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PLAY AND CREATIVITY AT THE CENTER

OF CURRICULUM AND ASSESSMENT: A NEW YORK
CITY SCHOOL’S JOURNEY TO RE-THINK
CURRICULAR PEDAGOGY
El juego y la creatividad en el centro del currículo
y de la evaluación: viaje a una escuela de la ciudad
de Nueva York para repensar la pedagogía curricular

H. LINDSEY RUSSO
State University of New York at New Paltz

The learning experiences of young children cannot be conveniently separated into the areas of
cognitive, social/emotional and physical development. They are integrated and interdependent.
This balance can be achieved through creative, interactive play that supports and scaffolds all
developmental and content areas of the curriculum. Despite the strength of supportive theory
and research, we are experiencing the gradual elimination of play and creative experiences from
early childhood classrooms in the USA. The 2001 No Child Left Behind legislation in the USA
emphasizes an academic orientation and focuses early childhood curricula upon academic skills
such as reading, writing, and numeracy. However, the problem is not simply pedagogical stra-
tegy or philosophical stance. The way in which a curriculum is implemented is also influenced
by teachers’ perceptions of play and creativity.
In 2009 I began a longitudinal study that follows the pilot class of a new Independent elemen-
tary school in New York City as it adds a grade level each year and whose curricular framework
is based upon play and creativity. This paper identifies the values, mission and model of the
school. It also explores and documents how the curriculum is being developed to support and
scaffold increased academic expectations, the role of teachers and children in the implementa-
tion of the curriculum and the changing perspectives, perceptions and expectations of parents
and teachers.

Key words: Play, Creativity, Curriculum, Childhood education, Teachers’ attitudes.

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H. Lindsey Russo

Value of Play and Alward, 2007). Saracho (2011) stated that

play provides young children with the opportu-
According to Froebel (1893), play is the high- nity to express their ideas, symbolize and test
est stage of child and human development. He their knowledge of the world. Through play
stated that play was the purest, most spiritual children become more active learners.
activity of man and typical of human life as a
whole. He felt that play was not trivial but Payley (2004) stated that children demonstrat-
highly serious and of deep significance. «Culti- ed the power of play as a learning tool. She
vate and foster it — the plays of childhood are made a significant correlation between play
the germinal leaves of later life» (Froebel, and other measures of learning seen as being
1893: 55). We give Froebel the credit for hav- important in a school setting. During play
ing found the true nature and function of play. children make choices, solve problems, plan,
Vygotsky (1978) stated that play itself mediat- converse and negotiate. They create make-
ed the learning of children. While children play believe events and practice physical, social,
they are free to risk doing things they are not and cognitive skills. As they play they are able
yet confident they can do well. However, today to engage in leading and following, express
we appear to view early childhood education and work out emotional aspects of everyday
from a very different perspective to that of experiences and events, and practice self-reg-
Frederick Froebel (1893), who created the first ulation. Children are motivated to regulate
kindergarten and introduced the idea that play their own behavior because they know that in
was a young child’s natural way of learning and order to continue in their play activities they
self-expression and that of Vygotsky (1978) need to follow its rules. Play offers a safe
who viewed play as a developmental activity place for young children to work their way
and an adaptive mechanism that promotes cog- through conflicts, search for and experiment
nitive growth. with alternative solutions to problems and to
develop and practice the ability to see things
The case for early academics is probably one of from another person’s point of view (Paley,
the most controversial and sensitive topics in 2004; Denham and Brown, 2010).
the field of early childhood education today
(Bodrova and Leong, 2005).
Creativity
There is a strong and growing body of knowl-
edge that identifies the link between play and Before we can support, scaffold, measure or
the development of those cognitive and social embed creativity within the curriculum we
skills that are prerequisites for learning more need to define creativity itself. This is a chal-
complex concepts as the children get older and lenge when teachers, parents, administrators,
as we identify the need for creative and innov- children, in fact all members of the school com-
ative thinkers (Bergen, 2002, 2009). Play is munity, have different perceptions of what cre-
linked to growth in self-regulation, memory, ativity «is». Creativity is often perceived as a
oral language, an increase in literacy skills, specific way of thinking. Initial conversations
recognition of symbols and other areas of acad- with teachers at the school identified that many
emic learning (Bodrova and Leong, 2005). It is view creativity as a topic to be taught within
the core of developmentally based practice. An the curriculum just like mathematics or litera-
inclusive play-based curriculum addresses cy. After reflection and multiple conversations
issues of diversity and special needs as being the school arrived at a shared specific defini-
integral to the emergent curriculum and not tion of creativity drawn from the work of Sir
simply as add-ons. (Van Hoorn, Nourot, Scales, Ken Robinson.

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He stated, «Creativity is the process of having orig- variety of different subjects and with high-level
inal ideas that have value» (Robinson, 200: 2). decision- making later in life. If creative think-
ing can be applied to any subject to support,
Imagination is often linked synonymously scaffold and strengthen integration across the
with creativity but is not, in fact, the same as curriculum then a whole school approach is
creativity. Creativity takes the process of ima- the next logical step. Creative experiential
gination to another level. According to Ro- teaching and learning develops young learners
binson (2001) you can be imaginative all day into thinkers who can explore their interests
long without anyone identifying it but in using their own strengths creatively. When
order to identify that someone is creative that children feel free to explore and experiment
person has to be «seen to be creative». In other they will also feel free to invent, create and find
words to «be creative» you actually have to new ways to do things. Teachers who respect
do something. Creativity involves putting children’s ideas help them learn to think criti-
your imagination to work to develop some- cally and problem solve for themselves (Sara-
thing new, to identify new solutions to pro- cho, 2012). Teachers often unintentionally
blems, or to think of new problems or ques- interfere with creative development. Just the
tions. Robinson (2001) views creativity as way that a question is phrased can encourage
applied imagination. It is at the heart of daily or inhibit creativity. Children need to be able to
communications and helps children as they think outside of the box. They are, and will
navigate the complexity of language and ex- continue to be, presented with challenges and
plore the unexpected we need to help them to look at something old
and familiar in a different way.
According to Dietrich (2004) creativity is a
fundamental activity of human information
processing. Creative cognition has become an State of Play in the USA
integral part of cognitive science and therefore
neuroscience. It has been expressed that any In the USA early childhood teachers are
theory on creativity must be consistent and increasingly being called upon to justify the
integrated with contemporary understanding value of play to parents and administrators. As
of brain function. We all have creativity. It is Paley (2004) stated, we are experiencing revi-
the experiences we are exposed to that will sions of priorities in our nation’s early child-
determine whether we are creative or not. The hood curricula. An increased focus on testing
neuroplasticity of the brain in childhood offers of children under the age of 8 has lead to an
the opportunity to wire it in ways that maxi- emphasis upon the acquisition of academic
mize the ways to think laterally. We do not content and skills in the early childhood class-
always relate this directly to academic achieve- room (Bodrova and Leong, 2005). Teacher
ment. education programs and professional organiza-
tions continue to stress the value of play, but
Creativity and academic achievement are often pre-service, novice, and experienced teachers
seen as mutually exclusive. However, while it can alike, find themselves facing daily dilemmas
be found in the obvious places of the curriculum between their choice of play as a teaching strat-
such as art, play and music it is also present in egy and the growing demand for teacher
science, math and other ‘academic» areas. The accountability and measurable outcomes at
arts, visual arts, drama, music and dance, allow pre-kindergarten and kindergarten levels. With
us to differentiate between symbolic languages increased demands for accountability and stan-
identifying whether they are visual, dramatic or dardized testing due to the No Child Left Behind
musical. Learning these languages helps with a Act (2001), academic exercises are replacing

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H. Lindsey Russo

play-based activities in more and more early tendency to pushdown expectations from older
childhood classrooms. Teachers claim that they to younger children in the early childhood
no longer have time to include play in their classroom. The traditional importance given to
schedules, and in more and more preschool play as young children’s natural way to learn
and kindergarten classrooms play is being has become less important today.
pushed out of the curriculum. Sandburg and
Heden, (2011) stated that kindergarten teach- The current climate in early childhood educa-
ers felt the pressure to emphasis academic time tion has become one of standardization and
in the curriculum at the expense of play, art, accountability. This has forced early childhood
gym, music, and recess time, even though their administrators, teachers, and parents to
educational beliefs may be otherwise. become focused on academic learning and
school readiness (Miller and Almond, 2009).
School in the early childhood years used to be The 2001 No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) pro-
filled with opportunities to play. Short atten- vided direct federal support for this standard-
tion spans were not considered to be a deficit ization and accountability movement and was
because they quickly disappeared when the closely followed by the release of the Good
children engaged in play activities that deep- Start, Grow Smart (GSGS, 2001) initiative.
ened their concentration skills (Paley, 2004). It This initiative calls for improved performance
was assumed that some children would benefit and increased accountability in early child-
from extra time to grow into academic areas hood programs. The aim of GSGS is to ensure
and this was referred to as maturation (Bodro- that every child begins school «with an equal
va and Leong, 2005). Now we are more chance at achievement» so that «no child is
inclined to look for faults in the children rather left behind. A study conducted by Grossman
than in the curriculum. We have reversed the (2002) stated that in many kindergarten class-
order of events and we now look for problems rooms children spend their time on work-
and search for ways to solve them rather than sheets and paper and pencil activities. Teach-
recognize that each child is an individual with ers felt that the best way to demonstrate
unique personality, background, and past learning was through the use of worksheets
experiences (Reiber, Smith, and Noah, 1998). that typically called for the «right» answer.
However, this strategy eliminates risk taking
Quality early childhood experiences have long- in learning. Conversely play-based curricula
term academic benefits for children and lay the encourage children to take risks and change
foundation for lifelong learning (Bergen, 2002, opportunities to learn through meaningful,
2009). Young children learn best when they are real situations.
active as opposed to passive, when their social
skills are being utilized, and when opportuni- Bodrova and Leong (2005) stated that optimal
ties for learning are presented in playful and educational opportunities for a young child
meaningful ways (Walsh and Gardner, 2005). under the age of 8 to reach his or her poten-
tial are not created by the accelerated early
Several factors account for the increased pres- instruction that is so evident in today’s
sure to introduce children to academics as increasingly academic early childhood envi-
early as the preschool and kindergarten years. ronment. Preschool and kindergarten teachers
Katz (1999) and Stipek (2006) outlined the report that, for the first time, they are witness-
fact that the increased demands and widening ing a generation of children, many of whom
expectations for preschool and kindergarten literally do not know how to «make believe»
programs to ensure children’s readiness for and who have to be taught how to play (Low-
the next grade or level was accompanied by a man, 2005).

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The challenge for teachers is to find the appro- world through action and reflection. Therefore
priate balance between academic engagement at the school children learn by doing rather
and academic challenge, while providing a than by absorbing information. Consequently,
learning environment that encourages and sup- they bring prior knowledge to the learning sit-
ports exploration and discovery without the uation. This philosophical stance is reflected in
stress of competition, standardization, and test- developmentally appropriate benchmarks,
ing. This balance, where assessment is authen- scope and sequence, and assessment tools
tic and aligned with the objectives of the pro- aligned with the mission and values of the
gram and student needs, helps equip both school. The teachers value the intellectual and
teacher and child with the tools to foster indi- philosophical freedom to assess curriculum
vidual interests and skills (Kangas, Randolph, and learning as it unfolds in each classroom.
Rukokamo, and Hyvonen, 2010). This provides them with opportunities to
design (and redesign) curriculum in response
On any given day, it is possible to enter a class- to the individual needs of their students, sup-
room in New York City and be unable to recog- porting their desire to avoid the pressures asso-
nize whether you are in a kindergarten or a first ciated with «teaching to the test» and allowing
grade classroom. I have experienced classroom them to use and align theory associated with
environments where 5-year-old children are the value of play and creativity with their prac-
sitting in rows completing worksheets while tice. The curriculum encourages complex
their teacher models very specific handwriting forms of play which research shows helps chil-
skills on an overhead projector. There is no dren develop academic skills, language skills as
sign of a rug or dramatic play area, both of well as empathy. Play, though not the sole ped-
which were staples of the kindergarten class- agogical strategy, is viewed as being essential to
room. In contemporary scripted classrooms, the balancing of children’s development and
children must follow a highly regimented rou- readiness for school and life experiences.
tine where lessons are linked to standardized
tests designed to measure children’s progress in At the school, play it is used to encourage and
learning discrete facts and skills. support the use of imagination, creativity, and
planning skills while generating opportunities
for intellectual development. By practicing
The School skills or trying out ideas within a play situation,
children become better able to handle real situ-
One New York City private school, founded by ations (Russo, 2009). The curriculum encour-
an internationally recognized entertainment ages complex forms of play. The belief is that
group, is rethinking the role of play, creativity the opportunities for problem solving, reason-
and social/emotional learning at the center of ing, conversing, exploring language, using
curriculum and assessment. Since the founding numeracy skills, predicting, and observing are
of the school in 2006, a team of educators, in endless within play episodes.
collaboration with the founders, has worked
together to develop an educational environ- The school’s policies and practices aim to pro-
ment where these concepts and values are core vide a strong social-emotional foundation for
elements of the curriculum. Co-constructivist learning, encourage process over just product,
theory and the Reggio Emilia Approach inspire and allow children to be free to be themselves
the school’s curriculum. The school identifies while exploring and connecting with subject
that Co-constructivists view learning as an matter in a way that motivates them, enhances
active process in which learners construct their their creativity and utilizes their own learning
own understanding and knowledge of the styles. The educational framework developed

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H. Lindsey Russo

by the school illustrates its educational the integrated curriculum strands, benchmarks
approach and the interrelationship between and scope and sequence that form the frame-
and among the following four components: 1) work of the school’s curriculum.
The Inquirers is a triad made up of the child,
teacher and parent, who engage in the inquiry As stated, the school’s approach is aligned with
process that forms the core of the curriculum. co-constructivist theory and based on the belief
2) The Cyclical Process is the recursive model that children learn best by ‘constructing’ their
used by the teachers to facilitate learning. own knowledge in a playful and intellectually
These include planning, differentiated instruc- rich social environment. Through the use of an
tion, inquiry, observation, assessment, and inquiry-based teaching method, the school is
reflection. 3) The Environment is considered to committed to supporting the needs and learn-
be the «other» teacher in the classroom and is ing style of the whole child. Students are taught
identified as being an integral component of to reflect upon their own experiences as well as
the learning process. 4) The Lenses are distinct those of others so that they can gain the combi-
mindsets that are assumed by the inquirers nation of self-awareness and social insight that
within the learning environment. These lenses will empower them to engage in the world with
are used to explore academic content areas and confidence and compassion and meet the chal-
materials from a variety of perspectives. 5) lenges of the 21st century.
And, finally, the Academic Content Areas (or
Integrated Curriculum Strands) are the seven
areas explored to help children achieve devel- Curriculum
opmental benchmarks: language arts, mathe-
matical investigation, scientific inquiry, expres- The school’s benchmarks are not used as cur-
sive arts, social/emotional learning, physical riculum in and of itself but, rather, as a frame-
awareness, health and play, and human val- work for curricular planning. They are inten-
ues/global citizenship. tionally designed to guide and support the
curriculum. The scope and sequence that grow
out of the benchmarks is used to identify
Mission and Values appropriate resources, and foster the reflective
practices of teachers, administrators, and chil-
The classrooms are identified as dynamic and dren. It also informs other areas of practice
engaging spaces that facilitate exploration, per- such as the learning environment, the sched-
sonal expression, creativity, group collaboration, ule, and the level of family involvement. The
open communication, wonder and active play. objective is to make the identification of bench-
Children are encouraged to shape and transform marks more accurate and authentic while
their environment by experimenting with both potentially supporting and expanding upon the
familiar and unique materials. They learn from educators’ prior knowledge of child develop-
the world outside their classrooms and to take ment. Here the purpose of assessment is not to
advantage of New York’s cultural landscape. As a identify deficiencies but to provide the tools to
result of in-depth research and thoughtful, reflec- address and improve the quality of education
tive practice, relevant resources such as the New by identifying the support is needed.
York State Early Learning Standards, the Collab-
orative for Academics, Social and Emotional Historically, in the upper grades, the focus on
Learning (CASEL), Arizona and Oklahoma State product rather than process is even more pro-
Early Learning Standards, and the International nounced. The school’s belief that children will
Baccalaureate (IB) model were identified to sup- learn the necessary content when it is present-
port the development and implementation of ed in a meaningful way becomes challenged by

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the push for quantity over quality. Play and support the identification of new threads of
creativity in the upper grades takes on different inquiry and clarify the next steps involved in
identities. Their roles in learning are not the development of curriculum.
diminished but simply changed. Play becomes
group orientated and supportive of complex Typically in the field of education, assessment
social skills such as sportsmanship, empathy is culturally driven with the view that adults
and compassion. Academic learning still takes have something to transmit to children. The
place within a «playful», creative environment co-constructivist approach taken by the school
where children role-play and engage in creative examines the mechanics of this perspective and
and imaginative activities scaffolded by the develops processes so that the adult may be a
teacher to support these developmentally appro- facilitator, with both the adult and child also
priate skill sets. adopting the role of learner. The student
assessments provide an illustration of a child’s
learning process as well as a perspective on the
Assessment holistic learning of the child. Over time, these
documents become a narrative of a child’s
When assessing young children, we need to learning history. Teachers collect information
take into consideration that development tracing the experiences and cycles of learning
across domains is highly variable from child to that occur over the course of the day, week,
child. If the assessment is to be trustworthy and and year. The information gathered is the main
valid, it needs to be authentic. Authenticity form of assessment that the teachers use to
means reflective of the skill being assessed and inform curriculum development.
occurring within a safe, nurturing environment
where children interact with familiar adults Teachers use authentic assessment to identify
within a familiar environment (Almy and Gen- each child’s developmental profile. These
ishi, 1979). Authentic assessment must also be developmental profiles then drive curricular
linked to social and emotional development, a content, teaching strategies, and instruction.
domain that is especially variable in young This is referred to as a recursive model of
children (Allen and Marotz, 2010). To obtain a planning and assessment. They use these
complete picture of the child’s learning, multi- developmental profiles in conjunction with
ple methods of assessment need to be used. each grade’s benchmarks, scope and sequence,
These include observations, anecdotal notes, and developmental expectations to engage in
running records, audiotapes, videotapes, pho- the authentic assessment that occurs within the
tographs, work samples, check lists, grading moment. Teachers use observations, field
scales, time and event sampling, and inter- notes, photographs, portfolios, and other
views. appropriate forms of documentation to reflect
upon student learning independently, with
Assessment is a core component of the school. their colleagues, and with the children. This
The curriculum is developed within a cycle of information is then linked with the curriculum
reflection using multiple ways of assessing model to individualize, design, and implement
what children want to know and understand in the curriculum that will support learning for all
conjunction with what they need to know as the children and meet both individual and
identified by appropriate benchmarks. This grade level goals. This assessment is an on-
process of «inquiry through assessment» going, everyday process. It begins with asking a
allows teachers to pose questions about the question or exploring a thread of inquiry. Its
children’s learning, and to collect and organize purpose is to make visible and, therefore,
information. This information is then used to evaluate the holistic learning process that takes

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H. Lindsey Russo

place every day in every classroom. Here 1. How does the play-based, creativity cur-
assessment illustrates how a child and teacher riculum model of a growing private
co-construct learning and knowledge. The school in a large city support the learning
evidence collected informs pedagogy and of its pilot class as they move from the 3
curricular content. year old program through 5th grade?
2. In what ways is this learning academic?
In comparison, standardized assessment focuses 3. How do the teachers interpret and per-
upon a single domain (Feldman, 2010, p. 2) and ceive increased standardization and aca-
does not allow for the wide range of variability demically orientated demands in rela-
in the acquisition of those early learning skills tion to this curriculum model?
observed in the classroom thus making them, to 4. What are the teachers beliefs regarding
a great extent, inaccurate and inauthentic. play and creativity?
5. In what ways do they use play and cre-
ativity to promote academically orien-
Research tated learning?
6. What are the parents’ perceptions of the
Three years ago I began a longitudinal study role of play and creativity in the curricu-
that follows the pilot class at the school, docu- lum?
ments the growth and development of curricu- 7. In what ways do these perceptions chan-
lum and assessment practices as they are devel- ge over the course of the study?
oped and the systems and processes as they are
implemented. I am in a unique position since
in addition to this work I have developed and Theoretical Framework
written and developed the benchmarks and
work with the teachers on professional devel- Qualitative research is richly descriptive and
opment. I am also a member of the Curriculum focuses on process, meaning, and understand-
Team that works closely with the Founders to ing. I chose to address my research using longi-
develop and implement these processes while tudinal qualitative case studies as this frame-
maintaining the integrity of the school’s mis- work allows me to identify what kind of
sion and values as the school grows and devel- contexts support children as they develop
ops. My research explores and documents how within a learning environment where play and
a play/creativity-based curriculum is being creativity are intentional components of cur-
developed to address increased academic riculum and assessment. These on-going quali-
expectations, the role of teachers in the imple- tative longitudinal case studies are informed by
mentation of the curriculum and the changing Vygotsky’s socio-constructivist theory (1978)
perspectives, perceptions and expectations of and Corsaro’s (2009) social theory of interpre-
parents and teachers. tive reproduction. Vygotsky (1978) viewed
play as a developmental activity that pro-
gressed from one stage to another and as an
Research Questions adaptive mechanism that promoted cognitive
growth. He challenged any separation between
While I am exploring many different areas of development and learning. From a Vygotskian
research interest at the school I am identifying perspective they are interdependent. They
here those research questions with direct con- shape, support, and influence each other.
nections to the relationship of play, creativity,
assessment, and academic learning to curricu- Corsaro’s social interpretive reproduction theo-
lum development: ry (2009) builds upon Vygotsky’s linear model

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of individualized cognitive development by any contact and aim to make these connections
identifying that children develop social skills more valuable and child-centered. This is a
collectively as active members of both peer and gradual process and is achieved during an ini-
adult cultures. Corsaro (2003) claims that soci- tial period of «casing the joint» (Dyson and
ological theories of childhood must break free Genishi, 2005). It is my objective to observe
from individualistic doctrine that regards the naturally occurring behavior. This is accom-
child’s social development solely as passive, plished through participation in the daily rou-
private, internalization of skills and knowl- tines of the setting, development of on-going
edge. Children are active, creative social agents relationships with the members of the commu-
who produce their own unique cultures by cre- nity, observation of the initiation and develop-
atively taking or appropriating information ment of play, the ways that creativity are
from the adult world to address their own peer embedded in the daily life of the school and
cultures (Corsaro, 2005). These theories are identification of the academic learning of the
interrelated and supportive of each other. Cor- participants. During this initial phase of my
saro’s social interpretive reproduction theory observations my field notes consisted of anec-
(2009) builds upon Vygotsky’s linear model of dotal notes and the event sampling of play
individualized social development by identify- episodes. Observations were made both inside
ing that children develop social skills collec- and outside of the classroom and incorporated
tively as active members of both peer and adult episodes of outdoor play whenever possible.
cultures.
Data collection is on going and dependent
upon the needs of the study at specific
Data Collection moments in time. There is triangulation in
terms of data sources and methods of data col-
I purposefully use a diverse range of data col- lection and also interdisciplinary triangulation
lection methodologies for this on-going study through the use of sociological and creativity
in order to maintain authenticity, validity and theories. Field notes are the central method of
trustworthiness. These data sources take the data collection and they are detailed, organized
form of observations, field notes, review of rel- in chronological order and transcribed as soon
evant documents, informal interviews and con- as possible after each observation while fresh in
versations with teachers, children, and parents, my memory. Denzin, N., K. and Lincoln, Y. S.
audiotapes, videotapes, a researcher journal (2006) suggest that thick description makes
and collection of work samples. Data collection deep interpretation possible. I am interested in
began in 2009. I initially visited the site one or understanding behavior from the subject’s own
two days each week for 2-3 hours observing in frame of reference and therefore collect data
the pilot classroom. The extent of my research through sustained contact with the children,
has grown over the past 5 years and now, while teachers, parents and administrators in natural-
continuing my own research that explores how istic settings where subjects normally spend
play and creativity support all aspects of learn- their time (Bogdan and Biklen, 2006). To sup-
ing, I also work with individual teaching teams port this I engage the teachers, children, par-
as they explore their own action research ents and administrators in both formal and
inquiry topics in their classrooms. informal interviews that often take the form of
conversations. These informal conversations
My entry into the classroom community is range from one-on-one conversations with one
always in accordance with Corsaro’s reactive or two participants to conversations with small
entry strategy (2009). I make myself available or large groups of children, teachers, parents
for interactions but allow the children to initiate and administrators. I initiate, invite and accept

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casual, spontaneous conversations whenever that are not specifically addressed in my field
presented with an opportunity. I also engage in notes. Work samples are also collected and will
informal conversations with the teachers dur- continue to be collected as necessary and
ing lunch, prep-time and sometimes after appropriate for documentation of the children’s
school. I am also part of the Friday profession- development and learning.
al development meetings sometimes leading a
workshop or supporting inquiry groups with I am also a part of the curriculum team that
their action research projects. I have found supports the development of the curriculum. In
these conversations to be much more interest- this context I have written the benchmarks,
ing and valuable than the informal interviews. scope and sequence, assessment tools and
The participants are more relaxed and willing teacher planning tools among other documents
to share their thoughts and reflections. Howev- that support the mission and values of the
er, while these informal interviews and conver- school. These documents are an integral part of
sations often take the form of an ethnographic the implementation of the curriculum and the
interview or friendly conversation they do research that is conducted in the school.
however have an explicit purpose and direc-
tion. The open-ended nature of this approach
allows the subjects to answer from their own Data Analysis
frame of reference rather than from one struc-
tured by prearranged questions. For this qualitative on-going study I use a
recursive method of data analysis that involves
I intend to continue to audiotape and videotape data collection, analysis of the data, collection
the children and their play-related activities on of more data based upon this analysis, analysis
a regular schedule this academic year. Video- of the newly collected data, etc. The collection
taping will be approximately 20 minutes bi- and analysis of data is ongoing and selective
weekly. The videotapes will be shared with based upon the needs of the school and the
both the teachers and children included in the direction of the research being conducted.
study. They will be asked to provide feedback
adding another dimension to the data collec- The process of data analysis begins with the
tion process and also addressing the trustwor- transcription and documentation of field notes.
thiness of the data collected. The permanence I engage in three levels of reflection. The first
of videotape allows me to review an event, reflection takes place as soon as possible after
interaction, or play scenario so that I have the data is collected or transcribed, the second
opportunities to observe things not identified within a couple of days and the third when oth-
at the time of taping. The informal interviews er observations have been conducted, usually
and conversations with both teachers and chil- in a couple of weeks. This allows for reflection
dren are sometimes audiotaped. This method to take place within the context of a bigger pic-
of data collection, as with videotaping, frees me ture. Categories are identified and recorded as
up to observe and record field notes related to they emerge. Finally I develop assertions about
body language and physical interactions. the observations and reflections in relation to
the research questions.
Keeping a researcher journal offers an effective
way to reflect. It helps to scaffold and inform The purpose of this analysis is to achieve direc-
my participant observations and aides in data tion, make possible analogies, and identify con-
analysis by enabling me to begin the identifica- cepts. It is important to describe rather than
tion of categories. Within my journal I identify label. As stated previously I use a recursive
and record any observations that come to mind method and engage in three levels of reflections

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upon my observations. The first level takes about what occurred in relation to my investi-
place at the time of the observation and influ- gation and research question.
ences what I include in the field notes and the
second when my field notes were initially
reviewed. This is where I began to code the Findings
data for developing themes or patterns. The
third level is implemented when I return to my The findings are used in a number of ways. My
notes for further analysis several weeks later. immediate research supports the on-going
At this time I revisit the data and generate fur- development of curriculum, benchmarks, scope
ther categories, identify possible overlapping and sequence, teaching tools, strategies, systems
themes and patterns, and test for emergent and processes at the school. My on-going
understanding. During this process it is impor- research is supportive of my work as researcher
tant to acknowledge that any unit of data can and teacher under the umbrella of my role as an
be coded with more than one coding category assistant professor and advocate for play-based
and coding family. For example I use descrip- curricular and authentic assessment within the
tive codes for the learning that is observed tak- educational community at large.
ing place in the interactions between the chil-
dren and of the teachers throughout the day. The children develop strong problem solving,
This is an ongoing process that changes direc- critical thinking skills within this learning
tion in order to meet the needs of the study as environment and become active agents for their
I move forward with my analyses. learning. They know who they are as learners
and use this knowledge in multiple ways
The informal interviews and conversations are throughout their school experiences and daily
often audiotaped and, while I usually brain- lives. Their literacy skills are very diverse and,
storm a number of focal questions that address for some children, taking longer to acquire.
my goals, I allow the conversations to make Many children exhibit persistence, delayed
their own directions within predetermined gratification and are willing to take risks. Some
parameters. During my analyses thus far I have teachers are finding this way of teaching more
underlined important sections, searched difficult and challenging than they thought and
through data for regularities and patterns, and are, in some cases, returning, in varying
for topics that the data covers. I then recorded extents, to more traditional styles of teaching
words and phrases to represent these topics and need additional support. As the school
and patterns. These became my coding cate- grows and accommodates upper grades
gories. parental expectations are changing. There is an
increased tension between academic expecta-
After transcribing my field notes, videotapes, tions, developmentally appropriate practices
audiotapes, interviews, and reflecting upon my and the trust in hands-on, «play/creativity»
journal it was necessary to make decisions based curriculum. How the school addresses
regarding what data to retain and what to this, develops curriculum and assessment to
exclude. Next after reviewing the material I accommodate the shifting needs of older chil-
made decisions based regarding those sections dren and holds on to its mission and values in
that I identified as being valuable for the study an increasingly global environment has yet to
and also addressed my research questions. be seen.
These sections were transcribed and analyzed
but the remaining data were retained in case Inquiry and experiential learning are adopted
needed later on in the data analysis process. As in order to meet the academic objectives iden-
a result of this process, I developed assertions tified in the mission of the school means that

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H. Lindsey Russo

parents and their children must be open to increasingly complex intellectual and social
experimentation with these concepts within a development. It is problematic when early
lab school setting. Consequently, they have to childhood educators are unable to articulate
work cooperatively with others who exhibit and implement the tenets of early childhood
different points of view and perspectives. As education. Teacher’s perspectives are extreme-
the lead (or pilot) grade moves through the ly relevant to their chosen pedagogy. This was
school, it is becoming apparent that, for a num- highlighted earlier in relation to play and cre-
ber of the parents, expectations are shifting. ativity and their inclusion in the curriculum.
Because the school’s model focuses upon devel- Through the use of formal and informal inter-
opment over chronological age, a great deal of views, it was clear that teachers have definitive
trust and patience is required of parents. There- views on the use of standardized testing and
fore, a «wait and see» approach may be taken standardization.
by the teachers and school as children move
toward the expected goals identified by the rel- »We are supposed to be the specialists. We
evant benchmarks. This somewhat more know how children learn and we need to have
patient approach is sometimes at odds with the courage and support to say ‘Enough! Their
parental expectations that devolve to a focus on bodies and their brains are tired. They need to
content and memorization rather than higher rest and regroup, chat and internalize what
order skills such as application. they have learned by revisiting it through play
and their interactions with each other’. Then I
can assess what they have learned today-using
Implications my knowledge and understanding of them as
individual learners, not a work sheet or a test
A number of issues have arisen at the school as sheet» (Second grade teacher at the school).
the curriculum alignment process moves into
the higher grades. The questions are complex:
The Future
• How does the school move forward to
meet the challenges of the Upper grades The educational approach of the school will
and the increased pressure for account- remain focused on identifying core curriculum
ability and standardization that accom- content that is initiated by the children’s
panies this transition? inquiries. The teachers will continue to imple-
• How does it address the expectations of ment strategies that take into account different
parents within that culture? learning styles and developmental profiles in
• How does it address the increased order to build curriculum using the information
emphasis on content while maintaining that emerges from the recursive model of
the focus on understanding, individual- assessment. The lenses identified as part of the
ization, and creativity that are central school’s values represent various perspectives.
components of the school’s philosophy? Through their studies children and teachers are
• How will these children cope when they asked to look at the toolboxes of various disci-
leave the school after grade 5 and are plines and domains, to «try on» another per-
introduced to SBA? spective. Rather than looking only at what the
child brings to the table, at his or her learning
These are enormously challenging questions style, teachers ask that they step out of their
that the school community is meeting head on. comfort zones to experience another view. We
The grades 3 through 5 benchmarks are know from studies of the brain that this flexibil-
designed to meet the needs of children’s ity is not only good for engaging with material,

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it is a critical component of developing a well- and academic challenge, while providing a

rounded, resilient and flexible person. The learning environment that encourages and sup-
lenses reflect the school’s commitment to nur- ports exploration, discovery and creativity
turing a new kind of learner. Skills such as col- without the stress of competition, standardiza-
laboration, connection, cross-cultural compe- tion, and testing. This balance, where assess-
tencies, creativity, and critical thinking are the ment is authentic and aligned with the objec-
groundwork for life and work. The teachers tives of the program and student needs, helps
will be building upon their practice to contin- equip both teacher and child with the tools to
ue to be conversant and reflective within each foster individual interests and skills.
of these lenses, ensuring the children’s commu-
nicative, reflective and risk-taking skills are This approach will provide the children with
built upon, and they are supported and scaf- greater opportunities for further social/emo-
folded to become smart and flexible thinkers. tional learning, and learning through play, cre-
ativity and project work. These tenets are
Building on the belief that creativity is a human intended to build upon the foundation estab-
need, the school’s educational approach will lished in earlier years, deepening students’ love
aim to embed all projects and student experi- of learning and encouraging them to branch
ences with creative opportunities, as well as to out into new areas. As the children take on
demystify the meaning of creativity. All chil- additional responsibility for integrating their
dren are creative thinkers and innovators, and personal interests and learning styles into the
seek to express themselves as learners in a myr- curriculum, their foundation of skills will allow
iad of ways, so the school needs to construct them to benefit from more structured and rig-
classrooms that provide the preconditions for orous assignments.
creative thought. Beyond a co-curricular, inte-
grated, expressive arts program that includes From my observations and research to date I
art studio, dramatic play, music, and move- would say that the school is poised and pre-
ment, classroom teachers will need to be versed pared to meet these challenges head on mak-
in a multiple intelligences approach and use a ing a difference, not only for its students and
variety of artistic media to differentiate instruc- families but as a ripple effect that will reach
tion within academic content areas. out into the immediate educational commu-
nity and far beyond. My on-going research
The challenge for teachers is to find the appro- will identify and explore if, how and where
priate balance between academic engagement this is occurring.

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BERGEN, D. (2009). Play as the learning medium for future scientists, mathematicians and Engi-
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methods, 5th Eds. Pearson Inc.
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Resumen

El juego y la creatividad en el centro del currículo y de la evaluación: viaje a una escuela

de la ciudad de Nueva York para repensar la pedagogía curricular

Las experiencias de aprendizaje de los niños pequeños no pueden ser desgajadas de forma ade-
cuada en áreas de desarrollo cognitivo, social/emocional y físico. Son integradas e interdepen-
dientes. Este equilibrio se puede lograr a través del juego creativo e interactivo, que soporta y pro-
porciona andamiaje a todas las áreas de desarrollo y de contenido curricular. A pesar de la fuerza

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Play and Creativity at the Center of Curriculum and Assessment: a New York City School’s Journey...

de la teoría y de la investigación que lo sustentan, en los Estados Unidos estamos asistiendo a la eli-
minación gradual del juego y las experiencias creativas en las aulas para niños pequeños. La legis-
lación estadounidense, de 2001, No Child Left Behind, hace hincapié en un perfil académico y cen-
tra el currículo de la primera infancia en habilidades académicas como la lectura, la escritura y la
aritmética. Sin embargo, el problema no es simplemente de estrategia pedagógica o posición filosó-
fica. La forma de trabajar el currículo se ve también afectada por las percepciones de los profesores
sobre el juego y la creatividad.
En el año 2009 comencé un estudio longitudinal que va siguiendo la clase piloto de una nueva
escuela elemental independiente de Nueva York, que añade un grado cada año, y cuyo marco curri-
cular se basa en el juego y la creatividad. Este artículo identifica los valores, la misión y el modelo
de escuela. También explora y documenta cómo el currículo se está desarrollando para apoyar y dar
andamiaje al aumento de las expectativas académicas, el papel de los docentes y de los niños en la
ejecución del currículo y las perspectivas, percepciones y expectativas cambiantes de los padres y
los maestros.

Palabras clave: Juego, Creatividad, Currículo, Educación infantil, Actitudes de los profesores.

Résumé

Le jeu et la créativité au centre du programme et de l’évaluation: Le parcours d’une école

de la ville de New York pour repenser la pédagogie du programme

Les expériences d’apprentissage des jeunes enfants ne peuvent être séparées comme par hasard en
secteurs de développements cognitif, socio-émotionnel, et physique. Elles sont intégrées et
interdépendantes. Cet équilibre peut être atteint par le jeu créatif et interactif qui soutient et
superpose tous les secteurs du programme qui ont trait au développement et au contenu de celui-
ci. En dépit de la force de la théorie à l’appui et de la recherche, nous constatons une élimination
graduelle du jeu et des expériences créatives dans les classes de la petite enfance aux États-Unis. La
loi américaine 2001 No Child Left Behind accentue une orientation académique et concentre les
programmes de la petite enfance sur les habiletés académiques comme la lecture, l’écriture et
les notions d’arithmétique. Toutefois, le problème n’est pas simplement la stratégie pédagogique ou
la position philosophique. La manière dont le programme est mis en application est aussi influencée
par la perception des enseignants au sujet du jeu et de la créativité.
En 2009, j’ai commencé une étude longitudinale qui suit la classe pilote d’une nouvelle école
élémentaire indépendante de la ville de New York, alors qu’on ajoute chaque année un niveau de
classe plus élevé et dont le cadre du programme est basé sur le jeu et la créativité. Cet article
identifie les valeurs, la mission et le modèle de cette école. L’article explore également et documente
comment le programme est développé pour soutenir et superposer les attentes académiques
accrues, ainsi que le rôle des enseignants et des élèves dans la mise en œuvre du programme et les
perspectives changeantes, les perceptions et attentes des parents et des enseignants.

Mot clés : Jeu, Créativité, Programme, Éducation de l’enfance, Attitudes des enseignants.

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H. Lindsey Russo

Perfil profesional de la autora

H. Lindsey Russo

Profesora ayudante de Early Childhood Education en State University of New York at New Paltz.
Obtuvo su Doctorado (Ed.D) en Early Childhood Education en el Teachers College de Columbia
University, donde trabajó como instructora y profesora ayudante adjunta en el Department of Curri-
culum and Teaching. Sus intereses de investigación abarcan todos los aspectos del juego y la crea-
tividad en relación con el aprendizaje. Es directora de documentación e investigación curricular en
Blue School, una fundación de Blue Man Group en New York City, donde trabaja junto con los pro-
fesores en poner la creatividad, el juego y la evaluación adecuadamente entendida en el corazón del
currículo.
Correo electrónico de contacto: [email protected]

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