure injection pumps: injects chemical before the sprayer's main
pump. This allows accurate calibration of the amount of chemical mixed with
the water but is slower acting than the high pressure injection since the
chemical is injected a significant distance from the spray nozzle. PRACTICAL
CALIBRATION: measured as l/min of pure chemical flow from the calibration
nozzle.

Orchard sprayer calibration – different methods

Some chemical labels indicate what liquid volume per area either the traditional
l/ha or Vertical canopy surface (Laubwandfläche) to use – others make de
volume rate dependent on crown height. More and more the liquid volume is
adapted to a canopy volume (Tree Row volume or Unit Crop Row). Common
for all methods is that calibration of liquid flow can be measures as l/min – as
illustrated in table 1.

Adjusting speed and air volume to orchard canopy volume.

Because forward speed is an influencing factor on the air volume presented to
the crop, calibration starts by choosing a combination of air volume (where
adjustable) and driving speed.

The theoretical air flow needed (m,3/h) for a given application can be
calculated as follows:

Q (m3 /h) = 1000 * speed (km/h) * tree height (m) * spray width (m)

The k value is depending on crop density, for very dense canopies k is 2,5 and
if the canopy is very open k is 3,5. Once the required air flow is established, the
fan can be adjusted by increasing/decreasing the rotation speed or for some
orchard sprayers by changing fan gear or blade angling.

Rule of thumb: At the optimum combination of air volume and speed the spray
will only occasionally penetrate through the row.

Calibration of hand held sprayers – 2 basic methods.

There are many techniques for calibration but only two are described in these
notes (Hardi 2001). One method has assumed that there is guidance from the
supplier of pesticide on nozzle type, water volumes and also nozzle pressure.
The second method assumes very little guidance is available and few
instruments to help the operator. Other labels may give dose and water volume
rates for small areas Third European Workshop on Standardised Procedure for
the Inspection of Sprayers - SPISE 3 -, Brno, September 22-24, 2009 Julius-
Kühn-Archiv, 426, 2010 151 whilst others – only that for a hectare. Some
products offer a concentration of solution with general guidance on what sort of
target surface coverage should be gained whilst spraying.

General for both types of calibration:

• Fill the clean sprayer with water.

• Check that the sprayer is operating correctly and safely with no leakages.

• Practise spraying at comfortable nozzle height and find your personal walking
speed, that you can maintain all though a spray job.

• Spray water on a dry, flat surface at the chosen nozzle height and operating
pressure. Measure the width of the spray pattern – do not include tapered edges.
 Tools: Stop watch, measuring tape (20 m +), 2 litre measuring jug, and
preferably a pocket calculator.

Method 1 – “Spray 1 minute”.

1. Mark out a line at least 100 m.

2. With comfortable walking speed and while spraying correctly, measure

distance walked in 1 minute.

3. Spray into container and measure volume of spray emitted for one minute.

4. Calculate l/m2, and l/ha

Method 2 – “Spray 100m2 ”.

1. Make sure the sprayer is full – place on a horizontal surface and make a
mark on the spray tank showing how much water is in the tank.

2. Based on the spray width (see table below) find out how far to walk in order
to spray 100m2 .

100 m2

Spray width (m) Spraying distance (m)

0,5 200

0,7 143

1 100

1,2 83

1,5 67

3. Spray 100 m at the practised nozzle height and walking speed.

 4. Measure how much water is necessary to refill sprayer to the marking on the
tank.

5. To find the volume rate (l/ha) multiply the measured quantity of water
(l/100m2) with 10.000 m2/ha.

Conclusion

The simple method for a traditional field sprayer calibration described above
leads to some questions that may need clarification in the process of making a
general guideline for calibration:

• How much nozzle wear can be tolerated? Is an average of the nozzle

manufacturers statements of maximum acceptable wear rate acceptable in an
official recommendation.

• Is it enough to make a visual check of liquid distribution or should the nozzles

or the actual boom distribution be tested over a spray table?

• How often should a sprayer be calibrated – and what parameters at what

intervals?

• For chemical injections systems a double calibration is needed – one for the
grand sprayer liquid system and one for the injection system. For both high and
low pressure injection pumps it is a challenge to deal with the cleaning of the
measuring jug for measuring concentrated chemical.

The fact that more and more sprayer manufacturers offer manual or IT tools for
easier calculation of calibration values indicates that there is a need for
simplifying the process.

DESCRIBE ABOUT STORAGE INSECT PEST

Introduction
The main storage pests, apart from rodents, are beetles and moths. 
Some pests such as grain borers, weevils and Angoumois grain moths are able
to feed on whole, healthy grains, they are considered primary pests. Secondary
pests such as flour beetles can attack only broken grain, moist and thus soft
grain, grain damaged by primary pests or processed products such as flour.
Contamination by fungi also causes direct losses and poses a threat to human and
animal health by producing poisons known as mycotoxins, which contaminate food
and feed. 
 

2. Beetles: Weevils, Grain Borers, Bruchids, Khapra Beetles

 
The main beetle pests of storage are bruchids (e.g. cowpea seed beetles and bean
bruchid), grain borers (e.g. the larger and the lesser grain borers), weevils (e.g.
grain weevils), flour beetles, Khapra beetles and dried fruit beetles. 
The larvae and some adult beetles feed in the seeds and grain, leaving them full of
small holes. Sometimes a fine dust is found around the holes, being the excrements
of these beetles. Beetle damage renders grains and seeds unsuitable for human and,
in case of heavy attack, even for animal consumption. 
 

 Lesser grain borer (Rhizopertha dominica)

This is a tiny beetle (2-3 mm long) with a slim and cylin

colour. The thorax bears rows of teeth on its upper fro
underneath the thorax so that it cannot be seen from abov
grains. The larvae are mobile. Both larvae and adult bo
causing characteristic round tunnels (up to 1 mm diameter).
In later stages of infestation these beetles may also hollow
place within the eaten grain. The lesser grain borer is prima
cereal products and dried cassava. It will be controlled by a
borer.

Grain weevils (Sitophilus spp.)

The adults are small (2.5 to 4.0 mm long), brown wee

lays eggs inside the grain. The larva (grub) lives and fee
adult attacks whole or damaged grains causing irregul
grains either in the field before harvest or in the store. 
The rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae) is a major pest of ric

Rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae)  

Flour beetles (Tribolium castaneum, T. confusum)
The adults are elongated beetles, 3 to 4 mm long, red brown to dark brown in
colour. The wing cases are marked with finely punctured lines. Larvae and adults
are secondary pests and attack cereals and cereals products, groundnuts, nuts,
spices, coffee, cocoa, dried fruits and occasionally pulses. Infestation leads to
persistent unpleasant odours of the products. 
 

Khapra beetle (Trogoderma granarium)

The adults are oval beetles, 2 to 3 mm long, dark brown in colour often with blurry
reddish markings. The larvae are very hairy. They are common in hot dry areas.
Damage is done only by larvae feeding on cereal grains and products, groundnuts,
oilseed cakes, nuts, pulses, etc. 
 

Dried fruit beetles(Carpophilus spp.)

They are slightly flattened ovate to oblong beetles, 2 to 5 mm in length. The wing
cases are short, leaving part of the abdomen exposed. They are light brown to
black in colour, but several species have yellow or red markings on the wing cases.
They are secondary pests; presence of these beetles is an indicator of damp,
mouldy conditions. Adults and larvae cause damage on poorly dried cereal grains,
cocoa, copra, oilseeds, dried fruit, vegetables, herbs and mouldy produce.

  Moths
 The potato tuber moth (Phthorimaea operculella)
 

This moth is the most

serious pest of potatoes in
the region. It occurs in
Africa wherever potatoes
are grown, and it also
attacks tobacco, eggplants
and tomatoes. 
Caterpillars of the potato
tuber moth are up to 12 mm
Pupae of the potato tuber moth on potato tuber. long and feed as leaf
miners, causing silver blotches on leaves, and bore into the petiole or a young
shoot or main leaf vein and later into the tuber. This causes wilting of plants. When
eggs are laid on tubers, caterpillars begin feeding on the tubers immediately upon
hatching making long irregular black tunnels, which are filled with excreta
(faeces), where disease-causing microorganisms grow. 
 
Economic Losses from Insect Pest 

In Benin, on-farm storage of paddy rice is increasingly exposed to pest damage.

Insect infestation causes a loss of income to farmers and other post-harvest
stakeholders. The objective of this study is to assess the magnitude of damage
caused to rice stored on-farm and evaluate the potential economic risk. In this
study, 65 stocks of paddy rice were inspected and sampled in order to assess the
economic losses. In addition, an agronomic survey was carried out to determine
producer perceptions about the economic impact of stored rice pests in a farming
environment. The findings show that weight loss amounts to 5.47% after 6 months
of storage in the southern region, 4.07% in the central region and 1.64% in the
northern region. From an economic perspective, 6 months duration of storage is
likely to cause an estimated loss of 21,315 FCFA (Franc of the African Financial
Community) per ton of paddy in the South region, compared to losses of 8,088
FCFA in the North. Furthermore, 36.92% of farmer respondents consider that these
insects cause considerable economic damage to stored rice. This study made it
possible not only to assess current losses attributable to insect pests in the country
but also to obtain future projections about trends in high-risk regions. These
findings will undoubtedly pave the way for future research in improved stored rice
protection and income safeguards for various stakeholders intervening in the post-
harvest sector.
INDEGENOUS TECHNICAL KNOWLEDGE (ITK) OF PEST
MANAGEMENT

Farmers are using biorationals like ITKs for insect pest management since time
immemorial. This knowledge is based on many generations of insight gained
through close interaction within the natural and physical microenvironments
(Rajasekaran et al., 1991 and Kolawole, 2001). ITKs are passed verbally from
one generation to the next without having authenticated written documents
except a few. Many definitions have been proposed for ITK systems, but all of
them are incomplete, because the concept is relatively new and still evolving.
The ITKs are eco friendly and compatible to pest management practices (Deka
et al., 2006). Mainly ITKs are based on cultural values of the community. Thus
it consists of technologies developed by farmers over decades of adjusting
farming systems to local agro climatic and social conditions (Venkata Ramaiah
and Rama Raju, 2004). The methods of controlling pests were indigenous in
nature since farming did not include the use of chemical pesticides or fertilizers.
In this context, collection, compilation and scientific evaluation of ITKs are
very important. The present study aims at insect pest management in rice-rice
cropping sequence and collection, compilation and scientific evaluation of
commonly practiced ITKs by the farmers in connection to rice and other crops
pest management in Tinsukia, district of Assam in Northeast India. Indigenous
Technological Knowledge (ITK) for pest management in Tinsukia district of
Assam R.K. Nath, P. Ahmed and A.C. Sarmah Krishi Vigyan Kendra (A.A.U.),
TINSUKIA (ASSAM) INDIA (Email : [email protected]) ABSTRACT
The present study describes the ITK of pest management practiced by the
farmers of Tinsukia districts of Assam. The information was collected on the
basis of personal interview to each of the farmer through a questionnaire. A
total sample of 200 farmers of twenty different villages was selected randomly
from three rural developmental blocks of the district. All in about 30 ITKs were
collected and documented. The percentage of farmers practicing different ITKs
ranged from 11 to 78.65 per cent. Identification of scientifically sound
indigenous practices may serve as the input for valid scientific management for
large scale use of insect pest management and in generation of low cost,
location specific and appropriate technology. The study was conducted with a
sample of 200 farmers of twenty different villages of Tinsukia, district of
Assam. A purposive cum random sampling technique was followed to draw the
sample for the study. Three Rural Development Blocks viz., Hapjan,
Margherita and Kakopothar were purposively selected for the study. The
investigation was carried out with various problems faced by the farmers during
pest management in various crops (rice, citrus and vegetables, stored grain). A
semi structured interview schedule was administered to individual respondents
which were followed by group discussion to collect the relevant data/
information from the respondents. The data were collected by personal
interview method using both structural schedule and semistructured interview
during 2014- 16. After completion of survey, a total of 200 filled in
questionnaire were analyzed to find out the ITK related to pest management
practices. After going through the questionnaire filled up by the famers it was
revealed that about 80 per cent were aware about the ITKs and these are known
to them from the seniors. The farmers reported that use of ITKs has great role in
management of pests of crops. The identified ITKs along with rationale drawn
from their experiences are presented in Table 1. From the investigation it was
observed that, a total of
30 numbers of ITKs were identified in pest management of crops. The study
reveals that many of the indigenous practices, which are still in vogue, meet the
farmers needs in minimizing risks in field conditions. Small holding farmers
have regularly been using ITKs. However, medium and large farm holding
farmers often rely on chemicals for pest management. It was also observed that
most of the ITKs were related to rice pest management followed by citrus crops
as Tinsukia district is one of the leading citrus growing area after rice. The
percentage of farmers practicing different ITKs ranged from 11 to 78.65 per
cent. Conclusion : The documented ITKs serve as a ready reference for the
agricultural scientists for further study to determine their scientific rationality
and effectiveness. Since ITKs are organic in nature, the documented ITKs may
be useful for extension personnel in planning and executing various IPM
module. Hence, it can be concluded that the ITKs, which are prevalent among
the farmers from the time immemorial, if organized and used scientifically may
help in pest management.