Nutrition in Plants

1. What are the 2 stages of photosynthesis?

Light dependent stage: Light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is converted to chemical

energy. Photolysis of water occurs, where light is used to split water molecules into
hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The oxygen atoms are released into the atmosphere, thus it is
a by-product of photosynthesis.

Light independent stage: Light dependent stage drives the light independent stage.
Hydrogen atoms produced in the light dependent stage is used to reduce carbon dioxide
molecules into carbohydrates such as glucose. Energy for this process comes from the
chemical energy produced in the light dependent stage. It is a series of enzyme controlled
reactions.

12H2O  6O2 + 24H

6CO2  C6H12O6 + 6H2O

The water produced can be used for photosynthesis.

Overall Equation:
6CO2 + 12H20  C6H1206 + 6O2 + H20
Simplified Equation:
6H20 +6CO2  C6H12O6 + 6O2
2. What is Photosynthesis?

Photosynthesis is a process by which light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is converted to

chemical energy. The chemical energy is used to synthesize carbohydrates from H 20 and CO2.
H20 and CO2 are raw materials for photosynthesis while O2 is a released during
photosynthesis.

3. What are the limiting factors for photosynthesis?

Carbon dioxide

Light Intensity:
Compensation point is a point in which rate of photosynthesis=rate of respiration. As the
light intensity increases in the morning and fades in the evening, there is a point in which
rate of photosynthesis=rate of respiration. During this point, there is no net uptake or
release of carbon dioxide or oxygen. The glucose produced during photosynthesis exactly
compensates the glucose broken down during respiration. As light intensity increases, rate
of photosynthesis increases proportionally. When the light intensity increases beyond a
certain point, it does not directly affect the rate of photosynthesis so temperature or carbon
dioxide concentration becomes the limiting factor.

Temperature: Photosynthesis is a reaction dependent on temperature as the light

independent stage is catalysed by enzymes. An increase in temperatures will lead to an
 increase in thermal energy of particles, and subsequently an increase in kinetic energy of
particles. This increases the frequency of collision, and thus the frequency of effective
collision between enzymes and substrates, thus increasing the rate of photosynthesis. Rate
of photosynthesis is maximum at optimum temperature. Beyond that, rate of
photosynthesis decreases as enzymes are denatured.

4. What happens to glucose formed during photosynthesis?

-Used immediately
o For cellular respiration as to provide energy for cell activities.
o To form cellulose cell walls

-Converted to sucrose
o Transported to other parts of the plant and storage organs through the phloem.
o Converted to starch or other forms of storage compounds in the storage organs.
May be converted back to glucose.

-During the day, photosynthesis occurs at a much higher rate than respiration. Thus, excess
glucose is converted to starch. In darkness, photosynthesis does not occur, thus starch is
converted back to glucose (sucrose which is transported to other parts of the plant)

-Excess glucose is converted to fats

o Used for storage

o Synthesis of new protoplasm
o Cellular respiration
-Reacts with nitrates and mineral salts absorbed from the soil to form amino acids which
is used to form proteins.
o Excess amino acids is transported to other parts of the plant to synthesize new
protoplasm and for storage as proteins
o Proteins is used to synthesize new protoplasm in leaves

5. Why is photosynthesis important?

-Oxygen production
o Photosynthesis removes carbon dioxide in the air, as well as release oxygen into the
atmosphere. The oxygen released is used by living organisms during respiration to
release energy for cell activities.
o This purifies the air and maintains a constant balance of oxygen and carbon dioxide
in the atmosphere.

-Energy is stored in fossil fuels through photosynthesis

o The source of energy for all living organisms is the Sun, which is captured through
photosynthesis. The burning of fossil fuels provides energy for human activities.

-Makes chemical energy available for all living organisms.

o Light energy is being converted to chemical energy during the light dependent stage
of photosynthesis, which is stored within carbohydrate molecules. Fats, proteins and
 other organic compounds can be formed from carbohydrate molecules. These
substances becomes food for other organisms. Animals may directly or indirectly
obtain chemical energy from plants, as plants are the producers in the food chain.

6. What are the external features of a leaf?

Structure Adaptation
Lamina Broad lamina which has a large surface area
compared to its volume which enables it to
obtain maximum sunlight for
photosynthesis.
Thin lamina which provides short diffusion
distance for gases and enables sunlight to
enter all mesophyll cells.
Petiole Holds the leaf far away from the stem to
ensure lamina can obtain sufficient sunlight
and air.
Network of veins Transports water and mineral salts to the
leaf and carry manufactured food from leaf
to all other parts of the plant.
Leaf Arrangement The leaves are always organised around the
stem in a regular pattern. They either grow
in pairs or singly in alternate arrangement.
This ensures that all leaves get sufficient
sunlight and is not blocked by other leaves.

7. What are the internal structures of the leaf?

Layer Features Adaptation

Upper Made up of a single layer of closely packed cells.(no Waxy cuticle
Epidermis chloroplasts) prevents water
Covered on the outside by a waxy and transparent loss through
cuticle evaporation.
Transparent
cuticle allows
light to enter
the cell.
Mesophyll-main Features Adaptation Thin film of
site of Palisade -One or two -Photosynthesis moisture allow
photosynthesis Mesophyll layers of mainly takes place gases entering
closely here, due to high to dissolve in it.
packed, long concentration of
and cylindrical chlorophyll.
cells, which -More chloroplasts
contain at upper palisade
numerous tissue as more light
chloroplasts. can be absorbed at
-Covered with the leaf surface.
 a thin film of
moisture.
Spongy -Irregular Air spaces allow
Mesophyll shape, with rapid diffusion of
numerous carbon dioxide and
large air oxygen in and out of
spaces. mesophyll cells.
-Contains
chloroplasts.
-Covered with
a thin film of
moisture.
Lower Lower epidermis contains many minute openings More stomata
Epidermis called stomata. Stomata in guard cells is open in the found at bottom
(Guard Cells presence of light, and allows oxygen to diffuse out as top part is
contain and carbon dioxide to diffuse into the cell. exposed to the
chloroplasts) sun so loss of
water will not
be too much.

8. How do guard cells control the size of their stomata?

-In the day:

o The guard cells photosynthesize, converting light energy to chemical energy. The
chemical energy is used to pump potassium ions into the cells from the
neighbouring epidermis cells.
o This lowers the water potential of the guard cells. Thus water diffuses into the guard
cell from the epidermis cells through osmosis. This increases the turgidity of the
guard cells and cause them to become swollen. The guard cells have a thicker cell
wall on one side of the cell (the one surrounding the stomatal pore). This causes the
swollen guard cells to become more curved and pull the stoma open.

-At night:

o The potassium ions accumulated in the guard cells diffuse out of the cells. This
increases the water potential of the guard cell, causing water to diffuse out of the
guard cell through osmosis.
o The guard cells become flaccid and the stoma closes.
 Hormones

1. What is a hormone?
A hormone is a chemical substance produced in minute quantities by the endocrine gland. It
alters the activity of one or more target organs. After performing its function, it is destroyed
in the liver.

2. What is a function of a hormone?

A hormone speeds up, slows down or alters the activity of target organs. The target organs
have appropriate receptors to detect the hormones.

3. How are the secretion of hormones regulated?

It is regulated by other hormones, the nervous system, or certain substances in blood.

4. Does the body respond faster to hormones or nerve impulses faster? Why?
The body responds to nerve impulses faster. Hormones have to depend on the speed of the
circulatory system in order to perform their functions. Furthermore, cells that are subjected
to the influence of hormones will take time to change their chemical activities.

5. Adrenaline
-Adrenaline is secreted in stressful situations to make us react more quickly or feel tense,
angry, afraid or anxious.
-The stimuli activates the hypothalamus. Nerve impulses are transmitted down the spinal
cord and then to the adrenal medulla by the motor neurone.
ReceptorSensory NeuroneRelay NeuroneMotor NeuroneAdrenal Medulla
-Effects of adrenaline
o Heart: Increases rate of heartbeat and causes a rise in blood pressure so that more
oxygen and glucose can be transported to muscle cells. This cause hypertension and
heart palpitation.
o Liver: Stimulates liver to convert glycogen to glucose so that more glucose is
available for muscle contraction. Increases blood glucose level.
o Lungs: Increases depth and rate of ventilation. Uptake of oxygen is faster and carbon
dioxide is removed from lungs quickly, thus blood becomes oxygenated more
quickly. This causes panting.
o Pupils dilate, causing more light to enter the eyes, enhancing vision
o Increases rate of blood clotting.
o Constricts arterioles to gut, slowing digestive activities.
o Increases metabolic rate so more energy is released during tissue respiration.
o Muscles are tensed, making them ready for immediate action. This causes an
anxious feeling.
o Contracts hair muscles, causing hair muscles to stand on it ends and produce goose
bumps
o Constricts arterioles in skin, causing paleness, thus channelling more blood to
muscles.
 6. Insulin and Glucagon
-When insulin secretion is normal blood glucose concentration decreases.
o Insulin increases the permeability of cell membranes to glucose. This increases rate
of uptake of glucose by cells.
o Stimulates liver and muscle cells to convert glucose to glycogen.
o Increases oxidation of glucose during tissue respiration.

-When insulin secretion is low, blood glucose concentration increases

o Glucose cannot be stored or utilised by tissue cells. Thus blood concentration

increases, resulting in diabetes mellitus.
o Since muscle cells have no reserves of glycogen, body grows weak and loses weight.
The body oxidises fats instead of glucose to release energy. This results in poisonous
substances called ketones to be produced which are excreted in the urine(ketonuria)

-When insulin secretion is too high, there is an abnormal decrease in blood glucose
concentration.

o Results in a health condition called shock. Coma and death may follow.

Glucagon stimulates the conversion of glycogen to glucose, and conversion of amino acids and fats
to glucose.

7. Diabetes Mellitus
-Diabetes mellitus is a disease in which body is unable to control its blood glucose
concentration so that it stays within normal limits.
-Some common signs
o Urinating often
o Presence of sugar in urine after meals
o Being very thirsty
o Difficulty in healing of wounds

Type One -Develops early in a person’s -The person should take

Diabetes(Early onset life insulin injections daily.
diabetes) -The Islets of Langerhans is -They should have a
unable to produce enough supply of sugary food, as
insulin. their blood glucose may
drop too low if they inject
too much insulin, exercise
too much, or eat less,
which may lead to a
coma.
Type Two -Affects later in a person’s life. -Regulate the amount of
Diabetes(Late onset -Usually affects the people carbohydrates in the diet.
diabetes) above the age of 40 and -They need to exercise
overweight people. regularly and lead a
 -Insulin production is not healthy lifestyle.
particularly low, but patient’s - They may need to use
bodies are unable to utilise insulin injections and use
insulin properly as target cells prescription drugs such as
do not respond well to insulin. metaformin.

8. What is the endocrine system made up of?

The endocrine system is made up of endocrine glands that can secrete hormones. Endocrine
glands do not have a duct and they directly secrete their hormones into the bloodstream.
Exocrine glands pour their secretion through ducts.

9. Is pancreas an endocrine or exocrine gland?

Both. Pancreas secretes pancreatic juice through the pancreatic duct, which is transported
to the duodenum. Pancreas also contains the Islets of Langerhans, which secretes the
hormone insulin and glucagon directly into the bloodstream.

10. Similarities and differences between nervous and hormonal control

Similarities: A stimulus causes the transmission of a message to a target organ which carries
out the response
Differences:
- Impulses are transmitted by neurones while hormones are transported by blood.
-Responses are quick and short lived in nervous control while in hormonal control, responses
are slow but may be short or long lived.
-In nervous control, actions may be voluntary or involuntary while in hormonal control, it is
always involuntary.
-Impulses are usually localized while hormones may affect more than 1 target organ.

Homeostasis
1. What is homeostasis?
Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment.
In humans, homeostasis is the process which ensures that composition of body fluids remain
within narrow limits.

2. Why is homeostasis important?

Homeostasis ensures that the body maintains an optimum condition for the survival of the
cells.
By ensuring a relatively stable internal environment, homeostasis allows organisms to be
independent of the changes in the external environment.

3. Why does body temperature need to be constant?

Enzymes can only function within a certain range of temperatures, especially for maximum
enzyme activity. Changes in temperature will lead to enzyme inactivation or denaturation.

4. Why must tissue fluid be kept at a constant pH and water potential?

If water potential is too high, cells will be swollen and burst. If water potential is too low,
cells will shrink and undergo crenation.
Optimum pH ensures that there is maximum enzyme activity.

5. What is a negative feedback loop?

When a stimulus is detected, a negative feedback loop is a series of corrective mechanisms
to restore the body back to normal conditions.

In a negative feedback loop,

-There must be a set point to be maintained.
-A stimulus (change in internal environment)
-Receptor (Detects changes and sends signals to control centre)
-Corrective mechanism (brings about reverse effect of the stimulus)
-A feedback to the receptor when set point is reached, it causes the corrective mechanism to
stop.

6. Regulating blood glucose concentration

-Stimulus: Blood glucose concentration rises above normal

-Receptor: Islets of Langerhans in pancreas is stimulated
-Corrective Mechanism: Secretes insulin. Insulin increases the permeability of cell surface
membrane to glucose, so rate of uptake of glucose increases. Insulin also converts excess
glucose to glycogen which is stored in the liver.
-Feedback is sent to the Islets of Langerhans once blood glucose concentration decreases to
normal to stop secreting insulin

-Stimulus: Blood glucose concentration falls below normal levels

-Receptor: Islets of Langerhans in the pancreas is stimulated
-Corrective mechanism: Secretes glucagon. Glucagon converts glycogen to glucose. Glucagon
also converts fats and amino acids into glucose.
-A feedback is sent to the Islet of Langerhans once blood glucose concentration increases to
normal levels to stop secreting glucagon.
7. Regulating water potential
-Stimulus: Blood glucose concentration decreases below normal
-Receptor: Hypothalamus stimulated
-Corrective mechanism:
o Pituitary gland secretes more ADH.
o More ADH is transported by blood to kidneys.
o Walls of the collecting duct becomes more permeable to water, thus more water
will be selectively reabsorbed.
o Less water is excreted, volume of urine is lesser and more concentrated.

-A feedback is sent to the hypothalamus once water potential increases.

-Stimulus: Blood glucose concentration increases above normal

-Receptor: Hypothalamus stimulated
-Corrective mechanism:
o Pituitary gland secretes less ADH.
o Less ADH is being transported by the blood to the kidneys.
o Walls of collecting duct becomes less permeable to water. Less water is being
selectively reabsorbed.
o More water excreted, volume of urine increases, urine becomes diluted.

-A feedback is sent to the hypothalamus once water potential decreases.

8. Structures involved in temperature regulation

-Blood vessels in the dermis layer: Dilation and constriction of arterioles help regulate body
temperature
-Subcutaneous Fat: Beneath the dermis layer, adipose tissues containing fat are located. Fat
in these layers serve as an insulating layer, preventing heat loss.
-Sebaceous Gland: Secretes an oily substance called sebum which lubricates the hair and
keeps the epidermis water proof, preventing it from drying out. It also prevents the growth
of bacteria on the skin.
-Sweat Gland: Coiled tube formed by the down growth of the epidermis. It forms a tight knot
at the dermis and it is surrounded by many blood capillaries. Sweat flows through the sweat
duct into the sweat pore which opens up at the surface of the skin.
Secreted sweat: Water, dissolved salts and a small amount of urea.
Since secreted sweat contains metabolic waste products, skin is considered a excretory
organ.
-Sensory Receptors: Nerve endings in skin are sensory receptors. Since they detect changes
in temperature, they are also known as thermoreceptors.
-Hair: Although hair is embedded in the dermis, it is produced by the epidermis. The
Malpighian layer sinks downwards, forming a hollow tube called the hair follicle. Hair grows
inside the hair follicle.
At the base of hair follicle is a mass of tissue called the hair papilla, which contains blood
capillaries and nerves. It is covered with epidermal cells which constantly divide, pushing
 new cells outwards. The cells which are pushed outwards eventually die and harden to form
hair.
Hair erector muscles are attached to the hair follicles. When these muscles contract, hair
stands on its ends, and skin around the hair is raised, forming goose bumps.

9. How does your body gain and lose heat?

-Production of heat: Heat is produced within the body as a result of metabolic activities such
as cellular respiration. High levels of cellular respiration occurs in the liver and muscles, thus
large amounts of heat is released in these organs, which is distributed throughout the body
by the bloodstream.
-Gaining heat: Vigorous muscle exercise, consumption of hot food, being in warm
environments
-Losing heat: Through skin through conduction, convection and radiation, exhaled air, urine
and faeces, evaporation of water in sweat in the surface of skin

10. Regulating body temperature

-Stimulus: Blood and skin temperature increases above normal

-Receptors and control centre: Temperature receptors in skin detect change in temperature
and send nerve impulses to hypothalamus. Hypothalamus is stimulated and send nerve
impulses to relevant body parts.
-Corrective Mechanism:
o Dilation of arterioles and constriction of shunt vessels, allow more blood to flow
through the blood capillaries of skinAllows more heat to be lost through
conduction, convection and radiation.
o Sweat glands become more active, producing more sweat. As more water in sweat
evaporates from the skin, more latent heat of vaporisation is lost from the body.
o Decreased metabolic rate, to reduce heat production within your body.

-Stimulus: Blood and skin temperature drops below normal

-Receptors and control centre: Temperature receptors in skin detect change in temperature
and send nerve impulses to hypothalamus. Hypothalamus of brain is stimulated and sends
nerve impulses to the relevant body parts.
-Corrective Mechanism:
o Dilation of shunt vessels and constriction of arterioles, reduces amount of blood
flowing through the capillaries of the skin.
o Sweat glands become less active and decrease sweat production to reduce amount
of water evaporated through sweat. This reduces heat loss through latent heat of
vaporisation.
o Increased metabolic rate, to increase heat production within the body.
o If the following processes are not enough to ensure a drop in temperature, shivering
occurs which is a reflex contraction of body muscles. Spasmodic contraction of
skeletal muscles increases amount of heat being released and raises body
temperature to normal.
1. What is nutrition?
 Process by which organisms obtain food and energy for growth, repair and maintenance of
the body.

2. What is ingestion?
Food is taken into the body

3. What is digestion?
Process by which large insoluble food molecules are broken down into smaller soluble
molecules to be absorbed into body cells.

4. Differences between physical and chemical digestion?

Physical Digestion Chemical Digestion

Mechanical breakup of food into smaller Process by which large insoluble food
particlesTo increase surface area to molecules are broken down into smaller
volume ratio so that enzymes can act on it soluble molecules catalysed by digestive
more efficiently. enzymes through hydrolytic reactionsTo
allow food to enter bloodstream through
intestinal wall.
-Chewing -Breakdown of starch, protein, fats
-Churning action by stomach
-Emulsification

5. Processes that occur in the mouth

Food in the mouth stimulates salivary glands to secrete saliva.
Saliva mixes with the food and mucus in saliva helps soften the food.
Saliva contains salivary amylase which digests starch to maltose.
pH of saliva is 7 and salivary amylase is active at this pH. Saliva provides a neutral
environment for enzyme to act on the food effectively.
Chewing action of the teeth breaks down the food into smaller pieces, which increases
surface area to volume ratio for enzyme to act on it effectively.
Tongue rolls food into small round slippery masses called boli and the boli is swallowed
down to the oesophagus through the pharynx.

6. Swallowing food
The pharynx is a part of the gut which connects the buccal cavity to the oesophagus. The
larynx has a slit like opening called the glottis. During swallowing, food cause pass into the
trachea instead of the oesophagus. Thus when swallowing, the larynx moves upwards, while
the epiglottis moves downwards, so that the larynx is covered by the epiglottis. In this way,
all food passes through the oesophagus.

7. What happens in oesophagus?

Contains two types of antagonistic muscles: Circular muscles on the inner side and
longitudinal muscles on the outer side.
Peristalsis is the rhythmic, wave-like contractions in the walls of the alimentary
canelEnables food to mix well with digestive juices.
 o When circular muscles contract, longitudinal muscles relaxWalls of the
oesophagus constrictLumen of the oesophagus becomes narrower and
longerPushes the food forward(occurs behind the bolus)
o When circular muscles relax, longitudinal muscles contractWalls of the
oesophagus dilateLumen of oesophagus becomes shorter and widerAllows food
to enter(occurs in front of the bolus)

8. Processes that take place in stomach

-The stomach is a distensible, muscular bag, with thick and well developed muscular walls.
-When the stomach is fully distended, it sends signals to the hypothalamus that it is full.
-Two sphincters prevents the uncontrolled entry and exit of food in the stomach.
o Cardiac Sphincter(Top end leading to oesophagus)
o Pyloric Sphincter(Bottom end leading to small intestine)

-In the presence of food, gastric glands are stimulated to secrete gastric juice into the
stomach.
-Peristalsis action in the stomach churns and breaks up the food, mixing it well with gastric
juices.
-Gastric juice is a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid, mucus,and the enzyme pepsin and
renin.
-Hydrochloric acid
o Stops the action of salivary amylase by denaturing it.
o Converts the inactive form of pepsinogen and prorenin to pepsin and renin.
o Provides a suitable acidic medium for the action of proteases.
o Kills potentially harmful microorganisms.

Pepsinogen (inactive)Pepsin
Prorenin (inactive)Renin

ProteinPolypeptides (pepsin)
CaesinogenCasein (renin)

-Soluble milk proteins, in the form of caesinogen, passes through the stomach too quickly for
pepsin digestion to take place. Thus, renin converts it into an insoluble form called casein to
give pepsin sufficient time to digest it.

-The partially digested food becomes liquefied, forming chyme.

9. Processes that take place in small intestine

-Chyme enters the small intestine. It stimulates

o Pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice, which passes through pancreatic duct into
duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains pancreatic lipase, pancreatic amylase and
trypsin (in the form of inactive trypsinogen).
o Lining of the intestinal wall to secrete intestinal juice. Intestinal juice contains
maltase, sucrase, galactase, erepsin, enterokinase, and intestinal lipase.
o Gall bladder to secrete bile.
 -Pancreas:

StarchMaltose (pancreatic amylase)

FatsFatty Acids+Glycerol (pancreatic lipase)

ProteinsPeptones (Trypsin)

-Intestine:

MaltoseGlucose (Maltase)

SucroseFrutose+Glucose (Sucrase)

LactoseGlucose+Galactose (Lactase)

FatsFatty Acids+Glycerol (Intestinal Lipase)

PeptonesAmino Acids (Erepsin)

Trypsinogen(inactive)Trypsin(active) (enterokinase)

-Gall bladder

Gall bladder secretes bile which passes through the bile duct into the duodenum. Bile salts
emulsify fats. They lower the surface tension of fats and reduce the attractive forces
between them. This causes them to break into tiny fat droplets suspended in water, forming
an emulsion. Emulsification increases the surface area to volume ratio of fats, speeding up
their digestion by lipase.

-Intestinal, bile and pancreatic juice are alkaline. They neutralise the chyme and provide a
suitable alkaline medium for the action of enzymes.

10. Absorption

-Simple sugars, fatty acids, glycerol, and amino acids are absorbed through the ileum.
-Water and mineral salts are absorbed through the small intestine and colon of large
intestine.
Adaptation Function
The inner walls of the small intestine is -Surface area of the small intestine is
highly folded. Each fold contains numerous increases for efficient diffusion across
finger like projections known as villi. The intestinal wall into blood stream.
epithelial cells of the villi contains
numerous microvilli.
Epithelium of the villi is one cell thick Short diffusion distance allows diffusion of
food substances to occur rapidly.
Each villus contains a lacteal(lymphatic The continual transport of substances will
capillary) surrounded by blood capillaries. maintain the concentration gradient for
The blood capillaries transport glucose and absorption of food substances.
amino acids while lacteals transport fats
away from the intestine.
 Monosaccharides, amino acids, and mineral salts is transported through diffusion and active
transport. For active transport, energy in the form of ATP is provided by mitochondria in the
epithelial cell.
Fatty acids and glycerol is transported through diffusion.
Water is transported through osmosis.

11. Assimilation
-Process in which absorbed food substances are converted to new protoplasm or used to
provide energy.
-The blood capillaries unite to form larger blood vessels, which unite to form a large vein,
the hepatic portal vein. The hepatic portal vein transports nutrients to the liver.

Glucose
-Glucose is used by all cells as a source of energy. It is assimilated and oxidised during tissue
respiration to release energy for the vital activities of the cells.
-Insulin, a hormone secreted by the Islets of Langerhans stimulates liver cells to convert
excess glucose into glycogen. When the body needs energy, liver converts stored glycogen
into glucose.

Amino Acids
-Amino acids which enter the cell are converted into new protoplasm that is used for growth
and repair of worn out body parts of the body.
-Amino acids are used to form enzymes and hormones.
-Excess amino acids are deaminated in the liver.

Fats
Fats are absorbed into the lymphatic capillaries. The lymphatic capillaries then join to form
larger lymphatic vessels, which discharge fats into the bloodstream. Fats are mainly
transported to the liver.
o Under normal conditions: When there is a sufficient supply of fats, fats are used to
build new protoplasm, such as cell membranes of cells.
o When glucose is in short supply: Fats are broken down to provide energy needed for
vital activities for the cells. This happens during fasting.

Excess fats are stored in adipose tissues which is located beneath the skin and underneath
the kidneys and heart. It protects these organs by acting as shock absorbers.

12. Functions of Liver

-Regulation of blood glucose concentration at constant levels

-Production of bile
-Iron storage: Red blood cells which become worn out after some time are destroyed in the
spleen. The haemoglobin is brought to the liver. The liver breaks down haemoglobin and
stores the iron. Bile pigments are also produced during the breakdown and it is stored in the
gall bladder temporarily. Amino acids are also formed out of globin chains to make new
proteins.
 -Protein synthesis: The liver synthesizes proteins found in blood plasma from amino acids in
the diet. Plasma proteins, such as albumin, globulins and fibrinogens are essential for blood
clotting and are synthesized by amino acids.
-Deamination of amino acids: Process in which amino groups are removed from amino acids
and is converted to urea. Amino groups are converted into ammonia, which is toxic to the
cells, thus it is further converted into urea, which is nontoxic and is removed through urine.
-Detoxification: Process in which is harmful substances are converted into harmless
substances. Alcohol is broken down by the liver. Liver contains an enzyme called alcohol
dehydrogenase, which breaks down alcohol into acetaldehyde, which can be further broken
down into compounds used in respiration to provide energy for cell activities.

13. Effects of excessive alcohol consumption

-Effects on Digestive system
o Alcohol stimulates acid secretion in the stomach. Excess stomach acid leads to risk of
gastric ulcers.
o Prolonged alcohol abuse may also lead to cirrhosis of the liver, where liver cells are
being replaced by fibrous tissue, making the liver less able to function.
o It can also lead to haemorrhage or bleeding in the liver. This can lead to liver failure,
and ultimately death.

-Effects on Nervous system

o Alcohol is a depressant. It slows down brain functions. The effects vary from person
to person.
o Under the influence of alcohol, a person becomes carefree as alcohol takes away his
inhibitions. His self-control is reduced. Some may take social or personal liberties
which they regret after the effects of alcohol has worn off.
o As the person drinks more alcohol, other observable effects of intoxication such as
slurred speech occurs. Blurred vision and poor muscular coordination makes him
clumsy and unable to walk steadily. His judgement deteriorates and he tends to
underestimate speed. As a driver he may drive faster and with less caution, and his
reactions become slower.

-Social Implications
o When a person drinks alcohol frequently, he becomes addicted. He is unable to stop
drinking alcohol until he is drunk and his body becomes dependant on alcohol. He
neglects his work and families, and may even exhibit violent behaviour, especially to
his family members. More crimes are also being committed under the influence of
alcohol.
 Nervous System
1. What is the nervous system made up of?

The nervous system is made up of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and
peripheral nervous system. (cranial nerves and spinal nerves)

2. What are the functions of the different type of neurones?

Sensory neurones: Transmit nerve impulses from receptors to CNS.
Relay neurones: Transmit nerve impulses from sensory neurones to motor neurones.
Motor neurones: Transmit nerve impulses from CNS to effectors to produce a response

3. Movement of nerve impulses

ReceptorsSensory NeuronesRelay NeuroneMotor NeuroneEffector

4. Functions(Neurones)
Myelin Sheath: Layer of fatty substances which act as an insulator to nerve impulses. It
supplies nutrients to axon and protects nerve fibres from injury.
Node of Ranvier: Regions in which myelin sheath is absent. Nerve impulses cannot be
transmitted through the myelin sheath, thus it increases speed of transmission because it
allows impulses to jump from one node to another.
Axon: Transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body.
Dendron: Transmits nerve impulses to the cell body.
Axon terminal: Axon terminal transmits nerve impulses to the effector.(only in sensory
neurone)
Motor end plate: Nerve impulses are transmitted across the motor end plate by chemicals
which stimulate the muscles.

5. What is a synapse?
Synapse is a junction between two neurones, or junction between a neurone and effector,
where nerve impulses are able to cross from one neurone to another.
At a synapse, nerve impulses are transmitted from the axon of one neurone to the dendron
of another neurone across a tiny space.
Nerve impulses are transmitted through certain chemicals, known as neurotransmitters,
released by the neurone.

6. What are nerves?

Nerves are a bunch of nerve fibres enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue.
It may emerge from brain or spinal cord.
Contains
-Sensory nerve fibres, which conducts nerve impulses from the receptors.
-Motor nerve fibres, which conduct impulses to effectors.
-Mixed nerve fibres(both)Spinal nerves has mixed fibres.

7. Functions(spinal cord)
Grey Matter: Consists of cell bodies of neurones. It forms the outer layer of the brain and the
centre part of the spinal cord.
White Matter: Consists of nerve fibres. It forms the outer layer of the spinal cord and centre
part of the brain.
 Dorsal Root: Contain nerve fibres of sensory neurones that transmit nerve impulses to the
spinal cord.
Dorsal Root Gangilion: Small swelling in the dorsal root that contains the cell bodies of the
sensory neurones.
Ventral Root: Contains nerve fibres of motor neurones which transmit impulses from the
spinal cord.
Central Canel: Contains cerebrospinal fluid which brings nutrients to spinal cord.
Spinal nerve: The dorsal and ventral root join together to form the spinal nerve(mixed nerve
fibrescontains both sensory and motor neurones)

8. How are sensations felt?

Relay neurones may synapse with the sensory neurones in the grey matter of the spinal cord
and transmit impulses up the white matter of the spinal cord to the brain.

Receptors in skinSensory NeuronesRelay Neurones in spinal cordForebrain

9. What is a voluntary action?

Voluntary action is a deliberate action which is a response to a stimulus with conscious
control which may or may not involve a sensory neurone.
-The impulse is initiated in the forebrain.
-The relay neurones transmit impulses from brain down the white matter of spinal cord to
grey matter of spinal cord.
-The motor neurones transmit impulses to effector.

10. What is a reflex action?

Immediate response to a specific stimulus with conscious control.
It is an involuntary action and it occurs without any conscious effort.
Reflex arc: Shortest pathway by which nerve impulses travel from the receptor to the
effector.
11. Knee jerk reflex
-When the tendon below the knee is tapped, the stretch receptors are stimulated.
-Sensory neurones transmit nerve impulses to the dorsal root of the spinal cord.
-In the grey matter of the spinal cord, nerve impulses are transmitted to the relay neurone
through a synapse, and then transmitted to the motor neurone through a second synapse.
-The motor neurone transmit impulses to the muscles to contract, causing the leg to jerk
forward.
12. What happens when one touches a hot object?
-When a person touches a hot object, the sensory receptors in the skin are stimulated.
-Sensory neurones transmit nerve impulses from the receptors to the spinal cord.
-In the grey matter of the spinal cord, nerve impulses are transmitted to the relay neurones
through a first synapse, and to the motor neurones to the second synapse.
-The motor neurones transmit impulses to the muscles, causing them to contract and pull
their hand away from the object.
-At the same time, in the grey matter of the spinal cord, relay neurones transmit nerve
impulses up the white matter of the spinal cord to the grey matter of the brain, for the brain
to interpret the impulses and cause the person to feel the sensation of pain.
1. Why is a transport system needed for multicellular organisms?
-In multicellular organisms, cells are situated deep in the body, far away from the external
environment. Simple diffusion cannot bring in enough oxygen and food materials and
remove waste products with sufficient speed. Thus, a transport system is needed to carry
substances from one part of the body to another.

2. Plamsa

Pale yellowish liquid containing

o 90% water
o Soluble proteins: Fibrinogen, serum albumin, serum globulin, prothrombin and
antibodies. Fibrinogen and prothrombin play an important role in blood clotting and
is produced in the liver.
o Dissolved mineral salts: Hydrogencarbonates, sulphates, chlorides, and phosphates
of calcium potassium and sodium. Calcium is essential for blood clotting.
o Food substances: Glucose, fats, amino acids and vitamins.
o Waste products: Urea, uric acid, creatinine, carbon dioxide which is present
hydrogencarbonate ions.
o Hormones such as insulin.

The amount of soluble protein, mineral salts and glucose is kept relatively constant.

3. Red Blood Cells(Erythrocytes)

-Contains haemoglobin: A form of iron containing protein. It binds reversibly with oxygen to
form oxyhaemoglobin which transports oxygen from lungs to all parts of the body.
-No nucleus: Allows the red blood cell to carry more oxyhaemoglobin, thus transporting
more oxygen to all parts of the body.
-Circular,biconcave,flattened disc: Increases surface area to volume ratio so diffusion of
oxygen in and out of the red blood cell takes place at a faster rate.
-Elastic and can turn bell shaped: To squeeze through blood vessels smaller than its
diameter.
-Produced in the bone marrow and lives for 120 days, until it is destroyed in the spleen. The
haemoglobin is brought to the liver where it is broken down. Iron from haemoglobin is
stored. Bile pigments are released and stored in the gall bladder. Amino acids are formed
from globin chains which are used to make proteins.

4. White Blood Cells

-They play a vital role in keeping the body healthy by fighting diseases.
-They can move, change their shape, and squeeze through the thinnest blood capillaries into
the spaces among the tissue cells.
-Two types: Lymphocytes and Phagocytes
Lymphocytes:
o Large, rounded nucleus with a relatively small amount of non-granular cytoplasm
o Produced in bone marrow
o Produces antibodies that protects the body from disease causing micro-organisms.
 Phagocytes:

o Irregular shape, lobed nucleus with granular cytoplasm

o Produced in bone marrow
o Functions to take in and ingest bacteria.
5. Blood Platelets(Thrombocytes)
o Membrane found fragments of cytoplasm from certain bone marrow cells.
o Aids in blood clotting.
6. Blood groups

Antigen A B A and B none

Antibody b a none a&b
Blood A B AB O
group

The natural antibodies found in a person will not react with the antigen in his blood cells, but
may react with the antigens in someone else’s blood cells. This causes agglutination, which is
the clumping of blood cells.
In a blood transfusion, only the effect of the recipient’s plasma has on the donor’s red blood
cell will be considered.

7. Functions of blood

-Acts as a transport medium carrying various substances from one part of the body to
another.
-Conducts blood clotting to prevent excessive loss of blood. It also prevents the entry of
bacteria into the bloodstream.
-Protects the body from disease causing micro organisms.

8. What does blood transport?

Substance From To
Digested food: Glucose, fats, Small and large intestines All parts of the body.
amino acids, vitamins, mineral Excess mineral salts are
salts brought to the kidney for
excretion.
Waste Products: Urea, uric All parts of the body Kidney where it will be
acid, creatinine excreted.
Carbon dioxide, which is All parts of body Lungs where it is converted
carried as hydrogencarbonate to carbon dioxide and
ions in plasma. expelled from the body.
(also a waste product)
Heat All respiring tissues All parts of the body to
maintain a uniform body
temperature.
Hormones Glands Target Organs
Oxygen Lungs All parts of body for
respiration.
9. How does blood transport oxygen to the rest of the body?
As blood passes through the lungs, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the blood. In the
lungs where concentration of oxygen is high, haemoglobin in RBC will bind reversibly with
oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin, which is transported to all parts of the body. As blood
passes through tissues which have a low concentration of oxygen, oxyhaemoglobin will
release the oxygen. Oxygen diffuses in solution into the tissue cells. In this way all tissue cells
can receive its supply of oxygen.
Carbon monoxide poisoning: Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly with haemoglobin 250
times stronger than oxygen. A bright pink compound called carboxyhaemoglobin is formed.
Since carbon monoxide will not readily dissociate from it, it renders haemoglobin useless, as
it can no longer pick any oxygen molecules. As more oxygen is being replaces by carbon
monoxide, the body will start to fail, as all the cells depend on oxygen.

10. Blood clotting

o prevents excessive loss of blood
o prevents entry of bacteria into the blood stream
For people who suffer from a hereditary disease called haemophilia, the normal blood
clotting mechanism is greatly impaired. Slight injuries may cause the person to bleed to
death or die from internal bleeding.

Mechanism of clotting
o When blood tissues are damaged, damaged blood tissues and platelets release an
enzyme called thrombokinase.
o Thrombokinase converts inactive protein prothrombin to active thrombin in the
presence of calcium ions.
o Thrombin converts soluble protein fibrinogen to insoluble threads of fibrin.
o Fibrin threads entangle blood cells, and the whole mass forms a clot which seals the
wound.

Under normal conditions, blood clotting does not occur due to the presence of an anti-
clotting substance called heparin. When thrombokinase is released, it neutralises the
action of heparin, allowing clotting to occur.

When blood clots, a yellowish liquid called serum is left behind. Serum has the same
composition of plasma except that it lacks blood clotting factors such as fibrinogen,
prothrombin and calcium ions.

11. Phagocytosis
Phagocytosis is the process of engulfing or ingesting foreign particles such as bacteria by
white blood cells.
A phagocyte kills a bacteria by flowing over them and enclosing it, digesting it.
Some phagocytes might be killed in the process, forming pus.

12. Antibody Production

Natural invasions of pathogens such as strains of bacteria causes lymphocytes to produce
antibodies which then act by
o Neutralising the toxins released by the bacteria
 o Causing the cells to agglutinate, for easier digestion by pathogens
o Destroying bacteria by attaching themselves to them and causing the cell surface
membrane to rupture
Immunisation: Artificial introduction of dead and weakened forms of bacteria will stimulate
anti body production by immune system against the pathogen.
Antibodies may also stay in blood after a long period of time after a person has recovered
from a disease. Thus they are immune to the disease.

13. Organ Transplant and Tissue rejection

Tissue or organ transplant is when the person’s damaged tissues or diseased organ is being
replaced by a healthy tissue or organ from a donor.
Tissue rejection may occur when the recipient’s immune system treats the transplanted
organ as a foreign particle, causing lymphocytes to produce antibodies to destroy the
transplanted organ.
To prevent this,
o A thorough tissue match is done to ensure that the donor and the recipient are
genetically similar.
o The same person’s healthy tissues are used to repair the damaged tissues
o Use of immunosuppressive drugs which inhibits the person’s immune
systempatient has to continue taking drugs for the rest of his life and he becomes
vulnerable to various kinds of infections.

14. Components of circulatory system

Features Arteries Veins

Structure -Thick, elastic, muscular walls. -Relatively thin and slightly
-No valves except for pulmonary artery muscular walls.
and aorta. -Contains semi lunar valves.

-Elasticity of the walls enable the artery -Semi lunar valves to prevent
to stretch and recoil under high pressure. backflow of blood under low
This helps to push the blood along in blood pressure to ensure that
spurts, giving rise to the pulses. blood flows in one direction.
-Thick walls allow the arterial walls to -Blood pressure is lower than
withstand the high pressure from the arteriesBlood flows slowly
contraction of the ventricles. and smoothly.
-Muscular walls allow constriction and
dilation of arteries. Walls
constrictLumen becomes smallerLess
blood flows per unit time
Speed of Rapidly, in pulses, reflecting rhythmic Flows slowly and smoothly.
blood flow pumping action of heart. Blood is moved along the
contraction and relaxation of
skeletal muscles surrounding
them.

Direction Away from the heart Towards the heart

Carry Oxygenated blood except for pulmonary Deoxygenated blood except
artery and umbilical artery pulmonary vein and umbilical
vein.
15. Capillaries
-Provides pathway between arterioles and venules.
-Microscopic blood vessels found between the cells of all tissues.
-Highly branched, providing a large surface area for more efficient exchange of substances
between blood and tissue cells.
-When arterioles branches into capillaries, they lower blood pressure, decreasing rate of
flow, thus providing more time for exchange of substances.
-Since blood capillaries are narrow, the red blood cells move in one line, one behind the
other. This causes them to turn bell shaped which
o Reduces the diameter so that they can pass through the lumen easily
o Increases surface area for absorption or release of oxygen through diffusion
o Rate of blood flow is reduced, giving more time for, and thus increasing the
efficiency of exchange of materials between blood and tissue cells

16. Tissue fluid formation

-Arteries have a higher blood pressure than the veins. The high blood pressure in the
capillaries at the arterial end forces blood plasma out of the capillaries to form tissue fluid
around the cells.
-Red blood cells, platelets, and large molecules such as proteins stay inside the capillaries.
Phagocytes may change their size and squeeze their way out of the capillaries. Tissue fluid is
plasma without its proteins.
-The network of capillaries provide resistance to blood flow. By the time the capillaries reach
the venule end, blood pressure drops sharply. Its water potential has decreased because of
proteins present in a small volume of plasma. Thus fluid re-enters the blood capillaries.

17. Double Circulation

-In double circulation, blood passes through the heart twice in one complete circuit.
-Pulmonary circulation: Pulmonary arteries transport deoxygenated blood to the lungs and
oxygenated blood is returned to the heart through the pulmonary veins.
-Systematic circulation: Oxygenated blood leaves the left side of the heart and is transported
to all parts of the body except lungs through the arteries and deoxygenated blood is
returned to the right side of the heart through veins.
-Advantages:
o Oxygenated and deoxygenated blood do not mix.
o Through systematic circulation, blood pumps blood at a high pressure to all parts of
the body. This ensures that all cells of the body receives blood carrying nutrients and
oxygen at a rapid rate, maintaining the high metabolic rate of the body.
o Blood is pumped at a relatively low pressure to the lungs. Thus blood flows slowly
through the lung, and this provides sufficient time for exchange of gases to occur,
and ensures that the blood is well oxygenated before it enters the heart.

18. Structure of heart

-Pericardium: The whole heart is surrounded by pericardium, which is made up of 2 layers of
membrane. In between the membrane is a fluid, which helps reduce friction when the heart
is beating.
 -Atria: Comparatively thinner walls as they only force blood into the ventricles and it does
not require a large pressure.
-Ventricle: Comparatively thicker muscular walls especially the left ventricle, as it pumps
blood to all parts of the body, while the right ventricle only pumps blood to the lungs, which
is close to the heart.
-Median Septum: The right and left sides of the heart are separated by a muscular wall
called the median septum. This prevents the mix of oxygenated blood with deoxygenated
blood. Mixing will result in lesser oxygen being transported to all parts of the body.

(note: left side of heart: our right side and vice versa)

19. What paths does blood take through heart?

Deoxygenated blood:

o Deoxygenated blood is returned from all parts of the body to the right atrium
through veins. Blood from head, neck and arms are returned to the atrium through
the superior vena cava. Blood from other parts of the body except the lungs are
returned to the right atrium through the inferior vena cava.
o When the right atrium contracts and its pressure becomes higher than the pressure
in the right ventricle, the tricuspid valve opens, forcing blood into the right ventricle.
o The three flaps of the tricuspid valve are attached to the walls of the right ventricle
through cord like tendons called cordae tendineae. The flaps point downwards for
easy flow of blood into the right ventricle.
o When the right ventricle contracts, the pressure of the right ventricle becomes
greater than the pressure of the right atrium. This causes the tricuspid valve to close.
This prevents the backflow of blood into the right atrium. The cordae tendineae
prevents the valves from reverting into the atrium when it contracts.
o Blood leaves the heart through the pulmonary arch, which divides into two
pulmonary arteries, one for each lung. Semi lunar valves in the pulmonary arch
prevents backflow of blood into the right ventricle.

Oxygenated blood:

o Oxygenated blood from the lung is returned to the heart through the pulmonary
veins.
o When the right atrium contracts, the pressure of the right atrium becomes greater
than the right ventricle. This causes the bicuspid valve to open, forcing blood into
the right ventricle.
o When the right ventricle contracts, pressure of ventricle becomes greater than
atrium, so the bicuspid valve closes, preventing backflow of blood. Blood leaves the
heart through the aorta. Semi lunar valves in the aorta prevents backflow of blood
into the left ventricle.
o From aorta, blood is transported to all parts of the body except the lungs.
20. Cardiac Cycle
-Diastole: Both atria and ventricle are relaxed. Atria is filled with blood from the vena cava
and pulmonary veins.
-Atrial Systole: Muscles of the atria contract, causing its pressure to increase. This causes the
bicuspid and tricuspid valves to open, and blood is forced into the ventricle.
-Ventricular Systole: Muscles of the ventricle contract, causing its pressure to increase. This
causes the bicuspid and tricuspid valve to close. This produces a ‘Lub’ sound. When the
pressure of the ventricle exceeds the pressure of the aorta and pulmonary arteries, semi
lunar valves open, forcing blood into the aorta and pulmonary arteries.
-Ventricular Diastole: As ventricles relax, pressure within them falls, The high pressure in the
aorta and the pulmonary arteries might force some blood back to the ventricles. This causes
semi lunar valves to close, producing a ‘Dub’ sound. The drop in pressure of the ventricle
cause the bicuspid and tricuspid valves to open, allowing blood to enter the ventricle,
causing the cycles to repeat itself.

21. Hepatic Portal Vein

The veins from the gut do not open directly to the inferior vena cava. They unite to form the
hepatic portal vein which enters the liver and branches into numerous capillaries there.
The hepatic portal vein transports glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, glycerol which were
digested by the small intestine into the bloodstream to the liver.

22. Coronary Heart Diseases

-During a heart attack, blood flow to a particular part of the heart may be completely
blocked. Due to the blocked blood flow, that region of the heart does not receive sufficient
nutrients and oxygen, thus that region of the heart dies. Extensive heart damage is fatal as
heart is unable to pump blood to all parts of the body.

Coronary artery: Lies on the outside of the heart and carries blood to muscles in the walls of
the heart.

Atherosclerosis: Fatty substances such as cholesterol and saturated fats are deposited on the
inner surface of the coronary arteries. This narrows the lumen of the arteries and increases
blood pressure. A blood clot that forms in an artery is called a thrombosis. If this occurs in
the coronary artery, the supply of blood to heart muscles may be completely cut off. Oxygen
is needed for aerobic respiration to release energy for the activities of the muscle cells.
Without oxygen, heart muscle cells may be damaged and a heart attack may occur.

Preventive measures:
o A proper dietReplace polyunsaturated plant fats with animal fats as they do not
stick on to the inner surface of arteries. It also lowers cholesterol level in blood.
o Proper stress management
o Avoid smoking Cigarette smoke contains nicotine and carbon monoxide which
increases the risk of coronary heart disease.
 o Regular physical exercise has long term beneficial effects on circulatory system. It
strengthens heart and maintains elasticity of arterial walls. The risk of blood
pressure or hypertension is also greatly reduced.

Human Eye
1. External Structure of Eye

Iris: Circular sheet of muscles. It contains a pigment which gives the eye its colour. Made up
of 2 sheets of antagonistic muscles, circular muscles and radial muscles.

Conjunctiva: A thin transparent membrane covering the sclera in front. It is a mucous

membrane and it secretes mucus to keep the front of the eye moist. It is continuous with
the skin of the eyelids.

Sclera: A tough white outer covering of the eyelid. It is continuous with the cornea and
protects the eyeball from mechanical damage.

Eyelids: Protects the cornea from mechanical damage. Squinting is when the eyelids partially
close, preventing excessive light from entering the eye and protects the light-sensitive
tissues from damage. Blinking spreads tears over the cornea and conjunctiva and wipes dust
particles off the cornea.

Eyelash: Help to shield the eye form dust particles.

Tear gland: Located at the corner of the upper eyelid. It secrete tears which wash away dust
particles It also keeps the cornea moist for atmospheric oxygen to dissolve in it, allowing
dissolved oxygen to diffuse into the cornea. It lubricates the conjunctiva, helping to reduce
friction when the eyelids move.

Pupil: Hole in the centre of the iris. Allows light to enter the eye.

2. Internal Structure of Eye

Choroid:
o It is pigmented black to prevent internal reflection of light.
 o Contains blood vessels which supply nutrients and oxygen to the eye, while
removing metabolic waste products.

Ciliary Body:
o Thickened region at the front end of the choroid.
o It contains ciliary muscles which control the thickness and curvature of the lens.

Suspensory Ligament:

o Connective tissue which is connected to the ends of the lens and the ciliary body.

Cornea:
o Dome shaped, transparent layer that is continuous with the sclera.
o It refracts light rays into the eye. Most of the refraction of light in the eye occurs at
the cornea.

Aqueous chamber:

o The space between the lens and the cornea.

o Contains aqueous humour, which is a transparent, watery fluid that keeps the eye
firm and also helps refract light into the pupil.

Vitreous chamber:

o The space behind the lens.

o Contains vitreous humour, which is a watery, transparent fluid that keeps the
eyeball firm and refracts light into the retina.

Fovea/Yellow spot:

o Small, yellow depression in the retina.

o Situated directly behind the lens as most of the light is refracted there.
o Contains the greatest concentration of cones, but no rodsAllows a person to have
detailed colour vision in bright light.

Optic nerve:

o A nerve that transmits nerve impulses to the brain when the photoreceptors are
stimulated.

Blind spot:

o The region in which optic nerve leaves the eye.

o Contains no photoreceptors (cones and rods), thus it is not sensitive to light.

Retina:

o Innermost layer of the eyeball.

o Light-sensitive layer in which images are formed.
o Contains photoreceptors (cones and rods)
o Photoreceptors are connected to the nerve endings of the optic nerve.

3. Function of cones
 o Cones enable us to see colours in bright light.
o Three types of cones: Red, Green and Blue. Each cone contains a different pigment
which absorbs light of different wavelengths. All these cones work together to
enable us to see a wide variety of colours.
o Cones do not work well in dim light.

4. Function of rods
o Rods are more sensitive to light than cones.
o They enable us to see in dim light, but only in black and white.
o Rods are sensitive to light of low intensity (dim light) because they contain a
pigment called visual purple. When the visual purples is exposed to bright light, it is
bleached. Visual purple must be reformed for a person to see in the dark.

5. How does iris control the amount of light entering the eye?

-In bright light

o Circular muscles contract

o Radial muscles relax
o Pupil becomes smaller, allowing lesser light to enter the eye.

-In dim light

o Circular muscles relax

o Radial muscles contract
o Pupil becomes bigger, allowing more light to enter the eye.

6. What is pupil reflex?

Stimulus (change in light intensity) Receptor (Retina)Sensory neurones in optic nerve
transmit impulses to brain Relay Neurone in brain Motor neurone transmit impulses
from brain to iris.

7. How do we see?
o The light rays are refracted through the cornea and aqueous humour onto the lens.
o The lens cause further refraction, and along with the refraction caused by the
vitreous humour, rays are brought to a focus on the retina.
o The image formed is laterally inverted, diminished (smaller than actual object) and
upside down.
o The image on the retina stimulates either the cones or rods, depending on light
intensity.
o Nerve impulses are produced when light falls on the rods or cones. These nerve
impulses are transmitted via the optic nerve to the brain. The brain interprets these
impulses so we see the object to be the right way up, front to back and right size.

8. What is focusing?
Focusing or accommodation is the adjustment of the lens in the eye so that clear images of
objects at different distances are formed on the retina.
9. Focusing on distant and near objects

-Distant object

o Ciliary muscles relax, pulling on the suspensory ligament.

o Suspensory ligament becomes taut, pulling on the edges of the lens.
o Lens becomes thinner, and lesser convex, increasing focal length.
o Light rays from distant object are sharply focused on the retina.
o Photoreceptors are stimulated, and optic nerve transmit nerve impulses to the
brain. The brain interpret the impulses and the person sees the distant object.

-Near object

o Ciliary muscles contract, relaxing their pull on suspensory ligaments.

o Suspensory ligaments relax, relaxing their pull on lens.
o Lens becomes thicker, becoming more convex, decreasing their focal length.
o Light rays from near object are sharply focused on retina.
o Photoreceptors are stimulated, and optic nerve transmit nerve impulses to the
brain. The brain interpret the impulses and the person sees the distant object.
 Respiration
1. What is respiration?
Respiration is the breakdown of food substances with the release of energy in living cells.
2. Aerobic respiration
Aerobic respiration is the breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen with the
release of a large amount of energy. Carbon dioxide and water is released as waste
products.
C2H1206 + 6026C02 + 6H20 + Large amount of energy
Processes which require aerobic respiration
o Synthesis of proteins from amino acids
o Synthesis of new protoplasm for growth and repair
o Transmission of nerve impulses
o Cell Division
o Muscular contractions such as heartbeats and respiratory movements

3. Anaerobic respiration
Anaerobic respiration is the breakdown of food substances in the absence of oxygen,
releasing less energy than aerobic respiration.
-Used by micro-organisms that live in areas with little or no oxygen.
-Also used by organism that respire aerobically when there is insufficient oxygen.

-Alcoholic fermentation Anaerobic respiration is yeast.

o C6H12O6 2CO2+ 2C2H5OH +Small amount of energy
Glucose molecule is only partially broken down during anaerobic respiration. The ethanol
produced still contains energy and this is why anaerobic respiration releases a small amount
of energy.

4. Energy conversion in muscle cells

-During vigorous muscular contractions, your muscle cells respire aerobically. You may start
panting heavily to take in oxygen and remove carbon dioxide at a faster rate. Muscular
contractions are so intense that maximum aerobic respiration is unable to meet the. The
muscles carry out anaerobic respiration in order to release extra energy
C6H1206 2C3H603(lactic acid) + Energy
-The small amount of energy released during anaerobic respiration, along with the large
amount of energy released during aerobic respiration helps to keep the muscles contracting.
-Since there is insufficient oxygen to meet the demands of vigorous muscular contractions,
the muscles are said to incur an oxygen debt.
-The body is said to experience fatigue and muscular pain, due to the lactic acid
accumulating in the muscles, and needs to rest and recover.
-During the period of rest, the breathing rate continues to be fast for a period of time to
provide sufficient oxygen to the muscle cells to repay the oxygen debt.
 -Lactic acid is also removed from the muscles and transported to the liver where it is
oxidised to release energy. The energy is used to convert the remaining lactic acid to
glucose. When the lactic acid has been converted, the oxygen debt has been repaid and
glucose is transported to the muscle cells. Body is ready for another race.

5. Difference between respiration and photosynthesis

Respiration Photosynthesis
Catabolic process: Breakdown of Anabolic process: Build-up of carbohydrate
carbohydrate molecules molecules.
Occurs all times in the cells Occurs in cells containing chlorophyll and in
the presence of sunlight.
Loss of dry mass Gain in dry mass
Energy is released Energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules.
Oxygen is usually used while carbon dioxide Oxygen is given off while water and carbon
and water is given off. dioxide is given out.

6. Nose
-Air enters your body through the 2 external nostrils. The nostrils lead to the nasal passage
which is lined with a moist mucous membrane.
-Dust, foreign particles and bacteria in air are trapped by the hair in the nostrils as well as
the mucus in the mucous membrane.
-As air passes through the nasal passage, it is warmed and moistened. Harmful chemicals are
detected by small sensory cells in the mucus membrane.
7. Trachea
-Trachea is supported by cartilage which keeps the lumen of the trachea open
-Epithelium of the lumen contains
o Gland cells: Secrete mucus. Mucus helps trap dust particles in air.
o Ciliated cells: Have air like structures called cilia which sweep the dust trapped
mucus up the trachea.

8. Bronchi and bronchioles

-Trachea divides into two tubes called bronchi. Each bronchus carries air to the lungs.
-Each bronchus branches repeated, giving rise to numerous bronchioles.
9. Alveoli
-Each bronchiole ends in a cluster of air sacs called alveoli. Gas exchange occurs in the walls
of the alveoli.

Feature Function
One cell thick epithelium Short diffusion distance for gases, ensuring
a faster rate of diffusion.
Numerous alveoli Provides a large surface area for exchange
of gases
Richly supplied with blood capillaries Can quickly transport oxygen away to
maintain the steep concentration gradient.
 Surface of alveolus is covered by a thin film Allows the oxygen to dissolve in it.
of moisture

10. How is oxygen absorbed into lungs and how is carbon dioxide removed from lungs?
-Oxygen absorbed into the lungs:
o Inhaled air in the alveolus contains higher concentration of red blood cells than the
blood, thus oxygen dissolves into the moisture lining in the surface of the alveolus
and diffuses into the blood capillaries.
o In the lungs where concentration of oxygen is high, oxygen binds with haemoglobin
reversibly to form oxyhaemoglobin.
o When the blood passes through oxygen poor tissues, oxyhaemoglobin releases its
oxygen which diffuses through the blood capillaries in solution into the tissue cells.

-Carbon dioxide removed from the lungs:

o Tissue cells produce a large amount of carbon dioxide as a result of aerobic

respiration.
o As blood passes through these tissues via the blood capillaries, blood carbon dioxide
dissolves into the blood and enter the red blood cells.
o Carbon dioxide reacts with the water in the red blood cells to form carbonic acid.
This reaction is catalysed by carbonic anhydrase.
o The carbonic acid is then converted to hydrogencarbonate ions with diffuse out of
the red blood cells into the plasma.
o In the lungs, hydrogencarbonate ions diffuse back into red blood cells where they
are converted back to carbonic acid, and then water and carbon dioxide.
o The carbon dioxide diffuse out of the red blood cells, into the plasma and then out
of the blood vessels into the alveoli, where it diffuses into the alveoli, where it is
expelled when you breathe out.

11. What is breathing?

Breathing is the muscular contractions and movement of the ribs which results in air moving
in and out of lungs.
-When you breathe in,
o Diaphragm muscle contract and flattens
o Internal intercoastal muscles relax while external intercoastal muscles contract.
o Ribs move upwards and outwards
o Sternum moves up and forward.
o Volume of the lungs increase, causing its pressure to decrease, resulting in
atmospheric air, which has a higher pressure to be forced inside the lungs.

-When you breathe out,

o Diaphragm muscle relax and arches upwards.

o Internal intercoastal muscles contract while external intercoastal muscles relax.
o Ribs move downwards and inwards.
o Sternum moves downwards to original position.
o Volume of lungs decrease, causing pressure inside lungs to be higher than
atmospheric pressure, resulting in air to be forced out of the lungs.
12. Diseases

Properties of chemicals Effects

Nicotine -Addictive drug that causes -Increases heartbeat rate
the release of adrenaline. and blood pressure.
-Makes blood clot easily. -Increases the risk of clots in
arteries, leading to increased
risk of coronary heart
diseases.
Carbon monoxide -Binds irreversibly with -Renders haemoglobin
haemoglobin to form useless as carbon monoxide
carboxyhaemoglobin. cannot dissociate from
-Increases the rate of fatty carboxyhaemoglobin
deposits on arterial wall, useless, thus reducing ability
which leads to increased risk of blood to carry oxygen.
of coronary heart diseases. -Narrowing the lumen of
arteries, leading to high
blood pressure.
Tar -Leads to uncontrolled -Causes cancer in the lungs.
division of cell. -Dust trapped in the mucus
-Paralyses cilia lining in the lining cannot be removed,
air passages. increasing the risk of chronic
bronchitis and emphysema.
Irritants -Paralyses cilia lining in air -Dust trapped in the mucus
passages. lining cannot be removed,
increasing risk of chronic
bronchitis and emphysema.

Chronic bronchitis: Prolonged exposure to irritant particles found in tobacco smoke can
cause chronic bronchitis.
o Epithelium lining in air passages becomes inflamed.
o Gland cells secrete excessive mucus.
o Cilia on the epithelium becomes paralysed. Mucus and dust particles cannot be
removed.
o The air passages becomes blocked, making it difficult to breathe.
o Persistent coughing occurs to clear air passages occurs in order to breather. This
increases the risk of lung infections.

Emphysema: Persistant and violent coughing due to bronchitis may lead to emphysema.
 o Partition walls between alveoli break down due to persistent and violent coughing.
This results in a decreased surface area for gaseous exchange.
o Lungs lose their elasticity and become inflated with air.
o Breathing becomes difficult. Wheezing and severe breathlessness occur.

If a person is said to have emphysema and chronic bronchitis, he is said to have chronic
obstructive lung disease.

Lung cancer: Uncontrolled division of cells producing outgrowths and lumps of tissue.
Smoking increases the risk of cancers in mouths, throat, pancreas, kidneys, lungs and urinary
bladders.

Excretion

1. What is metabolism?
Catabolic reactions: Reactions in which complex substances are being broken down into
simpler substances
o Glucose broken down into carbon dioxide and water with the release of energy
during cellular respiration
o Proteins and amino acids being deaminated in the liver to form urea

Anabolic reactions: Reactions in which simple substances are built up into more complex
substances.

o Photosynthesis
o Conversion of excess glucose into glycogen in liver and muscles
o Formation of proteins from amino acids
The sum of all chemical reactions in the body is known as metabolism.
Anabolism + Catabolism = Metabolism

2. What is excretion?
Process in which metabolic waste products and toxic substances are removed from the body
of an organism.

3. Parts of the human urinary system

Hilus: The renal artery, renal vein and nerves are connected to the kidney at the hilus.
Ureter: Urine passes from each kidney through the ureter into the urinary bladder.
Urethra: Duct in which urine passes from urinary bladder to out of the body.
Sphincter muscle: Located the bottom of bladder and it is used to control urination. When it
is full, sensory neurones send impulses to the brain. To urinate, motor neurones carry nerve
impulses to the bladder, causing the sphincter muscle to relax, allowing urine to flow
through the urethra.
Urinary bladder: Elastic, muscular bag which stores urine.

4. Structure of the kidney

 o Cortex: Outer dark region. It is covered and protected by a fibrous capsule.
o Medulla: Inner pale red region, where renal pyramids are located.
o Renal pelvis: Renal pyramids project into a funnel like structure called the renal
pelvis. Renal pelvis is the enlarged portion of the ureter inside the kidney.

5. How is urine formed in the kidneys

-Ultrafiltration: Most of the blood plasma is forced out of the glomeruli into the Bowman’s
capsule.
o It is caused by high hydrostatic blood pressure. The afferent arteriole bringing blood
into the glomerulus is wider than the efferent arteriole which carries blood out of
the glomerulus, creating a high hydrostatic blood pressure. This pressure is the main
force required for the filtration process.
o The basement membrane around the glomerular blood capillaries is a partially
permeable membrane, which has fine pores that only allows water, glucose, amino
acids, nitrogenous waste products and mineral salts to pass through, forming the
filtrate.

-Selective reabsorption:

o At the proximal convoluted tubule: Most of the mineral salts, all amino acids and
glucose is reabsorbed through the walls of the tubule into the blood capillaries
through diffusion and active transport. Most of the water in the filtrate is
reabsorbed by osmosis.
o At the Loop of Henle: Some water is reabsorbed here through osmosis.
o At the distal convoluted tubule: Some water and mineral salts are reabsorbed.
o At the collecting duct: Some water is reabsorbed.
o Excess water, excess salts and metabolic waste products such as urea, uric acid and
creatinine pass out of the collecting duct into the renal pelvis as a mixture called
urine.

6. Composition of urine
o Protein rich diet: More excess amino acids deaminated in the liver More urea in
urine.
o Taking in more liquids: Water potential of blood increases Less ADH secreted by
pituitary glandWalls of collecting duct is less permeableLess water selectively
reabsorbedVolume of urine increases
o High intake of salty foods: Excess salts being excreted.
 o Diabetes mellitus: High concentration of glucose in bloodGlucose is filtered out of
glomerulus to form the glomerular filtratenephrons are unable to absorb all the
glucose fast enoughsignificant amount of glucose passes out in urine.

7. Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the control of water and solute concentrations in the blood to maintain a
constant water potential in the body.
Example: ADH secretion (refer to homeostasis)
8. Water potential relating to blood pressure
The kidneys control the water and solute levels in the blood by controlling the amount of
water that is reabsorbed at the nephrons. The amount of water reabsorbed affects blood
volume. If blood volume increases, then blood pressure also increases. Thus kidney also
controls blood volume and blood pressure.
A large increase in blood pressure causes blood vessels to burst, causing a stroke. Thus drugs
called diuretics are prescribed to them as they reduce ADH production.

9. Importance of the kidney

o Excretory organs
o Osmo regulators

10. Kidney failure and Dialysis Machine

Causes of kidney failure

o High blood pressure
o Diabetes
o Alcohol abuse
o Severe accidents that damage the kidney
o Complications from major surgery.

Features
o Direction of blood flow is opposite to direction of flow of dialysis fluidTo maintain
the concentration gradient to ensure that urea and other metabolic waste products
diffuse out of the tubing into the dialysis fluid.
o Tubing is narrow, long and coiledIncreases surface area to volume ratio to speed
up rate of exchange of substances between patient’s blood and dialysis fluid.
o Dialysis fluid does not contain any metabolic waste products To maintain
concentration gradient so that urea, uric acid, creatinine, excess water and mineral
salts diffuse out of tubing into dialysis fluid.
o Dialysis fluid contains same concentration of essential substances as healthy
bloodTo ensure that glucose, amino acids and mineral salts in the patient’s blood
do not diffuse into the dialysis fluid. Also it ensures that if the patient does not have
these essential substances, the substances will diffuse from the dialysis fluid into
blood.
1. Human Reproductive System
Sexual reproductive involved the fusion of the male and female gamete to form a zygote.
Gametes are haploid as they are produced by meiosisAllows them to maintain the diploid
number of chromosomes.
2. Male reproductive system
Testes:
-Produces sperms and male sex hormones which is responsible for the maintenance and
development of secondary sexual characteristics in males.
-Each testes received blood from a blood vessel called the spermatic cord.
-Epididymis: Narrow, much coiled tube leading from each end of the testis. It stores inactive
sperms before they enter the sperm duct.
Scrotum:
-Testes lie on pouch like sacs called scrotums. They are outside the main body cavity thus
they are at a slightly lower temperature than body temperature. The lower temperature is
essential for the sperms to develop properly.
Sperm duct: Each sperm duct loops over the ureter and opens into the urethra. After sperms
are released from the testes, they travel through the sperm duct.
Glands and their secretions:
-Prostate gland: Located at the base of the urinary bladder, where the two sperm ducts join
the urethra.
-Cowper’s gland: Beneath the prostate gland is the cowper’s gland:
-Seminal vesicle: It is a gland that opens up to each sperm duct. It stores sperms temporarily
before they are released through the urethra.
The seminal vesicles, cowper’s gland and prostate gland all secrete a fluid that mixes with
the sperm. The fluid contains nutrients and enzymes which stimulate the sperms to swim
actively. The mixture of sperm and fluid is semen.
Penis: It is an erectile organ. Penis enters a vagina during sexual intercourse to deposit
semen containing sperms.
Parts of the sperm:
 -Head:
o Contains a large nucleus with small amount of cytoplasm. Nucleus carries a haploid
set of chromosomes.
o Acrosomes: Vesicle containing enzymes. These enzymes break down part of the egg
membrane so that sperm can fertilise the egg during fertilisation.

-Middle piece:

o Contains numerous mitochondria.

o Mitochondria provides energy for the sperm to swim across the egg.

-Tail:

o The beating movement of the tail(flagellum) enables sperm to swim towards the
egg.

The sperm is motileswim on its own

3. Female reproductive system

Ovaries: Produces eggs and female sex hormones, which are responsible for the
maintenance and development of secondary sexual characteristics in females.
Oviduct: Narrow muscular tube leadings from ovary to uterus. Each ovary releases mature
eggs into the oviduct. It has a funnel like opening lying close to the ovary, which makes it
easier for egg to enter oviduct.
Uterus: Where the unborn baby develops during pregnancy.
Smooth muscular tissue in the walls to enable it to contract to push the fetus out during
childbirth.
Uterine lining (endometrium): Soft, smooth inner lining of uterus. It is where the embryo
implants.
Cervix: Circular ring of muscles at the lower portion of the uterus where it joins the vagina.
The opening of the cervix allows menstrual blood to flow out of the vagina during
menstruation.
Enlarges during childbirth
Vagina: Leading form cervix to outside is vagina.
Opening of vagina is vulva.
Semen is deposited into the vagina during sexual intercourse.

Ovum: Female gamete.

A female is born with all the potential eggs that she will ever have. Only about 500 out of
70 000 potential egg cells will ever mature within the 2 ovaries.
Usually only one mature egg is released every month from the time a female becomes
physically mature to menopause.
-Large nucleus with haploid set of chromosomes.
-Surrounded by a cell membrane which in turn is surrounded by another outer membrane.
-Abundant cytoplasm with a small amount of yolk
-The ovum is immobile. Beating action of cilia on the oviduct wall and peristalsis of oviduct
wall enables passive movement of egg along oviduct.
-Contains X chromosome.
4. What is puberty?
-Puberty is the stage of human growth and development in which a person becomes
physically mature.
-Secondary sexual characteristics brought about by sex hormones:

Males Females
Facial hair starts to grow, hair appears in Hair appears in armpits and pubic regions.
armpits and pubic regions.
Penis and testis increase in size Breasts and uterus enlarges
Larynx enlarges and voice deepens Hips broaden
Production of sperms start Menstruation and ovulation starts.

5. The menstrual cycle

-Menstrual cycle consists of ovulation and menstruation.

-Menstruation: Monthly discharge of blood from the uterus via the vagina.
-Average menstrual cycle is around 28 days.. However there can be natural variation in the
length of the cycle. Stress, tiredness, illness, unbalanced diet, malnutrition may alter or stop
the menstrual cycle and change the interval between periods.

Changes in a follicle during the menstrual cycle

o Young follicles are called primary follicles. Each primary follicle consists of a
potential egg cell surrounded by a layer of smaller cells known as follicle cells.
o A primary follicle may develop into a Graffian follicle. Graffian follicle contains an egg
surrounded by follicle cells and a fluid filled space. Egg contains haploid number of
chromosomes.
o Ovulation: Release of egg from ovary. On day 14 of a 28 day cycle, Graffian follicle
ruptures and releases the egg into the oviduct through the funnel like opening.
o After ovulation, the Graffian follicle forms a Corpus luteum. The corpus luteum
produces hormones that prepare the body for pregnancy.
 o If no pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum persists for some time and then eventually
breaks down.

Stages in a menstrual cycle

-Menstrual flow stage (Day 1-5)

o Uterine lining breaks down and flows out of the body through the vagina.
o Pituitary gland secretes follicle stimulating hormone.(FSH)

-Follicle stage (Day 6-13)

o Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries.

In each ovary, one primary follicle develops into a Graffian follicle.
o Follicle stimulating hormone stimulates follicles in the ovary to secrete oestrogen.
o Oestrogen causes repair and growth of the uterine lining. The uterine lining
becomes thick and spongy with blood vessels.
o Oestrogen when present in high concentration will inhibit follicle stimulating
hormone production, preventing the maturation and development of more
follicles(negative feedback). It also stimulates pituitary gland to secrete luteinising
hormone.

-Ovulation (Day 14)

o Luteinising hormone causes ovulation.

o Luteinising hormone causes formation of corpus luteum from the remains of the
graffian follicle.
o Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and some oestrogen.

-Corpus Luteum Stage (Day 15-28)

o Progesterone inhibits ovulation and FSH production.

o Progesterone maintains the uterine lining, causing it to thicken further and be richly
supplied with blood capillaries, preparing for implantation with the embryo.
 What happens if no fertilisation occurs?

The egg will break down. LH production is inhibited by high concentration of progesterone in
the blood. The drop in LH in blood causes corpus luteum to break down. When corpus
luteum breaks down, progesterone is not secreted. Without progesterone, uterine lining
cannot be maintained so it breaks down. The lining flows from the uterus together with
some blood through the vagina. FSH is produced by pituitary gland and the cycle repeats
itself.

What if fertilisation occurs?

The fertilised egg becomes a zygote. The zygote develops into an embryo. The embryo
implants itself in the uterine lining. The embryo secretes a hormone which prevents the
corpus luteum from breaking down until a structure called a placenta is formed. Corpus
luteum secretes oestrogen and progesterone until the placenta can take over.

Fertile periods

-Day 11-16 in 28 day cycle (plus/minus 3 days from ovulation)

-Sperm live for 3-4 days in female reproductive system while egg lives for 2 days.

6. What is mating?
-When a male is sexually stimulated, blood is pumped to his penis faster than it can be
returned to the bloodstream via the veins. Thus, the blood fills the spaces in the spongy
tissues of the penis. This causes the penis to become stiff and erect, allowing it to enter the
vagina.
-Sperms is ejaculated into the vagina, along with a liquid made by the prostate gland,
cowper’s gland and seminal vesicle. The liquid contains nutrients and enzymes which
stimulates the sperm to swim actively to move along the oviduct and nourish the sperms.

7. Fertilisation
-Egg released from the ovary is usually surrounded by a few follicle cells. To penetrate the
egg, the acrosome of the sperm release an enzyme to disperse the follicle cells and break
down part of the egg membrane. Only one sperm enters the nucleus. The haploid sperm
nucleus fuses with the haploid egg nucleus, a zygote with diploid nucleus is formed. As soon
as the sperm enters the egg, the membrane of the egg changes such that no other sperm
can enter the egg. The remaining sperms die.

8. Development of embryo, placenta and amniotic sac

-Development of embryo
o The cilia lining the inner surface of the oviduct sweep the zygote along the oviduct.
Peristaltic movements in the wall of the oviduct also help in the movement of the
zygote to the uterus.
o Zygote divides by mitosis to form a ball of cells called embryo.
o Eventually implantation occurs, where the embryo becomes embedded in the
uterine lining.

-Development of amniotic sac

 o The amniotic sac develops at around the same time as the placenta.
o The amniotic sac encloses the embryo in a fluid filled space known as the amniotic
cavity.
o The fluid in the amniotic cavity is the amniotic fluid.
-Development of placenta
o Soon after implantation, finger like projections called villi grow from the embryo into
the uterine lining. They contain blood capillaries of the embryo.
o The villi and the uterine lining in which the villi are embedded in make up the
placenta.
o A tube known as the umbilical cord connects the embryo to the placenta.

9. Fetal blood system

In the placenta, the fetal blood capillaries are surrounded by maternal blood spaces. The
fetal blood capillaries are separated from the mother’s blood system by only a thin layer of
tissue. Diffusion of dissolved substances can occur across this thin layer of tissue.

Why is the fetal blood system not continuous with the mother’s blood system?

o The blood pressure of the mother’s blood would kill the fetus as it is much higher
than of the fetus.
o The blood group of the mother may not be the same as the blood group of the fetus.
Thus if they are allowed to mix, the antibodies in the mother’s blood may cause the
fetal blood cells to agglutinate. This is fatal to both the mother and the fetus.

10. Functions of placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic fluid

-Placenta
o It allows oxygen and dissolved food substances like glucose, amino acids and mineral
salts to diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetal blood.
o It allows metabolic waste products such as carbon dioxide and urea to be removed
from the fetal blood into the mother’s blood.
o It allows antibodies to diffuse from the mother’s blood into the fetal blood,
protecting the fetus from diseases such as German measles.
o It produces progesterone which keeps the uterine lining in a healthy state during
pregnancy.

-Umbilical cord: Attaches fetus to placenta

 o Two umbilical arteries transport deoxygenated blood and metabolic waste products
from the fetus to the placenta
o Two umbilical veins transport oxygenated blood and food substances from the
placenta to the fetus.
-Amniotic fluid:
o Supports and cushions the fetus before birth
o Acts as a shock absorber
o As it cannot be compressed, it protects the fetus from physical injury
o It allows the fetus a certain degree of movement, which promotes muscular
development.
o During birth, it lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina.

11. Sexually transmitted infections

-Sexually transmitted infections are diseases which pass on from one person to another
through sexual intercourse. It is caused by bacteria and viruses and can be transmitted
through
o Semen when it comes in contact with the mucous membrane in the vagina.
o Fluid in the vagina when it comes in contact with mucous membrane of the urethra.
o Blood of an infected person when it gets into the bloodstream of an uninfected
person.

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) is caused by a virus called Human

Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

o HIV destroys a person’s immune system. Normally when foreign particles such as
viruses or bacteria enter our bloodstream, our lymphocytes are able to detect them
and produce antibodies which destroy the bacteria and viruses.
o HIV destroys a person’s immune system by destroying the lymphocytes. The body is
unable to produce sufficient antibodies to protect the person against many diseases.
Thus, infections which are normally mild are proven to be fatal to a person with
AIDS.

AIDS is a syndrome as it is a disease with many signs or symptoms occurring at the same
time.

Signs and symptoms of AIDS

o Severe diarrhoea lasting for months

o Chronic fever
o Brain infection
o Widespread tuberculosis(lung disease) affecting many organs at the same time
o Pneumonia
o Cancer of the blood vessels(Kaposi’s sarcoma)

Modes of transmission:

o Sexual intercourse with an infected person.

 o Sharing hypodermic needles with an infected person.
o Blood transfusion with blood from infected person.
o During pregnancy, virus can pass from infected mother to fetus.

Prevention and control:

o Keep to one sex partner or do not have sex at all
o Males should wear a condom
o Do not abuse drugs as drug addicts tend to share needles
o Do not share instruments that are likely to break the skin and be contaminated with
blood.
o Go to reliable operators if u need acupuncture treatment, ear piercing or tattooing.
Make sure needles are sterilised and insist on using disposable instruements.

1. Xylem
Functions:
o Conducting water and mineral salts from the roots to the stems and leaves
o Providing mechanical support for the plant

-Xylem tissue consists of many xylem vessels, which is a hollow tube stretching from root to
leaf. Xylem vessel is a structure made up of many dead cells.

Adaptations to their functions

o The xylem vessel has an empty vessel without protoplasm. This reduces resistance
to water flowing through the xylem.
o Inner walls of the xylem vessels are strengthened by deposits of a substance called
lignin. The whole vessel is lignified except in regions called pits. Lignin is a rigid and
hard substance which prevents collapse of the vessel. All the xylem vessels also
provides mechanical support for the plant.

2. Phloem
Functions:
o Conducts manufactured food (sucrose and amino acids) from green parts of the
plant to other parts of the plant.

Phloem consists mainly of sieve tubes and companion cells.

 -Sieve tube: A sieve tube consists of columns of elongated, thin-walled living cells called
sieve tube cells. A sieve tube cell only has a thin layer of cytoplasm inside the cell. The cell
has lost its central vacuole, nucleus and most organelles. The sieve plates are cross walls
separating the cells and has many minute pores.
-Companion cell: Each sieve tube cell also has a companion cell beside it, which carries out
metabolic processes in order to keep the sieve tube cell alive. Each companion cell is a
narrow, thin-walled cell with many mitochondria and cytoplasm. It provides nutrients and
help the sieve tube cells to transport manufactured food.

Adaptation of phloem to its function?

o Companion cells contain many mitochondria, which provide energy needed for the
companion cells to load sugars from the mesophyll cells into sieve tube cells by
active transport.
o The holes in the sieve plates allow rapid flow of manufactured substances through
the sieve tubes.

3. How are vascular tissues organised in roots and stems

-In stems:
o In a dicotyledonous stem, the xylem and phloem tissues are grouped together to
form vascular bundles.
o The vascular bundles are arranged in a ring around a central region called the pith.
o The phloem lies outside the xylem and tissue called cambium between them. The
cambium cells can divide and differentiate to form new xylem and phloem tissues,
giving rise to the thickening of the stem.
o The region in between the pith and the epidermis is the cortex. Both the cortex and
pith serve to store up food substances like starch.
o Stem is covered by a layer of cells called epidermis. The epidermal cells are
protected by a waxy, waterproof cuticle that greatly reduces evaporation of water
from the stem.

-In roots:

o In a dicotyledonous root, the xylem and the phloem are not bundled together.
Instead they alternate with each other.
o The cortex of the root is also a storage tissue.
o The epidermis of the root is also the outermost layer of cells. It bears root hairs and
it is also called the piliferous layer.
o Each root hair is a tubular outgrowth of an epidermal cell. This outgrowth increases
surface area to volume ratio of the root hair cell, increasing the absorption of water
and mineral salts.

4. Absorption
-Water
o The sap in the root hair cell is relatively concentrated solution of sugars and various
salts. Thus, the sap has a lower water potential than the soil solution, which is a
dilute solution of mineral salts. Thus water diffuses into the cell sap through
osmosis, through the partially permeable membrane of the root hair cell.
 o The entry of water dilutes the cell sap, causing its water potential to increase. This
results in it having a higher water potential than its neighbouring root cell. Hence
water diffuses into the neighbouring root cell through osmosis.
o This process continues until water enters the xylem vessels and move up the plant.

-Ions/Mineral salts

o By active transport, when the concentration of ions in the soil solution is lower than
that in in the root hair cell sap. The energy for this process comes from cellular
respiration in the root hair cell.
o By diffusion

Adaptations:

o Root hair is long and narrow. This increases the surface area to volume ratio in
which increases the rate of absorption of water and mineral salts by root hair cell.
o Cell surface membrane prevents cell sap from leaking out.
o Cell sap contains sugar, amino acids and salts. It has a lower water potential than the
soil solution. This results in water entering the root hair by osmosis.
o The root hair contains many mitochondria. Aerobic respiration takes in the
mitochondria releases energy needed for active transport of ions into the cell.

5. Moving water against gravity

-Root pressure:
The respiring cells around the xylem vessel use active transport to pump ions into the
vessels. This lowers the water potential in the xylem vessels. Water passes from the living
cells into the xylem vessels by osmosis and flows upwards.

-Capillary action:
Water tends to move up very narrow tubes (capillary tubes) due to forces of cohesion and
adhesion. Water molecules attract other water molecules through the force of cohesion.
Water tends to stick to the inner surface of the xylem vessel. The wall of the xylem vessel
just above the water surface attracts water molecules upwards by adhesion. This causes the
water to be drawn up the xylem vessel.

-Transpiration pull:
Transpiration: Transpiration is the loss of water from a plant, mainly through the stomata of
the leaves.

Transpiration pull: The evaporation of water from the leaves from the xylem vessels. This
results in a suction force which pulls water up the xylem vessels. It is the main force in
drawing water and mineral salts up the plant.

o Water continuously moves out of the mesophyll cells to form a thin film of moisture
over their surfaces.
o Water evaporates from this thin film of moisture and moves into the intercellular air
spaces.
 o Water vapour accumulates in the large air spaces near the stomata(sub-stomatal air
spaces)
o Water vapour then diffuses through the stomata into the drier air outside the
leaf(transpiration)
o As water evaporates from the mesophyll cells, water potential of the cell sap
decreases. The mesophyll cells begin to absorb water by osmosis by cells deeper
inside the leaf. These cells, in turn remove water from xylem vessels.
o This results in a transpiration pull, a suction force which pulls the whole column of
water up the xylem vessels.

Importance of transpiration:

o Transpiration pull draws water and mineral salts from the roots to the stems and
leaves.
o Evaporisation of water from cells in the leaves removes latent heat of vapourisation.
This cools the plant, preventing it from being scorched by the hot sun.
o Water transported to leaves can be used in photosynthesis, to keep the cells turgid
and to replace water lost by the cells. Turgid cells keep the leaves spread out widely
to trap sunlight for photosynthesis.

Factors affecting rate of transpiration:

o Humidity: Lower(Drier air) the humidity, higher the rate of transpiration(ADD INFO)
o Wind movement Stronger the wind, higher the rate of transpiration
o Temperature: Higher the temperature, higher the rate of transpiration
o Light: Higher light intensity, higher the rate of transpiration

6. Wilting

The turgor pressure in the leaf mesophyll cells helps to support the leaf and keep it firm and
spread out widely to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis. In strong sunlight, when rate of
transpiration exceeds rate of absorption of water by roots, cells lose their turgor, becoming
flaccid and the plant wilts.

Advantages:

When leaf folds up, surface area that is exposed to sunlight is reduced. Excessive loss of
Water causes guard cells to become flaccid and the stomata to close. Thus rate of
transpiration is reduced.

Disadvantages:

-The folding of the leaf also reduces the surface area exposed to sunlight, reducing rate of
photosynthesis.
-The rate of photosynthesis is also reduced because water becomes a limiting factor. As the
stomata are close, amount of carbon dioxide entering the leaf is also reduced. Carbon
dioxide becomes a limiting factor, thus reducing rate of photosynthesis.
 Reproduction in plants

Bisexual flower: Both male and female reproductive organs

Unisexual: Either male (only stamen) or female (only carpel)

Monoecious: Both male and female unisexual flowers are on the same plant.

Dioecious: Male and female flowers are borne on different plants

1. What is asexual reproduction?

Asexual reproduction is the process resulting in production of genetically identical offsprings
from one parent, without the fusion of gametes.

2. Advantages and Disadvantages of asexual reproduction

Advantages
-Faster compared to sexual reproduction
-Only requires one parent
-All favourable traits from parent is passed onto the offspring
-Since it is already in a suitable habitat, it can colonise the area rapidly
 -Fusion of gametes is not required

Disadvantages
-Less genetic variation in the offspring, thus species are not well adapted to environment

3. What is sexual reproduction?

Sexual reproduction is the process in which the fusion of 2 gametes produces a zygote. It
produces a genetically dissimilar offspring.

4. Advantages and disadvantages of sexual reproduction

Advantages
-There is genetic variation in the offspring, thus it is well adapted to the environment.
-Offspring may inherit beneficial qualities from both parents.

Disadvantages
-Slower compared to asexual reproduction.
-Requires 2 parents(except bisexual flowers)
-Fusion of gametes is required.

5. Parts of a Flower

Petal: Modified leaves which make up the most obvious part of the flower. All the petals
together make up the corolla.
Sepal: Modified leaves which enclose and protect other parts of the flower in the bud stage.
All the sepals together make up the calyx. The sepals usually form the outermost layer of
floral leaves.
Pedicel: Flower stalk
Receptacle: Enlarged end of the flower stalk which bears the other parts of the flower.
Stamen: Male part of the flower, consists of an anther and a filament.
Anthers: Consists of 2 lobes and a vascular bundle. Each lobe consists of two sacs which
contain pollen grains. When the anther matures, it splits open to release the pollen grains.
Pollen grains are produced by meiosis, thus they are haploid.
Filament: Stalk that holds the anther in a suitable position to release the pollen grains.
Carpel: Female part of the flower
Stigma: Swollen structure at the end of the style. It receives pollen grains. A mature stigma
secretes a sugary fluid that stimulates the pollen grains to germinate.
Style: Style is a stalk that connects the stigma to the ovary.
 Ovary: Develops into a fruit after fertilisation. It produces and protects one or more ovules.
The ovule develops into a seed after fertilisation. The ovule produces an ovum by meiosis,
which attaches itself to the placenta by the funicle.

Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma.

6. What is self pollination?
Self pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers to the stigma of the same
flower or different flower of the same plant.
Features favouring self pollination
-Flowers are bisexual with anthers and stigma maturing at the same time.
-Stigma is situated directly below the anther.
-In certain flowers with bisexual flowers, some flowers may never open. Only self pollination
can occur in these flowers.
Advantages of self pollination
- Only one parent plant is required.
- The offspring inherits its genes from the parent plant. Beneficial qualities are more likely to
be passed down to the offspring.
- It does not depend on external factors such as insects or wind for pollination.
- Higher chance of pollination to occur as the anthers are close to the stigmas of the same
flower.
- Less pollen and energy is wasted in self-pollination as compared to cross-pollination.
Disadvantages of self-pollination
- Less genetic variation in the offspring as compared to cross-pollination. As a result, the
species is less well-adapted to changes in the environment.
- Possibility of harmful recessive alleles being expressed in the offspring is higher as
compared
with cross-pollination.

7. What is cross pollination?

Cross-pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from one plant to the stigma of a flower in
another plant of the same species.
Features favouring cross-pollination
- Dioecious plants that have either male or female flowers.
- Bisexual flowers that have anthers and stigmas mature at different times.
- Stigmas of bisexual flowers may have been situated away from the anthers so that
self-pollination is unlikely.
Advantages of cross-pollination
- Offspring produced may have inherited beneficial qualities from both parents.
- More varieties of offspring can be produces as there is greater genetic variation. This
increases the chance of the species surviving changes in the environment.
- Increased probability of offspring being heterozygous.
Disadvantages of cross-pollination
- Two parent plants are required.
- Depends on external factors such as insects or wind for pollination.
- Lower probability that pollination will occur.
 - More energy and pollen is wasted.

8.
9. Fertilisation in Plants