Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833

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Journal of Materials Processing Technology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmatprotec

Experimental characterization of sheet metal deformation during

electro-hydraulic forming夽
Aashish Rohatgi ∗ , Elizabeth V. Stephens, Ayoub Soulami, Richard W. Davies, Mark T. Smith
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), 902 Battelle Boulevard, P.O. Box 999, Richland, WA 99352, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A novel experimental technique, that combines high-speed imaging and digital image correlation
Received 16 March 2011 techniques, has been developed and applied to investigate the high-rate deformation behavior of alu-
Received in revised form 1 June 2011 minum sheet during electro-hydraulic forming (EHF). Aluminum alloy AA5182-O sheets (1 mm thick
Accepted 4 June 2011
and ∼152 mm diameter) were EHF deformed by high-energy (up to ∼21 kJ) pressure-pulse and the time-
Available online 12 June 2011
evolution of sheet-displacement, velocity, strain and strain-rate quantified. The data shows that different
locations on the sheet undergo unique deformation history that is not apparent from the conventional
Keywords:
post-mortem strain measurement (using etched circle/grid pattern) approach. Under the experimental
Electro-hydraulic forming
High strain-rate
conditions used in this work, the sheets were formed into domes and the maximum strain-rate observed
Formability was ∼664/s. Further, this maximum strain-rate was observed at an off-apex location and was ∼2.5 times
Digital image correlation greater than the maximum strain-rate at the dome apex. The maximum velocity observed was ∼100 m/s
Light-weight and the velocity–time data showed evidence of pressure-wave reverberations during the forming process.
Automotive We believe that knowledge of such time-evolution of sheet deformation is necessary for a better under-
standing and accurate modeling of sheet formability that has often been reported to exceed quasi-static
forming limits under high-rate forming conditions.
© 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction advanced high-strength steels (AHSS) such as dual-phase steels,

and conventional high-strength steels (HSS) can also contribute
Our group at the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory is to automotive lightweighting by enabling use of thinner gauge
involved in research with the overarching theme of automotive sheets that have equivalent strength as thicker gauge (thus, heav-
weight reduction in support of the US DOE and the FreedomCAR ier) mild steel. However, AHSS too suffer from poor formability
and Fuel Partnership (USCAR) efforts to reduce a car’s weight by compared to mild steel thus, limiting their deployment for auto-
50%, as outlined in their Plan (USDOE, 2006). While the goal of motive lightweighting. For example, Golovashchenko et al. (2009)
automotive weight reduction through the use of low-density met- noted that the room-temperature formability of aluminum alloys
als such as aluminum (Al) and magnesium (Mg) alloys has been and AHSS under plane-strain conditions typically does not exceed
pursued for many years, mild steel is still the predominant choice ∼25% and ∼30%, respectively, while the same figure for deep draw-
for body-in-white and automotive closure panels owing to its bet- ing quality (DDQ) steel exceeds 45%. Therefore, there is a need to
ter room-temperature formability than Al or Mg sheets. The use of develop techniques to successfully form materials such as Al, Mg,
AHSS and HSS, preferably at room temperature, for cost-effective
automotive lightweighting.
High strain-rates have been shown to enhance the formabil-
夽 Disclaimer: This manuscript has been authored by Battelle Memorial Institute, ity (relative to formability at quasi-static strain-rates) of sheet
Pacific Northwest Division, under Contract No. DE-AC05-76RL01830 with the U.S. metal in many instances. High strain-rates for sheet forming are
Department of Energy. The United States Government retains and the publisher, by
typically obtained by techniques such as explosive forming, electro-
accepting the article for publication, acknowledges that the United States Govern-
ment retains a non-exclusive, paid-up, irrevocable, worldwide license to publish or
hydraulic forming (EHF) and electro-magnetic forming (EMF). Such
reproduce the published form of this manuscript, or allow others to do so, for United high-strain-rate forming techniques may also incur lower tooling
States Government purposes. costs due to the elimination of matching die which is, instead,
∗ Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 509 372 6047; fax: +1 509 375 4448.
replaced by the impulse force generated by an explosive (explosive
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (A. Rohatgi),
forming), electromagnetic repulsion (EMF) or electrical discharge
[email protected] (E.V. Stephens), [email protected]
(A. Soulami), [email protected] (R.W. Davies), [email protected] (EHF). Several authors, e.g. Balanethiram et al. (1994), Fenton and
(M.T. Smith). Daehn (1998) and Golovashchenko et al. (2003), also cite lower

0924-0136/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2011.06.005
 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833 1825

spring-back as an advantage of high-strain-rate forming. Hence, authors, such as Golovashchenko et al. (2003), Golovashchenko and
owing to their potential to successfully form low-formability met- Mamutov (2005) and Golovashchenko (2007), determined only the
als at room temperature, such as Al, HSS and AHSS, with additional post-mortem strain (via the circle-etching technique) in EMF and
benefits of reduced tooling costs and minimal/no spring-back, EHF experiments and attributed improved sheet formability to high
high-strain-rate forming techniques are of great interest to the strain-rates and high-rate impact with the tooling even though
automotive industry. The reader is referred to a recent review by the strain and strain-rate history of the deforming sheet were
Daehn (2006) of various high-rate forming techniques. unknown. Imbert et al. (2005a) numerically modeled EMF of Al
Although explosive forming is one of the earliest high-rate form- alloy sheet and concluded that high-strain rates (estimated to be on
ing techniques, handling explosives for routine research is not the order of 30,000–69,000/s in the locations where sheet impacts
feasible. Therefore, majority of recent formability-related research the die) and inertial stabilization alone could not be respon-
has employed EHF and EMF techniques. For example, Balanethiram sible for enhanced formability; instead, high through-thickness
and Daehn (1992) deformed interstitial free (IF) iron into a conical compressive and shear stresses and strains as well as non-linear
die (90◦ apex angle) using EHF technique and measured engineer- strain-paths were the responsible factors. However, Imbert et al.
ing plane-strains on the order of ∼160% near the fracture region (2005a) noted that such conclusions about extremely high strain-
and ∼120% away from the fracture; the corresponding quasi-static rates and strain-path need to be validated experimentally. Finally,
strains in IF iron are on the order of 30–40%. Using the same EHF modeling efforts, such as those by Oliveira and Worswick (2003)
procedure as before, the same authors in a subsequent publica- tend to validate their numerical models using final strain dis-
tion (Balanethiram and Daehn, 1994) observed large plane-strains tribution as the key criterion but neglect the prior strain and
near failure in 6061-T4 aluminum (engineering strain ∼120–130% strain-rate history owing to the lack of corresponding experimental
at high-rate vs. ∼20% at quasi-static rates) and in oxygen-free high- data.
conductivity copper (engineering strain ∼100% at high-rates vs. Only recently has some progress been reported in obtaining
∼30% at quasi-static rates). Seth et al. (2005) used EMF to impact deformation-history from high-rate forming experiments. Badelt
steel sheets on axisymmetric and wedge-shaped dies and measured et al. (2003) used contact-pins and laser-shadow methods to
engineering plane-strains at failure to be ∼50–60% as compared to determine displacement–time history of individual locations on
∼10% under quasi-static deformation. Golovashchenko et al. (2003) a sheet during electromagnetic forming. However, their method
compared the rate-dependence of formability of several materials was unsuitable for direct measurement of strains and strain-rates
(Al, Cu, steel and Ti alloys) and observed that EHF into an open and necessitated the use of mathematical modeling to estimate
die (free-forming) could increase the local deformation by 40–90%. the same. Johnson et al. (2009) used Photon Doppler Velocime-
Golovashchenko et al. (2003) also observed higher failure strains try technique in electromagnetically expanding ring experiment
(∼60% strain at high-rates vs. ∼25% at quasi-static rates) in 6111- to determine in-process velocity vs. time at four locations. How-
T4 Al when using the EMF technique and forming the Al sheet into ever, Johnson et al. (2009) did not demonstrate the actual strain or
a V-shaped die. Imbert et al. (2005b) investigated EMF of AA5754 strain-rate history for the expanding rings from this data. Mercier
sheet into an open die (free-forming) and a conical die (112◦ apex et al. (2010) used VISAR and Doppler Laser Fabry-Pérot Inter-
angle) and observed maximum strains on the order of ∼35–45% ferometry technique to measure velocity (at 3 locations) during
at high rates as compared to quasi-static strains of 20–30%. In explosive-driven expansion of tantalum and copper hemispheres,
another study, Imbert et al. (2005a) measured maximum engineer- respectively. Again, experimental strain or strain-rates could not be
ing strains of ∼65% for AA5754 formed by the EMF technique into a determined by their (Mercier et al., 2010) method. Finally, Wielage
conical die (100◦ apex angle) as compared to quasi-static strains of and Vollertsen (2011) used high-speed imaging to determine veloc-
∼20–30%. Oliveira and Worswick (2003) measured maximum engi- ity of laser shock formed metal foils (20–50 ␮m thick). Owing to
neering strains of ∼40–50% when forming AA5754 by EMF into a the simple bending geometry employed in this work, the authors
rectangular die. Thus, the observation of increased formability at (Wielage and Vollertsen, 2011) used geometrical arguments to esti-
high strain-rates has been generally established in the literature. mate the total bending strain and the corresponding strain-rate.
However, as will be described subsequently, the quantification of Thus, it is concluded that prior research has principally relied
deformation history of the sheet metal, subjected to high-rate defor- upon final strain measurements, estimated strain-rates and numer-
mation, has not been clearly established and is the topic of this ical models to postulate mechanisms responsible for enhanced
paper. formability. Further, the numerical models themselves are vali-
The formability in high-rate deformed sheets is typically deter- dated by the post-mortem strain measurements and neglect the
mined by measuring strains using the circle grid analysis, as prior strain and strain-rate history. Therefore, the primary objec-
outlined by Taylor (1988). While this strain-measuring technique tive of this work is to quantify the in-process strain and strain-rates
determines the final strain distribution in the deformed sheet, it is and improve our understanding of high-strain-rate forming events.
unable to determine the strain and strain-rate history at different The technique selected for this work is EHF owing to its applicability
sheet locations. Consequently, there is lack of in-process defor- (unlike EMF technique) to both high conductivity (e.g. Al) as well as
mation behavior in the literature, which, in authors’ opinion, has low-conductivity (e.g. steel and magnesium) sheets. The work pre-
led to a lack of consensus on the mechanisms responsible for the sented below describes the equipment, measurement techniques
enhanced-formability in sheet metals. For example, Balanethiram and results obtained for high-strain-rate forming of Al sheets. It is
and Daehn (1992) estimated a sheet velocity of 300 m/s and a anticipated that this research will contribute to our understanding
strain rate of ∼1050/s during EHF of IF steel sheet and attributed of the high-rate deformation behavior through experimental deter-
formability improvement to inertial stabilization on account of high mination of strain and strain-rate history of deforming sheets and
velocity. In another publication, similar velocity and (some-what help elucidate the mechanisms responsible for enhanced formabil-
lower) strain rate estimates, as well as conclusions were reached by ity while helping validate the numerical models.
the same authors (Balanethiram and Daehn, 1994) for EHF tested
6061-T4 Al and OFHC Cu. Seth et al. (2005) experimentally mea-
sured the impact velocity of steel sheets on a steel punch (though 2. Experimental procedure
strains were still measured by the etched-circle technique (Taylor,
1988) and attributed the enhanced formability to inertial stabi- A key contribution of this paper is the quantification of the in-
lization and compressive stresses generated during impact. Other process deformation parameters (displacement, velocity, strain and
1826 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833

Fig. 1. Schematic representation of PNNL’s EHF setup showing the initial (unde-
formed) and the final (deformed) positions of the sheet. Fig. 2. Photograph of PNNL’s EHF fixture.

strain-rate) that have typically been unknown, or estimated at the inserted through the chamber walls. The electrodes were copper
best, in the literature. The quantification method, as well as the rods, 6.35 mm in diameter with a gap of ∼11.5 mm between the two
equipment and the test procedures employed in this research are ends. A thin copper wire was used to join the electrode ends, thus,
described below; additional details are described in a prior publi- creating an electrical “short” between the electrodes. External to
cation (Rohatgi et al., 2010). the chamber, the copper electrodes were connected to a capacitor
bank with ∼2.44 m (8 ft.) long cables and a program written in Lab-
2.1. Quantification of sheet deformation behavior View software was used to control the charge–discharge process.
For a given charge voltage V, the electrical energy input was calcu-
Overall, the approach comprised painting a speckle pattern on lated as 1/2CV2 where C is the capacitance (750 ␮F) of the bank. The
the undeformed metal sheet. The sheet was then deformed via voltage at the positive electrode at the EHF chamber was measured
EHF and the deformation process was imaged by a pair of high- using a single-ended high voltage probe (Tektronix P6015A with
speed cameras. The images of the deforming sheet were captured ∼7.62 m (25 ft.) cable and a 1000× attenuator) and Tektronix oscil-
and post-processed by the digital image correlation (DIC) software loscope model TDS3034B. The discharge currents were measured
to calculate the displacement, velocity, strain and strain-rate, as a by Rogowski coils and recorded by the data acquisition system. The
function of time, at any given point on the sheet. chamber was filled with water prior to each test.
Digital image correlation is an optical method to measure defor-
mation on an object surface. This method uses white-light speckle
2.3. Specimen preparation and boundary conditions
correlation to measure deformation in each image of an image
sequence where any two consecutive speckled images, captured
The sheet metal tested in this work was 1 mm thick 5182-O alu-
by a video camera, represent the incremental stages during the
minum. Typical specimen geometry is shown in Fig. 3. One face
deformation process. In this project, digital image correlation soft-
ware (Vic-3d, Version 2009.1.0) from Correlated Solutions, Inc., in
conjunction with the image sequence captured by the high-speed
cameras, was used to quantify the in-process sheet displacement,
velocity, strain and strain-rate, as a function of time. A software cal-
ibration was performed at the start of the experiments by imaging
a pre-measured geometrical test-pattern using the cameras. This
calibration essentially defines the cameras’ orientation in space,
relative to each other. Following calibration, the cameras posi-
tion was held fixed such that the sheet deformation was imaged
without disturbing the camera’s relative orientation to each other.
Thus, when the software analyzes the images of the sheet, cap-
tured during the EHF test and representing sequential stages of
its deformation, the software is able to quantify the displacement
of the speckles in the image sequence and the strain tensor can
be determined at any point on the sheet surface. Knowing the in-
process displacement and image capture rate, the velocity, strain,
and strain-rate at each point on the sheet can be plotted as a func-
tion of time. A quick check of the software’s analysis was performed
by comparing the final dome heights determined by the DIC soft-
ware with those measured physically on the deformed sheet.

2.2. Electro-hydraulic forming apparatus and instrumentation

A schematic of PNNL’s EHF setup is shown in Fig. 1 and a

close-up photograph of the EHF fixture is shown in Fig. 2. The
EHF fixture was machined out of steel and consisted of a hemi-
spherical cavity (∼152 mm diameter) with two opposing electrodes Fig. 3. A schematic of the EHF sheet specimen geometry.
 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833 1827

Fig. 6. A photograph of an EHF-deformed sheet. Some water has leaked out from
the hemi-spherical chamber owing to fracture (not visible) in the sheet.

the final deformed shape of the sheet was in the form of a dome,
as shown in Fig. 6. The center of the 152 mm circular portion of the
undeformed sheet was marked and is referred to as the “apex” in
subsequent discussion.

Fig. 4. A top view of an undeformed speckle patterned sheet clamped in the EHF 2.4. High-speed camera imaging
fixture.
A pair of Photron SA1 high-speed cameras was used to capture
of the sheet specimens was speckle-patterned by spray-painting it the sheet deformation at a frame rate of 67,500/s and at an image
with white automotive paint and then creating a random pattern resolution of 256 × 256 pixels. The cameras were simultaneously
of spots with a black-color marker (Fig. 4). The sheet was bolted triggered to capture the images when the capacitor banks were
to the EHF chamber (Fig. 2) through a hold-down ring with the discharged to initiate the EHF process. At the end of the test, the
speckled face facing the cameras and illuminated by several high- image sequence corresponding to the sheet deformation was saved
intensity lights (Fig. 5). This testing configuration is referred to as on the computer for subsequent image analysis.
“free-forming” in that the sheet is constrained circumferentially by
a ring and a central region (∼152 mm diameter) of the sheet is free 2.5. Conducting the electro-hydraulic forming test
to deform when subjected to the pulse-pressure wave originating
from the underlying hemispherical EHF chamber. Consequently, The EHF chamber was filled with tap-water and the speckle-
patterned sheet clamped over it ensuring that there was no air gap
between the water and the sheet bottom. The capacitor bank was
charged to the desired voltage (energy) and discharged immedi-
ately upon reaching the set voltage level. The capacitor discharge
results in large currents (10 s of KA) to flow through the copper
wire that result in its rapid melting, vaporization and expansion,
thus, leading to a pressure-pulse. Tests were conducted at voltages
of 5000, 6500 and 7500 V corresponding to an energy (stored in the
capacitor banks) of ∼9.4, 15.8 and 21.1 kJ. The entire deformation
event for each test was captured by the high-speed cameras and
the images were stored for subsequent analysis. Table 1 lists the
experimental details for various tests. Table 1 also compares the
physically measured dome height (measured relative to the top
surface of the undeformed portion of the test sheet) and thickness
strain at the apex relative to those calculated by the image analysis
DIC software.

3. Results

3.1. Coordinate system and quantification of sheet deformation

The displacements and velocity of any point on the sheet were

calculated by the DIC software in the global coordinate system i.e.
the x and y axes correspond to the horizontal and vertical direction
in the 2-dimensional camera images while z-axis is normal to the
plane of the image and corresponds to the normal to undeformed
Al sheet. The strain and strain-rate at any point on the surface of the
sheet are presented in local coordinate system which is constructed
(by the software) as follows:

- A tangent plane is drawn at the point of interest on the sheet.

- The local z-axis is normal to the tangent plane.
- The local x-axis is the projection of the global x-axis in the tangent
Fig. 5. An overview of PNNL’s EHF experimental arrangement. plane.
1828 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833

Table 1
Summary of EHF test results of 1 mm thick 5182-O Al sheet deformed under free- forming conditions.

Test name Voltage (V) Energy (kJ) Dome height Thickness strain at Max. velocity (m/s) Max. strain-rate (1/s)
measurements (mm) apex (Engineering)a

Calipers DIC Calipers DIC Loc. 1 Loc. 2 Loc. 3 Loc. 1 Loc. 2 Loc. 3

T-26 5000 9.4 37.9 37.1 0.13 0.13 65 62 58 207 166 196
T-24 6500 15.8 40.7 40.0 0.19 0.19 70 70 64 237 283 435
T-28 7500 21.1 47.5 49.0 0.22 0.23 94 83 100 271 383 664
a
Thickness strain at the apex, measured by the DIC technique, was converted from Lagrangian into engineering strain using Eq. (1).

- The local y-axis is perpendicular to the x-axis and also lies in the distance of ∼22.5 mm and ∼45 mm from the apex along the x-axis.
tangent plane. Table 1 summarizes deformation parameters for various tests and
the data from test done at 7500 V is analyzed in the subsequent
The DIC software calculates the strain in Lagrangian formulation sections as an example. It is noted that in Figs. 9–11, the electrodes
and is presented as such in this paper unless indicated otherwise. are positioned along the x-axis in the images and each data point
Lagrangian strain is related to engineering strain by the following in the associated graph represents a camera frame captured during
relation: the EHF test.

1
Lagrangian exx = Engineering exx + (Engineering exx )2 (1)
2 3.2. Sheet displacement
Fig. 7 shows photographs of EHF domes, free-formed at 5000,
6500 and 7500 V charging voltages. The dome formed at 6500 V is Fig. 9 shows the out-of-plane displacement contours at selected
shown with the speckle pattern cleaned-off around the apex as well times during the sheet deformation under free forming con-
as sectioned across the middle (to machine out a specimen from the ditions and at a charging voltage of 7500 V. The contours are
apex for microstructural examination). Fig. 8 shows the software generally symmetrical in nature. The graph in Fig. 9 shows the z-
reconstruction of dome profiles, corresponding to the end of the displacement–time history for three locations on the sheet. The
test and at the indicated time (from the beginning of deformation). data shows that the vertical displacement of the sheet at the end
The DIC technique allows the deformation history to be obtained for of the test (∼600–650 ␮s from start), as calculated by the DIC soft-
any point on the dome. As an example, the deformation parameters ware, was ∼50 mm at the dome apex. Similar contours and plots
were determined at specific locations identified as locations 1–3. can be obtained for displacements in the x and y directions as well
Location 1 refers to the dome apex while locations 2 and 3 lie at a as for tests done at any charging voltage.

Fig. 7. Post-test photographs of the domes that were EHF free-formed at (a) 5000 V, (b) 6500 V and (c) 7500 V.

Fig. 8. Dome profiles reconstructed by the DIC software for the test at (a) 5000 V, (b) 6500 V and (c) 7500 V.
 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833 1829

Fig. 9. z-Displacement (global coordinate system) contours of EHF formed sheet (7500 V) at selected instances during the test with the graph showing the entire
displacement–time history for three locations (identified as 1, 2 and 3) on the sheet.

3.3. Sheet velocity t ≥ 400 ␮s) are not symmetrical and show strain concentration that
subsequently moves from the right side of the sheet to the apex
Fig. 10 shows the out-of-plane velocity contours at selected and to the left of the sheet. The strain–time graph shows that loca-
times corresponding to the displacement data (7500 V) shown in tions 1 and 2 have a similar strain–time history for the duration
Fig. 9. The velocity contours are generally symmetrical in nature of the test whereas location 3 deviates from the trend at ∼267 ␮s
upto ∼400 ␮s following which (e.g. at t = 503 ␮s) the right half and accumulates strain at a higher rate than locations 1 or 2. Max-
of the sheet undergoes deceleration that is not observed in the imum strain was accumulated at location 2 and was ∼0.15 while
remainder of the sheet. The graph in Fig. 10 shows the entire location 3 accumulated a total strain of ∼0.09. The rate of strain
velocity–time history for three locations on the sheet. At these accumulation is indicated by the maximum strain rate, over the
locations, the velocity rises to a maximum by 200–300 ␮s from the entire test duration, observed at each of the three locations in this
start, followed by a decrease. The velocity–time profile at the apex test.
(location 1) shows a double-peak behavior with velocity peaks of
∼94 m/s at ∼207 ␮s and of ∼76 m/s at ∼503 ␮s. On the other hand, 3.5. Sheet strain-rate (local coordinate system)
location 2 has a broad maximum of 80–90 m/s between 200 and
300 ␮s and location 3 has a single velocity peak of ∼100 m/s at Fig. 13 plots the strain-rate (dexx /dt) as a function of strain (exx )
∼267 ␮s. Similar contours and plots can be obtained for velocity at three locations in the sheet at three different voltages. The data
components in the x and y directions as well as for tests done at shows that the maximum strain-rates achieved were ∼207, ∼435
any charging voltage. The data also shows some velocity oscilla- and ∼664/s at 5000, 6500 and 7500 V charging voltage, respec-
tions superimposed on the overall velocity–time curve of any given tively. At any given charging voltage, the maximum was observed
location. As described subsequently, these velocity oscillations are at location 3 (except at 5000 V) while location 1 (apex) showed
likely due to the pressure-wave reverberations within the EHF lower strain-rate. The strain-rate vs. strain data in Fig. 13 is char-
chamber. acterized by “jumps” in the strain-rate. For example, at 7500 V and
location 3, the strain rate rapidly increases to ∼213/s and after a
3.4. Sheet strain (Lagrangian) brief interval, rapidly increases to ∼664/s followed by a decrease to
∼524/s and a final decrease at a faster rate. The data in Fig. 13 also
Fig. 11 shows the strain (exx ) contours at selected times cor- shows the strain-rate swings to negative values towards the end of
responding to the displacement data (7500 V) shown in Fig. 9. deformation. The minimum strain-rate (i.e. most negative value),
Fig. 12 compares the time evolution of exx and eyy strains. Unlike though somewhat lower in absolute magnitude, was of similar
the symmetrical nature of displacement and velocity contours order of magnitude (∼423/s) as the maximum positive strain-rate
in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively, the exx strain contours (Fig. 11, (∼664/s).
1830 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833

Fig. 10. Velocity contours (z-direction in global coordinate system) of EHF formed sheet (7500 V) at selected instances during the test with the graph showing the entire
velocity–time history for three locations (identified as 1, 2, 3) on the sheet.

4. Discussion rate and with sufficient pixels to obtain good spatial and time reso-
lution of the process. In the present work, an image size of 256 × 256
The main goal of this work is to quantify the deformation evo- pixels and a frame rate of 67,500/s was deemed suitable to repre-
lution of sheet metal during EHF. Therefore, unlike the majority of sent the EHF process with good fidelity.
the published literature that relies principally upon post-mortem
strain measurements to characterize high-rate forming processes 4.2. Sheet displacement
but lacks direct knowledge of deformation history, this work aims
to fill-in the information gap by quantifying the in-process defor- As expected, the dome height (Table 1) increases with increas-
mation parameters. The results obtained in this work are discussed ing voltage (i.e. increasing energy). The symmetrical nature of
below. displacement contours in Fig. 9 indicates a symmetrical incident
pressure-pulse and uniform clamping around the circumfer-
4.1. Overall deformation ence. A rapid increase in displacement–time curves (Fig. 9) can
be associated with initial pressure rise upon initiation of the
The DIC technique is a well-known technique in the literature electrical discharge. At the end of the electrical discharge, the
to quantify deformation. However, its use for quantification of 3-d amplitude of the pressure-pulse decays resulting in a plateau
forming and at high strain-rates (such as EHF) has not been reported in the displacement–time curve. However, the slope of the
previously. Therefore, it is important to validate the deformation displacement–time curve (i.e. velocity) and the time at which the
parameters (e.g. displacement and strain) calculated by the DIC displacement reaches a plateau, vary with location on the sheet.
technique against an independent measurement method. The data Hence, the spatial and temporal profiles of the displacement are an
in Table 1 shows that the dome height and thickness strain at the indication of the corresponding profiles of the incident pressure-
dome apex are within a few percent of the physically measured pulse. Post-mortem displacement measurements alone cannot be
(using calipers) values thus, providing a good check of the accu- used to determine displacement evolution shown in Fig. 9 nor can
racy of the DIC technique employed in this work. Since DIC is an they be used to accurately determine the incident pressure profile.
image-based technique, “good” quality images (sharp, in-focus, and
brightly lit) are essential for analysis. Considering that the EHF pro- 4.3. Sheet velocity
cess results in large (10 s of mm) out-of-plane deformation, it is
essential to adjust the optics (focal length, aperture and sheet-to- Fig. 10 shows the spatial and temporal variations in the velocity.
camera distance) to achieve a large depth-of-field which ensures The velocity–time plot for apex shows an interesting double-peak
that the speckle pattern stays in focus during the entire forming behavior that is not seen at other locations. Further, low-amplitude
event. Further, the high strain-rates and large sample size involved oscillations are superimposed on overall velocity–time behavior
in the EHF process necessitates capturing images at a fast enough for all the locations. The double-peak behavior (at apex) and the
 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833 1831

Fig. 11. Lagrangian strain contours, exx (local coordinate system), of EHF formed sheet (7500 V) at selected instances during the test with the graph showing the entire
strain–time history for three locations (identified as 1, 2, 3) on the sheet.

low-amplitude oscillations arise presumably due to the pressure velocities of ∼300 m/s for explosively driven copper and tanta-
wave reflections occurring within the EHF chamber. Thus, the posi- lum spheres. It is not possible to directly compare the absolute
tion and magnitude of the double-peaks/oscillations are influenced magnitudes of the velocities obtained in this work with those
by the boundary conditions i.e. the EHF chamber geometry and reported in the literature owing to differences in test configura-
the moving sheet. The maximum velocity measured in the EHF tions, input energy for deformation, materials tested, specimen
experiments in this work is ∼100 m/s (7500 V/∼21 kJ). In the lit- geometry and different equipment. Nevertheless, a key contri-
erature, Balanethiram and Daehn (1992) estimated a sheet velocity bution of the present work is the ability to determine velocity
of ∼300 m/s for IF steel in EHF experiment, Seth et al. (2005) mea- evolution over the entire viewable area of the specimen whereas the
sured velocities in the range of 50–220 m/s for electromagnetically prior work in literature is limited to velocity determination at only a
launched steel sheets, Johnson et al. (2009) measured velocities in limited number of locations. The ability to determine velocity evo-
the range of 50–300 m/s for electromagnetically launched copper lution over an entire large sized specimen is crucial to understand
and aluminum sheets, and Mercier et al. (2010) measured sheet the forming processes that are typically characterized by a spatially
varying pressure-pulse and the corresponding deformation field.
0.2
Test T-28
5182-O Al, 1 mm 4.4. Sheet strain
7500 V
Open symbols: exx
0.15 Analogous to the displacement and velocity data in
Lagrangian Strain

Filled symbols: eyy

Figs. 9 and 10, respectively, Fig. 11 shows the temporal and
spatial distribution of strain (exx ) during EHF. However, unlike dis-
0.1 placement and velocity contours, the strain evolution (t ≥ 400 ␮s)
does not seem to occur in a symmetrical manner. Further, while
locations 1 and 2 seem to continue accumulating the strain,
0.05 location 3 appears to undergo reverse straining at ∼489 ␮s. It is
Location 1 (apex)
interesting to note that maximum strain accumulation occurs at a
Location 2
location (#2) that is not necessarily the location experiencing max-
Location 3
imum strain-rate (i.e. location #3). The reasons for the observed
0
non-symmetrical strain distribution are not clear at the moment
0 200 400 600 800
and are hypothesized to be related to the non-symmetrical nature
Time (µs)
of the discharge process and/or non-uniformity in the clamping
Fig. 12. Time evolution of Lagrangian strains (exx and eyy ) at different locations on force around the sheet circumference. Fig. 12 compares the time
the EHF formed Al sheet (7500 V). evolution of exx and eyy strains and essentially demonstrates the
1832 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833

Fig. 13. Strain vs. strain-rate data (local coordinate system) at the three locations on a sheet deformed at the charging voltages shown.

ability to determine the strain tensor (shear strain can also be correct. Instead, different locations in the sheet may undergo plas-
determined but is not shown) that may be subsequently used to tic deformation at vastly different strain rates, specially at higher
validate numerical models. voltages. For example, Fig. 13 shows that while locations 1–3 expe-
It is noted that the maximum strains obtained in this work are rienced a majority of deformation at a similar maximum strain rate
lower than the strains achieved in prior literature that also used of ∼200/s at 5000 V, increasing the discharge voltage to 7500 V
EHF or EMF, as described in the Introduction section. The lower moved the location of overall maximum strain rate to location
strains in this work are ascribed to differences in capacitor bank 3 where the strain-rate magnitude (∼664/s) was ∼2.5 times that
response, design of the EHF chamber, discharge process within the observed at location 1 (∼271/s). Fig. 13 also shows that plastic
EHF chamber and the sheet material properties. Nevertheless, it is deformation at locations 2 and 3 (6500 and 7500 V) was associ-
emphasized that the goal of the present work is not so much to ated with non-monotonic variations in strain-rate during the entire
achieve the high-strains but to characterize the deformation history test. Therefore, Fig. 13 shows the wealth of information that can be
associated with high-rate forming processes. Such time-evolution obtained from the data measurement/analysis technique presented
of strain and its spatial variations has not been shown in prior liter- here. We believe that such detailed spatial and time dependence of
ature and could not have been determined by post-mortem strain strain-rate is necessary for accurate modeling of sheet deforma-
measurements from the conventional strain gridding technique. tion during the EHF process as well as an important step towards
Using the strain data from the DIC technique, the equivalent understanding the mechanisms underlying enhanced formability
plastic strain at apex was calculated to be ∼0.143, ∼0.213 and in sheet metals during high-rate forming processes.
∼0.268 for tests at 5000, 6500 and 7500 V, respectively. Using
stress-strain data of 5182 Al by Smerd et al. (2005), the strain energy 4.6. Applicability to industrial EHF
density (area under the stress-strain curve) for above mentioned
equivalent plastic strains is ∼36, 61 and 82 MJ/m3 , respectively. Irrespective of the unique configuration of each EHF setup, the
Relative to the test at 5000 V, the strain energy density increases key message of this work is the need to consider spatial and tempo-
by ∼69% and ∼128% for 6500 and 7500 V tests. Increasing the test ral variation of sheet deformation (strain, strain-path, strain-rate)
voltage from 5000 V to 6500 and 7500 V increases the electrical when designing the EHF process. Such consideration of deforma-
energy (1/2CV2 ) by 69% and 125%, respectively. Thus, it is interest- tion history is necessary to formulate accurate models of the EHF
ing to note that the increase in plastic strain at the apex (described process that should be validated against strain-rates and strain-
by the plastic strain energy at equivalent plastic strain) is almost path in addition to the conventional post-deformation strain.
proportional to the % increase in electrical energy. In other words, Knowing that formability can be enhanced via strain-rates and
the proportion of input electrical energy converted to plastic defor- strain-path, such appropriately validated models can be invaluable
mation of the sheet appears to remain constant within the range of in designing complex parts using appropriately designed tooling
energy employed in this work. and EHF process.
Since the characterization technique used in this work is
4.5. Sheet strain-rate imaging-based, its applicability when forming inside a closed die
is quite limited and requires some ingenuity. For example, Rohatgi
Plotting the sheet deformation data in terms of strain-rate et al. (2010) have demonstrated the applicability of this technique
vs. strain, as shown in Fig. 13, provides valuable information through the use of a conical die where a hole at the apex (of the
on the strain-rates associated with plastic deformation at any conical die) enabled the cameras to image (and quantify) the sheet
given location on the deforming sheet. Such strain-rate informa- deformation inside the die. Although the portion of the sheet metal
tion is specially critical in modeling the deformation behavior of in contact with the die cannot be imaged, deformation history of the
strain-rate sensitive materials. Further, such quantitative strain- non-contacted and visible sheet can still be used to validate mathe-
rate data is also critical in addressing the possible causes of matical models and subsequently predict the strain, strain-rate and
extended ductility during sheet metal forming that has typically strain-path at the un-imaged locations.
been attributed to (among other factors) “high” strain-rates by prior Finally, the EHF setup in this work discharged the electrical
researchers, such as Balanethiram and Daehn (1992), Balanethiram energy through a copper wire (electrical “short”) bridging the elec-
and Daehn (1994), Golovashchenko et al. (2003), Golovashchenko trodes. Use of a bridge wire helps to amplify the EHF pressure by
and Mamutov (2005), Golovashchenko (2007) and Imbert et al. increasing the conversion efficiency of electrical energy to mechan-
(2005a) despite the lack of actual strain-rate information. In fact, ical (pressure-pulse) energy. However, the test can be conducted
the data in Fig. 13 demonstrates that ascribing one particular strain- with/without the electrical “short” using the same experimental
rate to the entire sheet and for the entire forming event, as it procedure in either case. It is noted that extra time involved in plac-
has been generally done in the existing literature, may not be ing a new wire bridge for each sample may not be cost-effective in
 A. Rohatgi et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 211 (2011) 1824–1833 1833

industrial settings and therefore, the EHF process is more likely to contract DE-AC05-76RL01830. This work was sponsored by Drs.
be performed by discharging through water/working fluid itself. Joseph Carpenter and Carol Schutte in association with the U.S.
Department of Energy, Office of Vehicle Technologies, as part of
4.7. Future work the Lightweight Materials program. The authors are thankful to
S.F. Golovashchenko (Ford), J.F. Quinn and J.R. Bradley (General
Work is in progress to use the quantitative data, such as that Motors), and A. Desai and D.J. Zhou (Chrysler) for their suggestions.
presented in this work, to develop validated models for sheet defor- Capacitor banks’ operational guidance provided by J. Johnson (Bon-
mation during the EHF process. Work is also in progress to ascertain neville Power Administration), and technical support provided by
the incident pressure-profile that may then be used as an input G.L. Vanarsdale (Science Applications International Corporation)
to the models and predict the deformation behavior as a function and PNNL staff (M.E. Dahl, K.F. Mattlin, P.A. Boyd and C.A. Bone-
of discharge voltage (energy). Finally, experiments are in progress brake) is gratefully acknowledged. Technical support, to operate
that investigate sheet deformation inside a die and understand the cameras and image analysis using DIC software, provided by
the influence of stress-state, strain-path and strain-rates on sheet Alistair Tofts and Hubert Schreier at Correlated Solutions is also
formability associated with sheet-impact with the die. acknowledged.

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