Signals & Systems

ACE 06. Sampling function:

x x
(iii) t t
Engineering Academy x x x x
Area under unit impulse function is one.
Hyderabad | Delhi | Pune | Bhubaneswar | Bengaluru | Lucknow | Chennai | Vijayawada | Visakhapatnam | Tirupati | Kukatpally | Kolkata | Ahmedabad (iv) (–t) = (t)

(v) Product property

x(t) (t – t0) = x(t0) (t – t0)
if x(t) is continuous at t = t0
0
03. Signum function: Sgn(t) Eg: (2t + 1) (t – 3) = 7 (t – 3)
(vi) Sifting property
t
01. Unit step function, u(t): is usually employed to t t 1 x t t t t
x t t t t
switch other signals ON or OFF t
u(t)
Sgn (t) Eg: t t t t
1
1
2 1 1 2
0
t
0 t
–1 Energy and Power signals:
u(t) at t = 0 is discontinuous,
• A signal x(t) (or) x(n) is called an energy
u(0) = (1/2). 07. Unit impulse function (or) Dirac delta function:
04. Unit ramp function: r(t) (t)
Property 1: value 0 < Ex <
r(t) The impulse function is not a function in the
t t • A signal is called a power signal if it has
t ordinary sense, since it is zero at every point
with “k” any positive integer t < .
x
except t0, where it is unbounded. However the
• A signal can’t be both an energy and
Property 2: t area under a unit impulse function is equal to
0 power signal simultaneously.
unity.
• The term instantaneous power is reserved
An example of unit step function is the output Many physical phenomenon such as point
An example of a ramp function is the linear - for the true rate of change of energy in
of 1V dc voltage source in series with a switch sources, point charges, voltage sources acting
sweep waveform of a cathode - ray tube. a system. In most cases, when the term
that is turned on at t = 0 for very short time can be modeled as delta
power is used it refers to average power
functions.
i.e, the average rate of energy utilization,
02. Rectangular (or Gate) Pulse: A rect(t/2a) (i) (0)
05. Triangular function tri(t) a constant quantity independent of time.
(ii) (t) = 0, t 0
A x x
Width = 2
Height = 1
Area = 1 x
t
a 0 a

x x
The rectangular function is the result of an
ON - OFF switching operation of a constant
x x
voltage source in an electrical circuit.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Periodic And Non Periodic Sampled version of certain continuous Signals

(Or Aperiodic) Signals:
A periodic function is one which has been

will continue to repeat that exact pattern for

A signal is periodic if g(t) = g(t + nT) for any

integer “n” T period of a function.

An analog sinusoid or harmonic signals is always

periodic & unique for any choice of period or
frequency.

Hint:
The sum of harmonic signals
y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) + x3(t) + - - - - - is periodic with
overall period
T = LCM (T1, T2, T3, ….)
• A discrete signal x(n) is periodic
if x x[n] = x[n + N] ;
where N periodic of x[n]

Hint:

sinusoid (or) Complex sinusoids always use the

equation /2 ratio is a rational number.
0
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

4. Static (or) Memoryless & Dynamic

Practice Questions
1. Linear and Non Linear Systems: (With Memory) System:
A system is static if its output at t = t0 depends
only on the value of the input at t = t0 and no 01. An aperiodic discrete time signal of length 5 is
other value of the input signal. The response of shown in Fig. The maximum value of
a dynamic system depends on past (and/or
future) inputs.
Ex: y(n) = (n+1) x(n) is static
y(n) = x(n+3) is dynamic

5. Stable And Unstable System:

• A system is said to be BIBO stable if and
Example: y(n) = x(n –2) only if every bounded input results in a
y(n) = nx(n) are linear systems bounded output If x t x then
y t (A) x(n) + 2x(–n) (B) 5x(n) x(n–1)
2. Time-Invariant (Shift-Invariant) & Time-Variant • A bounded signal has an amplitude (C) x(n) x(–n–1) (D) 4x(2n)
(Shift-Dependent) Systems: (a) A > D > B > C (b) C > D > A > B
A system is T.I. if the input output characteristic 6. Invertible & Inverse System: (c) B > D > A > C (d) D > A > C > D
don’t change with time. T.I. implies that the A system is said to be invertible if the input of
shape of the response y(t) depends only on the system can be recovered from the output 02. A signal x(t) is nonzero for –1 t 2 and zero
the shape of the input x(t) and not on the time
when it is applied. If the input is delayed by “t0” t
elsewhere. Then the signal t is
the output is also delayed by the same amount nonzero for duration of
and is simply shifted replica of the original (a) 6 (b) 3
output. (c) 1.5 (d) 2
In any event, a system is not invertible unless
Ex: are time invariant distinct inputs applied to the system produces
distinct outputs 03. Find the value of the following integrals
For T.I system if x(t) y(t);
Then x(t – t0) y(t – t0 ) (a) t t t t

3. Causal & Non Causal System:

A causal (or) non – anticipating system is one (b) t t t t
whose present response does not depend on
future values of the input (or) A system is causal
if its output at t = t0 depends on the values of (c)
the input in the past t t0 and doesn’t require
future value of input (t > t0) systems whose (d) t t
present response requires knowledge of future
values of the input are termed non causal.
(e) t t t t
Ex: y(n) = 2n+1x(n) is causal
n
y(n) = 2 x(n+1) is Non-causal
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

04. Consider the D.T. signal These signals are sampled with a sampling 11.
t t
period of T = 0.25 seconds to obtain discrete A) A signal x(t) = 2 cos (150 t + 300) is sampled at (m) t
t t
x(n) = time signals x1[n] and x2[n], respectively. Which 200Hz. Find the fundamental period of discrete
one of the following statements is true? signal? (n) y(n) = ex(n)
Find the values of M and n0 so that (a) The energy of x1[n] is greater than the B) A periodic discrete time signal x(n) is given by
x(n) = u[Mn – n0 ] energy of x2[n]. x(n) = cos (3 n) + sin (7 n) + cos (2.5 n). The 13. Test the following systems for time - invariance?
(b) The energy of x2[n] is greater than energy of term sin (7 n) in x(n) corresponds to (a) y(t) = tx(t) + 3
05. Sketch the wave forms of the following signals? x2[n]. (a) 14th harmonic (b) 7th harmonic (b) y(t) = ex(t)
(a) x(t) = u(t+1) – 2 u(t) + u(t–1) (c) x1[n] and x2[n] have equal energies. (c) 6th harmonic (d) 5th harmonic (c) y(t) = x(t) cos3t
(b) x(t) = r(t+2) – r (t+1) – r(t–1) + r(t–2) (d) Neither x1[n] nor x2 (d) y(t) = sin{x(t)}
where r(t) is unit ramp function evaluate the average value xav, the energy E (e) y(t) = x t
t
08. Find the conjugate anti-symmetric part of (f) y(t) = x2(t)
x value xrms. (g) y(t) = x(2t)
(h) y(n) = 2x(n) x(n)
x(t) and x(t) Signal 1 x(t) Signal 2
4 (i) y(n) = x(n + 2) – x(7 – n)
06. Determine whether the following signals are its even part xe(t) for t 0 only; that is x(t) & xe(t) 1 t
energy (or) power signals? for t < 0 are not given. Complete the plots of x(t) 7 t t t t
t -5 -2 -2 2 5
t
(a) x(t) = e t u(t) & x0(t). –2 2 t
x(t) Signal 3 t t
(b) x(t) = A t
2
1
2 t

5 14. Consider an LTI system whose response to the

input signal x1(t) is y1(t)
the response of the system due to the Input
(d) x(t) = A cos( t + ) 10. Determine which of the following signals are
x2(t) and x3(t)?
(e) x(t) = tu(t) 12. Determine which of the following systems is
(f) x(t) = e3tu(t) period ? linear?
(a) x(t) = cos(18 t) + sin (12 t) (a) y(t) = x(t) x(t – 2)
07. (i) Two sequences x1[n] and x2[n] have the same (b) x(t) = sin (2 t/3)cos(4 t/5) (b) y(t) = sin{x(t)}
energy. Suppose x1[n] = (0.5)nu[n], where is (c) x(t) = cos 3t + sin 5 t (c) t t
t
a positive real number and u[n] is the unit step (d) x(t) = jej10t (d) y(t) = 2x(t) + 3
sequence. Assume (e) x(t) = cos(5t)u(t)
t
(f) x(t) = Ev[cos(2 t)u(t)]
1.5 for n 0,1
(g) x(n) = sin
x2[n] = (f) y(t) = x2(t)
0 other wise.
x (g) y(t) = x(t) cos 0
t
Then the value of is ________.
n (h) y(n) = log {x[n]}
(ii) Consider the two continuous-time signals (i) x(n) = ej7
(j) x(n) = cos(n/4) sin (i) y(n) = |x[n]|
t t (k) x(n) = u(n) + u(– n) (j) y(n) = x*(n)
t
(l) x(n) = (k) y(n) = Median {x[n]}
t t x
t
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

15. Check whether the following systems are (e) y(n) = x[n]x[n – 1] 24. Statement (I): A memory less system is causal
t t
causal (or) non causal? (c) t t (f) y(n) = nx(n) Statement (II): A system is causal if the output
t t t
(a) y(t) = (2t + 3) x(t) (g) y(n) = x[n] – x[n – 1] at any time depends only on values of input at
t t
(b) y(t) = x2(t) (d) t t
t t (h) that time and in the past.
(c) y(t) = x(t)sin5t
(d) y(t) = x{sin(t)} 18. Match the following

(e) y(t) = |x(t)| List I (System) Key for Practice Questions

(a) y(n+2)+ y(n+1) + y(n) = 2x(n+1) + x(n)
(f) y(n) = ex(n) assume that y[n] = 0 for n < 0
(b) n2y2(n) + y(n) = x2(n)
(g)
(c) y(n + 1) + ny(n) = 4nx(n)
01. Ans: (c)
(d) y(n + 1)y(n) = 4 x(n)
(h)
List II (system category) 02. Ans: (a)
(1) Linear, T.V., dynamic
(i)
(2) Linear, T.I., dynamic 03. (a). Ans: 0 (b). Ans: 0
(3) N.L., T.V., dynamic Find y(n) when the input is
(j) (i) x(n) = [n] (ii) x(n) = u[n]
(4) N.L., T.I., dynamic (c). Ans: 0 (d). Ans: 0.5
(5) N.L., T.V., memory less.
(k) (e). Ans: /2
19. Check whether the following systems are stable 22. Statement (I): A discrete time system with
(or) not? input x(n) and output y(n) and given by the
(l) y(t) = x( t) 04. Ans: M = 1, n0 = 3
(m) t t t relation y(n) = nx(n–2) + 2 is non linear.
(a) y(t) = x2(t)
(n) t t t Statement (II): If x(n) is delayed by 2 units, 08. Ans:
(b) y(t) = x(t) cos 3t
y(n) is not delayed by 2 units.
16. Check whether the following systems are static (c) y(t) = x(t–3)
(a) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are 10. Ans: a, b, d, f, g, h, i, l, m are periodic
or dynamic? (d) t t signals.
t individually true and Statement (II) is the
(a) y(t) = 3x(t) + 5
correct explanation of Statement (I)
(e) t 12. Ans: c, e, g are linear
(b) y(t) = x2(t)
(b) Both Statement (I) and Statement (II) are
(c) y(n) = ex(n)
(f) y(t) = sin{x(t)} individually true but Statement (II) is not 13. Ans: b, d, e, f, h, k are time invariant
(d) y(n) = cos{x(n)}
(g) y(t) = tx(t) the correct explanation of Statement (I)
(e) y(n) = x[3n]
(h) y(n) = ex(n) (c) Statement (I) is true but Statement (II) is 15. Ans: a, b, c, e, f, i, m are causal
(f) t t
t (i) y(n) = x[3n] false
(j) (d) Statement (I) is false but Statement (II) is 16. Ans: a, b, c, d are static
(g) t
true
18. (a). Ans: (2), (b). Ans: (5),
20. Determine which of the following systems are (c). Ans: (1), (d). Ans: (4)
17. Find whether the following systems are linear,
invertible? 23. Statement (I): The discrete time system
T.I. and dynamic
(a) y(t) = x2(t) described by y[n] = 2 x[n] + 4 x[n 1] is unstable, 19. Ans: a, b, c, f, h, i are stable
t t (b) y(t) = x(t) (here y[n] is the output and x[n] the input)
(a) t t t
t (c) y(t) = x(t – 3) Statement (II): It has an impulse response with 21. (i) y(n) = {0, 1, 1, 1,-------}
t (ii) y(n) = {0, 1, 0, 1,-------
(b) t t (d) t t
t t
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

• An L.T.I System is always considered w.r.t

Practice Questions
impulse response denoted as h(t) or h(n).
• If the Input is impulse, then the output is impulse
Convolution is a formal mathematical operation, just as multiplication, addition, and integration. Addition response. 01.(a) Find the convolution of the signals
takes two numbers and produces a third number, while convolution takes two signals and produces a third • SIFTING property states that any signal can be x(t) = e–3t u(t) & h(t) = u(t – 2)
produced as a combination of impulses.
• Convolution may be regarded as a method of (b)Find the convolution of the signals shown in
?
system.
• Any DT signal is the sum of scaled and shifted
impulse response. Enemy aircraft are detected with radar by analyzing a measured impulse response.
unit impulses.
Echo suppression in long distance telephone calls is accomplished by creating an impulse response that
counteracts the impulse response of the reverberation.
multiply - time - area method.
• In the convolution integral time “t” determines
relative location of h(t – ) w. r. t. x( ). The 02. The impulse response and the excitation
2.1 Continuous & Discrete Convolution
convolution will yield a non zero result only function of a linear time invariant causal
for those value of “t” over which h(t - ) & x( ) system are shown in Fig. a and b respectively.
overlap. The output of the system at t = 2 sec. is equal
to

2.2 Properties of L.T.I System

t t Causality: Stability:

h(t) = 0; t < 0

x t x
h(n) = 0; n < 0
(a) 0 (b) 1/2
(c) 3/2 (d) 1
Memory less : Invertibility & Inverse:
h(t) = 0 for t 0 h(t) hinv(t) = (t)
h(n) = 0 for n 0 h(n) hinv(n) = (n) 03. An L.T.I system is having impulse response
h(t) = u(–t–1) for which the input signal

t = 4 & t = 0.5?
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

04. The impulse response of a continuous time 10. An Input signal x(t t 18. Two discrete -time signals x[n] and h[n] are
13. Given x t and t t
system is given by h(t) = (t 1) + (t 3). The the system with impulse response both non-zero only for n = 0,1,2, and are zero
then x t t is
value of the step response at t = 2 is t t otherwise. It is given that x[0] = 1, x[1] = 2,
(a) 10 t
(a) 0 (b) 1 x[2]=1, h[0] = 1, Let y[n] be the linear
Find the output, for the values of (b) t
(c) 2 (d) 3 convolution of x[n] and h[n]. Given that
i) T = 4 y[1] = 3 and y[2] = 4, the value of the expression
ii) T = 2 t (10y[3] + y[4]) is _______
05. t x t (c)

Express z(t) in terms of y(t) = x(t) h(t)

(d) None of these

06. Find the following terms

14. The integral can be
(a) x(t + 5) * (t – 7) = _________ Properties of L.T.I system
11. (a) Find the convolution of interpreted as the Convolution of
(b) x(t) * (at + b) = __________
(a) x( ) and h( )
(b) x(t) and h(t) 19. The range of ‘a’ and ‘b’ for the impulse

(b) The impulse response of a system is (c) x(- ) and h(- ) response
h(t) = t u(t). For an input u(t – 1), the output (d) x(t) and h(-t)
to be stable is _______
is (a) |a|<1, |b| < 1
07. Explain the difference between each of the (b) |a|>1, |b| < 1
following operations? (c) |a|>1, |b| > 1
(a) [e t u(t)] (t – 1) (d) |a|<1, |b| > 1
Discrete Convolution
(b) 20. Given h(t) = e t u(t) + e t u(–t). For what values of
15. A linear system with Input x(n) & output y(n)
related as and system is stable?
(c) e tu(t) (t – 1) t
impulse response is t (a) < 0, <0
where g(n) = u(n) – u(n – 4). Find y(n) when (b) < 0, >0
08. Let x(t) = u(t–3) – u(t – 5) & h(t) = e–3tu(t).
input x(t) = u(t)? x(n) = (n – 2) (c) > 0, >0
(d) > 0, <0
Find x t t
t 16. The I.R of a D.T LTI system is given by
t
12. Suppose that x t h(n)=(0.5)n u(n) of the input is
09. Signals that replicate under self-convolution Find the output at n = 1 & n = 4?
t x t
include the impulse, Sinc, Gaussian, and
y t 17. Given x = [a, b, c, d] as the Input to an LTI
Lorentzian. For each of the following known Let y(t) = x(t) h(t). Ifhas to contain
t
only three discontinuities, the value of is system produces an output
results, determine the constant A using the
(a) 1 y = [x, x, x, x, … repeated N times].
area property of convolution.
(b) 2 The impulse response of the system is
(a) ( t) ( t) = A ( t) (a)
(c) 0.5
(b) Sinc( t) Sinc( t) = ASinc( t) (a) Find I.R. of overall system.
(d) – 1
(b) u(n) – u(n – N) (b) Is this system causal ? Under
(c)
(c) u(n) – u(n–N–1) What condition the system is stable.
(d) (d)
t t t
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

22. Consider a D.T system ‘s1’, with I.R 28. If step responses of 2 L.T.I systems are s1(t) & However, musical instruments, such as a piano,
h(n) = (1/5)nu(n) s2(t) respectively, how the cascaded step are made of many strings all vibrating at once.
(a) Find ‘A’ such that h(n) – Ah(n–1) = (n) response sc(t) is related interms of s1(t) & The question that intrigued Fourier was: How do
Historical perspective:
(b) Using result from part (a), determine the I.R s2(t)? you evaluate the waveforms from a number of
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768 – 1830)
g(n) of an LTI system s2 which is inverse of s1 strings all vibrating at once? As a product of his
Joseph Fourier was born in Auxerre, France
research, Fourier realized that the sound heard
23. For the interconnected system shown in Fig.
Key for Practice Questions by the ear is actually the arithmetic sum of
1830.
sponse. each of the individual waveforms. This is called
Motivation:
the principle of superposition.
01. (a) Ans: 04. Ans: (b) • Representation of continuous time, periodic
signals in the frequency domain • Representing CT signals as superposition of
05. Ans: z(t) = y(t + a) complex exponentials leads to frequency –

24. Determine whether each of the following of planets and their satellites, vibration of domain characterizations. eg :- A human ear is
06. a. Ans: x(t – 2), b. Ans: x t oscillators, electric power distribution, beating sensitive to audio signals within the frequency
statements are TRUE (or) FALSE.
of the heart, vibration of vocal chords, etc. range 20Hz to 20 kHz. Typically, musical note
Justify your answer.
07. a. Ans: t , b. Ans: e , Introduction: occupies a much wider frequency range.
(1) The cascade of a non causal LTI system
c. Ans: e–(t–1). u(t–1) • The Fourier series is named after the French Therefore the human ear processor frequency
with casual one is necessarily noncausal
mathematician Joseph Fourier. components within the audible range &
(2) If an LTI system is causal, it is stable 08. Ans: In this chapter we will consider approximating rejects other frequency components. In such
(3) If h(t) is the I.R of an LTI system which is
a function by a linear combination of basis applications, frequency-domain analysis
periodic & nonzero, the system is unstable 11. b). Ans: (c) 13. Ans: (a) provides a convenient means of solving for the
functions, which are simple functions that can
(4) The inverse of a causal system is always be generated in a laboratory. Joseph Fourier response of L.T.I. systems to arbitrary input.
14. Ans: (d)
causal (1768–1830) developed the mathematical
• By using F.S, a non-sinusoidal periodic function
15. Ans: y(n) = g (n 4) theory of heat conduction using a set of
25. If the unit step response of a system is trigonometric (sine and cosine) series of the
16. Ans: y(1) = 1, y(4) = 5/8 functions.
, then its unit impulse response is form we now call Fourier series. He established
_______ 17. Ans: (a) 19. Ans: (d) 20. Ans: (b) that an arbitrary mathematical function can • Sinusoidal signals arise in describing motion of
(a) be represented by its Fourier series. planets & periodic behavior of earth’s climate.
21. Ans: u u is causal
(b) • Fourier series and the Fourier transform are A.C. sources generate sinusoidal voltages &
for any value of , and stable if | | < 1,
(c) basics to mathematics and science, especially currents.
and any value of .
(d) to the theory of communications. For example,
• There are 2 reasons for evaluating the F.S.
22. Ans: 23. Ans: a phoneme in a speech signal is smooth and
1. To obtain an expression for f(t) that applies
26. Find the step response of the system if the wavy. A linear combination of a few sinusoidal
everywhere, rather than only over a single
n 24. Ans: 1-false, 2-false, 3-true, 4-false. functions would approximate a segment of
impulse response is h(n) = (0.5) u(n)
period.
speech within some error tolerance.
25. Ans: (a) 2. To obtain phasors, which indirectly tell how
27. An LTI system with Input u(n) produces the • Fourier and a number of his contemporaries
much power is available at each harmonic
output as were interested in the study of vibrating
26. Ans: u of the waveform.
strings. In the simple case of just one naturally
the input nu(n)?
vibrating string the analysis is straightforward:
27. Ans: u(n 1)
the vibration is described by a sine wave.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

3.1 ANALOGY BETWEEN VECTORS & SIGNALS Length of the component Examples (b) For orthonormality 2T = 1 T = 1/2
• Signals are not just like vectors. = (c) x(t) = C1 (t)
1
(t) + C2 2
(t) + C3 3
A vector can be represented as a sum of Example 01:
its components, depending on the choice x t t t
For the three continuous functions shown in
of coordinate system. A signal can also be
represented as a sum of its components.
• We know that an arbitrary M-dimensional • 2 vectors are orthogonal if inner (or)
vector can be represented in terms of scalar product
M orthogonal co-ordinates.
• If we consider 2 basis vectors t t

direction. Similarly C3 = – A/2

x(t) = A/2 [ 1
(t) – (t)]
3

Component of a Signal

3.2 Trigonometric F.S

• Any practical periodic function of frequency

(or) cosine functions that are integral multiples

of 0
(a) Show that the functions form an orthogonal
g(t) = ao+ a1cos 0
t + a2cos2 t+------
0
set
+ b1sin 0
t + b2sin2 0t + - - - - - - - -
g(t) C x(t) ; t1 < t < t2 (b) Find the value of T that makes 3 functions
orthonormal
t x t t t t t ------ (I)
(c) Express the signal
t
x t t x t
0
Fundamental frequency
a0, an, bn
in terms of orthogonal set determined
Note:
2 signals g(t) & x(t) are said to be orthogonal in (a)?
Consider 2 vectors t t
over the interval (t1, t2) Sol: (a) For all the 3 signals
Let the component of f along X be CX.
(Geometrically the component f along X is the t x t t x t t t
t t t t t t t t t
projection of f on X)

From Fig (a) They are also said to be orthonormal if they

t t t
From Fig (b) & (c)
Orthogonality

If we approximate f by CX,
t t t t t t t t t
Error in the approximation e = f – CX
Minimize the error vector, such that f and X
are approximated
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

3.3 Exponential (or) Complex F.S 5. Differentiation in time:-

Another form of the F.S that involves complex x(t) Cn
Symmetry Condition a0 an bn
exponential functions can be obtained by x t
Even g(t) = g(–t) ? ? 0 t
substituting the complex exponential forms of
Odd g(t) = – g(–t) 0 0 ?
sin 0
t and cos 0
t into (I) 6. Parseval’s Power theorem:-
Half-wave (or) g(t) = – g(t ± T/2) 0 = 0 ; n even = 0 ; n even
The total average power in a periodic signal
Rotational = ? ; n odd = ? ; n odd | Cn | 2-sided equal to sum of squared amplitude of each
spectrum harmonic
Notes:
x(t) Cn
• a0, the DC offset term, can be non-zero even though all the other an’s are zero
then x t t

-2 0 - 0 0 0 2 n 0
half. Therefore, any function that is even-harmonic is actually a regular periodic function whose period 0

has been labeled twice what it should be. In other words, there is nothing special about even-harmonic
t
functions. t Where t t
• Shifting a signal left/right in time does not affect whether or not it is odd-harmonic.
• Shifting a signal up/down (adding a DC offset) does not affect whether it is odd-harmonic, other than
adding a term in the Fourier series at Zero frequency. Convergence Of F.S: (Dirichlet Conditions)
• An odd-harmonic function does not have to be odd. (1) x(t) is absolutely integrable i.e.,

x t t

(2) x(t
t t minima
even
odd (3) The number of discontinuities in x(t) must be

t t
3.4 Properties of F.S
even and odd - harmonic 1.
odd-harmonic Linearity: x1(t) Cn
x2(t) dn
then x1(t) + x2(t) Cn + dn
t t t
2. Time Shift: x t t
odd and odd - harmonic even and odd - harmonic w/ DC offset
When we shift in the time-domain, it changes
the phase of each harmonic in proportion to its
frequency n 0.
3. Frequency Shift:
x(t) Cn
t
then x t

4. Time-Scaling:
x t x t
Time-Compressing by changes frequency
from 0 to 0
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

05. Consider the trigonometric series, which holds 09. f(t

Practice Questions (R) g (t)
true t, given by t t t
+V x(t) = sin 0 t + 1/3 sin 3 0t + 1/5 sin 5 0t The value of a0 is
01. A periodic signal is given by + 1/7 sin 7 0 t + - - - - - - - - - -
f(t)
x(t) = 3 sin (4t + 30o) – 4 cos (12t – 60o). At 0
t = /2 the series converges to
Find the amplitude of second harmonic? -2 - 0 2 t (a) 0.5 1.5
(b) /4 +1
02. Which of the following signal is not the (c) /2 – 2
-V 0 3 t
representation of F.S.? (d) 2
(a) Cos3t + sin12t -1.5
(a) Sine terms
(b) 1 + sin t (b) Sine terms with odd harmonics 06. x(t) is a real valued function of a real variable (a) 0 (b) /2
(c) ej6t (c) Sine terms with even harmonics with period T. Its trigonometric. Fourier Series
(c) (d) 2
(d) cos2 t + sin6t (d) DC, Cosine and Sine terms expansion contains no terms of frequency
= 2 (2k)/T; k = 1, 2….……. Also, no sine terms are
(S) 10. A periodic rectangular signal x(t) has the
present. Then x(t
what frequency components are present f(t) 1 (a) x(t) = –x(t – T)
in trigonometric series expansion. (b) x(t) = x(T – t) = –x(–t) harmonic of its spectrum is
t (c) x(t) = x(T – t) = –x(t –T/2)
– - /2 0 /2
(d) x(t) = x(t – T) = x(t – T/2)
(a) DC, Cosine terms
(b) DC, Cosine terms with even harmonics 07. The fundamental frequency of the composite
(c) DC, Cosine terms with odd harmonics signal
(d) None of these x(t) = 2 + 3cos (0.2t) + cos (0.25t + /2)
+ 4cos (0.3t – ) is
(a) 0.05 rad/sec (a) 40 Hz
(a) DC and cosine terms (b) 0.1 rad/sec (b) 200 Hz
(b) DC and sine terms (c) 0.2 rad/sec (c) 250 Hz
(c) Cosine & sine terms (d) 0.25 rad/sec (d) 1250 Hz
(d) None of these
08. The average value of the periodic signal x(t)
11. A periodic signal in a duration of one period is
(Q)
shown. Its Fourier series expansion Includes
(a) DC, Cosine and Sine terms
(b) DC, Cosine terms with even harmonics
(c) DC, Cosine terms with odd harmonics
(d) None of these

04. Consider the signal

x(t) = 10cos(10 t + /7) + 4sin(30 t + /8). (a) 5/6
(a) cosine terms of odd harmonics
(a) Sine and Cosine terms It’s power lying within the frequency band (b) 1
(b) sine terms of odd harmonics
(b) Only odd harmonics 10 Hz to 20 Hz is ____ (c) 5
(a) 4W (b) 8W (d) 6 (c) sine terms of even harmonics
(c) Sine terms with odd harmonics
(c) 50W (d) 58W (d) cosine terms of even harmonics
(d) DC and Sine terms
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

12. The rms value of the periodic waveform shown Exponential F.S 19. Let x(t) be a periodic signal with period T and

n
16. For the periodic signal
t t Let y(t) = x(t–t0) + x(t + t0
x t
y(t) is dn.
? If dn= 0 odd n then t0 can be
(a) T/8 (b) T/4
17. Obtain the E.F.S. representation of periodic
? (c)T/2 (d) 2T

(a) |n 3| & |n 2| (b) |n 2| & |n 3|

(c) |n 1| & |n 2| (d) |n 4| & |n 2|
?

a peak voltage of 10 V. Its average value and 23. The magnitude & phase spectra of a periodic
the peak value of the fundamental component signal x(t
are respectively given by :

(a) (b) x(t) shown in

0
= 1/ , C1 = –j0.25, Cn = 1/ (1 – n2)
(c) (d) y(t), f(t) and
g(t)?
21. Consider a periodic signal x(t) as shown below
t t
x t
t t

If A cos ( t ) is one of the terms it contains A is

equal to
2
(a) (b) 2

2 (a) Write the polar form of TFS.

(c) 2 (d)
(b) Sketch the magnitude & phase spectrum
It has a Fourier series representation of f(t) = x(2t), g(t) = x(t 1/6) & h(t) = x t
15. A periodic input signal x(t) shown below is
applied to an L.T.I. system with frequency t
response
Which one of the following statement is TRUE?
(a) ak = 0, for k odd integer and T = 3
Which frequency components are present in (b) ak = 0, for k even integer and T = 3 24.
the output? (c) ak = 0, for k even integer and T = 6 (a) Find the power up to second harmonic for the
?
(d) ak = 0, for k odd integer and T = 6

22. One period (0, T) of 2 periodic waveforms

w1 & w2 are shown in Fig. then Fourier series

____
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

(b) For the periodic signal x(t) shown below with 28. The systems S1 & S2
following properties
Key for Practice Questions
period T = 8 s, the power in the 10th harmonic is

sin t 5 cos ( t + 30 )
S1
01. Ans: 0
(1/4) sin10t cos (5t)
S2
02. Ans: (d)

(a) Both S1 and S2 are LTI systems

(a) Find the power in the periodic signal (b) S1 is LTI, but S2 is not LTI system
(b) Is this signal odd symmetric, even (c) S1 is not LTI system, S2 is LTI system
04. Ans: (b)
symmetric & neither (d) Both S1 & S2 are not LTI systems
(c) Assume that the fundamental frequency 05. Ans: (b)
29. Consider the following statements related to
Fourier series of a periodic waveform:
signal x(t)? 07. Ans: (a)
1. It expresses the given periodic waveform
as a combination of d.c. component,
with cut-off frequency 25Hz, what would 08. Ans: (a)
sine and cosine waveforms of different
be the steady-state response harmonic frequencies.
09. Ans: (a)
27. Match the following 2. The amplitude spectrum is discrete.
x(t) is
t List – I (Periodic function) 10. Ans: (d)
expressed as x t are given by
A. Impulse train
C–2 = 2– j1; C–1= 0.5 + j0.2; C0 = j2; 4. The amplitude spectrum is continuous
11. Ans: (b)
Which of the above statements are
C1 = 0.5 – j0.2; C2 = 2 + j1;
correct?
Cn = 0 for |n| >2. 13. Ans: (c)
(a) 1, 2 and 4 (b) 2, 3 and 4
Which of the following is TRUE? -2T -T 0 T t
(c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2 and 3
14. Ans: (d)
(a) x(t
30. Statement (I): In the exponential Fourier
C. 2sin(2 t/6) cos(4 t/6) 15. Ans: y t t t
representation of a real-valued periodic
(b) x(t) has zero average value because it is
D. function f(t) of frequency f0
periodic 1 16.
the terms e j 2 n f0 t and e j 2 n f0 t are negatives
(c) the imaginary part of x(t) is constant of each other.
t 19. Ans: (b)
(d) the real part of x(t) is even. 0 T/2 T Statement (II): The discrete magnitude
spectrum of f(t) is even and the phase spectrum
22. Ans: (c)
-1 is odd.
26. For the following s
24. (a) Ans: 0.45 Watt.
List-II (Properties of spectrum)
1. Only even harmonics are present 27. A – 2, B. –1, C. –3, D
2. Impulse train with strength 1/T
3. C3 = 1/2j C 3 = –1/2j
C1 = –1/2j C 1 = 1/2j
4. Only odd harmonics are present
5. Both even & odd harmonics are present
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

2. Increasing exponential

4.1 Introduction 1

• Fourier Transform (F.T.) provides a frequency domain description of time domain signals and is extension 0 t
of F.S to non-periodic signals.
• CTFT expresses signals as linear combination of complex Sinusoids
• Transformation makes the analysis of signal much easier because certain features which may be 3. C.T. impulse function: (t) 1
obscure in one form may be obvious in other form
1
• Spectrum of F.T. is continuous whereas spectrum of F.S is discrete.
• F.T (or) spectrum of a signal x(t) is t
0
x t t ........(1) 0

• Inverse F.T. (I.F.T) is

x t ......(2) 4. Rectangular (or) Gate function:-

• x t t x t t t

x t
| X( ) |
AT
Convergence of F.T.
x(t)
A
x t t

can be considered to have F.T. if impulse functions are permitted in the transform.
3. x(t T/2 0 T/2 t 0
A A
interval.

F.T. of Standard Signals: X( )

1. Decaying exponential: ;a>0

1/a |X( )|
1 /2 0
/4
-

-a 0 a
0 t
- /4
- /2 X( )
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Spectral Width
Operational Properties of the Fourier Transform
• A broadband signal is the one, which spectrum is distributed over a wide range of frequencies as it is
Property x(t) X(f)
shown in Fig. 4(a)
• A bandlimited signal is limited in the frequency domain with some maximum frequency as it is shown in (1). Similarity X(t) x( f) x( )
Fig. 4(b).
(2). Time Scaling x( t)
• A narrowband signal has a spectrum that is localized about a frequency f0 that is illustrated in Fig. 4(c).
• A baseband signal has a spectral contents in a narrow range close to zero (Fig. 4(d)). Accordingly, a (3). Folding x( t) X( f) X( )
spectrum beginning at 0 Hz and extending contiguously over an increasing frequency range is called a
baseband spectrum. (4). Time Shift x(t ) e X(f) e X( )

(c) j2 t
(d) (5). Frequency shift e x(t) X(f ) X( )
(a)
(6). Convolution x(t) h(t) X(f) H(f) X( ) H( )

(b) (7). Multiplication x(t) h(t) X(f) H(f)

(8). Modulation x(t) cos(2 t) 0.5[X(f + ) + X(f )] 0.5[X( + 2 ) + X( 2 )]

0 f0 f
Fig (4): Types of signals: (a) broadband, (9). Derivative x (t) j2 f X(f) j X( )
(b) bandlimited, (c) narrowband, and
(d) baseband. (10). Times-t j2 t x(t) X (f) 2 X( )

(11). Integration x t t

(12). Conjugation x (t) X ( f) X( )

(13). Correlation x(t) y(t) X(f) Y (f) X( ) Y ( )

(14). Autocorrelation x(t) x(t) X(f) X (f) = |X(f)|2 X( ) X ( ) = |X( )|2

(15). Central ordinates x x t t

t t

t t t
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Some Useful Fourier Transform Pairs 4.2 DISTORTIONLESS TRANSMISSION • If the gain is not constant over the required
In several application such as signal frequency range, we have amplitude distortion.
Entry x(t) X(f) X( )
If the phase shift is not linear with frequency, we
1 (t) 1 1
have phase distortion as the signal undergoes
over communication channel, we require that
2 rect(t) sinc(f) different delays for different frequencies.
the output waveform be a replica of the Input
waveform.
3 tri(t) sinc2(f)
physically unrealizable in the sense that their
• Transmission is said to be distortionless if the characteristics can not be achieved with a
4 Sinc(t) rect(f)
input and output have identical waveshapes

5 cos t [ ( – within a multiplicative constant (or) a delayed

0
[ (f – f0) + (f + f0)]/2 0
) + ( + 0)]
• For a physically realizable system, h(t) must be
output that retains the input waveform is
causal i.e., h(t) = 0 for t < 0. In the frequency
6 sin 0
t [ (f – f0) – (f + f0)]/2j [ ( – )– ( +
0 0
)] considered to be distortionless.
j domain, this condition is known as Paley –
Wiener Criterion which states that the necessary
7 e tu(t) • For distortionless transmission, the input x(t) and
output y(t response |H( )| to be realizable is

8 te tu(t) y(t) = k x(t – t0)

9 e
k tp( ) is the delay occurring at a
Single frequency. As the signal propagates
10
from source to destination the amount of delay
caused is known as phase delay.
11 sgn(t)

|H( )|= k
t
12 u(t)
H( ) = ( ) = – t0

t
13 e cos(2 t) u(t) delay. A steady Sinusoidal signal doesn’t carry
information. Information can be transmitted
only by applying some appropriate change to
t
14 e sin(2 t) u(t)
Sinusoidal wave. Suppose that a slowly varying
signal is multiplied by a Sinusoidal wave so that
resulting modulated wave consists of a narrow
15 t Slope = –t0
group of frequencies. When this modulated
wave is transmitted through the channel, we
16 • For distortion less transmission, magnitude
x t
response must be a constant, phase response of Input and received signal. This is known as
must be a linear function of with slope –t0, envelope (or) group delay (True signal delay)
where t0 is delay in output with respective to
input. t
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Properties of H.T:
t 1. H.T. doesn’t change the domain of a signal
t t t t 2. H.T. doesn’t alter the amplitude spectrum of a
signal
1.5v 1.5v tp(f) = tg(f) for
3. If x t is H.T. of x(t), then H.T. of x t is – x(t)
4. x(t) and x t are orthogonal to each other.
0v 1.5v
1.5v 1.5v Example : Find H.T. of
Low pass
(1) x(t) = cos 0t
(2) x(t) = sin t
0
0v 1.5v
1.5v 1.5v (3) x t t t
High pass
4.3 HILBERT TRANSFORM: (H.T) (4) x(t)cos(2 fct), where x(t) represents a
0v 1.5v The Hilbert transform is an operation that shifts signal band limited to B, fc > B
1.5v 1.5v
Band pass the phase of x(t) by – /2, while the amplitude Example :
spectrum of the signal remains unaltered. x(t) = cost and
0v 1.5v h(t) = (1/ ), then the output y(t) is
1.5v 1.5v An ideal H.T. is an all pass 900 phase shifter.
Band reject
H.T. is used in number of application such as

0v 1.5v representation of band pass signals, phase shift

Frequency Time modulators, generation of SSB. (a) cos t (b) – cos t
(c) sin t (d) – sin t

analyzer; shown at the right are the waveforms that we would observe with an oscilloscope. The
spectrum and waveform at the top pertain to the input signal, and those below pertain, respectively,
to the low-pass, high-pass. Band-pass, and band-reject outputs. For instance, if we send Vi(t) through a 4.4 CORRELATION
Frequency response of the H.T.
c
somewhere between 4 0 and 16 0
= –jsgn( ) • It provides a measure of the similarity between
and thus passed, but the third component is multiplied by 0 and is thus blocked: the result is
2 waveforms as the function of search
parameter.
• An application of correlation to signal detection
Example : in a radar, where a signal pulse is transmitted in
A channel has the frequency response order to detect a suspect target. If a target is

pulse, just noise. By detecting the presence or

Draw the phase delay tp(f) & group delay tg(f). For what values of f does tp(f) = tg(f)?
Ans: presence or absence of the target.
• In digital communication, the important
thing is that 1s and 0s in the data stream be
distinguishable from each other so the receiver
can reproduce the bit pattern that was
transmitted.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

• Auto correlation function of an energy signal 06. The magnitude of F.T. X( ) of a function 11. The F.T of a triangular pulse f(t
Practice Questions
x(t) is ) of other is F( ) =
function y(t ?
x t x t t x t x t t X( ) and Y( ) are zero for all . The magnitude
01. If x(t) is a voltage waveform, then what are the f(t)
units of X(f) ? and frequency units are identical in both the 1
• ACF of power signals is
y(t) can be expressed in
02. For the signal x(t terms of x(t) as ______

(a) X(0)
(b) 3 -1 0 t
1
f1(t) f2(t)
1
Properties of ACF: 1.5
–100 0 100 -50 0 50
1. ACF is an even function of i.e.,
Rx( ) = Rx( )
t
2. ACF at origin indicates either energy (or) power (a) x (b) x t
-1/2 0 1/2 t 0 2 t
in the signal
t
3. Maximum value of ACF occurs at origin i.e., (c) x t (d) x 12. If x(t) as shown in Fig. (a) has Fourier transform
|Rx( )| |Rx(0)| X(f), then the Fourier transform of g(t) as shown
4. Rx( ) = x( ) x( ) 07. Find F.T. of the following signals: in Fig.(b) is

(i) x(t) = 1
Rx( ) Sx( Properties of F.T
(ii) x t
6. For an LTI system t
Linearity, duality & scaling (iii) x t
Y( ) =X( )H( ) t
|Y( )|2 = |X( )|2 |H( )|2 (iv) x t
t
SY( ) = SX( ) |H( )|2 03. Find the F.T of the signals
i) x t [Two sided exponential]
08. Let x(t) = rect( t – ½ )
ii) x(t) = Sgn(t) [Signum function]
{where rect(x) = 1 for –1/2 x 1/2 } then if
x
2
sinc(x) = x
output S.D = [input S.D] [|H( )| ] 04. The F.T. of a function g(t) is given as
F.T. of x(t) + x(–t) will be given by ____
. Find g(t)?

09. What is the I.F.T. of u( ) ?

Y(f) at f = 1 ? (a) e j6 fX(f ) – e j4 fX(–f )

(b) [e j6 f – e j4 f]X(f)
j6 f j4 f
(c) [e – e ]X(–f )
Time & frequency shifting j6 f j4 f
(d) e X(–f ) – e X(f )

13. Find the F.T. of the following signals?

10. Find the F.T. of the signals
3t
i) cos 0
t
i) x(t) = e u(t 1)
ii) sin 0t
ii) z(t) = [(t – 1) / 2] iii) e–at sin tu(t)
c
iii) y t iv) A rect(t/T) cos t
0
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

14. Find the F.T. of y(t) = Sinc(t) cos10 t The output, y(t) is equal to 23. Given t t
25. The input signal x t t t 1
< 2
t is applied to the system shown in
15. i) The inverse F.T of X(4 +3) in terms of x(t) x t
is_______
ii) I.F.T of X( ) = 2 ( )+ ( 4 ) Find the F. T of the following signals?
H( )
+ ( + 4 ) is 1
(a) 1+ cos 4 t (b) (1– cos 4 t)
(c) 2 (1– cos 4 t) (d) 2 (1+cos 4 t)
(a) x(t) (b) x t
16. The Fourier spectrum X(f) of a signal x(t) is (c) – x(t) (d) x(t) cos( ) - f 0 f

shown. The phase angle of x(t) at

y(t) if
t = 1/(8fo) is equal to Time & Frequency Differentiation
(a) 0 < f < 1
X(f) (b) < <
19. A differentiable non constant even function 1 f 2
1 (c) <
x(t) has a derivative y(t), and their respective 2 f
f Fourier Transforms are X( ) and Y( . Which of
fo
the following statements is TRUE ? 26. Let x(t) be a signal whose F.T. is
(a) –90 (b) 180
(a) X( ) and Y( ) are both real. & Let
(c) –45 (d) 45
(b) X( ) is real Y( ) is imaginary h(t) = u(t) – u(t–2)
17. F.T. of x(t) is 2rect(0.25f). Then F.T. of (c) X( ) and Y( ) are both imaginary (a) is x(t) periodic?
x(t)cos(2 t) is (d) X( ) is imaginary Y( ) is real (b) is x(t) h(t) periodic?
(a) (c) can the convolution of two aperiodic
1
20. For the spectrum X( signals be periodic?
x t at t = 0 ?
t
f
-4 0 4
convolution of following signals.
(a) y t t t
(b) (b) y t t t
2 t
(c) y t t
1 (d) y t t t

-3 -1 1 3 f
0 28. (a) Find the output of a system having impulse
(c) response t t when the
4 21. Find the F.T. of te input applied is x(t) = cos t
t
of
f t
-3 3 (b) Let t , and h(t
0
22. Given x(t) X( ), express the F.T. of the following to g(t). If g(t) applied as input to h(t), then
(d) None of these
signals in terms of X( ) ? the Fourier transform of the output is
Convolution (a) e (b) e
18. A signal x(t) with bandwidth B is put on a carrier (i) x1(t) = x(2 – t) + x(– t – 2 )
(ii) x2(t) = x( 3t – 6 ) (c) e (d) e
cos( ct) with c >> B. The modulated signal x(t)
cos( c
t) is then applied to a system shown in 24. An L.T.I system is having Impulse response
(iii) x t x t
t
t
t t for which the input applied is
t x t
(iv) x t
t x(t) = cos2t + sin 6t ?
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

29. The time function x(t) corresponding to the 39. For a linear phase channel, what is tp & tg? 43. Consider an LTI system with magnitude
36. For the signal t
Fourier spectrum: t , determine the response
essential B.W. B Hz of g(t) such that the energy
is
contained in the spectral components of g(t) of with R = 1 k
(a) real and even symmetric
frequencies below B Hz is 99% of signal energy
(b) conjugate odd symmetric i) Let H(f) denote the frequency response of RC and phase response Arg[H(f)] = –2f.
in g(t)?
(c) conjugate even symmetric be the highest frequency component If the input to the system is
1
(d) real and odd symmetric 37. The magnitude of the Fourier transform of a
1
,
signal x(t Then the average power of the output signal
then f1 (in Hz) is _____
30. Find the F.T. of The energy of the signal is y(t) is ______
(a) y(t) = x(t)cos t? (a) 327.8 (b) 163.9
0 |X(f)|
t 10-6 (c) 52.2 (d) 104.4
t
(b) x t
t (ii) Let tg
f2 = 100 Hz, then tg(f2 ) in msec, is ____
following steady - state outputs. Tell what kind
t -104 104 f(Hz) (a) 0.717 (b) 7.17
31. Find the F.T. of t 0 of distortion has occurred?
t
(c) 71.7 (d) 4.505
(a) (b)
Parseval’s Power theorem 10
41. The input to a channel is a bandpass signal. It
(c) (d) 10
is obtained by linearly modulating a sinusoidal
32. Find the energy in the signal Distortionless Transmission carrier with a single-tone signal. The output of
t
x t t the channel due to this input is given by
38. Consider a transmission system H( ) with
magnitude and phase response as shown y t t t
?
The group delay (tg) & the phase delay (tp) in
X( )
x(t) = 2Cos 10 t + Sin 26 t is given to the system seconds, of the channel are
the output will be ________ 6
(a) tg = 10 6, tp = 1.56 (b) tg = 1.56, tp = 10
8 6 8
(c) tg = 10 , tp = 1.56×10 (d) tg = 10 , tp = 1.56

42. Suppose a transmission system has the

Input S.S. Output
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
what range of frequency there is no distortion?
x1(t)=cos20t+cos 60t
|H(f)|
2t
34. An input signal x(t) = e u(t) is applied to an ideal
x2(t)=cos20t+cos140t
1
x3(t)=cos20t+cos220t

Find c, such that energy in the output is half

0 20 30 50 f, kHz
that of Input energy?
Arg H(f)
(a) 4 cos 10 t + sin 26 t f
35. Find the value of the integral
(b) 8 cos 10 t + sin 26 t
(c) 4 cos (10 t – /6) + sin (26 t – [13 /30]) -900
(d) 8 cos (10 t – /2) + sin (26 t – /2)
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Correlation Sampling Theorem 55. A signal represented by x(t) = 5cos(400 t) 57. A signal x(t) = 6cos10 t is sampled at a rate
is sampled at a rate of 300Hz. The resulting of 14 Hz to recover the original signal, cut-off
45. Find the auto correlation and power in the
51. Find the Nyquist rate & Nyquist interval for each
signal x(t) = 6 cos(6 t + /3)
of the following signals? with cut-off frequency of 150 Hz. Which of the (a) 5 < fc < 9 (b) 9
3t t ? (c) 10 (d) 14
46. Find the ACF of x(t) = e u(t)
(a) x t t (a) 100 Hz
t
and input (b) x t t (b) 100 Hz, 150 Hz 58. The spectrum of a bandlimited signal after
2t
x(t) = e u(t) (c) 50 Hz, 100Hz
(c) x3(t) = 5cos1000 t cos4000 t
(a) Find the ESD of the output? (d) 20,100,150Hz sampling interval is
(b) Show that total energy in the output is (d) x
one-third of the input energy? 56. The frequency spectrum of a signal is shown in
(e) x t t t
48. Let g(t) = exp(–8t)u(t) t of 1 msec, then the frequency spectrum of the
x(t) = convolution of g(t) with it self and 100 f(Hz)
(f) x t t 0 100 150 350 400 600
t sampled signal will be _________
y( ) = correlation of g(t) with it self
U (f) (a) 1msec (b) 2msec
i) The value of x(t) at t = 1/16 is
(c) 4msec (d) 8msec
(a) (b) 52. Let x(t) be a signal with Nyquist rate .
o
Determine the Nyquist rate for each of the
(c) (d) 1/(16e) 59. Let x(t) = 2 cos(800 t) + cos(1400 t) and x(t) is
following signals. f (kHz)
–1 0 1 sampled with the rectangular pulse train shown
ii) The energy density spectrum at f = 0 is (a) x(t) + x(t–1) (b) x t
t
(a) 8 (b) 1/8 (c) x(3t) (d) x(t) cos o
t (a) present in the sampled signal in the frequency
(c) 1/64 (d) 64 range 2.5kHz to 3.5kHz.
53. Two signals x1(t) & x2(t) are band limited to 2 kHz
iii) y( ) value at = 0, is f
(a) (b) following signals?
(a) x1(2t) (b)
(c) (d) 16
(b) x2(t – 3)
(c) x1(t) + x2(t)
49. Find the C.C.F of x(t) = e tu(t) and
3t
(d) x1(t)x2(t)
y(t) = e u(t) ? f
(e) x1(t) x2(t)
(f) x1(t) cos(1000 t) (c)
50. The signal x(t) = sinc10t is the input to a system
with frequency response
54. A signal x(t) = 100 cos(24 103t) is ideally
sampled with a sampling period of 50 sec (a) 2.7, 3.4
Find the output energy? (b) 3.3, 3.6
and then passed through an ideal low pass
f (c) 2.6, 2.7, 3.3, 3.4, 3.6
the following frequencies is/are present at the (d) 2.7, 3.3
(d)
?
(a) 12 kHz only
(b) 8 kHz only
(c) 12 kHz and 9 kHz
(d) 12 kHz and 8 kHz
f
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

60. Hilbert Transform & Complex Envelope 65. Statement (I): Aliasing occurs when the
Key for Practice Questions
(i) The output y(t) of the following system is to be sampling frequency is less than twice the
sampled, so as to reconstruct it from its samples 61. The complex envelope of the bandpass signal maximum frequency in the signal.
01. Ans: Volt/Hz
uniquely. The required minimum sampling Statement (II): Aliasing is a reversible process.
t
x t t ,
rate is t 02. (a). Ans: 7, (b). Ans: 4
66. Statement (I): Sampling in one domain makes
centered about f = Hz, is
the signal to be periodic in the other domain.
04. Ans: t t
t Statement (II): Multiplication in one domain is
(a)
t the convolution in the other domain. 05. Ans: 0 06. Ans: (d) 12.Ans: (a)
t
(b)
t t
15. i. Ans: x ii. Ans: (a)
t
(c)
t 17. Ans: (b)
t
(a) 1000 samples/s (d) 18. Ans: (d)
t
(b) 1500 samples/s
(c) 2000 samples/s 62. A modulated signal is given by 24. Ans: cos(2t)
(d) 3000 samples/s s(t) = e atcos[( c )t]u(t), where a, c are
t
positive constants, and c . The complex 25. a). Ans: t ,
envelope of s(t) is given by
t t t
(ii) The signal is ideally sampled (a) exp( at) exp[j( c )t]u(t) b). Ans: t t
at a sampling frequency of 15 Hz. The (b) exp( at t)u(t)
t)u(t) c). Output = Input
with impulse response t .
t t (d) exp[j( c
)t]
26. Ans: a is non - periodic, b is periodic, c may
be periodic.
63. The input 4sinc(2t) is fed to a Hilbert transformer
(a) t to obtain y(t
27. a). Ans: y t t,
t
(b) t
t b). Ans: y t

(c) t t
c). Ans:
t
(d) t Here The value (accurate to
t d). Ans:0
two decimal places) of is __________
28. (a). Ans: cos (t 1), (b). Ans: d

64. A modulated signal is y(t) = m(t)cos(40000 t), 29. Ans: (c)

where the baseband signal m(t) has frequency
a
components less than 5 kHz only. The minimum 32. Ans:
required rate (in kHz) at which y(t) should be
35. Ans: /2
sampled to recover m(t) is ______.

36. Ans:

37. Ans: (a) 38. Ans: (c)

 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

40. Ans: (i). c, (ii). a, L.T. of Standard Signals

6. unit step function

45. Ans: , power = 18

1. x Note: If the L.T. X(s) of x(t) is rational, then if x(t) is
• L.T expresses signals as linear combination
46. Ans: j
right sided the ROC is the region in the s-plane
of complex exponentials, which are eigen
to the right of the rightmost pole and if x(t) is left
functions of D.E which describe continuous – 1
48. Ans: (i). b, (ii). c, (iii). b sided, ROC is left of the left most pole.
time L.T.I systems.

51. Ans: -a
a) 200 Hz, b) 400 Hz, c) 5 KHz, • The primary role of the L.T in engineering is
0 t 5.2 Properties of L.T
d) 2a e) 120 Hz. the transient & stability analysis of Causal L.T.I
systems.
1. Linearity:
52. Ans: 2. x
a). , b). , c). 3 , d). 3 , • L.T provides a broader characterization of If x1(t) X1(s) with ROC = R1
0 0 0 0
j
systems & their interaction with signals than is x2(t) X2(s) with ROC = R2
possible with F.T. Then a x1(t) + b x2(t) aX1(s) + bX2(s)
0
55. Ans: (a)
t with ROC = R1 R2
• In addition to its simplicity, many design
56. Ans: (b) -1 -a
2. Time-shifting:
have been developed in L.T. domain.
57. Ans: (a) x(t) X(s), ROC = R
x(t) = est then x t t
58. Ans: (c) 3. x
(where s = +j then the output is y(t) = estH(s) with ROC = R
60. (ii) Ans: (a) where H(s) is transfer function of the system.
j
3. Shift in S-domain
• L.T. of a general signal x(t) is 1
x(t) X(s) with ROC = R
a
x t t --------- (1) then x t
0 t
= F.T {x(t)e t} with ROC = R + Re(s0)

t 4. x
• e may be decaying (or) growing depending 4. Time-reversal:
on whether ‘ ’ is +ve (or) –ve. j x(t) X(s)
x t
then x(–t) X(–s), ROC = – R

0
5.1 Region of Convergence (R.O.C) of L.T: t 5. Differentiation in time:
The range of values of ‘S’ for which eq(1) is a
x(t) X(s) with ROC = R
|x(t)e dt < , is known as x t
then with ROC = R
R.O.C of L.T. t

5. unit impulse (t) 1; ROC: entire s-plane

• L.T. calculated on the j -axis ( = 0) is F.T.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

UNILATERAL L.T Ans: (a) 5cos (2t+30 ) ?

Practice Questions
t
x t t

01. Find the L.T. of the following signals with R.O.C?

Differentiation in time:
1. x1(t) = e t u(t) + e 3t u(t)
x t x
t 2. x2(t) = e 2t u(t) + e4t u( t)
x t x x 3. x3(t) = e t u( t) + e5t u(t)
t
4. x4(t) = 1 t
Example:
5. x5(t) = sgn(t)
Suppose that an LTI system has the following
6. x6(t) = e |t|
T.F . Compute the system response
07.
due to following inputs. Identify the steady -
02. Consider the signal x(t) = e–5tu(t) + e– tu(t) & its L.T. then D is
state & transient solution? y t t is X(s). What are the constraints placed on the
(a) x1(t) = u(t) ______
= t real & imaginary parts of if the R.O.C of X(s) is
y1(t) = x1(t)*h(t)
Re{s} > 3 ?
1
Y1(s) = X1(s)H(s) =
Take I.L.T. 03. How many possible ROCs are there for the
(b) Ans: t
? 6 7 8
y
0 1 2 3 4 5 t
Sol: 0
= 2, |H(j 0
)|
(b) x2(t) = tu(t)
-1
Y2(s) = X2(s)H(s)
y t t Fig.
y
y t t (a) –0.5 (b) –1.5
(c) 0.5 (d) 2
(c) x

08. Let x(t) be a signal that has a rational L.T. with

Time shifting and shift in S - domain
exactly 2 poles located at s = 1 and s = 3.
y 04. Find the I.L.T. of If g(t) = e2tx(t) and G( ) converges, determine
> 1 whether g(t) is
Note that the form of the transient remains the
same no matter what the input is ! (a) Left-sided
05. Consider the signal x(t) = e 5tu(t 1) with L.T. X(s) (b) right-sided
(c) two-sided
(a) Find X(s) with R.O.C.?

Example: (b) Find the values of ‘A’ &‘t0’ such that the
For an L.T.I system described by the transfer L.T. G(s) of g(t) = Ae 5tu( t t0) has same 09. Let g(t) = x(t) + x(–t) where
function algebraic form as X(s). What is the R.O.C
x(t) = e–tu(t) and
due to corresponding to G(s)?
0
(a) 5cos(2t+30 )
(b) 10sin(2t+450) Find and ?
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Differentiation Unilateral L.T 24. An LTI system is having transfer function

the combined Casual impulse response is and input x(t) = sin(t+1) is in steady
10. Consider 2 right-sided signals x(t) & y(t) related
20. A system described by a linear, constant state. The output is sampled at rad/sec to
through the equation s

t t y(k)} which of the following

t t t equation has an exact solution given by y(t) for
t t is true?
Find X(s) & Y(s) with ROCs? t > 0, when the forcing function is x(t) and the
(a) e u(t) t t
(b) te u(t) (a) y(•) = 0 for all s
initial condition is y(0). If one wishes to modify
(c) (t ) (d) u(t) the system so that solution becomes –2y(t) for (b) y(•) 0 for all s
11. Find the ILT of
t > 0, we need to (c) y(•) 0 for s
> 2 but zero for s
<2
(a) 18. The running integrator, given by
(a) change the initial condition to –y(0) and (d) y(•) = 0 for s
>2 but nonzero for s
<2
(b) t t t the forcing function to 2x(t)
(b) change the initial condition to 2y(0) and 25.
Convolution the forcing function to –x(t) (i) What is the output as t for a system that
Laplace Transform Y(s) (c) change the initial condition to y has T.F., when subjected to a
12. Solve the following equation. (b) produces a bounded output for every and the forcing function to x t step input?
t t t t ? causal bounded input (d) change the initial condition to –2y(0) and (a) –1 (b) 1
(c) produces a bounded output for every the forcing function to –2x(t) (c) 2 (d) unbounded
13. Consider a signal y(t) = x1(t–2) x2(–t + 3) where anticausal bounded input (ii) The transfer function of a causal LTI system
x1(t) = e 2t u(t) & x2(t) = e 3tu(t). is H(s) = 1/s. If the input to the system is
Find Y(s) with ROC? Laplace Transform Y(s) L.T.? x(t) = [sin(t)/ t]u(t); where u(t) is a unit step
function. The system output y(t) as t is ____
19. A causal LTI system has zero initial conditions (a)
14. Find the impulse response of a linear causal
and impulse response h(t). Its input x(t) and
system describe by the equation. (b) 26. Let a signal a1sin( 1
t+ 1
) be applied to a stable
output y(t) are related through the linear
t LTI system. Let the corresponding steady state
t t
t (c) output be represented as a2F( 2t + 2). Then
t t
Also determine response to an excitation t t which of the following statement is TRUE?
t t
x(t) = u(t) + (t) ? (d)
Let another signal g(t (a) F is not necessarily a “sine” or “cosine”
function but must be peroidic & 1
= 2
15. An Input x(t) = exp(–2t) u(t) + (t – 6) is applied to t 22. A LTI, Causal continuous time system has a
t t . (b) F must be “sine” or “cosine” with a1= a2
t
an L.T.I system with impulse response rational transfer function with simple poles at (c) F must be “sine”, 1 = 2, a1 a2
h(t)= u(t). The output is If G(s) is the Laplace transform of g(t), then the s = 2 and s = 4 and one of the simple zero at (d) F must be “sine” (or) “cosine” functions
(a) [1 – exp(–2t)]u(t) + u(t + 6) number of poles of G(s) is _______. s = 1. A unit step u(t) is applied as the input of with 1
= .
2
(b) [1 – exp(–2t)]u(t) + u(t – 6)
the system. At steady state, the output has a
(c) 0.5[1 – exp(–2t)] u(t) + u(t + 6)
constant value of 1. Find the impulse response?
(d) 0.5[1 – exp(–2t)] u(t) + u(t – 6)

16. Consider an LTI system with impulse response 23. Consider a system with transfer function
5t
h(t) = e u(t). If the output of the system is . Find the steady-state
y(t) = e t u(t) e 5t u(t) then the input, x(t), is given response when the input applied is 8cos2t?
by
3t 3t
(a) e u(t) (b) 2e u(t)
5t 5t
(c) e u(t) (d) 2e u(t)
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Causality & Stability 31. The Laplace transform of a causal signal 23. Ans: y(t) = 2.8288 cos(2t + 45 )
. The value of the signal y(t) at
27. Consider an LTI system for which we are given t = 0.1 sec is _______ 24. Ans: (a) • The DTFT describes the spectrum of discrete
the following information
signals & formalizes that discrete signals have
and x(t) = 0, t > 0 and output is 27. Ans:
periodic spectra. The frequency range for a
(a) > 1
Key for Practice Questions discrete signal is unique over ( – , + ) (or)(0, 2 )
y (b) t
x
(a) Find T.F & R.O.C.? 01. (1)
28. Ans:
(b) Find the output if the input is , it can’t be both stable x
(2) =
x(t) = e3t t using part (a)? and causal.
(3) No ROC, No L.T
• X(ej ) is decomposition of x(n) into its frequency
(4) No ROC, No L.T
28. Consider an LTI system with input x(t) and components.
(5) No ROC, No L.T
output y(t) related as
t t t
t
t
t
t 02. Ans: Re[ ] = 3, Img[ ] any value 6.1 Convergence of DTFT
t
Find the T.F. of inverse system. Does a stable &
Causal inverse system exist? 04. Ans: y

x
29. Which one of the following statements is NOT 05. Ans: > 5
TRUE for a continuous time causal and stable A = 1, to = 1 • Some sequences are not absolutely summable,
LTI system? but they are square summable.
(a) All the poles of the system must lie on the 06. Ans:
• There are signals that are neither absolutely
left side of the j axis.
(b) Zeros of the system can lie anywhere in 07. Ans: (a) 08. Ans: (c)
DTFT.
the s-plane.
(c) All the poles must lie within |s| = 1. 09. Ans:
anu(n), |a| < 1
(d) All the roots of the characteristic equation
must be located on the left side of the j 10. Ans:
(n) 1
axis.
Periodicity property:
30. The output of a causal all-pass system is
+2 )
y(t) = e 2tu(t), for which the system function is 12. Ans: y(t) = (t) X(e j( ) = X(ej )

. Then the corresponding stable

input signal is 13. Ans: 2< <3 Time – Shift:
x(n) X(ej )
(a) X(ej )
14. Ans: then x(n-n0) e
(b)
15. Ans: (d) 17. Ans: (b) Frequency – shift:
(c)
x(n) X(ej )
(d) 22. Ans: h(t) = 4e 2tu(t) + 12e 4tu(t)
then x
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

6.2 Oversampling and Sampling Rate Conversion the same signal sampled at NS Hz extends only to This describes Yp(F) as a scaled (compressed)
Practice Questions
B/NS Hz, and the spectrum of the signal sampled version of the periodic spectrum Xp(F) and leads to
designed to operate at different sampling rates at S/M Hz extends farther out to BM/S Hz. After an N-folds spectrum replication. The spectrum of the
because of the advantages it offers. For example, 01. Determine whether or not the DT systems with
interpolated signal shows N compressed images in
oversampling the analog signal prior to digital rate changes are typically made by manipulating these frequency response are causal?
the principal period |F| 0.5 with the central image
processing can reduce the errors (Sinc distortion) the signal samples (and not re-sampling the analog
occupying the frequency range |F| 0.5/N. This is (a)
caused by zero-order-hold sampling devices. Since signal). The key to the process lies in interpolation
and decimation. exactly analogous to the Fourier series result where
operations in one sampling interval, oversampling spectrum zero interpolation produced replication
(b)
can impose an added computational burden. Zero Interpolation and Spectrum Compression: (compression). The spectrum of the interpolated
It is for this reason that the sampling rate is often A property of the DTFT that forms the basis for signal signal y(n) shows N compressed images per period
(c) H( ) = e –j3 + e +j2
reduced (by decimation) before performing interpolation and sampling rate conversion is that centered at
M fold zero interpolation of a discrete-time signal
x 02. (a) Let x(n) = (1/2)n u(n), y(n) = x2(n) and
before reconstruction. Oversampling prior to signal x[n] leads to an M-fold spectrum compression and
Y(e j ) be the F.T of y(n). Then Y(ej0) is
reconstruction allows us to relax the stringent replication, as illustrated in Figure (ii). (b) Given X(ej ) = cos3(3

Figure (i) shows the spectrum of sampled relation. If the spectrum of the original signal x[n] x
The zero-interpolated signal y[n] = x[n/N] is
signals obtained from a band-limited analog signal nonzero only if n = kN, k = 0, 2 ......(i.e., if n is an extends to |F| 0.5/M in the central period, the (c) What is the d.c & high - frequency gain of
whose spectrum is X(f) at a sampling rate S, a higher integer multiple of N). The DTFT Yp(F) of y[n] = y[kN] spectrum of the decimated signal extends over
rate NS, and a lower rate S/M. may be expressed as |F| 0.5, and there is no aliasing or overlap
between the spectral images. 03. (i) Find the inverse DTFT of
X(f) Sampling rate =S X(ej ) = 1 + 2 cos + 3 cos2
SX(f)
y y
f f (ii) The DTFT of x(n) = 2 [n+3] 3 [n 3],
B B S can be expressed in the form
Sampling rate =NS Sampling rate =S/M = x X(ej ) = asin(b ) + cejd Find a, b, c & d.
NSX(f) SX(f)M

f f 04. Find the signal corresponding to the spectrum

B S B S
?
x[n] Discrete-time signal
Figure (i) Spectra of a signal X[F] Spectrum of
sampled at three sampling rates discrete-time signal Y (ej )
n 1
F
1234
0.5 1
y[n] Fourfold zero interpolation
The spectrum of the oversampled signal shows
Y[F] Fourfold spectrum compression
a gain of N but covers a smaller fraction of the -3 /4 - /4 /4 3 /4
principal period. The spectrum of a signal sampled n F
1234 0.5/4 0.5 1
at the lower rate S/M is a stretched version with
a gain of 1/M In terms of the digital frequency F, Figure (ii) Zero interpolation of a signal
leads to spectrum compression
the period of all three sampled versions is unity. with cutoff frequency c
One period of the spectrum of the signal sampled has unit impulse response as
at S Hz extends to B/S, whereas the spectrum of
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

(b) A discrete system with input x(n) & output Convolution 16. An input x(n) with length 3 is applied to a LTI 21. Let h[n] be the impulse response of a discrete-
y(n) are related as system having an impulse response h(n) of
y(n) = x(n) + ( 1)n x(n) length 5, and Y( ) is the DTFT of the output y(n) response is given by ; ;
10. Consider x
If the input spectrum X(ej ) is shown below of the system. If |h(n)| L & |x(n)| B n, the ; and h[n] = 0 for n < 0 and n > 2.
Find the output if the impulse response is
maximum value of Y(0) can be …. Let H ( ) be the Discrete-Time Fourier transform
the o/p spectrum values at =0& =
(a) 15 LB (b) 12 LB (DTFT) of h[n], where is the normalized angular
are
(c) 8 LB (d) 7 LB frequency in radians. Given that H( 0)= 0 and
11. An L.T.I system is having impulse response 0< 0
< , the value of 0
(in radians) is equal to
X(ej )
1 ______.
equation y(n) = x(n) + 2x(n 1) + x(n 2)
(a) Obtain the magnitude & phase response? 22. Find the energy in the signal
(b) Find the o/p when the input is x
Find the output when input applied is
/2 0 /2 x ?
jn /4
x(n) = e ?

18. The impulse response of a causal linear phase 23. Find the value of
Scaling & Frequency Differentiation 12. For each of the following pair of signals
determine whether or not the system is LTI if
by h(0) = 2, h(1)= 3, h(2) = 0, h(3) = 3 and
06. Find the I.F.T of ?
h(4)= k. The value of k and slope of the phase
u u curve are respectively quantities without calculating DTFT?
(a) 2, –2 (b) –2, –2
07. Given the signal x .
(c) 0, 2 (d) –3, 2
Then Fourier transform of x[2n] is
(a) 3 + 2cos 2 + 4 cos 19. The frequency response of a discrete LTI system
j /4
(b) 3 + 2cos is H(ej ) = e , < .
(c) 3 + 2cos2 and the amplitude response Then the output of the system due to the input,
(d) 3 + 2cos + 2cos( /2) blocks the frequency f = 1/3 & passes the x is
frequency f = 1/8 with unity gain. What is the
? (a)
08. The spectrum of signal x[n] is X(F) = 2tri(5F).
Sketch X(F) and the spectra of the following
14. Consider the system described by the (b)
signals and explain how they are related to
equation y(n) = ay(n–1) + bx(n) + x(n–1), where (a) X(ej0) (b) X(ej )
X(F). (c)
i. y[n] = x[n/2] (c) (d)
‘a’ & ‘b’ such that
ii. d[n] = x[2n]
(d)
|H(ej )| = 1 ?
x
20. A signal x (e)
x(n) = 1, for n = 1, 3 & 5
09. Find the F.T of x u y(n) = x(n) + x(n–1)+ x(n–2). Then the values of = 2, for n = 0 & 4
& , such that the input x(n) = 1 + 4 cos (n ) = 0, elsewhere (f)
results in the output y(n) = 4, are Its phase spectrum at = 0.25 is
(a) = 2, =1 (b) = 1, =2 (a) 0.25 (b) – 0.5
(g)
(c) = =1 (d) = 1, = 2 (c) 0.5 (d)
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

25. Given h(n) = [1, 2, 2], f(n) is obtained by Z.T. of standard Signals:
Key for Practice Questions
convolving h(n) with itself and g(n) by
u
correlating h(n) with itself. Which one of the
01. (a). Ans: Non causal 7.1 INTRODUCTION TO Z-TRANSFORM
following statements is TRUE?
(b). Ans: causal
(a) f(n) is causal and its maximum value is 9 • Discrete-time counterpart of L.T. is Z.T.
(c). Ans: Non causal
(b) f(n) is non-causal • For a D.T.L.T.I system with impulse response h(n),
(c) g(n) is causal and its maximum value is 9 the response y(n) of the system to a complex
02. (a). Ans: (b).Ans: 1
(d) g(n) is non causal and maximum value is 9 exponential Input of the form zn is y(n) = znH(z) n
(c). Ans: DC gain = 10, HF gain = 2 0 1 2 3 4
where H(z) is known as transfer function of the
26. A continuous time signal x(t system.
remove frequency component in the range 04. Ans: y Z.T. of a general D.T. signal x(n) is
5kHz f 10 kHz. The maximum frequency
------------ (1)
present in x(t) is 20 kHz. Find the minimum
(b). Ans: 1 where z = rej Complex Variable

07. Ans: (b) x

frequencies from x(t)?
X(z) = F{x(n)r n}
10. Ans:
27. The sequence x was obtained
by sampling a continuous signal, x(t) = cos( t) • Z.T. calculated on the unit circle is D.T.F.T.
0
11. Ans: y
at a sampling rate of 1000 Hz. The two possible
values of that have resulted in the sequence u
0
13. Ans: DC gain
x[n] are respectively
(a) 250 and 2250 4 3 2 1
14. Ans: b = a n
(b) 125 and 2250
(c) 250 and 1125 15. Ans: (a)
(d) 125 and 1125
16. Ans: (a)
A continuous time signal x(t) is sampled at
fs = 9kHz is passed through a digital filter with 17. Ans: (b) • The range of values of ‘z’ for which eq (1) is Im
impulse response h(n) = 0.5[ n [n 1]].
Find the 3 dB cut-off frequency of the analog 18. Ans: (b)
x is R.O.C. of Z.T. 0
filter? a Re
19. Ans: (b)

23. Ans:
(n) 1; ROC : entire z-plane
25. Ans: (d) • The primary role of Z.T. in engineering are the 1
u(n) 1/1 z ; |z| > 1
26. Ans: fS = 40 kHz, study of system characteristics & the derivation
of computational structures for implementing
27. Ans: (a)
discrete systems on computers.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Note: 06. The Z.T. X(z) of a real & right-sided sequence

Practice Questions
x(n) has exactly 2 poles and one of them is at
z-plane, except perhaps for z = 0 and/or z = ej /2
and there are 2 zeros at the origin.
n
z= 01. Let x(n) = ( 1)n u(n) + u( n n0). Determine the
If X(1)=1, which one of the following is TRUE ?
2. For a right-sided signal ROC is outside constraints on “ ” & “n0”,
a circle whose radius is largest pole in given that the ROC of X(z) is 1<|z|<2 (a)
magnitude.
02. Find the ROC of the following signals without (b)
3. For a left sided signal, ROC is inside a
circle whose radius is smallest pole in
magnitude. (a) x (c) (a) h(n) is real for all n
4. For a two-sided signal, ROC is annulus (b) x2(n) = (1/2)n[u(n) u(n 10)]
(b) h(n) is purely imaginary for all n
(c) x3(n) = {(1/2)n + (3/4)n}u(n 10) (d)
bounded by largest & smallest pole
(d) x (c) h(n) is real for only even n
radius. u
(d) h(n) is purely imaginary for odd n
03. Given x(n) = anu(n) – b2nu(–n– 1). What condition 07. The discrete-time signal
must hold on ‘a’ and ‘b’ for the Time shifting, scaling & differentiation
x , where denotes a
z – transform to exist?
(a) |a| < |b2| transform-pair relationship, is orthogonal to the 10. Find the Z.T. of u
(b)|a| > |b2| signal
(c) |a2| < |b| (a) y
(d) |a2| > |b| 11. Consider the signal
(b) y x
04. i) The R.O.C for Z – transform of the signal
(c) y Let g(n) = x(n) x(n 1). Find G(z) with ROC?
x(n) = an u(n) + bn u(n) + cn u( n 1)
4 2
for a < b < c is (d) y4[n] Y4(z) = 2z + 3 z + 1
(a) a < z < c (b) b < z < c 12. Given and x
(c) z < c (d) z > a x(n)?
ii) Consider the signal
n n 08. Let H1(z) = (1–pz–1)–1, H2(z) = (1–qz–1)–1, 13. Consider a causal and stable LTI system
x[n] = u[n] + u[–n–1]. Find its
Z-transform X(z). Will X(z) represent a valid H(z) = H1(z) + rH2(z). The quantities p, q, r are with rational transfer function H(z), whose
transform for the following cases? real numbers. Consider, , . corresponding impulse response begins at
(a) > (b) < (c) = If the zero H(z) lies on the unit circle, then n = 0. Further more, H(1) = .
r = ______ The poles of H(z) are
05. The Z transform of a sequence x(n) is given by
for k = 1, 2, 3, 4. The zeros of H(z) are all at
z = 0. Let g(n) = jnh(n). The value of g(8) equals
09. The pole-zero diagram of a causal and stable ________ . (Give the answer up to three decimal
The value of x(n) at n = 2 is given by
(a) (b) places).
zero at the origin has multiplicity 4. The impulse
14. Find the Z-transform & ROC of
(c) (d) response of the system is h[n]. If h[0] = 1, we
x u u
can conclude.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Convolution 21. Let y(n) denote the convolution of h(n) &

27. If u is the unit sample 31. The discrete-time transfer function is
g(n) where & g(n) is a causal
15. A sequence x(n) X(z) = z4 + z2 2z + 2 3z 4 response of a LSI system and S[n] is the step (a) non-minimum phase and unstable
sequence. If y(0) = 1 & , then g(1)
is applied as an input to a LTI system with response, then the value of A that will make (b) minimum phase and unstable
equals
impulse response h(n) = 2 (n 3). The output at steady-state step response as zero is (c) minimum phase and stable
(a) 0 (b)
n = 4 is__________ (a) – 1 (d) non-minimum phase and stable
(c) 1 (d)
(b) 0
32. Consider the system with transfer function,
16. Consider a signal 22. An analog signal is sampled at 9 kHz. The (c) – 3/2
y(n) = x1(n + 3) x2( n + 1) (d) – 2/3 Then the corresponding stable
6
Where x1(n) = (1/2)nu(n) and . One of the analog
impulse response is
frequencies for which the magnitude response Causality & Stability
x2(n) = (1/3)nu(n)
Find Y(z) with ROC? (a) 0.5 (n) 0.5 (2)n u[ n 1]
28. A casual LTI system is described by the
(a) 0.75 kHz (b) 1 kHz (b) 2n 1 u[n 1]
D.E 2y(n) = y[n–2] – 2x[n] + x[n–1]
(c) 1.5 kHz (d) 2 kHz (c) 0.5 (n) + 0.5 (2)n 1 u[n 1]
17. Find the response of the system The system is stable only if
y(n) = 5/6 y(n 1) 1/6 y(n 2) + x(n) to the Input (d) 0.5 (n) + 2n u[ n 1]
(a) | |= 2, | | < 2 (b) | |> 2, | | > 2
signal, x(n) = (n) 1/3 (n 1) (c)| |< 2, any (d) | |< 2, any
33. Suppose x[n] is an absolutely summable
-1 -3 23. Given . It is given that the ROC 29. Consider an LTI system whose pole-zero pattern discrete-time signal. Its z-transform is a rational
18. G(z) = z + z
linear phase if and only if of X(z) includes the unit circle. Then x(0) is function with two poles and two zeros. The
1/3 poles are at z = . Which one of the following
(a) = (b) = _________
1/3
Im {z}
(c) = (d) = statements is TRUE for the signal x[n]?

24. Apply F.V.T. for x .

X X 0 X (b) It is a causal signal.
Assume the signal is Causal? 3 0.5 1 2 Re {z} (c) It is a non-causal signal.
h(2) = 1, h(3) = –1 and h(k) = 0 (d) It is a periodic signal.
otherwise, consider the following statements
S1: H(Z) is a LPF
(a) Find the ROC of system function, if it is
34. Assertion (A): A linear time-invariant discrete-
known to be stable?
(a) only S2 is true time system having the system function
(b) both are false in its transfer function? (b) Is it possible for the given pole-zero plot to
is a stable system.
(c) both are true and S2 is the reason for S1 (b) If the excitation is unit step sequence, be a causal & stable system?
(d) both are true but S2 is not a reason for S1 ? (c) How many possible ROC’s are there?
Reason (R): The pole of H(z) is in the left-half
plane for a stable system.
20. The following is known about a D.T.L.T.I system 30. The impulse response h(n) of a LTI system is real.
with Input x(n) & output y(n) 26. An input signal x(t) = 2 + 5sin(100 t)u(t) is
The transfer function H(z) of the system has only
1. If x(n) = ( 2)n n, then y(n) = 0 n sampled with a sampling frequency of
one pole and it is at z = 4/3. The zeros of H(z)
2. If x(n) = (1/2)nu(n) n, 400 Hz and applied to the system
n
are non-real and located at |z| = 3/4. The
then y(n) = (n) + a(1/4) u(n) n whose transfer function is represented by
system is
Where ‘a’ is a constant. where N represents the
(a) stable & causal
(a) Find the value of ‘a’
number of samples per cycle. The output y(n) (b) unstable & anticausal
(b) Find the response y(n) if the Input is
of the system under steady state is ________. (c) unstable & causal
x(n) = 1 n.
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 5 (d) stable & anticausal
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

35. Consider the following statements regarding a Realization Structures 42. In the IIR
linear discrete - time system For which of the following cases, the system will (a) Band pass (b) All pass
39. A DF having T.F. using transit from stable to unstable condition? (c) Low pass (d) High pass
DFI and DFII realizations of IIR the number
1. The system is stable. of delay units required in DFI and DFII are,
the range of k for system stability is ____
2. The initial value h(0) of the impulse respectively …….
response is 4. (a) 6 & 6 (b) 6 & 3 x(n) + y(n)
+ Z-1+ Z-2
3. The steady-state output is zero for a (c) 3 & 3 (d) 3 & 2 +
sinusoidal discrete time input of frequency
equal to one-fourth the sampling 40. 2 systems H1(z) & H2(z) are connected in k
frequency. cascaded as shown below. The overall output
(a) 0.1 < a < 0.5 (a) (b)
y(n) is the same as the input x(n) with a one
Which of these statements are correct? (b) 0.5 < a < 1.5
unit delay. The transfer function of the second
(a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1.5 < a < 2.5 (c) (d)
system H2(z) is
(c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3 (d) 2 < a <

36. Assertion (A): The stability of the system is

assured if the Region of Convergence (ROC) ?
includes the unit circle in the Z-plane.
Reason (R): For a causal stable system all the
poles should be outside the unit circle in the 41. A direct form implementation of an LTI system
Z-plane.
with

37. Statement (I): The system function values of a0, a1 & a2 are respectively _________ Find b, c & d such that SFG is a realisation
of H(z)
is not causal. Input Output

Statement (II): If the numerator of H(z) is of a0 1 Common Data for Questions 44 & 45
z
lower order than the denominator, the system a1 1
may be causal. z -1

a2
38. Statement (I): 3 z -1
(a) 1.0, 0.7 and 0.13 X Y
Z-transform approach is used to analyze the
(b) 0.13, 0.7 and 1.0
discrete time systems and is also called as pulse
(c) 1.0, 0.7 and 0.13
transfer function approach.
(d) 0.13, 0.7 and 1.0
Statement (II):
-1
The sampled signal is assumed to be a train of
impulses whose strengths, or areas, are equal
to the continuous time signal at the sampling 44. The transfer function
instants. (a) (b)

(c) (d)
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Steps in the design of IIR

Key for Practice Questions
j
Unit circle
01. Ans: = 2, n0 is any value 2. Find the order (n) & cut-off frequency ( ) of
C z plane
s plane
02. (a). Ans: 0<|z|< 3. Find the normalized analog transfer function
frequency domain in terms of the desired magnitude
(b). Ans: |z|>0 using frequency transformations.
(c). Ans: |z| > 3/4 4. Convert analog transfer function to digital
(d). Ans: FIR or IIR transfer function.

03. Ans: (a)

In practice FIR
Therefore this technique is limited to the design of
05. Ans: (c) 06. Ans: (d) requirement for linear phase characteristic with the
8.1 IIR
10. Ans: One of the simplest methods for converting an
8.2 IIR
An IIR
In this technique impulse response of digital system
an FIR differential equation by an equivalent difference
is sampled version of impulse response of analog
11. Ans: G(z) = 1 z 6, |z|>0 equation.
For the derivative dy(t)/dt at time t = nT, we substitute system so the frequency response of digital system
Design of IIR Filters from Analog Filters:
the backward difference is aliased version of frequency response of analog
12. Ans: x(n) = (n+2) + 2 (n+1) 2(2)n u( n 1)
system.
properties are desirable. y y
t
15. Ans: 0 1. The j axis in the s-plane should map into the
y t y y
unit circle in the z-plane. Thus there will be a t
16. Ans: direct relationship between the two frequency
y y Example:
variables in the two domains

map into the inside of the unit circle in the Where T represents the sampling interval and
20. (a). Ans: (b). Ans: y
y(n) y(nT). The analog differentiator with
output dy(t)/dt has the system function
21. Ans: (a)
H(s) = s, while the digital system that produces
y y
23. Ans: 0 24. Ans: the output has the system function

Low-pass Analog s
transformation mapping
.
29. (a). Ans: 0.5 <|z|< 2 analog Analog Digital
prototype HP(s) Filter H(s) filter H( )
(b). Ans: No Therefore ……. (1)
C = 1 rad/s
(c). |z|< 0.5,|z|>3, ,
th
For k derivative …… (2)

40. Ans: 41. Ans: (a) From equation (1) . If we substitute s = j ,

Low-pass s z D2D we can observe that as varies from – to , the

43. Ans: |k|<3 44. Ans: (c) mapping Low-pass
analog transformation Digital
digital corresponding locus of points in the z-plane is a
prototype HP(s) filter H(z)
prototype HP(z)
C = 1 rad/s
45. Ans: (b) C = 1 rad/s circle of radius 1/2 and center at (1/2, 0)
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Let us consider the mapping of points from the 8.3 IIR Filter Design by Bilinear Transformation 2. Frequency warping does not distort Example:
s-plane to the z-plane implied by the relation
The bilinear transformation is a conformal mapping
z = esT “rearrangement” of equal values will preserve a 3-dB bandwidth of 0.2 , using the bilinear
that transforms the j -axis into the unit circle in
If we substitute s = +j and express the complex the z-plane only once, thus avoiding aliasing of
variable z in polar form as z = rej frequency components. Furthermore, all points bands are mapped into equiripple bands.
rej = e T ej T
Where c
is the 3-dB bandwidth of the analog
clearly, we must have
magnitude response. Thus, a continuous-
r=eT mapped into corresponding points outside the unit
time differentiator cannot be converted Sol:
= T circle in the z-plane.
to a discrete-time one using the bilinear at c
= 0.2 . In the frequency domain of the
Consequently, < 0 implies that 0 < r < 1 and …………… (1) c
= 0.2 corresponds to
transformation.
> 0 implies that r > 1. When = 0, we have
From equation (1) we note that if
To avoid warping we are using pre-warping that is
r < 1, then < 0,
the unit circle in z. r > 1, then > 0,
However, the mapping of the j -axis into the unit When r = 1, then = 0,
circle is not one-to-one. Since is unique over the point s = into the point z = –1.
………………..(2) domain. By applying bilinear transformation
range (– , ) the mapping = T implies that the We conclude form the previous discussion that the
interval – /T /T maps into the corresponding Which show that we will get .
values of – . Even the frequency interval with piecewise-constant magnitude responses,
=0 =0
T 3 /T also maps into the interval – . …….. (3)
Thus the mapping from analog frequency to the Types of Analog Filters:
– –
frequency variable in the digital domain is many
Example:
2. chebyshev
The non-linear relationship between and
sampling. 3. Elliptical (cauer)
in eq (2) is known as frequency warping. The
j j
bilinear transformation converts H(j ) to H(e ) by
8.4 Butterworth Filter
compressing the continuous time frequency axis Into a digital IIR
according to eq (3).
z - plane s-plane characterized by the magnitude-squared
resonant frequency of r
= /2
z = esT frequency response
Sol:
………… (1)
= 4. This frequency
is to be mapped into = /2 by selecting the
c
is its –3 dB frequency.
value of T.
0 Eq (1) can be adjusted as
– …….. (2)
Unit -
circle
– The poles of H(s) H(–s) occur on a circle of radius c
1. We note that for less than about 0.3 , the
at equally spaced points.
relation between and is approximately
Due to the presence of aliasing, the impulse From eq (2) poles can be obtained by using
linear (recall that tan for small ). Thus, any
invariance method is appropriate for the design of shape of magnitude response in this range is , k = 0, 1, ….., n –1
preserved.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

From eq (1) we can verify Few observations can be made from the above
|H( )|2 |H( )|2
1. At = , for all n function:
1 i. For | | 1, |H (j )|2 varies between 1 and
1 1
2. From eq (1) it is clear that |H( )|2 decreases
2 . This is the pass-band description of
1
monotonically as increases.
Poles of Poles of |H(j )|. i.e.,
|H( )|2 H(s) H(–s)
Ideal characteristic
N=4 and, ripple in pass-band =
1.0 p p
ii. At = 1, always. This can be easily
n odd type I n even type I
n =18 = 1 eq (2) can
n =14 be as follows:
0.5 n =10 The chebyshev approximation is implemented
Poles of with the help of chebyshev polynomials. They are
n =6 Poles of
n =2 H(–s) or
H(s)

N=5
0 c
Thus at cutoff frequency = 1, magnitude is

Example:
For n = 0 C0( ) = cos(0) = 1
Determine the order of a lowpass Butterworth iii. In the stopband | | > 1, and .
For n = 1 C1( ) = cos(1cos–1 ( )) =
Hence eq (2) can be written as,
The higher order chebyshev polynomials are
more close to ideal characteristics.
an attenuation of 40 dB at 1000 Hz. obtained by following recursive formula.
The order & cut off frequency of the Butterworth
Sol: The critical frequencies are the –3 dB Cn ( ) = 2 Cn–1 ( ) – Cn 2 ( )
or
frequency c
and the stop-band frequency
which are n Chebyshev polynomials The above equation can be written in decibels
s
0 1 also i.e.,
c
= 1000
1
…… (3) s
= 2000
2
2 2 –1
3
3 4 –3 = –20 log10 [ Cn ( )]
4 2
4 8 –8 +1
……… (4) As is large Cn( ) is mainly represented by its
5 3
5 16 – 20 +5
n
2n-1 n for large
6 4 2
8.5 Chebyshev Filter 6 32 – 48 + 18 –1 Hence the above equation can be written as
n
Butterworth polynomials |H(j( )| in dB = –20 log10 [ .2n-1 ]
Some of the properties of these polynomials are = –20 log – 20 log 2n-1 – 20log n
Type-I
Order Factors 1. |Cn( )| 1 for all | | 1 = –20 log – 20(n – 1) log 2 – 20n log
exhibit equiripple behavior in the pass-band and
1 s+1 2. Cn(1) = 1 for all n = –20 log – 6(n –1) – 20n log (norm)
a monotonic characteristic in the stop-band. On
2 3. All the roots of the polynomials Cn( ) occurs in
the other hand, the family of type-II chebyshev
3 the interval –1 1
The following points can be noted about transfer
4
a monotonic behavior in the pass-band and an The squared magnitude function of the chebyshev
5
equiripple behavior in the stop-band. The zeros of
6
……….. (2)
ii. The numerator is constant and there are no
s-plane.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Frequency Transformations for Digital Filters

(Prototype LPF has band-edge frequency P)
major axis of the ellipse lies along imaginary
Type of transformation Transformation Parameters
axis of the s – plane and minor axis lies along
real axis of the s-plane.
iv. The narrower the ellipse, the closer will be the = band edge frequency of new
Low-pass
poles to the imaginary axis and hence each
individual pole will have stronger impact. This
means that ripples will be more pronounced.
= band edge frequency of new
v. The ripple magnitude will have a strong effect High-pass
on the locations of the poles of the transfer
function.
= lower band edge frequency
given as u
= upper band edge frequency
a1 = 2 K / (K + 1)

Band-pass a2 = (K – 1) / (K + 1)
The constant K in the numerator in the above
equation is adjusted to provide a loss of 0 dB at
the pass band minima.

= lower band edge frequency

u
= upper band edge frequency
a1 = 2 / (K + 1)
Band-stop
a2 = (1 – K) / (1 + K)
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

8.6 FIR Filter Design Window Functions

Name Time-domain sequence

An FIR x(n) and output
of window h(n), 0 n N –1
y(n) is described by the difference equation
Bartlett
y(n) = b0x(n) + b1x(n–1) +…+ bN–1x(n–N+1) (triangular)

x
Blackman

Where {bk Hamming

we can express the output sequence as the
convolution of the unit sample response h(n) of the Hanning
system with the input signal. Thus we have

………. (1)
Kaiser I

Where the lower and upper limits on the convolution I

………….. (2)
Comparison of window characteristics

The roots of this polynomial constitute the zero of

An FIR

h(n) = h(N–1–n), n = 0, 1, …., N –1

Type Symmetry Length

1 Even Odd
2 Even Even
3 Odd Odd
4 Odd Even
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Location of zeros of a linear phase FIR The unit sample response corresponding to Hd( ) is
design using rectangular (a), Hamming (b),
Blackman (c) and Kaiser window with = 4 for a
length of 61 samples.

z3 z1
1
z2 z2
z
z Design of Hilbert Transformers
1
z3 imparts a 90o phase shift on the signal at its input.
Unit Hence the frequency response of the ideal Hilbert
circle

If “z0” is a zero of H(z) in eq (2)

Then “ z ” is a zero of H(z)
Hilbert transformers are frequently used in
If z1 = –1 then
communication systems and signal processing, as,
If z2 is a real zero then
for example, in the generation of single-side band
If z3 is a complex zero
modulated signals, radar signal processing, and
If z4 is a complex zero [|z4| 1] then other zeros are
speech signal processing.
The unit sample response of an ideal Hilbert
transformer is
8.7 FIR Filter Design using windowing method
1. Choose the desired frequency response
Hd(ej )
2. Obtain

causal impulse response.

3. is the causal Impulse
response of FIR Frequency Sampling Method
4. Find The transfer function of FIR

In the method we specify the desired frequency

response at a set of equally spaced frequencies
Design of FIR Differentiators:
and solve for that unit impulse response from these
Differentiators are used in many analog and digital
systems to take the derivative of a signal. An ideal
….. (1)
differentiator has a frequency response that is
linearly proportional to frequency. Similarly, an ideal

frequency response
Hd( ) = j –
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Normalized Chebyshev Polynomials

(d) Ripple = 3dB i.e = 0.997
(a) Ripple = 0.5 dB i.e = 0.349

N b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9 N b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9
1 2.8627752 1 1.0023773
2 1.5162026 1.4265245 2 0.7079478 0.6448996
3 0.7156938 1.5348954 1.2529130 3 0.2505943 0.9283480 0.5972404
4 0.3790506 1.0254553 1.7168662 1.1973856 4 0.1769869 0.4047679 1.1691176 0.5815799
5 0.1789234 0.7525181 1.3095747 1.9373675 1.1724909 5 0.626391 0.4079421 0.5488626 1.4149847 0.5744296
6 0.0947626 0.4323669 1.1718613 1.5897635 2.1718446 1.1591761 6 0.0442497 0.1634299 0.6990977 0.6906098 1.6628481 0.5706979
7 0.0447309 0.2820722 0.7556511 1.6479029 1.8694079 2.4126510 1.1512176 7 0.0156621 0.1461530 0.3000167 1.0518448 0.8314411 1.6628481 0.5684201
8 0.0236907 0.1525444 0.5735604 1.1485894 2.1840154 2.1492173 2.6567498 1.1460801 8 0.0110617 0.0564813 0.3207646 0.4718990 1.4666990 0.9719473 2.1607148 0.5669476
9 0.0111827 0.0941198 0.3408193 0.9836199 1.6113880 2.7814990 2.4293297 2.9027337 1.425705
9 0.0039154 0.0475900 0.1313851 0.5834984 0.6789075 1.9438443 1.1122863 2.4101346 0.5659234
10 0.0059227 0.2372688 0.2372688 0.6269689 1.5274307 2.1442372 3.4409268 2.7097415 3.1498757 1.1400664
10 0.0027654 0.0180313 0.1277560 0.2492043 0.9499208 0.9210659 2.4834205 1.2526467 2.6597378 0.5652218

(b) Ripple = 1 dB i.e = 0.508

N b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9
1 1.9652267
2 1.1025103 1.0977343
3 0.4913067 1.2384092 0.9883412
4 0.2756276 0.7426194 1.4539248 0.9528114
5 0.1228267 0.5805342 0.9743961 1.6888160 0.9368201
6 0.0689069 0.3070808 0.9393461 1.2021409 1.9308256 0.9282510
7 0.0307066 0.2136715 0.5486192 1.3575440 1.4287930 2.1760778 0.9231228
8 0.0172267 0.1073447 0.4478257 0.8468243 1.8369024 1.6551557 2.4230264 0.9198113
9 0.0067767 0.0706048 0.2441864 0.7863109 1.2016071 2.3781188 1.8814798 2.6709468 0.9175474
10 0.0043067 0.0344971 0.1824512 0.4553892 1.2444914 1.6129856 2.9815094 2.1078524 2.9194657 0.9159320

(c) Ripple = 2 dB i.e = 0.764

N b0 b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8 b9
1 1.3075603
2 0.6367681 0.8038164
3 0.3268901 1.0221903 0.7378216
4 0.2057651 0.5167981 1.2564819 0.7162150
5 0.0817225 0.4593491 0.6934770 1.4995433 0.7064606
6 0.0514413 0.2102706 0.7714618 0.8670149 1.7458587 0.7012257
7 0.0204228 0.1660920 0.3825056 1.1444390 1.0392203 1.9935272 0.6978929
8 0.0128603 0.0729373 0.3587043 0.5982214 1.5795807 1.2117121 2.2422529 0.6960646
9 0.0051076 0.0543756 0.1684473 0.6444677 0.8568648 2.0767479 1.3837474 2.4912897 0.6946793
10 0.0032151 0.0233347 0.1440057 0.3177560 1.0389104 1.1585287 2.6362507 1.5557424 2.7406032 0.6936904
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

08. An IIR 13. Find H(z) and H(F) for each sequence and
Practice Questions
whose cutoff frequency is known establish the type of FIR
checking values of H(F) at F = 0 and F = 0.5
(or peak-to-peak ripple): 0.5 dB
(a)

have a cutoff frequency of 50 Hz and operate Stopband attenuation: 40 dB

(b)
impulse invariance. Assume that the at a sampling frequency of 200 Hz. Stopband edge: 2.0 kHz
sampling frequency is 2 Hz. What is the transfer function H(z) of the digital Sample rate: 8.0 kHz (c)

(b) Will the impulse response h[n] match the ? (d)

impulse response h(t
the sampling instants? Should it? Explain. .
(c) Will the step response s[n] match the step (a) Use the bilinear transformation to convert 09. Determine the system function H(z) of the
response s(t h[n] = {2, –3, 4, 1, ….. }. Determine the complete

sampling instants? Should it? Explain. a sampling rate of 2 Hz. sequence (assuming the smallest length for
(b) Use H(s) and the bilinear transformation to (a) 1-dB ripple in the pass-band 0 | | 0.3 h[n] if the sequence is to be:
(b) At least 60 dB attenuation in the (a) type 1
. gain at f = 20 kHz matches the gain of H(s) stop-band 0.35 | | . Use the bilinear
(b) type 2
at = 3 rad/s. The sampling frequency is transformation.
80 kHz. (c) type 3
invariance at a sampling frequency of 2Hz.
(b) Will the impulse response h[n] match the 10. Determine the system function H(z) of the (d) type 4
.
impulse response h(t
?
the sampling instants? Should it? Explain.
(b) Use H(s) and the bilinear transformation (a) ripple in the pass-band locations are in keeping with linear-phase and
(c) Will the step response s[n] match the step 0 | | 0.24
response s(t 1 kHz such that its gain at f0 = 250 Hz (b) At least 50 dB attenuation in the stop-band
sampling instants? Should it? Explain. matches the gain of H(s) at a = 1 rad/s. 0.35 | | .
? Use the bilinear transformation. (a) zero location: z = 0.5ej0.25
(b) zero location: z = ej0.25
. 11. A linear phase FIR (c) zero location: z = 1, z = ej0.25
. Find the remaining zeros? (d) zero locations: z = 0.5, z = –1; odd symmetry
ramp invariance at a sampling frequency 1 dB (e) zero locations: z = 0.5, z = 1, z = –1; even
symmetry
of 2Hz. 12. Transfer function of a IVth order linear phase
Stopband edge: 40 dB –1
(b) Will the impulse response h[n] match the F.I.R + 3z–2)G(z)
Stopband edge: 6 kHz 16. Design the symmetric FIR
impulse response h(t then G(z) is _____
Sample rate: 24 kHz frequency response is given as
the sampling instants? Should it? Explain. (a) 3 + 2z–1 + z–2

(c) Will the step response s[n] match the step bilinear transformation on an analog system (b)
function. Determine what order Butterworth, use Hamming window.
response s(t (c)
Chebyshev analog design must be used
sampling instants? Should it? Explain. (d) 1 + 2z–1 + 3z–2
implementation.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Properties of DFT 9.2 Linear convolution using DFT

The circular convolution of 2 sequences, of lengths N1 & N2, respectively, can be made equal to the
01. Circular shift:
9.1 Introduction to DFT x linear convolution of the 2 sequences by zero padding both sequences, so that they both consist of (N1
+ N2–1) samples.
• The Fourier series describes periodic signals by (or)

discrete spectra, whereas the DTFT describes x

discrete signals by periodic spectra. As a result,

02. Modulation:
signals that are both discrete and periodic in x
one domain are also periodic & discrete in the x
other. This is the basis for the formulation of the
03. Circular Convolution:
DFT.
x(n) h(n) X(k) H(k)
• Sampled version of D.T.F.T. spectrum is D.F.T.
the direct method. In calculating the convolution of two N - element sequences using DFT method, we
• The N point DFT of a signal x(n) is 04. Central ordinates:
required Complex multiplications where as direct convolution of 2 sequences requires N2
(a) x
x k = 0, 1 ……..(N – 1) complex multiplication. 32.
IDFT of X(k) is (b) x

x n = 0, 1 ………. (N – 1) (a) Picket - fence Effect: at frequencies other than f0 because the
(c) x periodic extension of the sampled portion of
The picket - fence effect is caused by the
approximation of the continuous frequency the periodic signal doesn’t match the original
• The DFT & its IDFT are also periodic with period (d) x
signal but describes a different signal altogether

05. Parseval’s relation: frequency points. The spectrum is observed

only one period (0 to N 1). x(t) = sin(2 t) at fs=16 Hz. Then the sampled
very much like looking through a picket fence
x signal frequency (i.e, digital frequency)
with the exact value of the spectrum known
x only as integer multiples of the frequency
resolution. The peak of a particular frequency
component in a signal could be hidden from If we choose N = 8 the DFT spectral spacing
x
view because it is located between 2 adjacent = fs/N = 2 Hz. In other words there is no DFT
frequency points in the spectrum. To reduce component at 1 Hz, the frequency of the sine
this effect, the number of frequency points wave ! where should we expect to see the DFT
Where WN= e is the phase factor.
must be increased, since this enables more components?
Periodicity: If we express
frequency components of a signal to coincide
with the more closely spaced frequency points.
Symmetry:

Note: For direct calculation of N point DFT, we (b) Spectral leakage: We obtain kf = NF0 = 0.5. Thus F0 corresponds
2 Leakage is present in the DFT results if a periodic
require N complex multiplications and to the fractional index kf = 0.5 & the largest
signal x(t) is not sampled for an integer number DFT components should appear at the integer
N(N 1) additions.
of periods. The DFT shows nonzero components indices closest to kf at k = 0 (d .c), k = 1(2Hz)
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Example: Example:
Let x(n) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and h(n) = {1,1,1} using Find convolution of x(n) = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and h(n) = {1, 1, 1} using Overlap Save method?
y(n)? Sol: First add (N – 1) = 2 zeros to
Sol: L = 6 & N = 3. x0(n) = {1, 2, 3} x(n) = {0, 0, 1, 2, 3, 3, 4, 5}
h(n) = {1, 1, 1} x1(n) = {3, 4, 5} Take M = 2N – 1 = 5, section into K overlapping segments of length M(5)
y0(n) = x0(n) * h(n) = {1, 3, 6, 5, 3} x0(n) = {0, 0, 1, 2, 3}
Zero pad h(n) to length M = 5 samples
y1(n) = x1(n) * h(n) = {3, 7, 12, 9, 5}
x1(n) = {2, 3, 3, 4, 5}
Shifting & superposition results in the required
h(n) = {1, 1, 1, 0, 0}
convolution
x2(n) = {4, 5, 0, 0, 0}
y(n) = y0(n) + y1[n – 3]
x0(n) h(n) = {5, 3, 1, 3, 6}
x1(n) h(n) = {11, 10, 8, 10, 12}
y0(n) x2(n) h(n) = {4, 9, 9, 5, 0}

y1[n–3] y(n) = {1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 12, 9, 5, 0}

To minimize leakage sample for the longest y(n) = {1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 12, 9, 5}
9.3 FFT
duration possible or for integer periods.
Fast algorithm reduce the problem of calculating an N-point DFT to that of calculating many smaller-
Convolution of Long Sequences 2. Overlap-Save method:
size DFTs. The computation is carried out separately on even - indexed and odd-indexed samples to
1. Overlap-Add method If L > N and we zero - pad the second sequence
reduce the computational effort. All algorithms allocate for computed results. The less the storage
2. Overlap-Save method to length L, their periodic convolution has
1) samples are
Many FFT algorithms reduce storage requirements by performing computations in place by storing
Some times we have to process a long stream contaminated by wraparound, and the rest
results in the same memory locations that previously held the data.
correspond to the regular convolution. eg. Let
response is much shorter than that of incoming L = 16 & N = 7.
data. The convolution of a short sequence h(n) If we pad N by 9 zeros, their regular convolution
3 stages in an 8-point DIT-FFT:
of length N with a very long sequence x(n) of has 31(or 2L 1) samples with 9 trailing zeros
length L > > N can involve large amount of (L N = 9). For periodic convolution 15 samples
computation & memory. (L 1 = 15) are wrapped around. Since the last
nine [or L
1. Overlap - Add method: of the periodic convolution are contaminated
Suppose h(n) is of length N, and the length of by wraparound, which is the basis idea of this
x(n) is L = mN (if not, we can always zero pad it method.
to this length). We partition x[n] into m segments First, we add (N – 1) leading zeros to the longer
x0(n), x1(n) …xm-1 sequence x(n) & section it into k overlapping
the regular convolution of each section with {by N – 1} segments of length M. Typically, we
h(n) to give partial results y0(n), y1(n), … ym-1(n). choose M 2N.
y(n) = y0[n] + y1[n–N] + ym-1[n–(m–1)N] Next, we zero-pad h(n) { with trailing zeros} to
Since each regular convolution contains
(2N – 1) samples, we zero – pad h(n) and each of h(n) with each section of x(n). Finally, we
section xk
yk[n] using the FFT. Splitting x(n) into equal – from each convolution & glue(concatenate)
length segments is not a strict requirement. the results to give the required convolution.
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

DIT algorithms for N = 2, 4, 8: Bit - reversal using Bruneman’s algorithm:

Practice Questions
(1) Start with {0, 1} multiply by 2 to get {0, 2}
(2) Add 1 to the list of numbers obtained above.
Now it is {1, 3}. 01. Analog data to be spectrum analyzed are
sampled at 10kHz & DFT of 1024 samples
(3) Append the list in step2 to that in step1 to get
{0, 2, 1, 3} are computed. Find the frequency spacing

(4) The list obtained in step3 now becomes the between spectral samples?

starting list in step1. The steps are repeated until

the desired length of list is obtained. 02. Find the 4 point DFT of x(n) = {0, 1, 2, 3}?

03. Let x , then prove the following

statements.
DIF algorithm for N = 2, 4, 8: (i) If x(n) = – x[N – 1 – n], then X(0) = 0
(ii) If x(n) = x[N – 1 – n], with N even,

then

x(n).

Sketch the signals

(a) x([n – 2])4
(b) x([n + 1])4
Feature N-point DFT N-point FFT
(c) x([– n])4
Algorithm Solution of N
equations in N m stages
unknowns
real-valued sequence are
{0.25, 0.125 j0.3018, 0, 0.125 j0.0518, 0}.
Multiplication N per equation
Find other 3 points?
Addition N–1 per equation
Total multiplication N2
06. The DFT of a vector [a b c d] is the vector
[ ]. Consider the product
Total additions N(N–1)

The DFT of the vector [p q r s] is a scaled

version of
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

(a) 10. Find the 10-point inverse DFT of (C) Let y(n) be an 8 point sequence for
20. Let be the 8-point DFT
0 n 7 and Y(k) be 8 point DFT.
(b) of a real signal x[n]
(c) + + + + If (a) Determine X[k] in its entirety.
(d) [ ] 11. A signal x(t) is bandlimited to 10 kHz is sampled (b) What is the DFT Y[k] of the signal
express y(n) in terms of x(n). y[n] = (–1)n x[n]?
with a sampling frequency of 20 kHz. The DFT of
07. Given x(n) = {1, –2, 3, –4, 5, –6}, without N = 1000 samples x(n) is then calculated. (c) What is the DFT G[k] of the zero-interpolated
16. The four point DFTS of x(n) and y(n) is
(a) What is the spacing between the spectral signal g[n] = x[n/2]
X(K) = {22, – 4 + j2, – 6, – 4 – j2} and
samples? Y(K) = {8, – 2 – j2, 0, – 2 + j2}. The circular
(a) X(0) (b) (c) X(3) (d) (b) To what analog frequency does the index convolution of x(n) and y(n) is w(n), then w(2)
k = 150 correspond? What about k = 800? 21. The Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) of the
is
(e) 4-point sequence
(a) 38 (b) 30
x[n] = {x[0], x[2], x[3]} = { 3, 2, 3, 4} is
(c) 12 (d) 60
08. X(k) is the discrete Fourier Transform of a 6-point x[n] shown in Fig., whose six-point DFT is X[k]. X[k] = {X[0], X[1], X[2], X[3]}
real sequence x(n). If Q[k] = X[2k], k = 0, 1, 2 represents the 3-point = {12,2j, 0, 2j}.
17. Consider x[n] = {1, 2, 3, 4} with DFT
If X(0) = 9 + j0, X(2) = 2 + j2, DFT, then q [n] is X(K) = {10, 2+2j, 2, 2 2j}. If the sampling rate
If X1[k] is the DFT of the 12-point sequence
X(3) = 3 – j0, X(5) = 1 – j1, x(0) is x1[n]= {3, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0, 3, 0, 0, 4, 0, 0} the value
is 10Hz
(a) 3 (b) 9 (i) Determine the sampling period, time index of is
(c) 15 (d) 18 and the sampling instant for a digital sample
x(3) in time domain 22. Assume that a complex multiply takes 1 s and
(ii) Determine the frequency resolution, that the amount of time to compute a DFT is
09.
(i) The two 8-point sequences x1(n) & x2(n) shown frequency bin number and frequency for determined by the amount of time it takes to
1
(k) and X2(k) respectively. perform all of the multiplications.
(a) {5, 3, 2} (a) How much time does it take to compute a
(b) {4, 3, 2} 18. We wish to sample a signal of 1-s duration, and 1024-point DFT directly?
(c) {2, 3, 4} band-limited to 100Hz, in order to compute (b) How much time is required if an FFT is used
(d) {1, 2, 3} its spectrum. The spectral spacing should not
13. Given x[n] = {A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, B} is having 8 exceed 0.5 Hz. Find the minimum number N
of samples needed and the actual spectral 23. Speech data is sampled at a rate of 10 kHz is
?
Find the relation between X1(k) & X2(k)? spacing f if we use
(a) The DFT (b) The radix-2 FFT the computations required involve collecting
(ii). Consider the sequence x 14. x[n].
blocks of 1024 speech values and computing
y(n) whose six-point DFT is
Then the value of x is ____ a 1024-point DFT and a 1024 point inverse DFT.
, 19. We wish to sample the signal,
If it takes 1 s for each real multiply, how much
Where X(k) is the six-point DFT of x(n). x(t) = cos(50 t) + sin(200 t) at 800 Hz and
15. Let x[n] be a real 8 point sequence and let X(k) time remains for processing the data after the
be its 8 point DFT DFT and inverse DFT are computed?
(A) Evaluate signal x[n]
(a) Let N = 100. At what indices would you
x
expect to see the spectral peaks? Will the
(B) Let w(n) be a 4 point sequence for peaks occur at the frequencies of x(t)?
0 n 3 and W(k) be its 4 point DFT. (b) Let N = 128. At what indices would you
If W(k) = X(k) + X(k+4), express w(n) in expect to see the spectral peaks? Will the
terms of x(n) peaks occur at the frequencies of x(t)?
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

Key for Practice Questions

Operational Properties of the Laplace Transform

01. Ans:
Note: x(t) is to be regarded as the causal signal x(t)u(t).
02. Ans: { 6, 2+2j, 2, 2 2j}
Entry Property x(t) X(s)
04. (a). Ans: [4, 3, 6, 5] 1 Superposition x1(t) + x2(t) X1(s) + X2(s)
(b). Ans: [5, 4,3,6]
t
(c). Ans: [6, 3,4,5] 2 Times-exp e x(t) X(s + )

3 Times-cos cos( t)x(t) 0.5[X(s + j ) + X(s j )]

05. Ans:
X(6) = 0, X(7) = 0.125 + j0.3018
4 Times-sin sin( t)x(t) j0.5[X(s + j ) X(s j )]

06. Ans: (a) 5 Time Scaling x( t), >0

s
09. (i) Ans: X2(k) = ( 1)kX1(k) 6 Time Shift x(t ) u(t ), >0 e X(s)

7 Times-t t x(t)
(ii) Ans: y(n) = x((n 4))6
= {2, 1, 0, 0, 4, 3}
8 tn x(t)

12. Ans: (a) 9 Derivative x (t) sX(s) x(0 )

2
16. Ans: (a) 10 x (t) s X(s) – sx(0–) – x (0–)

(n)
11 x (t) snX(s) – sn–1 x(0–) –….– xn-1(0–)

12 Integral x t t

13 Convolution x(t) h(t) X(s)H(s)

Switched periodic,
14 xp(t)u(t) x t
x1(t)
Laplace Transform Theorems
15 Initial value x

16 Final value x t
 Signals & Systems Signals & Systems

SFG for 8-Point DIT-FFT algorithm:

A Short Table of Laplace Transform
x(0) X(0)
Entry x(t) X(s) Entry x(t) X(s) W 80
x(4) X(1)
–1
1 (t) 1 10 tcos( t)u(t) 0
W8
x(2) X(2)
–1
0
2 u(t) 11 tsin( t)u(t) W8 W 82
x(6) X(3)
–1 –1 W 80
3 r(t) = tu(t) 12 cos2( t)u(t) x(1) X(4)
–1
W 80 W 81
4 t2u(t) 13 sin2( t)u(t) x(5) X(5)
–1 –1
W 80 W 82
5 tnu(t) 14 e tcos( t)u(t) x(3) X(6)
–1 –1
W 80 W 82 W 83
x(7) X(7)
6 e tu(t) 15 e tsin( t)u(t) –1 –1
–1

7 te tu(t) 16 te tcos( t)u(t)

8 tn e tu(t) 17 te tsin( t)u(t)

SFG for 8-Point DIF-FFT algorithm:
9 cos( t)u(t) 18 sin( t)u(t)
x(0) X(0)
W 80
x(1) X(4)
–1
W 80
x(2) X(2)
–1
W 82 W 80
x(3) X(6)
W 80 –1 –1
x(4) X(1)
–1
W 81 W 80
x(5) X(5)
–1 –1
W 82 W 80
x(6) X(3)
–1 –1
W83 W 82 W 80
x(7) X(7)
–1 –1 –1
 Signals & Systems

SFG for computation of IDFT using inverse Radix-2 DIT-FFT:

1/8
X(0)
-
W 80 1/8
X(4) (1)
-
–1
W 80 1/8
X(2) (2)
–1 -
-
W 82 W 80 1/8
X(6) (3)
- –1 –1
W 80
1/8
X(1) (4)
–1 -
- W 80
W 81 1/8
X(5) (5)
–1
- - –1
W 82 W 80
1/8
X(3) (6)
–1 –1
-3 -2 -0
W 8 W 8 W 8 1/8
X(7) (7)
–1 –1 –1

SFG for computation of IDFT using inverse Radix-2 DIF-FFT:

1/8
X(0) (0)
-
W 80 1/8
X(1) (4)
–1
W 8-0 1/8
X(2) (2)
-
–1
W 80 -
W 82 1/8
X(3) (6)
–1 –1 -
W 80
1/8
X(4) (1)
-
–1
W 80 -1
W 8 1/8
X(5) (5)
–1 –1
- -
W 80 W 82
1/8
X(6) (3)
–1 –1
- - -
W 80 W 82 W 83 1/8
X(7) (7)
–1 –1 –1