CHAPTER FIVE

ENGINEERING CALCULATIONS

Bit Nozzle Selection—Optimized Hydraulics

These series of formulas will determine the correct jet sizes when optimizing
for jet impact or hydraulic horsepower and optimum flow rate for two or
three nozzles.
1. Nozzle area, sqin.:
2
XT i • N + N2 + N2
Nozzle area, sq in. = —1 -

2. Bit nozzle pressure loss, psi (Pb):

pb = gpm2 x MW, ppg

10,858 x nozzle area, sq in.2
3. Total pressure losses except bit nozzle pressure loss, psi (Pc):
p „ p
_ circulating bit nozzle
1 2
pressure, psi pressure Loss, psi
4. Determine slope of line M:

M = IQg(Pc1 + PC2)
1Og(Q1 + Q2)
5. Optimum pressure losses (Popt)
a) For impact force:
2
Popt
P = x P max
M +2
b) For hydraulic horsepower:

Popt = x P max
M+l
 6. For optimumflowrate (Qopt):
a) For impact force:

Qopt, gpm = ( ^ - ) x Ql
V Pmax/
b) For hydraulic horsepower:

Qopt, gpm= - ^ - x Ql
V Pmax/
7. To determine pressure at the bit (Pb):
Pb = Pmax - Popt
8. To determine nozzle area, sqin.:
2
XT i • I Q o p t x M W , p p5 g
N o z z l e area, sq in. = J ^ n o ^-
V 10,858 x Pmax
9. To determine nozzles, 32nd in. for three nozzles:
t /nozzle area, sqin. _.
Nozzles = J —±— x 32
i 3 x 0.7854
10. To determine nozzles, 32nd in. for two nozzles:
- /nozzle area, sqin. „
N0ZZl6S X 32
= 1 2x0.7854
Example: Optimize bit hydraulics on a well with the following:
Select the proper jet sizes for impact force and hydraulic
horsepower for two jets and three jets:
DATA: Mud weight = 13.0ppg
Jet sizes = 17-17-17
Maximum surface pressure = 3000 psi
Pump pressure 1 = 3000 psi
Pump rate 1 = 420 gpm
Pump pressure 2 = 1300 psi
Pump rate 2 =275 gpm
1. Nozzle area, sqin.:
XT 1 . 17 2 + 17 2 + 17 2
Nozzle area, sq in. =
1303.8
 Nozzle area, sqin. = 0.664979
2. Bit nozzle pressure loss, psi (Pb):
4202 x 13.0
1
" 10,858 x 0.6649792
Pb1 = 478 psi

pb 2752 x 13.0
2
" 10,858 x 0.6649792
Pb2 = 205 psi
3. Total pressure losses except bit nozzle pressure loss (Pc), psi:
Pc1 = 3000 psi - 478 psi
Pc1 = 2522 psi
Pc2 = 1300 psi - 205 psi
Pc2 = 1095 psi
4. Determine slope of line (M):

M _ log(2522 + 1095)
log(420 -s- 275)
_ 0.3623309
~ 0.1839166
M = 1.97
5. Determine optimum pressure losses, psi (Popt):
a) For impact force:

Popt = x 300
YWV^ °
Popt = 1511 psi
b) For hydraulic horsepower:

P Pt =
° L97TT X 3 0 0 °
Popt = lOlOpsi
6. Determine optimum flow rate (Qopt):
a) For impact force:

Q P t 8Pm X 42
° ' = ( 3000 J °
Qopt = 297 gpm
b) For hydraulic horsepower:

Qopt gpm noioY +1 - 97 x 420

' = lsboo J
Qopt = 242 gpm
7. Determine pressure losses at the bit (Pb):
a) For impact force:
Pb = 3000psi- 1511psi
Pb = 1489 psi
b) For hydraulic horsepower:
Pb = 3000psi - lOlOpsi
Pb = 1990 psi
8. Determine nozzle area, sqin.:
a) For impact force:
2 9 ? 2 x 1 3
XT 1 • / °
Nozzlearea,sqm. ^ 1 0 8 5 8 xi4g9

Nozzle area, sq in. = V0.070927

Nozzle area = 0.26632 sqin.
b) For hydraulic horsepower:

XT 1 • I 2 4 2 ' X 13'Q
Nozzle area, sq in. = J
4
V 10,858 x 1990
Nozzle area, sq in. = V0.03523
Nozzle area = 0.1877sqin.
9. Determine nozzle size, 32ndin.:
a) For impact force:
 XT , 0.26632 _
Nozzles = J x 32
^ 3 x 0.7854
Nozzles = 10.76
b) For hydraulic horsepower:
Nozzles = I ° - 1 8 7 7 x 32
V 3 x 0.7854
Nozzles = 9.03
NOTE: Usually the nozzle size will have a decimal fraction. The fraction
times 3 will determine how many nozzles should be larger than
that calculated.
a) For impact force:
0.76 x 3 = 2.28 rounded to 2
so: 1 jet = 10/32nds
2 jets = 1 l/32nds
b) For hydraulic horsepower:
0.03 x 3 = 0.09 rounded to 0
so: 3 jets = 9/32nd in.
10. Determine nozzles, 32nd in. for two nozzles:
a) For impact force:
XT , I 0.26632 ._
N ZZleS = X 32
° iJ^O^-4
Nozzles = 13.18 sq in.
b) For hydraulic horsepower:

Nozzles = pMZ x 32
V 2 x 0.7854
Nozzles = 11.06sqin.
Hydraulics Analysis

This sequence of calculations is designed to quickly and accurately analyze

various parameters of existing bit hydraulics.
1. Annular velocity, ft/min (AV):
24
AV = -5*Q
Dh - Dp 2
2

2. Jet nozzle pressure loss, psi (Pb):

pb _ 156.5 x Q 2 x MW
[(N1)2 + (N 2 ) 2 + (N 3 ) 2 ] 2
3. System hydraulic horsepower available (Sys HHP):

SUrfaCe
Sy
y 8HHP = - PS1 X Q
1714
4. Hydraulic horsepower at bit (HHPb):

HHPb = Q ^ ^
1714
5. Hydraulic horsepower per square inch of bit diameter:
„„-, • HHPb x 1.27
HHPb/sq in. = =—
bit size2
6. Percent pressure loss at bit (% psib):

% psib = — x 100
surface, psi
7. Jet velocity, ft/sec (Vn):

417 2 X
Vn = ' Q
(N1)2 + (N 2 ) 2 + (N 3 ) 2
8. Impact force, Ib, at bit (IF):

= (MW)(Vn)(Q)
1930
9. Impact force per square inch of bit area (IF/sqin.):

TT7/ . IF x 1.27
IF/sq in. = r-
bit size2
Nomenclature:

AV = annular velocity, ft/min

Q = circulation rate, gpm
Dh = hole diameter, in.
Dp = pipe or collar O.D., in.
MW = mud weight, ppg
Ni; N2; N 3 = jet nozzle sizes, 32ndin.
Pb = bit nozzle pressure loss, psi
HHP = hydraulic horsepower at bit
Vn = jet velocity, ft/sec
IF = impact force, Ib
IF/sqin. = impact force lb/sq in. of bit diameter

Example: Mub weight = 12.0 ppg

Circulation rate = 520 gpm
Nozzle size 1 = 12-32nd/in.
Nozzle size 2 = 12-32nd/in.
Nozzle size 3 = 12-32nd/in.
Hole size = 12-1/4 in.
Drill pipe OD = 5.0in.
Surface pressure = 3000 psi
1. Annular velocity, ft/min:
_ 24.5 x 520
12.252 - 5.02
12 74
AV= ' °
125.0625
AV = 102 ft/min
2. Jet nozzle pressure loss:
pb _ 156.5 x 5202 x 12.0
(122 + 122 + 122)2
Pb = 2721 psi
3. System hydraulic horsepower available:

Syy s H H P = 3 0 0 0 x 5 2 °
1714
Sys HHP = 910
4. Hydraulic horsepower at bit:

HHPb - ^

HHPb = 826
5. Hydraulic horsepower per square inch of bit area:

„„ . . 826 x 1.27
HHp/sqin.= ^252

HHP/sq in. = 6.99

6. Percent pressure loss at bit:

% psib = - ^ - x 100
3000
% psib = 90.7
7. Jet velocity, ft/sec:
_ 417.2 x 520
" 122 + 122 + 122

Vn = ^ i
432
Vn = 502 ft/sec
8. Impact force, Ib:

_ 12.0 x 502 x 520

1930
IF = 16231b
9. Impact force per square inch of bit area:

_. . 1623 x 1.27
IF/Sqin =
' - [ 5 ^
IF/sqin. = 13.7
 Critical Annular Velocity and Critical Flow Rate

1. Determine n:
e 6 0 0
i M i
n = 3 321 g
- ° 9300
2. Determine K:
K _ 0600
~ 1022n
3. Determine x:
_ 81?600(Kp)(n)0'387
(Dh - Dp)11MW
4. Determine critical annular velocity:
AVc = (xf2~n
5. Determine critical flow rate:
AVc
GPMc = <Dh2 - Dp2
>
24.5

Nomenclature:

n = dimensionless
K = dimensionless
x = dimensionless
9600 = 600 viscometer dial reading
0300 = 300 viscometer dial reading
Dh = hole diameter, in.
Dp = pipe or collar OD, in.
MW = mud weight, ppg
AVc = critical annular velocity, ft/min
GPMc = critical flow rate, gpm

Example: Mud weight = 14.0 ppg

0600 = 64
0300 = 37
Hole diameter = 8.5 in.
Pipe OD = 7.0 in.
1. Determine n:

n = 3.32 l o g | i

n = 0.79
2. Determine K:

K = <*
10220-79
K = 0.2684
3. Determine x:
_ 81,600(0.2684)(0.79)0-387
x
• 8.5 - I0-79 x 14.0
= 19,967.413
19.2859
x = 1035
4. Determine critical annular velocity:
AVc = (1035)1+(2-°-79)
AVc = (1035)0-8264
AVc = 310ft/min
5. Determine critical flow rate:

GPMc = 3 1 °( 8 - 5 2 - 7 -° 2 )
24.5

GPMc = 294 gpm

"d" Exponent
The "d" exponent is derived from the general drilling equation:
R - N = a(Wd + D)
where R = penetration rate
N = rotary speed, rpm
a = a constant, dimensionless
W= weight on bit, Ib
d = exponent in general drilling equation, dimensionless
"d" exponent equation:
"d" = log(R + 60N) - log(12W + 1000D)

where d = d exponent, dimensionless

R = penetration rate, ft/hr
N = rotary speed, rpm
W = weight on bit, 1,0001b
D = bit size, in.
Example: R = 30 ft/hr
N = 120rpm
W = 35,0001b
D = 8.5in.
Solution: d = log[30 -*- (60 x 120)] + log[(12 x 35) + (1000 x 8.5)]
d = log(30 + 7200) + log(420 + 8500)
d = log 0.0042 + log 0.0494
d = -2.377 + -1.306
d = 1.82

Corrected "d" exponent:

The "d" exponent is influenced by mud weight variations, so modifications
have to be made to correct for changes in mud weight:
dc = (1(MW1 -s- MW2)

where de = corrected "d" exponent

MWi = normal mud weight—9.0 ppg
MW2 = actual mud weight, ppg
Example: d =1.64
MWl = 9.0 ppg
MW2 = 12.7 ppg
Solution: dc = 1.64 (9.0 + 12.7)
dc = 1.64 x 0.71
d c = 1.16

Cuttings Slip Velocity

These calculations provide the slip velocity of a cutting of a specific size and
weight in a given fluid. The annular velocity and the cutting net rise veloc-
ity are also calculated.
Method 1

Annular velocity, ft/min:

245
AV x Q
Dh2-Dp2
Cuttings slip velocity, ft/min:

where Vs = slip velocity, ft/min

PV = plastic viscosity, cps
MW = mud weight, ppg
Dp = diameter of particle, in.
DenP = density of particle, ppg
Example: Using the following data, determine the annular velocity,
ft/min; the cuttings slip velocity, ft/min, and the cutting net rise
velocity, ft/min:
DATA: Mud weight = 11.0 ppg
Plastic viscosity = 13 cps
Diameter of particle = 0.25 in.
Density of particle = 22 ppg
Flow rate = 520 gpm
Diameter of hole = 12-1/4 in.
Drill pipe OD = 5.0in.

Annular velocity, ft/min:

Cuttings slip velocity, ft/min:

 Vs = 0.45[4.727]|~ J 3 6 > 8 Q Q x Q 2 5 x 1 + 1 - ll
U[4.727]2 J
Vs = 2.12715(V412.68639 - 1)
Vs = 2.12715 x 19.3146
Vs = 41.085ft/min
Cuttings net rise velocity:
Annular velocity = 102 ft/min
Cuttings slip velocity = -41 ft/min
Cuttings net rise velocity = 61 ft/min

Method 2
1. Determine n:
e 6 0 0
n = 3.32
i it log
i

2. Determine K:
K= 6300
51 ln
3. Determine annular velocity, ft/min:
24.5 x Q
V
" Dh 2 - Dp 2
4. Determine viscosity (jU):
( 2.4v 2n + n n f 200K(Dh - Dp)^
U = X X —
^ VDh-Dp 3n J V v J
5. Slip velocity (Vs), ft/min:
_ (DensP - MW) 0667 x 175 x DiaP
" MW0-333 x ,u0-333

Nomenclature:
n = dimensionless
K = dimensionless
6600 = 600 viscometer dial reading
 0300 = 300 viscometer dial reading
Q = circulation rate, gpm
Dh = hole diameter, in.
Dp = pipe or collar OD, in.
v = annular velocity, ft/min
ju = mud viscosity, cps
DensP = cutting density, ppg
DiaP = cutting diameter, in.

Example: Using the data listed below, determine the annular velocity,
cuttings slip velocity, and the cutting net rise velocity:

DATA: Mud weight = 11.0 ppg

Plastic viscosity = 13 cps
Yield point = lOlb/lOOsqft
Diameter of particle = 0.25 in.
Density of particle = 22.0 ppg
Hole diameter = 12.25 in.
Drill pipe OD = 5.0in
Circulation rate = 520 gpm

1. Determine n:

n = 3.32 l o g | |

n = 0.64599

2. Determine K:

K _ 23
51J0.64599
K = 0.4094
3. Determine annular velocity, ft/min:
_ 24.5 x 520
12.252 - 5.02
_ 12,740
125.06
v = 102 ft/min
4. Determine mud viscosity, cps:
f 2.4 x 102 2(0.64599) + n0-64599 f 200 x 0.4094 x (12.25 - 5)\
LL = I X — X H
M
U2.25-5.0 3 x 0.64599 J V 102 J
f 244.8 2.92 f-64599 593.63
U = X X
^ V 7.25 1.938 J 102
064599
PL = (33.76 x 1.1827) x 5.82
Ii = 10.82 x 5.82
/i = 63 cps
5. Determine cuttings slip velocity, ft/min:
_ (22-11) 0667 x 175 x 0.25
! !0.333 x 63 0.333

4.95 x 175 x 0.25

Vs =
2.222 x 3.97
216.56
Vs =
8.82
Vs = 24.55 ft/min
6. Determine cuttings net rise velocity, ft/min:
Annular velocity = 102 ft/min
Cuttings slip velocity = -24.55 ft/min
Cuttings net rise velocity = 77.45 ft/min

Surge and Swab Pressures

Method 1

1. Determine n:
e 6 0 0
a ao i
n 3 3 2 log
= i55o
2. Determine K:
K=0300
51 ln
3. Determine velocity, ft/min:
For plugged flow:

For open pipe:

Dp2 Di2
v - [ 0 45+ - Ivp
L Dh2 -Dp 2 +Di2J P
4. Maximum pipe velocity:
Vm = 1.5 x v
5. Determine pressure losses:
_ ( 2.4Vm 2n + n n KL
Ps = x x
VDh-Dp 3n J 300(Dh - Dp)
Nomenclature:

n = dimensionless
K = dimensionless
0600 = 600 viscometer dial reading
0300 = 300 viscometer dial reading
v = fluid velocity, ft/min
Vp = pipe velocity, ft/min
Vm = maximum pipe velocity, ft/min
Ps = pressure loss, psi
L = pipe length, ft
Dh = hole diameter, in.
Dp = drill pipe or drill collar OD, in.
Di = drill pipe or drill collar ID, in.
Example 1: Determine surge pressure for plugged pipe:
Date: Well depth = 15,000 ft
Hole size = 7-7/8 in.
Drill pipe OD = 4-1/2 in.
Drill pipe ID = 3.82in.
Drill collar = 6-1/4" O.D. x 2-3/4" ID
Drill collar length = 700 ft
Mud weight = 15.0ppg
 Viscometer readings:
G600 = 140
9300 = 80
Average pipe running speed = 270ft/min

1. Determine n:

n = 0.8069
2. Determine K:

5}|0.8069

K = 0.522
3. Determine velocity, ft/min:

V = (0.45 + 0.484)270
V = 252 ft/min
4. Determine maximum pipe velocity, ft/min:
Vm = 252 x 1.5
Vm = 378 ft/min
5. Determine pressure loss, psi:

ps _ f" 2.4 x 378 2(0.8069) + li 0 8 0 6 9 (0.522)(14,300)

X X
L7.875 - 4.5 3(0.8069) J 300(7.875 - 4.5)

Ps = (268.8 x 1.179S)08069X ^ l

Ps = 97.098 x 7.37
Ps = 716 psi surge pressure

Therefore, this pressure is added to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in

the wellbore.
If, however, the swab pressure is desired, this pressure would be subtracted
from the hydrostatic pressure.

Example 2: Determine surge pressure for open pipe:

1. Determine velocity, ft/min:
f 4 52 - 3 822 1

,,(0.45 + g ) 2 7 0
v = (0.45 + 0.100)270
v = 149 ft/min
2. Maximum pipe velocity, ft/min:
Vm = 149 x 1.5
Vm = 224 ft/min
3. Pressure loss, psi:
ps _ I" 2.4 x 224 x 2(0.8069) + if 8069 x (0.522)(14,300)
X X
L7.875 - 4.5 3(0.8069) J 300(7.875 - 4.5)

Ps = (159.29 x 1.0798)08069 x ^ j

Ps = 63.66 x 7.37
Ps = 469 psi surge pressure

Therefore, this pressure would be added to the hydrostatic pressure of the

mud in the wellbore.

If, however, the swab pressure is desired, this pressure would be subtracted
from the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the wellbore.

Method 2

Surge and swab pressures

Assume: 1) Plugged pipe
2) Laminar flow around drill pipe
3) Turbulent flow around drill collars
These calculations outline the procedure and calculations necessary to
determine the increase or decrease in equivalent mud weight (bottomhole
pressure) due to pressure surges caused by pulling or running pipe. These
calculations assume that the end of the pipe is plugged (as in running casing
with a float shoe or drill pipe with bit and jet nozzles in place), not
open-ended.

A. Surge pressure around drill pipe:

1. Estimated annular fluid velocity (v) around drill pipe:

2. Maximum pipe velocity (Vm):

Vm = v x 1.5
3. Calculate n:
e 6 0 0
i ™ i
n = 3.32 log
6
6300
4. Calculate K:
6300
51 ln
5. Calculate the shear rate (Ym) of the mud moving around the pipe:
v 2.4 x Vm
Ym =
Dh - Dp
6. Calculate the shear stress (T) of the mud moving around the pipe:
T = K(Ym)n
7. Calculate the pressure (Ps) decrease for the interval:
ps = 3.33T _L_
D h - D p X 1000
B. Surge pressure around drill collars:
1. Calculate the estimated annular fluid velocity (v) around the drill
collars:
 2. Calculate maximum pipe velocity (Vm):
V m = v x 1.5

3. Convert the equivalent velocity of the mud due to pipe movement to

equivalent flowrate (Q):

4. Calculate the pressure loss for each interval (Ps):

C. Total surge pressures converted to mud weight:

Total surge (or swab) pressures:

psi = Ps(drill pipe) + Ps(drill collars)

D. If surge pressure is desired:

SP, ppg = Ps + 0.052 + TVD, ft "+" MW, ppg

E. If swab pressure is desired:

SP, ppg = Ps •*• 0.052 + TVD, ft "-" MW, ppg

Example: Determine both the surge and swab pressure for the data listed
below:

Data: Mud weight = 15.0ppg

Plastic viscosity = 60 cps
Yield point = 20 Ib/100 sq ft
Hole diameter = 7-7/8 in.
Drill pipe OD = 4-1/2 in.
Drill pipe length = 14,300 ft
Drill collar OD = 6-1/4 in.
Drill collar length = 700 ft
Pipe running speed = 270ft/min
A. Around drill pipe:
1. Calculate annular fluid velocity (v) around drill pipe:

v = [0.45 + 0.4848]270
v = 253 ft/min
2. Calculate maximum pipe velocity (Vm):
Vm = 253 x 1.5
Vm = 379 ft/min
NOTE: Determine n and K from the plastic viscosity and yield point as
follows:
PV + YP = 9300 reading
0300 reading + PV = 0600 reading

Example: PV = 60
YP = 20
60 + 20 = 80 (9300 reading)
80 + 60 = 140 (9600 reading)

3. Calculate n:

n = 0.8069
4. Calculate K:
K = 80
5 j 10.8069

K = 0.522
5. Calculate the shear rate (Ym) of the mud moving around the pipe:
 6. Calculate the shear stress (T) of the mud moving around the pipe:
T = 0.522(269.5)0-8069
T = 0.522 x 91.457
T = 47.74
7. Calculate the pressure decrease (Ps) for the interval:

Ps = 47.064 x 14.3
Ps = 673 psi

B. Around drill collars:

1. Calculate the estimated annular fluid velocity (v) around the drill
collars:

v = (0.45 + 1.70)270
v = 581ft/min
2. Calculate maximum pipe velocity (Vm):
Vm = 581 x 1.5
Vm = 871.54ft/min
3. Convert the equivalent velocity of the mud due to pipe movement to
equivalent flowrate (Q):
_ 871.54(7.8752 - 6.252)
Q
" 24.5
_ 20,004.567
Q
" 24.5
Q = 816.5
4. Calculate the pressure loss (Ps) for the interval:
C. Total pressures:
psi = 672.9 psi + 368.6 psi
psi = 1041.5 psi

D. Pressure converted to mud weight, ppg:

ppg = 1041.5 psi + 0.052 + 15,000 ft
ppg = 1.34

E. If surge pressure is desired:

Surge pressure, ppg = 15.0 ppg + 1.34ppg
Surge pressure = 16.34 ppg

F. If swab pressure is desired:

Swab pressure, ppg = 15.0ppg - 1.34ppg
Swab pressure = 13.66ppg

Equivalent Circulation Density (ECD)

1. Determine n:

2. Determine K:
6300
51P
3. Determine annular velocity (v), ft/min:

4. Determine critical velocity (Vc), ft/min:

5. Pressure loss for laminar flow (Ps), psi:

6. Pressure loss for turbulent flow (Ps), psi:

7. Determine equivalent circulating density (ECD), ppg:

ECD, ppg - Ps + 0.052 + TVD, ft + OMW, ppg

Example: Equivalent circulating density (ECD), ppg:

Date: Mud weight = 12.5 ppg

Plastic viscosity = 24cps
Yield point = 121b/100sqft
Circulation rate = 400 gpm
Hole diameter = 8.5 in.
Drill pipe OD = 5.0in.
Drill pipe length = 11,300 ft
Drill collar OD = 6.5 in.
Drill collar length = 700 ft
True vertical depth = 12,000 ft

NOTE: If 0600 and 9300 viscometer dial readings are unknown, they may
be obtained from the plastic viscosity and yield point as follows:
24 + 12 = 36 Thus, 36 is the 0300 reading.
36 + 24 = 60 Thus, 60 is the 0600 reading.

1. Determine n:

n = 3.32 l o g ^
36
n = 0.7365
2. Determine K:

K = 36
5||0.7365

K = 0.3644
3a. Determine annular velocity (v), ft/min, around drill pipe:
_ 24.5 x 400
V
" 8.52 - 5.02
v = 207 ft/min
3b. Determine annular velocity (v), ft/min, around drill collars:
_ 24.5 x 400
V
" 8.52 - 6.52
v = 327 ft/min
4a. Determine critical velocity (Vc), ft/min, around drill pipe:

Vc = (1130.5)0791 x (0.76749)0'5829
Vc = 260 x 0.857
Vc = 223 ft/min
4b. Determine critical velocity (Vc), ft/min, around drill collars:

Vc = (1130.5)0791 x (1.343)05829
Vc = 260 x 1.18756
Vc = 309 ft/min
Therefore:
Drill pipe: 207 ft/min (v) is less than 223 ft/min (Vc), Laminar flow, so use
Equation 5 for pressure loss.
Drill collars: 327 ft/min (v) is greater than 309 ft/min (Vc) turbulent flow, so
use Equation 6 for pressure loss.
5. Pressure loss opposite drill pipe:
 Ps = (141.9 x 1.11926)07365 x 3.9216
Ps = 41.78 x 3.9216
Ps = 163.8 psi
6. Pressure loss opposite drill collars:

Ps = 35.4 psi
Total pressure losses:
psi = 163.8 psi + 35.4 psi
psi = 199.2 psi
7. Determine equivalent circulating density (ECD), ppg:
ECD, ppg = 199.2psi + 0.052 + 12,000ft + 12.5ppg
ECD = 12.82 ppg

Fracture Gradient Determination—Surface Application

Method 1: Matthews and Kelly Method

F = P/D + Ki o/D

where F = fracture gradient, psi/ft

P = formation pore pressure, psi
a = matrix stress at point of interest, psi
D = depth at point of interest, TVD, ft
Ki = matrix stress coefficient, dimensionless

Procedure:
1. Obtain formation pore pressure, P, from electric logs, density measure-
ments, or mud logging personnel.
2. Assume 1.0psi/ft as overburden pressure (S) and calculate eras follows:
a= S - P
3. Determine the depth for determining Ki by:

D =
0.535
4. From Matrix Stress Coefficient chart, determine K:

MATRIX STRESS COEFFICIENT;

VERSUS Dj I
FOR
SOUTH TEXAS GULF COAST I
AND
LOUISIANA GULF COAST

SOUTH TEXAS GULF COAST

DEPTH X 1,000 FEET

LOUISIANA GULF COAST

k. - MATRIX STRESS COEFFICIENT

Figure 5-1. Matrix stress coefficient chart.

5. Determine fracture gradient, psi/ft:

D D
6. Determine fracture pressure, psi:
F, psi = F x D
7. Determine maximum mud density, ppg:

MW PPg =
' 0^2

Example: Casing setting depth = 12,000 ft

Formation pore pressure = 12.0 ppg
(Louisiana Gulf Coast)
L P = 12.0 ppg x 0.052 x 12,000 ft
P = 7488 psi
2. (J= 12,000 psi - 7488 psi
<j= 4512psi
4512 psi
0.535
D = 8434 ft
4. From chart = Ki = 0.79 psi/ft

5. F = ^ + 0.79x^H
12,000 12,000
F = 0.624 psi/ft + 0.297 psi/ft
F = 0.92 psi/ft
6. Fracture pressure, psi = 0.92 psi/ft x 12,000 ft
Fracture pressure =11,040 psi
n xjf • AA-* 0.92 psi/ft
7. Maximum mud density, ppg =
Maximum mud density = 17.69 ppg
Method 2: Ben Eaton Method

where S/D = overburden gradient, psi/ft

Pf/D = formation pressure gradient at depth of interest, psi/ft
y = Poisson's ratio
Procedure:
1. Obtain overburden gradient from "Overburden Stree Gradient Chart."
2. Obtain formation pressure gradient from electric logs, density measure-
ments, or logging operations.
3. Obtain Poisson's ratio from "Poisson's Ratio Chart."
4. Determine fracture gradient using above equation.
5. Determine fracture pressure, psi:
psi = F x D
6. Determine maximum mud density, ppg:
F
PPg
" 0.052

Example: Casing setting depth = 12,000 ft

Formation pore pressure = 12.0 ppg
1. Determine S/D from chart = depth = 12,000 ft
S/D = 0.96 psi/ft
2. Pf/D = 12.0 ppg x 0.052 = 0.624 psi/ft
3. Poisson's Ratio from chart = 0.47 psi/ft
4. Determine fracture gradient:

F = (0.96 - 0.6243)f ° ' 4 7 1 + 0.624

U - 0.47 J
F = 0.336 x 0.88679 + 0.624
F = 0.29796 + 0.624
F = 0.92 psi/ft
5. Determine fracture pressure:
psi = 0.92psi/ft x 12,000 ft
psi = 11,040
6. Determine maximum mud denisty:
0.92 psi/ft
pg = -
P5
0.052
ppg = 17.69

Fracture Gradient Determination—Subsea Applications

In offshore drilling operations, it is necessary to correct the calculated frac-

ture gradient for the effect of water depth and flowline height (air gap) above
mean sea level. The following procedure can be used:

Example: Air gap = 100 ft

Density of seawater = 8.9 ppg
Water depth = 2000 ft
Feet of casing below mudline = 4000 ft

Procedure:
1. Convert water to equivalent land area, ft:
a) Determine the hydrostatic pressure of the seawater:
HPsw = 8.9ppg x 0.052 x 2000ft
HPsw = 926 psi
b) From Eaton's Overburden Stress Chart, determine the overburden
stress gradient from mean sea level to casing setting depth:
From chart: Enter chart at 6000 ft on left; intersect curved line and
read overburden gradient at bottom of chart:
Overburden stress gradient = 0.92 psi/ft
c) Determine equivalent land area, ft:
r: • 1 r . 926 psi
Equivalent feet =
4
0.92 psi/ft
Equivalent feet = 1006
 AFTER 8EN EATOM

OVERBURDEN STRESS GRAOIENT (psi/ft)

Composite overburden stress gradient for alt
normally compacted continuous depositions! basins

Figure 5-2. Eaton's overburden stress chart.

2. Determine depth for fracture gradient determination:

Depth, ft = 4000 ft + 1006 ft
Depth = 5006 ft
3. Using Eaton's Fracture Gradient Chart, determine the fracture gradient
at a depth of 5006 ft:
From chart: Enter chart at a depth of 5006 ft; intersect the 9.0ppg line;
then proceed up and read the fracture gradient at the top of
the chart:
Fracture gradient = 14.7 ppg
4. Determine the fracture pressure:
psi = 14.7 ppg x 0.052 x 5006 ft
psi = 3827
5. Convert the fracture gradient relative to the flowline:
Fc = 3827 psi - 0.052 + 6100 ft
Fc = 12.06 ppg

where Fc is the fracture gradient, corrected for water depth, and air gap.
Depth (II)

Fracture gradient (Ib/gal)

Figure 5-3. Eaton's fracture gradient chart.

 Directional Drilling Calculations

Directional survey calculations

The following are the two most commonly used methods to calculate direc-
tional surveys:
1. Angle Averaging Method
XT ,u = A,^
North • (H + I2) x cos (A1 + A2)-
MD x sin
2 2
.,_ . (Il + 12) . (Al + A2)
East = MD x sm- - x sin -
2 2
Vert = MD x cos ( I 1 + ll)

2. Radius of Curvature Method

XT - MD(cos Il - cos 12)(sin A2 - sin Al)
N rth =
° (12 - I1)(A2 - Al)
_ MD(COS Il - cos I2)(cos Al - cos A2)
aS
~ (12 - I1)(A2 - Al)
Vert = MD(sin 12 - s i n I I )

where MD = course length between surveys in measured depth, ft

I 1 ,1 2 = inclination (angle) at upper and lower surveys, degrees
Ai, A2 = direction at upper and lower surveys

Example: Use the Angle Averaging Method and the Radius of Curvature
Method to calculate the following surveys:

Survey 1 Survey 2

Depth, ft 7482 7782

Inclination, degrees 4 8
Azimuth, degrees 10 35
Angle Averaging Method:

North = 300 x s i n i l t ^ x cos ( 1 0 + 35)

2 2
=• 300 x sin (6) x cos (22.5)
= 300 x .104528 x .923879
North = 28.97 ft
r: • *nn • (4 + 8) . (10 + 35)
East = 300 x sin- x sin- -
2 2
= 300 x sin (6) x sin (22.5)
= 300 x . 104528 x .38268
East = 12.0 ft
Vert = 300 x cos ( 4 + 8)

2
= 300 x cos (6)
= 300 x .99452
Vert = 298.35 ft
Radius of Curvature Method:
3OQ(COS 4 - cos 8)(sin 35 - sin 10)
rt
° " (8 - 4)(35 - 10)
_ 300(.99756 - .990268)(-57357 - .173648)
4 x 25
_ .874629
100
= 0.008746 x 57.32
North = 28.56 ft
£a t _ 3OQ(COS 4 - cos 8)(cos 10 - cos 35)
(8 - 4)(35 - 10)
_ 300(.99756 - .99026)(.9848 - .81915)
4 x 25
 East

Vert

Vert

Deviation/departure calculation

Deviation is defined as departure of the wellbore from the vertical, measured

by the horizontal distance from the rotary table to the target. The amount
of deviation is a function of the drift angle (inclination) and hole depth.
The following diagram illustrates how to determine the deviation/departure:

DATA:
AB = distance from the surface location
to the KOP
BC = distance from KOP to the true
vertical depth (TVD)
BD = distance from KOP to the bottom
of the hole (MD)
CD = deviation/departure-departure of
the wellbore from the vertical
AC = true vertical depth
AD = measured depth

Figure 5-4. Deviation/Departure.

To calculate the deviation/departure (CD), ft:
CD, ft = sin I x BD

Example: Kick off point (KOP) is a distance 2000 ft from the surface. MD
is 8000 ft. Hole angle (inclination) is 20 degrees. Therefore the
distance from KOP to MD = 6000 ft (BD):
CD, ft = sin 20 x 6000 ft
= 0.342 x 6000ft
CD = 2052 ft

From this calculation, the measured depth (MD) is 2052 ft away from
vertical.

Dogleg severity calculation

Method 1

Dogleg severity (DLS) is usually given in degrees/100 ft. The following

formula provides dogleg severity in degrees/100 ft and is based on the Radius
of Curvature Method:
100
DLS = {cos-^cos Il x cos 12) + (sin Il x sin 12) x cos(A2 - Al)]} x —

For metric calculation, substitute x

CL
where DLS = dogleg severity, degrees/100 ft
CL = course length, distance between survey points, ft
II, 12 = inclination (angle) at upper and lower surveys, ft
Al, A2 = direction at upper and lower surveys, degrees
A
Azimuth = azimuth change between surveys, degrees

Example:

Survey 1 Survey 2

Depth, ft 4231 4262

Inclination, degrees 13.5 14.7
Azimuth, degrees NlOE N 19 E
DLS - {cos-'KcosH.S x cosl4.7) + (sinl3.5 x sinl4.7 x cos(19 - 10)]} x —

DLS = {cos"1 [(.9723699 x .9672677)

100
+ (.2334453 x .2537579 x .9876883)]} x —

DLS = {cos"1 [(.940542) + (.0585092)]} x —

100
DLS = 2.4960847 x —-

DLS = 8.051886 degrees/100 ft

Method 2

This method of calculating dogleg severity is based on the tangential method:

DLS = ™
L[(sinll x sinI2)(sin Al x sin A2 + cos Al x cos A2) + cos Il x cos 12]
where DLS = dogleg severity, degrees/100 ft
L = course length, ft
II, 12 = inclination (angle) at upper and lower surveys, degrees
Al, A2 = direction at upper and lower surveys, degrees

Example:

Survey 1 Survey 2

Depth 4231 4262

Inclination, degrees 13.5 14.7
Azimuth, degrees N 10 E N 19 E

Dogleg severity =
Available weight on bit in directional wells

A directionally drilled well requires that a correction be made in total drill

collar weight because only a portion of the total weight will be available to
the bit:

P = W x cosl

where P = partial weight available for bit

cos = cosine
I = degrees inclination (angle)
W = total weight of collars

Example: W = 45,0001b
I = 25 degrees
P = 45,000 x cos 25
P = 45,000 x 0.9063
P = 40,7841b

Thus, the available weight on bit is 40,7841b.

Determining true vertical depth

The following is a simple method of correcting for the TVD on directional

wells. This calculation will provide the approximate TVD interval corre-
sponding to the measured interval and is generally accurate enough for any
pressure calculations. At the next survey, the TVD should be corrected to
correspond to the directional driller's calculated true vertical depth:

TVD2 = cosl x CL + TVD1

where TVD2 = new true vertical depth, ft

cos = cosine
CL = course length—number of feet since last survey
TVD1 = last true vertical depth, ft

Example: TVD (last survey) = 8500 ft

Deviation angle = 40 degrees
Course length = 30 ft
 Solution: TVD2 = cos40 x 30ft + 8500ft
TVD2 = 0.766 x 30 ft + 8500 ft
TVD2 = 22.98 ft + 8500 ft
TVD2 = 8522.98 ft

Miscellaneous Equations and Calculations

Surface Equipment Pressure Losses

( Q V-86
SEpI = C x MW x ( ^ L J

where SEpI = surface equipment pressure loss, psi

C = friction factor for type of surface equipment
W = mud weight, ppg
Q = circulation rate, gpm

Type of Surface Equipment C

1 1.0
2 0.36
3 0.22
4 0.15

Example: Surface equipment type = 3

C = 0.22
Mud weight =11.8 ppg
Circulation rate = 350 gpm

SEpI = 0.22 x 11.8 x g j

SEpI = 2.596 x (3.5)L86
SEpI = 2.596 x 10.279372
SEpI = 26.69 psi

Drill stem bore pressure losses

where P = drill stem bore pressure losses, psi
MW = mudweigh, ppg
L = length of pipe, ft
Q = circulation rate, gpm
d = inside diameter, in.

Example: Mud weight = 10.9 ppg

Length of pipe = 6500 ft
Circulation rate = 350 gpm
Drill pipe ID = 4.276 in.
0.000061 x 10.9 x 6500 x (350)186
4.276486
4.32185 x 53,946.909
1166.3884
P = 199.89 psi

Annular pressure losses

(1.4327 x IQ-7) x MW x L x V2
Dh-Dp

where P = annular pressure losses, psi

MW = mud weight, ppg
L = length, ft
V = annular velocity, ft/min
Dh = hole or casing ID, in.
Dp = drill pipe or drill collar OD, in.

Example: Mud weight = 12.5 ppg

Length = 6500 ft
Circulation rate = 350 gpm
Hole size = 8.5 in.
Drill pipe OD = 5.0in.

Determine annular velocity, ft/min:

_ 24.5 x 350
V
" 8.52 - 5.02
Determine annular pressure losses, psi:

Pressure loss through common pipe fittings

where P = pressure loss through common pipe fittings

K = loss coefficient (See chart below)
MW = weight of fluid, ppg
Q = circulation rate, gpm
A = area of pipe, sqin.

List of Loss Coefficients (K)

K = 0.42 for 45 degree ELL

K = 0.90 for 90 degree ELL
K =1.80 for tee
K = 2.20 for return bend
K = 0.19 for open gate valve
K = 0.85 for open butterfly valve

Example: K = 0.90 for 90 degree ELL

MW = 8.33 ppg (water)
Q = 100 gpm
A = [Link]. (4.0in. ID pipe)
Minimum flowrate for PDC bits

Minimum flowrate, gpm = 12.72 x bit diameter, in.1-47

Example: Determine the minimum flowrate for a 12-1/4 in. PDC bit:
Minimum flowrate, gpm = 12.72 x 12.251 A1
Minimum flowrate, gpm = 12.72 x 39.77
Minimum flowrate = 505.87 gpm

Critical RPM: RPM to avoid due to excessive vibration (accurate to

approximately 15%)

33
Critical RPM = '° 5 2 5 x VOD, in.2 + ID, in.2
L, it

Example: L = length of one joint of drill pipe = 31 ft

OD = drill pipe outside diameter = 5.0in.
ID = drill pipe inside diameter = 4.276 in.
33?
Critical RPM = ° 2 5 5 x V5.02 + 4.2762

33? 55
Critical RPM = ° x V43.284

Critical RPM = 34.3965 x 6.579

Critical RPM = 226.296
NOTE: As a rule of thumb, for 5.0in. drill pipe, do not exceed 200 RPM at
any depth.

References

Adams, Neal and Tommy Charrier, Drilling Engineering: A Complete Well

Planning Approach, PennWell Publishing Company, Tulsa, 1985.
Chenevert, Martin E., and Reuven Hollo, T 1-59 Drilling Engineering
Manual, Penn Well Publishing Company, Tulsa, 1981.
Christman, Stan S., "Offshore Fracture Gradients," JPT, August 1973.
Craig, J. T. and B. V. Randall, "Directional Survey Calculations," Petroleum
Engineer, March 1976.
Crammer Jr., John L., Basic Drilling Engineering Manual, PennWell Pub-
lishing Company, Tulsa, 1982.
Eaton, B. A. "Francture Gradient Prediction and Its Application in Oilfield
Operations," JPT, October, 1969.
Jordan, J. R., and O. J. Shirley, "Application of Drilling Performance Data
to Overpressure Detection," JPT, Nov. 1966.
Kendal, W. A., and W. C. Goins, "Design and Operations of Jet Bit Pro-
grams for Maximum Hydraulic Horsepower, Impact Force, or Jet Veloc-
ity," Transactions of AIME, 1960.
Matthews, W. R. and J. Kelly, "How to Predict Formation Pressure and
Fracture Gradient," Oil and Gas Journal, February 20, 1967.
Moore, P. L., Drilling Practices Manual, PennWell Publishing Company,
Tulsa, 1974.
Mud Facts Engineering Handbook, Milchem Incorporated, Houston, Texas,
1984.
Rehn, B. and R. McClendon, "Measurement of Formation Pressure from
Drilling Data," SPE Paper 3601, AIME Annual fall Meeting, New
Orleans, La., 1971.
Scott, Kenneth F , "A New Practical Approach to Rotary Drilling
Hydraulics," SPE Paper No. 3530, New Orleans, La., 1971.