EECE 210

Electric Circuits

Inductance, Capacitance, and Mutual

Inductance
Ideal Basic Circuit Elements
 Five ideal basic circuit elements:
 Voltage sources (Chapter 2)
 Current sources (Chapter 2)
 Resistors (Chapter 2)
 Inductors (Chapter 6)
 Capacitors (Chapter 6)

 In addition to,
 Op amps (Chapter 5)
Voltage and Current Sources
 DC sources
 Direct Current
 Fixed value of voltage or current
 Independent of time

 AC sources
 Alternating Current
 Variable voltage or current
 Time dependent
 Typical waveforms: Square, triangular, sinusoidal,…
• Characterize by frequency, amplitude, phase

 Random waveforms
• Characterize by equation
The Inductor
 Typically an inductor is a conducting wire
shaped as a coil
 The loops help create a strong magnetic
field inside the coil due to Faraday's law
of induction
 An inductor is a passive electrical
component
 Can store and release energy
 Cannot generate or dissipate energy (ideally
the resistance of inductors is considered to be
0)
 An inductor's ability to store magnetic
energy is measured by its inductance
The Inductor
 Inductance: circuit parameter used to describe
inductor
 Denoted by letter L
 Measured in unit henrys (H)
 Represented by a coiled wire
 Based on Faraday’s law and governed by
Maxwell’s equations
 Inductance is a linear circuit parameter relating
voltage induced by a time-varying magnetic field
to the current producing the field
di
 Inductor: Two terminal energy storage device vL
whose voltage is proportional to the derivative of dt
the current passing through it (inductor i-v
equation)
The Inductor
 An inductor
 Does not permit instantaneous change
of current at its terminals
 Arcing when switching
 Permits instantaneous change in voltage
across its terminals
 Behaves as a short circuit in the
presence of a constant current at its
terminals
 Inductor connected to a DC source
behaves as a short circuit di
 Sign convention when relating v to i vL
dt
The Inductor: Example I

 Can have instantaneous change in voltage but not in

current
The Inductor: Some Math and…
 Inductor i-v equation:

t
di 1
vL i(t )   vd  i(t0 )
dt L t0

dw di 1 2
p  vi   Li w  Li
dt dt 2
 Instantaneous power at the terminals of the inductor can be
positive or negative depending on whether energy is being
delivered to or extracted from the element
The Inductor:Example I – cont’d

 Increasing energy curve

 Energy is being stored in the
inductor
 P>0

 Decreasing energy curve

 Energy is being extracted from
the inductor
 P<0

 Maximum energy when current is maximum

The Inductor: Example I – cont’d

 Area under the plot of P versus t

 Energy expended or stored over the
interval of integration
 Integral of power from 0 to 0.2
 Energy stored

 Integral of power from 0.2 to inf

 Energy extracted

 Energy in the inductor in this

example at the end is zero
The Inductor: Example II
The Inductor:
Example II – cont’d

 Power is always positive

 Energy is always stored

 Since inductor is ideal (lossless,

zero resistance)
 Energy cannot dissipate after the
voltage goes to zero
The Inductor: Some Notes
 Initial current i(to) embodies the complete history of the
operation of the inductor
 Because of this, inductor is said to have memory

 For dc current, inductor acts as short circuit

t
di 1
vL i (t )   vd  i (t0 )
dt L t0
 Inductor is a passive device
 It does not generate energy
 But, it can store energy

 If w is increasing or p is positive, inductor stores energy

 If w is decreasing or p is negative, inductor delivers

energy
The Inductor: Applications
 Electrical Transmission Systems
 Current cannot change instantaneously
 Depress voltages from lightning strikes
 Limit switching currents and fault currents

 Traffic light sensors

 Transformers
 Mutual Inductance

 Signal Processing
 Filtering out specific signal frequencies

 Mechanical relay
 Switch that is activated by an electromagnet. Once current flows in the
coil, the resulting magnetic field will attract a metallic plate causing the
switch to change state
How touch screens work?
The Capacitor
 Prototypical capacitor: Device consisting of two metal plates each
having an area of A (m2) and separated by a dielectric material of
permittivity  (F/m) and thickness d (m).

Area A
A
C
d
d

 Modern capacitors take on all sorts of shapes and sizes

 Capacitor is like a water tank…

 Analogy between a capacitor and
a water tank

http://www.wisc-online.com/Objects/ViewObject.aspx?ID=ACE4803
The Capacitor
 This configuration helps create a strong electric
field across the capacitor (displacement current)
 The capacitor’s potential to store energy in an
electric field (by storing charge) is measured by
its capacitance
 Capacitance: circuit parameter used to describe
capacitor
 Denoted by letter C
 Measured in unit farads (F)
 Represented by two parallel plates
 Formed of two parallel conductive plates
separated by a dielectric
 Practical capacitors have usually values in
picofarad or microfarad
The Capacitor
 Capacitor:
 Capacitance is a linear circuit parameter
relating current induced by a time-varying
electric field to the voltage producing the field
 Two terminal energy storage device whose
current is proportional to the derivative of the
voltage across it (capacitor i-v equation)

 A capacitor is a passive electrical

component
 Can store and release energy
 Cannot generate or dissipate energy
dv
 Sign Convention iC
dt
The Capacitor
 The capacitor
 Does not permit instantaneous change
of voltage at its terminals
 Permits instantaneous change in current
across its terminals
 Behaves as an open circuit in the
presence of a constant voltage at its
terminals
 Capacitor connected to a DC source
behaves as an open circuit (current is
zero)
dv
 Only time-varying voltage can produce iC
displacement current dt
The Capacitor: Some Math and…
 Capacitor i-v equation:

t
dv 1
iC v(t )   id  v(t0 )
dt C t0

dw dv 1 2
p  vi   Cv w  Cv
dt dt 2
The Capacitor:
Example I
The Capacitor:
Example II
The Capacitor: Some Notes
 Applying voltage to capacitor cannot move charge through
dielectric but it can displace charge within
the dielectric
 Displacement of charge causes displacement current

 Initial voltage v(to) embodies the complete history of the

operation of the capacitor
 Because of this, capacitor is said to have memory
 For dc voltage, the capacitor acts as open circuit

 Capacitor is a passive device

 It does not generate energy

 But, it can store energy
 If w is increasing or p is positive, capacitor stores energy, else
the capacitor delivers the stored energy
The Capacitor: Applications
 System Energy Storage
 Can store electric energy when disconnected from its charging circuit
 Used as a temporary battery
 Used to maintain power supply while batteries are being changed
 This prevents loss of information in volatile memory
 UPSes equipped with capacitors to extend their lifetime
 Car audio system to store energy for the amplifiers

 Signal Processing
 Filtering noise

 Block DC and pass AC component

 Solve the problem of switching in inductive circuits

(eliminate spark due to the voltage surge)
The Capacitor: Applications
 Changing the dielectric
 Accurately measure the fuel level in airplanes; as the fuel covers
more of a pair of plates, the circuit capacitance increases.
 Changing the distance between the plates
 Capacitors with a flexible plate can be used to measure strain or
pressure

 Hazards and Safety: Don’t touch capacitors even if they

are not connected to a circuit especially large ones
Circuit Analysis Techniques
for Inductors and Capacitors
 All circuit techniques analyzed before apply for
inductive and capacitive circuits
 Replace v and i with their corresponding equations

 Additional Circuit Simplification

 Find Equivalent

 Equivalent inductance
 Inductors in series
 Inductors in parallel

 Equivalent capacitance
 Capacitors in series
 Capacitors in parallel
Inductors in Series

di
v  Leqv
dt

Leqv  L1  L2  ...  Ln
Inductors in Parallel
Capacitors in Series
Capacitors in Parallel
 Inductors in Parallel: Example(A6.4)
Initial value of i1=3A, and i2=-5A
V= -30e-5t mV for t >=0
a) Leq =?
b) What’s the initial current and its reference direction in
Leq
c) Use Leq to find i(t)
d) Find i1(t) and i2(t). Verify that solutions of i1(t), i2(t) and
i(t) satisfy KCL.
 Capacitors in Series: Example (A6.5)
 i= 240e-10t uA for t>= 0.
 Initial value of V1=-10Vand V2= -5V.
 Calculate total energy trapped in the capacitors as
t-> ∞ (Hint: don’t combine capacitors in series, find
energy in each then add
Mutual Inductance
 Inductance in a single inductor is called self-inductance
 Two circuits can be linked by a magnetic field via mutual
inductance (denoted by symbol M)
 Two voltages across each coil:
 Self-induced voltage: depends on self-inductance and self-current
 Mutually induced voltage: depends on mutual inductance and
current in other coil

di2
M
di1
dt
L
dt
Mutual Inductance
 How to determine polarities?
 Polarity of mutually induced voltage depends on the way the coils
are wound in relation to the reference direction of coil currents
 Use dot convention method
 When the reference direction for a current enters the dotted
terminal of a coil, the reference polarity of the voltage that it induces
in the other coil is positive at its dotted terminal
Determining Dot Markings
 Arbitrarily select one terminal of one coil
and mark with a dot
 Assign a current into the dotted terminal
and label it iD
 Use right-hand rule to determine direction
of magnetic field established by iD inside
the coupled coils and label this field ØD
 Compare the directions of the two fluxes
ØD and ØA
 If same reference direction, place a dot on
the terminal of the second coil where the
test current iA enters
 Otherwise, place a dot on the terminal of
the second coil where the test current
leaves
Determining Dot Markings
 Can be determined
experimentally
 Determining how the
coils are wound on the
core is impossible
 If upscale deflection
o Coil terminal connected to
the positive terminal of the
voltmeter receives the
polarity mark and viceversa
Mutual Inductance
 How to determine polarities?
 Polarity of mutually induced voltage depends on the way the coils
are wound in relation to the reference direction of coil currents
 Use dot convention method
 When the reference direction for a current enters the dotted
terminal of a coil, the reference polarity of the voltage that it induces
in the other coil is positive at its dotted terminal
Mutual Inductance: Example
Write a set of mesh-current equations that describe the circuit in terms of i1
and i2

di1 d
4  8 (ig  i2 )  20(i1  i2 )  5(i1  ig )  0
dt dt
d di1
20(i2  i1 )  60i2  16 (i2  ig )  8  0
dt dt
Mutual Inductance: Example
Verify that if there is no energy stored in the circuit at t=0 and if ig = 16-16e-5t A,
the solutions for i1 and i2 are:

 As t goes infinity
 Mutual Inductance: Some Comments
 Mutual inductance: M  k L1L2
 k is called coefficient of coupling
 K is always between 0 and 1

 Total energy stored in magnetically coupled coils:

1 2 1 2
w L1i1  L2i2  i1i2 M
2 2

 If opposite dot markings

 I enters one dot and the other current leaves the other dot

1 2 1 2
w L1i1  L2i2  i1i2 M
2 2
Proximity Switches: Motivation
 Detect actions via
disruption of electric fields
 Proximity switches:

 Type of sensors
 Based on capacitors
that change voltage
level when touched
 Capacitive touch-
sensitive switch
Proximity Switches: The Design
Proximity Switches: The Design