Energy Automation

Protection of Complex
Transmission Circuits

331
NRJED311332EN 331
NRJED311332EN
Network Protection & Automation Guide
 Protection of Complex Contents
Transmission Circuits

1. Introduction 333

2. Parallel feeders 334

3. Multi-ended feeders – unit protection 340

4. Multi-ended feeders – distance protection 345

5. Multi-ended feeders - application of distance 350

protection schemes
6. Protection of series compensated lines 352

7. Examples 353

8. References 360

12

332 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 1. Introduction
Transmission Circuits

Chapters “Unit Protection of Feeders”, “Distance Protection” and

Bus C
“Distance Protection Schemes”, have covered the basic principles
of protection for two terminal, single circuit lines whose circuit
impedance is due solely to the conductors used. However parallel
transmission circuits are often installed, either as duplicate circuits
Source Source on a common structure, or as separate lines connecting the same
two terminal points via different routes. Also, circuits may be
multi-ended, a three-ended circuit being the most common.

Bus A Bus B For economic reasons, transmission and distribution lines can be
much more complicated, maybe having three or more terminals
(multi-ended feeder), or with more than one circuit carried on a
Figure 12.1: common structure (parallel feeders), as shown in Figure 12.1.
Parallel and Multi-ended feeders Other possibilities are the use of series capacitors or direct-
connected shunt reactors. The protection of such lines is more
complicated and requires the basic schemes described in the
above chapters to be modified.
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the special requirements of
some of these situations in respect of protection and identify which
protection schemes are particularly appropriate for use in these
situations.

12

NRJED311332EN 333
 Protection of Complex 2. Parallel Feeders
Transmission Circuits

If two overhead lines are supported on the same structures or are

otherwise in close proximity over part or whole of their length, there
Z< Z< is a mutual coupling between the two circuits. The positive and
negative sequence coupling between the two circuits is small and is
Fault usually neglected. The zero sequence coupling can be strong and
its effect cannot be ignored.
The other situation that requires mutual effects to be taken into
Z< Z<
account is when there is an earth fault on a feeder when the parallel
(a) Fault current distribution feeder is out of service and earthed at both ends. An earth fault in
at instant of fault
the feeder that is in service can induce current in the earth loop of
the earthed feeder, causing a misleading mutual compensation
Open
signal.

Z< Z<

Fault 2.1 Unit Protection Systems

Types of protection that use current only, for example unit protection
systems, are not affected by the coupling between the feeders.
Z< Z< Therefore, compensation for the effects of mutual coupling is not
required for the relay tripping elements.
(b) Fault current distribution
with circuit breaker K open If the relay has a distance-to-fault feature, mutual compensation is
required for an accurate measurement. Refer to Section 2.2.3 for
Figure 12.2: how this is achieved.
Fault current distribution in double-circuit
line
2.2 Distance Protection
There are a number of problems applicable to distance relays, as
described in the following sections.
12

2.2.1 Current reversal on double circuit lines

When a fault is cleared sequentially on one circuit of a double circuit
line with generation sources at both ends of the circuit, the current
in the healthy line can reverse for a short time. Unwanted tripping
of CB’s on the healthy line can then occur if a Permissive Over-
reach or Blocking distance scheme (see Chapter “Distance
Protection Schemes”) is used. Figure 12.2 shows how the situation
can arise. The CB at clears the fault at faster than the CB at .
Before CB opens, the Zone 2 elements at may see the fault and
operate, sending a trip signal to the relay for CB . The reverse
looking element of the relay at CB also sees the fault and inhibits
tripping of CB’s and . However, once CB opens, the relay
element at starts to reset, while the forward looking elements at
pick up (due to current reversal) and initiate tripping. If the reset
times of the forward-looking elements of the relay at are longer
than the operating time of the forward-looking elements at , the
relays will trip the healthy line. The solution is to incorporate a
blocking time delay that prevents the tripping of the forward-looking
elements of the relays and is initiated by the reverse-looking
element. The time delay must be longer than the reset times of the
relay elements at .

334 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 2. Parallel Feeders
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

2.2.2 Under-reach on parallel lines

If a fault occurs on a line that lies beyond the remote terminal end of
a parallel line circuit, the distance relay will under-reach for those
zones set to reach into the affected line.
Analysis shows that under these conditions, because the relay sees
only 50% (for two parallel circuits) of the total fault current for a fault
in the adjacent line section, the relay sees the impedance of the
affected section as twice the correct value. This may have to be
allowed for in the settings of Zones 2 and 3 of conventionally set
distance relays.
Since the requirement for the minimum reach of Zone 2 is to the
end of the protected line section and the under-reach effect only
occurs for faults in the following line section(s), it is not usually
necessary to adjust Zone 2 impedance settings to compensate.
However, Zone 3 elements are intended to provide backup
protection to adjacent line sections and hence the under-reaching
effect must be allowed for in the impedance calculations.

2.2.3 Behaviour of distance relays with earth faults

on the protected feeder
When an earth fault occurs in the system, the voltage applied to the
earth fault element of the relay in one circuit includes an induced
voltage proportional to the zero sequence current in the other
circuit.
12
As the current distribution in the two circuits is unaffected by the
presence of mutual coupling, no similar variation in the current
applied to the relay element takes place and, consequently, the
relay measures the impedance to the fault incorrectly. Whether the
apparent impedance to the fault is greater or less than the actual
impedance depends on the direction of the current flow in the
healthy circuit. For the common case of two circuits, and ,
connected at the local and remote busbars, as shown in Figure
12.3, the impedance of Line A measured by a distance relay, with
the normal zero sequence current compensation from its own
feeder, is given by:

 ( I B 0 I A 0 ) M 
Z A = nZ L1 1 + 
 2 ( I A1 I A 0 ) + K 
...Equation 12.1

where:

M =ZM 0
Z L1
The true impedance to the fault is where n is the per unit fault
position measured from and is the positive sequence
impedance of a single circuit.

NRJED311332EN 335
 Protection of Complex 2. Parallel Feeders
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

The ‘error’ in measurement is determined from the fraction inside

the bracket; this varies with the positive and zero sequence currents
in circuit and the zero sequence current in circuit . These
currents are expressed below in terms of the line and source
parameters:
I B 0 I A0 =
′′ − (1 − n )ZSO
nZSO ′
(2 − n ) ZSO′′ + (1 − n ) (ZSO′ + Z L 0 + Z M 0 )
I A1 =
(2 − n )ZS′′1 + (1 − n )(ZS′1 + Z L1 ) I
2 (Z S′1 + Z S′′1 ) + Z L1
1

I A0 =
(2 − n )ZSO′′ + (1 − n )(ZSO′ + Z L 0 + Z M 0 ) I
2 (ZSO ′′ ) + Z L 0 + Z M 0
0
′ + ZSO
and
and = zero sequence mutual impedance
between the two circuits
Note: For earth faults

Line B
ZM0

12 Line A
n
Fault
Relay
location
(a) Single line diagram

(b) Positive sequence network

IA0
R

Figure 12.3: (c) Zero Sequence network

General parallel circuit fed from both ends

336 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 2. Parallel Feeders
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

All symbols in the above expressions are either self-explanatory

from Figure 12.3 or have been introduced in Chapter “Distance
Protection Schemes”. Using the above formulae, families of reach
curves may be constructed, of which Figure 12.4 is typical. In this
figure, n’ is the effective per unit reach of a relay set to protect 80%
of the line. It has been assumed that an infinite busbar is located at
each line end, that is, and are both zero. A family of curves
of constant n’ has been plotted for variations in the source zero
sequence impedances and .

100
Limit of n' 5
=0.67 67
50 when y ' = 0.
n 68
x 0
= 0.
n'
.7
=0
n'
75
10 = 0.
n' .8
=0 85
n'

)
0.

e1
5 =

on
n'

(Z
g
in

.9
tt

=0
se

n'
al
in
m
1

5
No

.9
=0
n'
0.5

Limit of
n'=1
when y 0
x
0.1 0.5 1 5 10 50 100 12
Figure 12.4:
Typical reach curves illustrating the effect of
mutual coupling

It can be seen from Figure 12.4 that relay can under-reach or

over-reach, according to the relative values of the zero sequence
source to line impedance ratios; the extreme effective per unit
reaches for the relay are 0.67 and 1. Relay over-reach is not a
problem, as the condition being examined is a fault in the protected
feeder, for which relay operation is desirable. It can also be seen
from Figure 12.4 that relay is more likely to under-reach. However
the relay located at the opposite line end will tend to over-reach. As
a result, the Zone 1 characteristic of the relays at both ends of the
feeder will overlap for an earth fault anywhere in the feeder – see
Section 2.3.5 for more details.
Satisfactory protection can be obtained with a transfer trip, under-
reach type distance scheme. Further, compensation for the effect
of zero sequence mutual impedance is not necessary unless a
distance-to-fault facility is provided. Some manufacturers
compensate for the effect of the mutual impedance in the distance
relay elements, while others may restrict the application of
compensation to the distance-to-fault function only. The latter is
easy to implement in software for a digital/numerical relay but is
impractical in relays using older technologies.

NRJED311332EN 337
 Protection of Complex 2. Parallel Feeders
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

Compensation is achieved by injecting a proportion of the zero

sequence current flowing in the parallel feeder into the relay.
However, some Utilities will not permit this due to the potential
hazards associated with feeding a relay protecting one circuit from
a CT located in a different circuit.
For the relay to measure the line impedance accurately, the
following condition must be met:
VR
= Z L1
IR
For a solid phase to earth fault at the theoretical reach of the relay,
the voltage and current in the faulty phase at the relaying point are
given by:

V A = I A1Z L1 + I A 2 Z L 2 + I A 0 Z L 0 + I B 0 Z M 0 

I A = I A1 + I A 2 + I A 0 
...Equation 12.2

The voltage and current fed into the relay are given by:

V R =V A 

I R = I A + K R I A 0 + K M I B 0 
...Equation 12.3

where:
is the residual compensation factor
12 is the mutual compensation factor:

Thus:
Z L 0 − Z L1
KR =
Z L1
ZM 0
KM =
Z L1

2.2.4 Distance relay behaviour with earth faults

on the parallel feeder
Although distance relays with mutual compensation measure the
correct distance to the fault, they may not operate correctly if the
fault occurs in the adjacent feeder. Davison and Wright [12.1] have
shown that, while distance relays without mutual compensation will
not over-reach for faults outside the protected feeder, the relays
may see faults in the adjacent feeder if mutual compensation is
provided. With reference to Figure 12.3, the amount of over-reach
is highest when Under these conditions, faults
occurring in the first 43% of feeder will appear to the distance
relay in feeder to be within its Zone 1 reach. The solution is to limit
the mutual compensation applied to 150% of the zero sequence
compensation.

338 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 2. Parallel Feeders
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

2.2.5 Distance relay behaviour with single-circuit operation

If only one of the parallel feeders is in service, the protection in the
remaining feeder measures the fault impedance correctly, except
when the feeder that is not in service is earthed at both ends. In this
case, the zero sequence impedance network is as shown in Figure
Relay 12.5.
location
Humpage and Kandil [12.2] have shown that the apparent
impedance presented to the relay under these conditions is given
by:
2
I A0 Z M
Z R = Z L1 − 0
I RZ L0 ...Equation 12.4
where:
Figure 12.5:
Zero sequence impedance network during is the current fed into the relay
single circuit operation
The ratio varies with the system conditions, reaching a
maximum when the system is earthed behind the relay with no
generation at that end. In this case, the ratio is equal to
, and the apparent impedance presented to the relay is:
 Z2 
Z R = Z L1 1 − M2 0 
 Z L0 
It is apparent from the above formulae that the relay has a tendency
to over-reach. Care should be taken when Zone 1 settings are
selected for the distance protection of lines in which this condition
may be encountered. In order to overcome this possible over-
reaching effect, some Utilities reduce the reach of earth fault relays
to around when lines are taken out of service. However,
the probability of having a fault on the first section of the following 12
line while one line is out of service is very small, and many Utilities
do not reduce the setting under this condition. It should be noted
that the use of mutual compensation would not overcome the
over-reaching effect since earthing clamps are normally placed on
the line side of the current transformers.
Typical values of zero sequence line impedances for HV lines in the
United Kingdom are given in Table 12.1, where the maximum per
unit over-reach error is also given. It should be noted
that the over-reach values quoted in this table are maxima, and will
be found only in rare cases. In most cases, there will be generation
at both ends of the feeder and the amount of over-reach will
therefore be reduced. In the calculations carried out by Humpage
and Kandil, with more realistic conditions, the maximum error found
in a 400kV double circuit line was 18.6%.

Zero sequence mutual Zero sequence line

Conductor size Per unit
impedance ZMO impedance ZLO
over-reach
Line voltage
Metric error
(sq.in) (sq.mm) ohms/mile ohms/km ohms/mile ohms/km (ZMO/ZLO)2
Table 12.1: equiv.
Maximum 32kV 0.4 258 0.3 + j0.81 0.19 + j0.5 0.41+j1.61 0.25+j1.0 0.264
over-reach errors
275kV 2 x 0.4 516 0.18 + j0.69 0.11 + j0.43 0.24+j1.3 0.15+j0.81 0.292
found during single
400kV 4 x 0.4 1032 0.135 + j0.6 0.80 + j0.37 0.16+j1.18 0.1+j0.73 0.2666
circuit working

NRJED311332EN 339
 Protection of Complex 3. Multi-Ended Feeders –
Transmission Circuits
Unit Protection Schemes

A multi-ended feeder is defined as one having three or more

terminals, with either load or generation, or both, at any terminal.
Those terminals with load only are usually known as ’taps’.
The simplest multi-terminal feeders are three-ended, and are
generally known as tee’d feeders. This is the type most commonly
found in practice.
The protection schemes described previously for the protection of
two-ended feeders can also be used for multi-ended feeders.
However, the problems involved in the application of these
schemes to multi-ended feeders are much more complex and
require special attention.
The protection schemes that can be used with multi-ended feeders
are unit protection and distance schemes. Each uses some form of
signalling channel, such as fibre-optic cable, power line carrier or
pilot wires. The specific problems that may be met when applying
these protections to multi-ended feeders are discussed in the
following sections.

3.1 A.C. Pilot Wire Protection

A.C. pilot wire relays provide a low-cost fast protection; they are
insensitive to power swings and, owing to their relative simplicity,
their reliability is excellent.
The limitations of pilot wire relays for plain feeder protection also
apply. The length of feeder that can be protected is limited by the
characteristics of the pilot wires. The protection sees increasing
pilot wire resistance as tending to an open circuit and shunt
12 capacitance as an a.c. short circuit across the pilots. The protection
will have limiting values for each of these quantities, and when
these are exceeded, loss of sensitivity for internal faults and
maloperation for external faults may occur. For tee’d feeders, the
currents for an external earth fault will not usually be the same. The
protection must be linear for any current up to the maximum
through-fault value. As a result, the voltage in the pilots during fault
conditions cannot be kept to low values, and pilot wires with 250V
insulation grade are required.

340 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 3. Multi-Ended Feeders –
Transmission Circuits
Unit Protection Schemes
(cont.)

3.2 Balanced Voltage Schemes for Tee’d Circuits

In this section two types of older balanced voltage schemes still
found in many locations are described.

3.2.1 ‘Translay’ balanced voltage protection

This is a modification of the balanced voltage scheme described in
Chapter “Distance Protection” (Section 7.1). Since it is necessary
to maintain linearity in the balancing circuit, though not in the
sending element, the voltage reference is derived from separate
quadrature transformers, as shown in Figure 12.6. These are
auxiliary units with summation windings energized by the main
current transformers in series with the upper electromagnets of the
sensing elements. The secondary windings of the quadrature
current transformers at all ends are interconnected by the pilots in a
series circuit that also includes the lower electromagnets of the
relays. Secondary windings on the relay elements are not used, but
these elements are fitted with bias loops in the usual way.
The plain feeder settings are increased in the tee’d scheme by 50%
for one tee and 75% for two.

End A End B
A
B
C

12
Quadrature CT

A1 A1
1

A C1 A C C1
C
N1 N N1 N
End C
A1
S1 S2 1
C1 S1 S2
A C
N1 N
Relay
S1 S2
Pilots
Figure 12.6:
Balanced voltage Tee’d feeder scheme

NRJED311332EN 341
 Protection of Complex 3. Multi-Ended Feeders –
Transmission Circuits
Unit Protection Schemes
(cont.)

3.2.2 High - speed protection type DSB7

This type is of higher speed and is shown in Figure 12.7.
Summation quadrature transformers are used to provide the
analogue quantity, which is balanced in a series loop through a pilot
circuit. Separate secondary windings on the quadrature current
transformers are connected to full-wave rectifiers, the outputs of
which are connected in series in a second pilot loop, so that the
electromotive forces summate arithmetically.
The measuring relay is a double-wound moving coil type, one coil
being energized from the vectorial summation loop; the other
receives bias from the scalar summation in the second loop
proportional to the sum of the currents in the several line terminals,
the value being adjusted by the inclusion of an appropriate value of
resistance. Since the operating and biasing quantities are both
derived by summation, the relays at the different terminals all
behave alike, either to operate or to restrain as appropriate.
Special features are included to ensure stability, both in the
presence of transformer inrush current flowing through the feeder
zone and also with a 2-1-1 distribution of fault current caused by a
short circuit on the secondary side of a star-delta transformer.

End A End B

End C
12

Quadrature
CT

D E D E D E

Operating pilots
Figure 12.7: D Operating coil E Restraints coil Bias pilots
Type DSB7 fast tee’d feeder protection

342 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 3. Multi-Ended Feeders –
Transmission Circuits
Unit Protection Schemes
(cont.)

3.3 Power Line Carrier Phase Comparison Schemes

The operating principle of these protection schemes has already
T been covered in detail in Chapter “Distance Protection” (Section 9).
It involves comparing the phase angles of signals derived from a
combination of the sequence currents at each end of the feeder.
Fault When the phase angle difference exceeds a pre-set value, the ‘trip
angle’, a trip signal is sent to the corresponding circuit breakers. In
order to prevent incorrect operation for external faults, two different
detectors, set at different levels, are used. The low-set detector
starts the transmission of carrier signal, while the high-set detector
Figure 12.8: is used to control the trip output. Without this safeguard, the
External fault conditions scheme could operate incorrectly for external faults because of
operating tolerances of the equipment and the capacitive current of
the protected feeder. This condition is worse with multi-terminal
feeders, since the currents at the feeder terminals can be very
dissimilar for an external fault. In the case of the three-terminal
feeder in Figure 12.8, if incorrect operation is to be avoided, it is
necessary to make certain that the low-set detector at end A or end
B is energized when the current at end C is high enough to operate
the high-set detector at that end.
As only one low-set starter, at end or end , needs to be energized
for correct operation, the most unfavourable condition will be when
currents and are equal. To maintain stability under this
condition, the high-set to low-set setting ratio of the fault detectors
needs to be twice as large as that required when the scheme is
applied to a plain feeder. This results in a loss of sensitivity, which
may make the equipment unsuitable if the minimum fault level of
the power system is low.
A further unfavourable condition is that illustrated in Figure 12.9. 12
T If an internal fault occurs near one of the ends of the feeder (end
in Figure 12.9) and there is little or no generation at end , the
current at this end may be flowing outwards. The protection is then
prevented from operating, since the fault current distribution is
similar to that for an external fault; see Figure 12.8. The fault can
Fault
be cleared only by the back-up protection and, if high speed of
operation is required, an alternative type of primary protection must
be used.
A point that should also be considered when applying this scheme
Figure 12.9: is the attenuation of carrier signal at the ‘tee’ junctions. This
Internal fault with current flowing out at one attenuation is a function of the relative impedances of the branches
line end of the feeder at the carrier frequency, including the impedance of
the receiving equipment. When the impedances of the second and
third terminals are equal, a power loss of 50% takes place. In other
words, the carrier signal sent from terminal to terminal is
attenuated by 3dB by the existence of the third terminal . If the
impedances of the two branches corresponding to terminal to
are not equal, the attenuation may be either greater or less than
3dB.

NRJED311332EN 343
 Protection of Complex 3. Multi-Ended Feeders –
Transmission Circuits
Unit Protection Schemes
(cont.)

3.4 Differential Relay using Optical Fibre Signalling

Current differential relays can provide unit protection for multi-
ended circuits without the restrictions associated with other forms of
protection. In Chapter “Protection: Signalling and Intertripping”
(Section 6.5), the characteristics of optical fibre cables and their use
in protection signalling are outlined.
Optical fibre signalling channels
Their use in a three-ended system is shown in Figure 12.10, where
the relays at each line end are digital/numerical relays
interconnected by optical fibre links so that each can send
information to the others. In practice the optical fibre links can be
A B dedicated to the protection system or multiplexed, in which case
multiplexing equipment, not shown in Figure 12.10, will be used to
terminate the fibres.
RC
If , are the current vector signals at line ends , then for a
healthy circuit:
C
The basic principles of operation of the system are that each relay
Figure 12.10: measures its local three phase currents and sends its values to the
Current differential protection for tee’d other relays. Each relay then calculates, for each phase, a resultant
feeders using optical fibre signalling differential current and also a bias current, which is used to restrain
the relay in the manner conventional for biased differential unit
protection.
The bias feature is necessary in this scheme because it is designed
to operate from conventional current transformers that are subject
to transient transformation errors.
The two quantities are:
I diff > I A + I B + I C
12
I bias =
1
2
(
I A + I B + IC )
Trip Figure 13.11 shows the percentage biased differential characteristic
Differential used, the tripping criteria being:
current
I diff > K I bias and I diff > I S
=
Restrain where:
IS
= percentage bias setting
= minimum differential current setting
Bias current
If the magnitudes of the differential currents indicate that a fault has
occurred, the relays trip their local circuit breaker. The relays also
Figure 12.11:
Percentage biased differential protection continuously monitor the communication channel performance and
characteristic carry out self-testing and diagnostic operations. The system
measures individual phase currents and so single phase tripping
can be used when required. Relays are provided with software to
re-configure the protection between two and three terminal lines, so
that modification of the system from two terminals to three terminals
does not require relay replacement. Further, loss of a single
communications link only degrades scheme performance slightly.
The relays can recognise this and use alternate communications
paths. Only if all communication paths from a relay fail does the
scheme have to revert to backup protection.

344 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 4. Multi-Ended Feeders -
Transmission Circuits
Distance Relays

Distance protection is widely used at present for tee’d feeder

protection. However, its application is not straightforward, requiring
careful consideration and systematic checking of all the conditions
described later in this section.
Most of the problems found when applying distance protection to
tee’d feeders are common to all schemes. A preliminary discussion
of these problems will assist in the assessment of the performance
of the different types of distance schemes.

4.1 Apparent Impedance seen by Distance Relays

The impedance seen by the distance relays is affected by the
current infeeds in the branches of the feeders.

A B
T

Fault

Figure 12.12:
Fault at substation B busbars

Referring to Figure 12.12, for a fault at the busbars of the substation 12

, the voltage at busbar is given by:

so the impedance ZA seen by the distance relay at terminal A is

given by:
VA I
ZA = = Z LA + B Z LB
IA IA
or
IB
Z A = Z LA + Z LB
IA ...Equation 12.5
or
IC
Z A = Z LA + Z LB + Z LB
IA
The apparent impedance presented to the relay has been modified
by the term . If the pre-fault load is zero, the currents
and are in phase and their ratio is a real number. The apparent
impedance presented to the relay in this case can be expressed in
terms of the source impedances as follows:

Z A = Z LA + Z LB +
(ZSB + Z LB ) Z
(ZSC + Z LC ) LB

NRJED311332EN 345
 Protection of Complex 4. Multi-Ended Feeders -
Transmission Circuits
Distance Relays
(cont.)

X
The magnitude of the third term in this expression is a function of
the total impedances of the branches and and can reach a
B'
relatively high value when the fault current contribution of branch
is much larger than that of branch . Figure 12.13 illustrates how a
distance relay with a mho characteristic located at with a Zone 2
B
element set to 120% of the protected feeder , fails to see a fault
at the remote busbar . The ’tee’ point T in this example is halfway
between substations and and the fault currents and
have been assumed to be identical in magnitude and phase
T angle. With these conditions, the fault appears to the relay to be
located at instead of at - i.e. the relay appears to under-reach.
The under-reaching effect in tee’d feeders can be found for any kind
R of fault. For the sake of simplicity, the equations and examples
A
mentioned so far have been for balanced faults only. For
unbalanced faults, especially those involving earth, the equations
Figure 12.13: become somewhat more complicated, as the ratios of the sequence
Apparent impedance presented to the relay fault current contributions at terminals and may not be the same.
at substation A for a fault at substation B An extreme example of this condition is found when the third
busbars terminal is a tap with no generation but with the star point of the
primary winding of the transformer connected directly to earth, as
shown in Figure 12.14. The corresponding sequence networks are
illustrated in Figure 12.15.

Figure 12.14:
Transformer tap with primary winding A B
solidly earthed T

12 Phase A
to ground fault

C
M Load

It can be seen from Figure 12.15 that the presence of the tap has
little effect in the positive and negative sequence networks.
However, the zero sequence impedance of the branch actually
shunts the zero sequence current in branch . As a result, the
distance relay located at terminal tends to under-reach. One
solution to the problem is to increase the residual current
compensating factor in the distance relay, to compensate for the
reduction in zero sequence current. However, the solution has two
possible limitations:
i. over-reach will occur when the transformer is not connected,
and hence operation for faults outside the protected zone may
occur
ii. the inherent possibility of maloperation of the earth fault
elements for earth faults behind the relay location is increased
Figure 12.15:
Sequence networks
for a phase A to ground fault at busbar B in
the system shown in Figure 13.14

346 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 4. Multi-Ended Feeders -
Transmission Circuits
Distance Relays
(cont.)

4.2 Effect of Pre-fault Load

X B'2 In all the previous discussions it has been assumed that the power
B'1 transfer between terminals of the feeder immediately before the
fault occurred was zero. If this is not the case, the fault currents
and in Figure 12.12 may not be in phase, and the factor in
the equation for the impedance seen by the relay at , will be a
B
complex quantity with a positive or a negative phase angle
according to whether the current leads or lags the current .
For the fault condition previously considered in Figures 12.12 and
T 12.13, the pre-fault load current may displace the impedance seen
by the distance relay to points such as or , shown in Figure
12.16, according to the phase angle and the magnitude of the
R
pre-fault load current. Humpage and Lewis [12.3] have analysed
A the effect of pre-fault load on the impedances seen by distance
relays for typical cases. Their results and conclusions point out
Figure 12.16:
Effects of the pre-fault load on the apparent
some of the limitations of certain relay characteristics and schemes.
impedance presented to the relay

4.3 Effect of the Fault Current Flowing

Outwards at One Terminal
Up to this point it has been assumed that the fault currents at
terminals and flow into the feeder for a fault at the busbar .
Under some conditions, however, the current at one of these
terminals may flow outwards instead of inwards. A typical case is
illustrated in Figure 12.17; that of a parallel tapped feeder with one
of the ends of the parallel circuit open at terminal .

12
A B
T

Fault

C
Figure 12.17:
Internal Fault at busbar B with current
flowing out at terminal

NRJED311332EN 347
 Protection of Complex 4. Multi-Ended Feeders -
Transmission Circuits
Distance Relays
(cont.)

As the currents and now have different signs, the factor

becomes negative. Consequently, the distance relay at terminal
sees an impedance smaller than that of the protected feeder,
, and therefore has a tendency to over-reach. In some
cases the apparent impedance presented to the relay may be as
low as 50% of the impedance of the protected feeder, and even
lower if other lines exist between terminals and .
If the fault is internal to the feeder and close to the busbars , as
shown in Figure 12.18, the current at terminal may still flow
outwards. As a result, the fault appears as an external fault to the
distance relay at terminal , which fails to operate.

A B
T

Fault

12 C

Figure 12.18:
Internal fault near busbar B with current
flowing out at terminal C

348 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 4. Multi-Ended Feeders -
Transmission Circuits
Distance Relays
(cont.)

4.4 Maloperation with Reverse Faults

Earth fault distance relays with a directional characteristic tend to
lose their directional properties under reverse unbalanced fault
conditions if the current flowing through the relay is high and the
relay setting relatively large. These conditions arise principally from
earth faults. The relay setting and the reverse fault current are now
related, the first being a function of the maximum line length and the
second depending mainly on the impedance of the shortest feeder
and the fault level at that terminal.

A B
T

Fault

Figure 12.19:
External fault behind the relay at terminal A

For instance, referring to Figure 12.19, the setting of the relay at

terminal will depend on the impedance and the fault
current infeed , for a fault at , while the fault current for a 12
reverse fault may be quite large if the T point is near the terminals
and .
A summary of the main problems met in the application of distance
protection to tee’d feeders is given in Table 12.2.

Relevant figure
Case Description
number
Under-reaching effect for internal faults due to current
1 13.12 to 13.15
infeed at the T point
Effect of pre-fault load on the impedance seen’ by
2 13.16
the relay
Over-reaching effect for external faults, due to current
3 13.17
flowing outwards at one terminal
Failure to operate for an internal fault, due to current
4 13.18
flowing out at one terminal
Incorrect operation for an external fault, due to high
5 3.19
current fed from nearest terminal 1

Table 12.2:
Main problems met in the application of distance protection to tee’d
feeders.

NRJED311332EN 349
 Protection of Complex 5. Multi-Ended Feeders –
Transmission Circuits
Application of Distance
Protection Schemes

The schemes that have been described in Chapter “Distance

Protection Schemes” for the protection of plain feeders may also be
used for tee’d feeder protection. However, the applications of some
of these schemes are much more limited in this case.
Distance schemes can be subdivided into two main groups; transfer
trip schemes and blocking schemes. The usual considerations
when comparing these schemes are security, that is, no operation
for external faults, and dependability, that is, assured operation for
internal faults.
In addition, it should be borne in mind that transfer trip schemes
require fault current infeed at all the terminals to achieve high-
speed protection for any fault in the feeder. This is not the case with
blocking schemes. While it is rare to find a plain feeder in high
voltage systems where there is current infeed at one end only, it is
not difficult to envisage a tee’d feeder with no current infeed at one
end, for example when the tee’d feeder is operating as a plain
feeder with the circuit breaker at one of the terminals open.
Nevertheless, transfer trip schemes are also used for tee’d feeder
protection, as they offer some advantages under certain conditions.

5.1 Transfer Trip Under-Reach Schemes

The main requirement for transfer trip under-reach schemes is that
the Zone 1 of the protection, at one end at least, shall see a fault in
the feeder. In order to meet this requirement, the Zone 1
characteristics of the relays at different ends must overlap, either
the three of them or in pairs. Cases 1, 2 and 3 in Table 12.2 should
be checked when the settings for the Zone 1 characteristics are
12 selected. If the conditions mentioned in case 4 are found, direct
transfer trip may be used to clear the fault; the alternative is
sequentially at end when the fault current reverses after the
circuit breaker at terminal has opened; see Figure 12.18.
Transfer trip schemes may be applied to feeders that have
branches of similar length. If one or two of the branches are very
short, and this is often the case in tee’d feeders, it may be difficult or
impossible to make the Zone 1 characteristics overlap. Alternative
schemes are then required.
Another case for which under-reach schemes may be
advantageous is the protection of tapped feeders, mainly when the
tap is short and is not near one of the main terminals. Overlap of
the Zone 1 characteristics is then easily achieved, and the tap does
not require protection applied to the terminal.

5.2 Transfer Trip Over-Reach Schemes

For correct operation when internal faults occur, the relays at the
three ends should see a fault at any point in the feeder. This
condition is often difficult to meet, since the impedance seen by the
relays for faults at one of the remote ends of the feeder may be too
large, as in case 1 in Table 12.2, increasing the possibility of
maloperation for reverse faults, case 5 in Table 12.2. In addition,
the relay characteristic might encroach on the load impedance.

350 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 5. Multi-Ended Feeders –
Transmission Circuits
Application of Distance
Protection Schemes (cont.)

These considerations, in addition to the signalling channel

requirements mentioned later on, make transfer trip over-reach
schemes unattractive for multi-ended feeder protection.

5.3 Blocking Schemes

Blocking schemes are particularly suited to the protection of
multi-ended feeders, since high-speed operation can be obtained
with no fault current infeed at one or more terminals. The only
disadvantage is when there is fault current outfeed from a terminal,
as shown in Figure 12.18. This is case 4 in Table 12.2. The
protection units at that terminal may see the fault as an external
fault and send a blocking signal to the remote terminals. Depending
on the scheme logic either relay operation will be blocked, or
clearance will be in Zone 2 time.
The setting of the directional unit should be such that no
maloperation can occur for faults in the reverse direction; case 5 in
Table 12.2.

5.4 Signalling Channel Considerations

The minimum number of signalling channels required depends on
the type of scheme used. With under-reach and blocking schemes,
only one channel is required, whereas a permissive over-reach
scheme req-uires as many channels as there are feeder ends. The
signalling channel equipment at each terminal should include one
transmitter and (N-1) receivers, where N is the total number of
feeder ends. This may not be a problem if fibre-optic cables are
used, but could lead to problems otherwise. 12
If frequency shift channels are used to improve the reliability of the
protection schemes, mainly with transfer trip schemes, N additional
frequencies are required for the purpose. Problems of signal
attenuation and impedance matching should also be carefully
considered when power line carrier frequency channels are used.

5.5 Directional Comparison Blocking Schemes

The principle of operation of these schemes is the same as that of
the distance blocking schemes described in the previous section.
The main advantage of directional comparison schemes over
distance schemes is their greater capability to detect high-
resistance earth faults. The reliability of these schemes, in terms of
stability for through faults, is lower than that of distance blocking
schemes. However, with the increasing reliability of modern
signalling channels, directional comparison blocking schemes
seem to offer good solutions to the many and difficult problems
encountered in the protection of multi-ended feeders. Modern
relays implement the required features in different ways – for further
information see Chapter “Distance Protection Schemes” and
specific relay manuals.

NRJED311332EN 351
 Protection of Complex 6. Protection of Series
Transmission Circuits
Compensated Lines

Figure 12.20 depicts the basic power transfer equation. It can be

EA Bus A Bus B EB seen from this equation that transmitted power is proportional to the
ZT
system voltage level and load angle whilst being inversely
proportional to system impedance. Series compensated lines are
EA EB sin used in transmission networks where the required level of
PT a
ZT transmitted power can not be met, either from a load requirement or
system stability requirement. Series compensated transmission
Figure 12.20: lines introduce a series connected capacitor, which has the net
Power transfer in a transmission line result of reducing the overall inductive impedance of the line, hence
increasing the prospective, power flow. Typical levels of
compensation are 35%, 50% and 70%, where the percentage level
dictates the capacitor impedance compared to the transmission line
it is associated with.
The introduction of a capacitive impedance to a network can give
rise to several relaying problems. The most common of these is the
situation of voltage inversion, which is shown in Figure 12.21. In
this case a fault occurs on the protected line. The overall fault
impedance is inductive and hence the fault current is inductive
E
(shown lagging the system e.m.f. by 90 degrees in this case).
However, the voltage measured by the relay is that across the
capacitor and will therefore lag the fault current by 90 degrees.
The net result is that the voltage measured by the relay is in anti-
phase to the system e.m.f.. Whilst this view is highly simplistic, it
Figure 12.21: adequately demonstrates potential relay problems, in that any
Voltage inversion on a transmission line protection reliant upon making a directional decision bases its
decision on an inductive system i.e. one where a forward fault is
indicated by fault current lagging the measured voltage. A good
example of this is a distance relay, which assumes the transmission
line is an evenly distributed inductive impedance. Presenting the
12 relay with a capacitive voltage (impedance) can lead the relay to
make an incorrect directional decision.
A second problem is that of current inversion which is demonstrated
in Figure 12.22. In this case, the overall fault impedance is taken to
be capacitive. The fault current therefore leads the system e.m.f.
by 90° whilst the measured fault voltage remains in phase with
system e.m.f.. Again this condition can give rise to directional
stability problems for a variety of protection devices. Practically, the
case of current inversion is difficult to obtain. In order to protect
capacitors from high over voltages during fault conditions some
form of voltage limiting device (usually in the form of MOV’s) is
Figure 12.22: installed to bypass the capacitor at a set current level. In the case
Current inversion in a transmission line of current inversion, the overall fault impedance has to be
capacitive and will generally be small. This leads to high levels of
fault current, which will trigger the MOV’s and bypass the
capacitors, hence leaving an inductive fault impedance and
preventing the current inversion.
In general, the application of protective relays to a series
compensated power system needs careful evaluation. The
problems associated with the introduction of a series capacitor can
be overcome by a variety of relaying techniques so it is important to
ensure the suitability of the chosen protection. Each particular
application requires careful investigation to determine the most
appropriate solution in respect of protection – there are no general
guidelines that can be given.

352 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 7. Examples
Transmission Circuits

In this section, an example calculation illustrating the solution to a

problem mentioned in this Chapter is given.

7.1 Distance Relay applied to Parallel Circuits

The system diagram shown in Figure 12.23 indicates a simple
110kV network supplied from a 220kV grid through two auto-
transformers. The following example shows the calculations
necessary to check the suitability of three zone distance protection
to the two parallel feeders interconnecting substations A and B, Line
1 being selected for this purpose. All relevant data for this exercise
are given in the diagram. The MiCOM P441 relay with quadrilateral
characteristics is used to provide the relay data for the example.
Relay quantities used in the example are listed in Table 12.3, and
calculations are carried out in terms of actual system impedances in
ohms, rather than CT secondary quantities. This simplifies the
calculations, and enables the example to be simplified by excluding
considerations of CT ratios. Most modern distance relays permit
settings to be specified in system quantities rather than CT
secondary quantities, but older relays may require the system
quantities to be converted to impedances as seen by the relay.

Grid supply at 220kV

Maximum fault level
7500MVA
Minimum fault level
2500MVA

120MVA 220/110/11kV
12
transformers
=0.15 ; =0.35;
=0.25
=0.125 ; =0.025
=0.225 on 120MVA

110kV Substation P

Current transformer
ratio 600/1A

Voltage transformer
Figure 12.23: 45MVA ratio 110kV/110V
Example network for distance relay setting Line 1 132/33kV Line 2
transformers
calculation XT=0.125
110kV
Substation Q

45MVA 132/33kV
transformers
XT=0.125
Line 3 Line 4
33kV
busbars

110kV transmission lines: / km

/ km

Length of line: 1, 2 =50km

3 =100km 4 =40km

NRJED311332EN 353
 Protection of Complex 7. Examples
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

7.1.1 Residual compensation

The relays used are calibrated in terms of the positive sequence
impedance of the protected line. Since the earth fault impedance of
Line 1 is different from the positive sequence impedance, the
impedance seen by the relay in the case of a fault involving earth
will be different to that seen for a phase fault. Hence, the reach of
the earth fault elements of the relay needs to be different.
For the relay used, this adjustment is provided by the residual (or
neutral) compensation factor , set equal to:

K ZO =
(Zo − Z1 )
3 Z1

∠K ZO =∠
(Zo − Z1 )
3 Z1
For Lines 1 and 2,
Z L1 = 0.177 + j0.402 Ω

(0.439 ∠66.236 Ω)
o

Z LO = 0.354 + j1.022 Ω

(1.082 ∠70.895 Ω)
o

Hence,
K ZO = 0.490
12 ∠K ZO =7.8 o

354 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 7. Examples
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

7.1.2 Zone impedance reach settings – phase faults

Firstly, the impedance reaches for the three relay zones are
calculated.

7.1.3 Zone 1 reach

Zone 1 impedance is set to 80% of the impedance of the protected
line. Hence,

(
Z1 = 0.8 ×50 × 0.439 ∠66.236 o Ω )
= 0.8 ×21.95 ∠66.236 o Ω
=17.56 ∠66.236 o Ω
Use a value of 17.56∠66.3 o Ω

7.1.4 Zone 2 reach

Zone 2 impedance reach is set to cover the maximum of:
(i) 120% of Line 1 length
(ii) Line 1 + 50% of shortest line from Substation B i.e. 50%
of Line 4

From the line impedances given,

(i) 1.2 ×21.95 ∠ 66.236 o = 26.34 ∠66.236 o Ω 12
(ii) 21.95 ∠66.236 o
+
0.5 × 40 × 0.439 ∠66.236 o Ω

It is clear that condition (ii) governs the setting, and therefore the
initial Zone 2 reach setting is:
Z2 = 30.73 ∠66.3 o Ω
The effect of parallel Line 2 is to make relay 1 underreach for faults
on adjacent line sections, as discussed in Chapter “Distance
Protection Schemes” (Section 9.3). This is not a problem for the
phase fault elements because Line 1 will always be protected.

NRJED311332EN 355
 Protection of Complex 7. Examples
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

7.1.5 Zone 3 reach

The function of Zone 3 is to provide backup protection for uncleared
faults in adjacent line sections. The criterion used is that the relay
should be set to cover 120% of the impedance between the relay
location and the end of the longest adjacent line, taking account of
any possible fault infeed from other circuits or parallel paths. In this
case, faults in Line 3 will result in the relay under-reaching due to
the parallel Lines 1 and 2, so the impedance of Line 3 should be
doubled to take this effect into account.
Therefore,
 21.95 ∠66.3 o 
Z3 =1.2 ×  Ω
 +100 ×2 ×0.439 ∠66.3 o 
=131.8 ∠66.3 o Ω

7.1.6 Zone Time Delay Settings

Proper co-ordination of the distance relay settings with those of
other relays is required. Independent timers are available for the
three zones to ensure this.
For Zone 1, instantaneous tripping is normal. A time delay is used
only in cases where large d.c. offsets occur and old circuit breakers,
incapable of breaking the instantaneous d.c. component, are
involved.
12 The Zone 2 element has to grade with the relays protecting Lines 3
and 4 since the Zone 2 element covers part of these lines.
Assuming that Lines 3/4 have distance, unit or instantaneous
high-set overcurrent protection applied, the time delay required is
that to cover the total clearance time of the downstream relays. To
this must be added the reset time for the Zone 2 elements following
clearance of a fault on an adjacent line, and a suitable safety
margin. A typical time delay is 250ms, and the normal range is
200-300ms.
The considerations for the Zone 3 element are the same as for the
Zone 2 element, except that the downstream fault clearance time is
that for the Zone 2 element of a distance relay or IDMT overcurrent
protection. Assuming distance relays are used, a typical time is
450ms. In summary:

356 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 7. Examples
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

7.1.7 Phase Fault Resistive Reach Settings

With the use of a quadrilateral characteristic, the resistive reach
settings for each zone can be set independently of the impedance
reach settings. The resistive reach setting represents the maximum
amount of additional fault resistance (in excess of the line
impedance) for which a zone will trip, regardless of the fault within
the zone.
Two constraints are imposed upon the settings, as follows:
(i) it must be greater than the maximum expected phase-phase
fault resistance (principally that of the fault arc)
(ii) it must be less than the apparent resistance measured due to
the heaviest load on the line
The minimum fault current at Substation B is of the order of 1.5kA,
leading to a typical arc resistance c using the van Warrington
formula (equation 10.6) of 9 . Using the current transformer ratio
on Line 1 as a guide to the maximum expected load current, the
minimum load impedance will be 106 . Typically, the resistive
reaches will be set to avoid the minimum load impedance by a 20%
margin for the phase elements, leading to a maximum resistive
reach setting of 84.8. .
Therefore, the resistive reach setting lies between 9 and 84.8 .
While each zone can have its own resistive reach setting, for this
simple example, all of the resistive reach settings can be set equal
(depending on the particular distance protection scheme used and
the need to include Power Swing Blocking, this need not always be
the case).
Suitable settings are chosen to be 80% of the load resistance: 12
R3 ph = 84.8 Ω
R2 ph = 84.8 Ω
R1 ph = 84.8 Ω

7.1.8 Earth Fault Reach Settings

By default, the residual compensation factor as calculated in
section 7.1.1 is used to adjust the phase fault reach setting in the
case of earth faults, and is applied to all zones. However, it is also
possible to apply this compensation to zones individually. Two
cases in particular require consideration, and are covered in this
example.

NRJED311332EN 357
 Protection of Complex 7. Examples
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

7.1.9 Zone 1 earth fault reach

Where distance protection is applied to parallel lines (as in this
example), the Zone 1 earth fault elements may sometimes over-
reach and therefore operate when one line is out of service and
earthed at both ends
The solution is to reduce the earth fault reach of the Zone 1 element
to typically 80% of the default setting. Hence:
K Z1 = 0.8 × K ZO
= 0.8 ×0.532
= 0.426
In practice, the setting is selected by using an alternative setting
group, selected when the parallel line is out of service and earthed.

7.1.10 Zone 2 earth fault reach

With parallel circuits, the Zone 2 element will tend to under-reach
due to the zero sequence mutual coupling between the lines.
Maloperation may occur, particularly for earth faults occurring on
the remote busbar. The effect can be countered by increasing the
Zone 2 earth fault reach setting, but first it is necessary to calculate
the amount of under-reach that occurs.
I fltp
Underreach = Zadj ×
I flt
12 where:
= impedance of adjacent line covered by Zone 2

= fault current in parallel line

= total fault current

since the two parallel lines are identical, and hence,

for Lines 1 and 2,
Under - reach = 8.78 ∠66.3 o × 0.5
= 4.39 ∠66.3 o Ω
Under-reach
% Under-reach =
Reach of protected zone

and hence
% Under-reach = 14.3%

358 NRJED311332EN
Protection of Complex 7. Examples
Transmission Circuits
(cont.)

This amount of under-reach is not significant and no adjustment

need be made. If adjustment is required, this can be achieved by
using the relay setting, increasing it over the setting by the
percentage under-reach. When this is done, care must also be
taken that the percentage over-reach during single circuit operation
is not excessive – if it is then use can be made of the alternative
setting groups provided in most modern distance relays to change
the relay settings according to the number of circuits in operation.

7.1 11 Ground fault resistive reach settings

The same settings can be used as for the phase fault resistive
reaches. Hence,
= 84.8
= 84.8
= 84.8
This completes the setting of the relay. Table 12.3 also shows the
settings calculated.

Parameter Parameter
Relay Parameter Units
Description Value
(mag) Line positive sequence impedance (magnitude) 21.95
(ang) Line positive sequence impedance (phase angle) 66.236 deg
(mag) Line zero sequence impedance (magnitude) 54.1
(ang) Line zero sequence impedance (phase angle) 70.895 deg
(mag) Default residual compensation factor (magnitude) 0.49 - 12
(ang) Default residual compensation factor (phase angle) 7.8 deg
(mag) Zone 1 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 17.56
(ang) Zone 1 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 66.3 deg
(mag) Zone 2 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 30.73
(ang) Zone 2 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 66.3 deg
(mag) Zone 3 reach impedance setting (magnitude) 131.8
(ang) Zone 3 reach impedance setting (phase angle) 66.3 deg
Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 1 84.8
Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 2 84.8
Phase fault resistive reach value - Zone 3 84.8
(mag) Zone 1 residual compensation factor (magnitude) 0.426 -
(ang) Zone 1 residual compensation factor (phase angle) 9.2 deg
(mag) Zone 2 residual compensation factor (magnitude) not used -
(ang) Zone 2 residual compensation factor (phase angle) not used deg
Time delay - Zone 1 0 s
Time delay - Zone 2 0.25 s
Time delay - Zone 3 0.45 s
Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 1 84.8
Table 12.3: Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 2 84.8
Distance relay
settings Ground fault resistive reach value - Zone 3 84.8

NRJED311332EN 359
 Protection of Complex 8. References
Transmission Circuits

12.1
Some factors affecting the accuracy of distance type protective
equipment under earth fault conditions.
Davison, E.B. and Wright, A.
Proc. IEE Vol. 110, No. 9, Sept. 1963, pp. 1678-1688.

12.2
Distance protection performance under conditions of single-circuit
working in double-circuit transmission lines.
Humpage, W.D. and Kandil, M.S.
Proc. IEE. Vol. 117. No. 4, April 1970, pp. 766-770.

12.3
Distance protection of tee’d circuits.
Humpage, W.A. and Lewis, D.W.
Proc. IEE, Vol. 114, No. 10, Oct. 1967, pp. 1483-1498.

12

360 NRJED311332EN