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Gifted and Talented Children with Special Educational Needs

Gifted and Talented Children
with Special Educational Needs
Double Exceptionality

Diane Montgomery
Gifted pupils who also have special needs often receive provision for the
special need whilst the giftedness is overlooked. This practical text based on
international research and practice enables the reader to identify highly able
pupils with special needs such as ADHD, dyspraxia, dyslexia and Down’s
Syndrome; and then make provision for them within the mainstream school.

The author looks at:

• creating a positive, constructive and supportive learning environment
• offering a cognitively challenging curriculum
• engaging the learners in partnership to understand and manage their learning
support.

Written for teachers and students at both primary and secondary levels, it will
also be of interest to educators, researchers and educational psychologists.

The Author
Diane Montgomery is Emeritus Professor of Education at Middlesex University
and directs the Learning Difficulties Research Project in Maldon, Essex.

Other titles of interest

Meeting the Social and Reversing Lower Attainment
Emotional Needs of Gifted Developmental Curriculum Strategies
and Talented Children for Overcoming Disaffection and
Edited by Michael J. Stopper Underachievement
1-85346-645-X Diane Montgomery
1-85346-561-5
Teaching the Very Able Child
Developing a Policy and Adopting Curriculum Provision for the
Strategies for Provision Gifted and Talented
Belle Wallace in the Primary School
1-85346-705-7 English, Maths, Science and ICT
Edited by Deborah Eyre

Diane Montgomery
Supporting the Child of Exceptional and Lynne McClure
Ability at Home and School 1-85346-771-5
Third Edition
Susan Leyden Listening to Able Underachievers
1-85346-878-9 Creating Oppotunity for Change
Michael Pomerantz and
Katherine Anne Pomerantz
1-85346-973-4

David Fulton Publishers

London
www.fultonpublishers.co.uk

Composite
Gifted & Talented
Children with
Special Educational Needs
Gifted & Talented
Children with
Special Educational Needs

Double Exceptionality

Diane Montgomery

Disclaimer:

Some images in the original version of this book are not

available for inclusion in the eBook.

David Fulton Publishers Ltd

The Chiswick Centre, 414 Chiswick High Road, London W4 5TF
www.fultonpublishers.co.uk

David Fulton Publishers is a division of Granada Learning Limited, part of the

Granada Media group.

First published 2003

Copyright © David Fulton Publishers 2003

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

The right of Diane Montgomery and the individual contributors to be identified

as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 1 85346 954 8

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted, in any form, or by any means, electronic,

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Printed and bound in Great Britain by Ashford Colour Press Limited,

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 Contents

Notes on contributors vii

Introduction: Giftedness and talent 1

PART ONE: Learning disabilities

1: A neurodevelopmental approach to learning disabilities: diagnosis
and treatment 11
Shirley Kokot (SA)
2: The gifted and learning disabled student: teaching methodology
that works 25
Wendy Stewart (Aus)
3: Giftedness, talent and dyslexia 42
Diane Montgomery (UK)
4: Non-verbal learning difficulties 65
Diane Montgomery (UK)

PART TWO: Sensory disabilities

5: Show me the light – I can’t see how bright I am: gifted students
with visual impairment 93
Rosemary Starr (Aus)
6: Gifted children with hearing impairment 110
Carrie Winstanley (UK)

PART THREE: Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

7: Gifted with behaviour disorders: marching to a different
drummer 131
Dorothy Sisk (USA)

v
Contents

8: Children with Asperger’s Syndrome and related disorders 155

Diane Montgomery (UK)

9: Interventions with talented at-risk populations with emotional and

behavioural difficulties 168

Ken W. McCluskey, Philip A. Baker, Mike Bergsgaard, and Andrea L. A.

McCluskey (Can)

PART FOUR: Cognitive disabilities

10: Gifted children with Down’s Syndrome: A contradiction in terms? 189

Sandy Alton (UK)

Index 207

vi
 Contributors

Sandy Alton is Advisory Teacher for pupils with Down’s Syndrome and
Complex Medical Needs in Oxfordshire and also Teacher Advisor for the
National Down’s Society. She has published articles and information sheets on
DS and as part of a multiprofessional Consortium provides training across the
country and runs an accredited course on supporting children with DS in main­
stream schools.

Philip A. Baker has been a class and resource teacher, principal, school psycholo­
gist, enrichment consultant, and coordinator of special services. He is now an
Instructor/Academic Advisor of an access programme at Winnipeg University
and has authored books and articles on ‘at risk’, creativity and gifted education.

Mike Bergsgaard has been a teacher in several States in Canada, an adminis­

trator for Aboriginal Education in Nebraska and Director of programming for
the Gifted and Talented in an inner-city school in Winnipeg. He has published
extensively on teacher evaluation and the effectiveness of violence prevention
in the public schools.

Shirley Kokot teaches Educational Psychology at the University of South

Africa, is a practising psychologist and the founder/Educational Director of a
school for gifted children in Johannesburg. She is affiliated to the HANDLE
Institute in the USA. Her two main fields of interest are giftedness and learning
problems caused by neurodevelopmental issues. mailto:[email protected]

Ken W. McCluskey is a Professor of Education at the University of Winnipeg

having spent 25 years as a school psychologist, special educator and adminis­
trator. He is a recipient of many awards for his work with ‘at risk’ students and
has authored and co-authored over 100 books and articles.

Andrea A. McCluskey is an Aboriginal Student Advisor at the University of

Winnipeg and has worked as a consultant in more than 40 Native communities.
She is coordinator of a number of internationally acclaimed projects and co­
author of articles and chapters including, with Ken, the bestseller Understanding
ADHD: Our Personal Journey.

vii
Contributors

Diane Montgomery is a qualified teacher, chartered psychologist and consul­

tant in teaching method, SEN and Gifted Education. She is Emeritus Professor
of Education at Middlesex University, London. She is the author of 15 books,
many articles and MA distance learning programmes and is editor of the NACE
journal Educating Able Children.

Dorothy Sisk is a world-renowned expert in gifted education. She holds the

endowed Conn chair as Professor of Education at Lamar University, Texas. She
has served as President of the World Council for GTC, and the Association for
the Gifted, and was founder and President of the American Creativity
Association. She has edited journals and is author and co-author of many books
and articles on a wide range of subjects.

Rosemary Starr is an educational and developmental psychologist with teach­

ing qualifications in special education. One of her areas of interest is exceptional
children – gifted and those with other special needs. She works in schools and
in private practice.

Wendy Stewart has an MA in Gifted Education and has worked as an Adaptive

Education teacher since 1999 at St Ignatius College in South Adelaide. She was
formerly editor of the Gifted and Talented Children’s Association magazine in
South Australia and she designs and runs study and organisational skills pro­
grammes for gifted students with learning disabilities.

Carrie Winstanley is Senior Lecturer at the University of Surrey Roehampton,

working with Education students interested in SEN. She taught in schools for
ten years and has higher degrees in Psychology and History of Education. She
runs workshops for GIFT and others and her PhD studies consider the notion
of high ability from a philosophical viewpoint.

viii
 Introduction: Giftedness and
talent

There are three children in a million who are ‘profoundly gifted’. Conven­
tionally this means they have measured IQs of 180+. It is likely they will have
spoken in sentences at 6–9 months, learned to read and spell by the age of 21⁄2,
self taught, and are ready for formal learning by the age of three. Placed in kin­
dergarten or preschool they quickly settle and will perhaps read to the ‘little
ones’. Within a week, however, they can begin to become upset and difficult to
manage. They learn very rapidly, grasp complex and even abstract ideas easily
and are in an environment where everything is taking place, in their terms, in
very slow motion. They are bored and, unfortunately, almost no classroom will
be suitable – even ones for gifted children.
These tiny tots require intellectual challenge and to be talked to as adults.
They question what teachers say and do and will want to follow their own ideas
and interests whatever the classroom routines might require. They ask if they
can learn things such as algebra rather than fiddle about with sand and dough
or prance about to a tune. However, the child is physically still three to five
years old and when constraints are imposed any underlying tendencies to
hyperactivity may be provoked as well as the full range of tantrums, trances,
screaming, biting and kicking.
For these special children an accelerated programme of learning is necessary
– probably home–school linked. By the age of 10, if allowed, they will have
learned the whole of the National Curriculum and passed GCSEs and be ready
for A levels. By this stage they will need the support of mentor–tutors and dis­
tance learning materials. Within a year or so they will have passed A levels and
be ready for university and hopefully a useful career thereafter.
Having prodigious memories means that such children cannot abide the rep­
etition of the usual schooling process and few children of this kind can be main­
tained happily in mainstream education (Hollingworth 1942; Pickard 1976). In
Kay’s (2000) case studies parents had to withdraw such children from main­
stream education because the rigidity of the system and the inflexibility, even of
‘gifted educators’, was damaging their children. They found answers in
home schooling, here called ‘Education Otherwise’ (www.education-otherwise.
org.uk). Fortunately, the development of computers and the Internet has made
a huge range of new learning opportunities available to children educated at
home.

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Giftedness and talent

Unfortunately, gifted children from disadvantaged backgrounds are unlikely

to get this level of support and have to bear two ‘ill fitting’ environments, one
at home and the other at school. These two aspects of dyssynchronicity can
have profoundly disturbing effects upon learners. Gross (1993) found in her
Australian studies that the difficulties in socialisation with peers were also pro­
found because of the discrepancies between them and the gifted child’s reading
interests, hobbies and play preferences. From their earliest days in school they
had difficulties in establishing positive relationships.
If children with high abilities also have a learning disability, such as reading
and writing difficulties, we refer to them as doubly exceptional but perhaps
cannot imagine the conflicts set up when a whole area of opportunity for learn­
ing is closed off for years. The highly active brain can turn its attention to all
things manipulable, including human beings, and the dyssynchronicity may
turn the child into an overactive troublesome toddler and result in early exclu­
sion from school for tantrums and behaviour problems – a career in disruption
begins.
Fortunately, perhaps, for parents and teachers such exceptionally gifted chil­
dren are very few. However, there are far more gifted, talented and highly able
children both in and out of school, than might be supposed and for whom an
IQ score is no good indicator – as authors in this book will show.
Hollingworth (1942) and Pickard (1976) found that with an IQ above 155 very
few children were happy or could be maintained in ordinary classrooms but it
was possible with the right sorts of provision for others with IQs up to this level
to lead happy and fulfilling lives there. The difficulty is of course in identifying
and making the ‘right sort’ of provision. In earlier publications I have suggested
that the either/or of acceleration or enrichment is inappropriate to meet the
needs of the gifted and that every school should have available seven levels of
provision; ranging from ‘developmental provision’ in the classroom to which
every pupil has access; through acceleration and fast tracking to enrichment,
mentoring and distance learning (Montgomery 2000).
Over the last decade there has been an increasing level of official interest in
the UK both in the needs of gifted and talented children and in the needs of
underachievers across the ability range. Curriculum managers and coordina­
tors for the gifted and talented have been appointed and there is now a wide
range of materials and training courses available to help them.
The opening up of the field of giftedness and talent to research and experiment
in the UK began with the House of Commons Inquiry (1998–9) and the setting
up of the Government’s Giftedness and Talent Advisory Group (1998–2001),
which prompted a special strand for provision to be trialled in the Excellence in
Cities (DfEE 1999) initiative. Prior to this it had been assumed that grammar
schools, streaming and setting within comprehensive schools and grant main­
tained schools or public schools (private education) could cope with the need.
Teachers tended to regard the gifted as having enough advantage already,
and that they should be in a position to help themselves rather than be given
special help and extra resources. Nevertheless a gifted education ‘under­
ground’ operated, mainly without funding, pursuing and developing initia­
tives set up in the 1970s and 1980s. The ‘underground’s’ main strength was to

2
 Giftedness and talent

develop ways in which gifted children’s needs could be provided for within
mainstream education and without extra resourcing. It was so successful that
HMI (1992) found that where this provision existed all the learners in the school
benefited.
Logically, it might be supposed that a new government with an understand­
ing of the issues came to a benign decision to open up the area to research and
resourcing, however, all may not be as it seems. Tannenbaum (1993) explained
that educators in the 1970s in the USA fought to keep order in classrooms, espe­
cially in the big city schools. Scholastic achievements were three to five levels
below average and there was vandalism, violence, truancy and drug-taking.
Many middle-class families had fled the inner cities and were opting for private
education for their children.
Administrators decided that one way to encourage these families back was
to provide gifted education programmes in the cities. They opened the ‘magnet
schools’ that offered ‘enrichment’ activities in particular subjects to attract suf­
ficient numbers who might have been studying elsewhere. They found that the
presence of the ablest began to make a difference to the total school atmosphere.
The ‘gifted’ were rescuing public education. ‘Again special education for the
gifted was initiated for the sake of solving social problems rather than solely for
the sake of those who need, or could benefit from it’ (Tannenbaum 1993: 21). No
need to labour the point.
The Excellence in Cities Project (DfEE 1999) required schools to select their top
5 to 10 per cent for the able strand provision and this approach has been ‘rolled
out’ countrywide. It seemed to be their preference to regard 1 to 3 per cent as
their ‘gifted group’ but this was disputed by members of the Advisory Group.
The smaller the percentage the less costly the provision of course. In schools we
have to refer to the ‘potentially gifted and talented’, as most high achievers do
not demonstrate early or prodigious talent.
When Tannenbaum (1993) reviewed the position across western societies he
found that in order to include the gifted it was usual to identify the top 15–20
per cent in general ability terms (by IQ for example) and then also identify the
top 15–20 per cent in separate subject areas to pick up those with specific talents.
The begrudging 5–10 per cent of UK administrators will miss out large numbers
of our most gifted children. What, in addition, will be the feelings of those not
selected? Selecting 3 per cent to attend the National Centre for Gifted and
Talented Youth at Warwick University tells 97 per cent of our school population
they are not special or talented.
It is a far better provision – which is integral to every classroom with oppor­
tunities for all – to self select for broader and deeper studies according to need.
This mode requires updating inservice programmes for all teachers on a regular
basis and would provide a reservoir of resources to enrich all forms of learning.
At the same time as all this is happening in the realms of the gifted and tal­
ented, or the ‘highly able’, schools must work to become more inclusive. Thus
curriculum managers have a difficult brief. How can selection for gifted educa­
tion programmes and master classes be consistent with inclusion? Well of
course in its present incarnation it cannot.
The best form of provision is inclusive, challenging and interesting to all the

3
Giftedness and talent

learners. It is dependent not on subject teaching but subject learning both coop­
eratively and independently where appropriate. This requires some radical
changes in teaching method from the ‘excitable teacher talk’ currently pro­
moted to ‘the teacher as learner and explorer’ with the pupils. Good teachers
teach mixed ability classes and still gain the highest standards. We need
research to identify how they do this.
There are more than a million potentially gifted and talented pupils in the
country but the National Curriculum was only designed to meet the needs of
the average learner so it does not reach the hard to teach, the gifted or the able
underachiever. Providing summer schools and master classes is not going to
reach them either.
Having announced the presence of so many gifted among us, it is perhaps a
duty of this introduction to define the terms and explain what ‘gifted’ and ‘tal­
ented’ and ‘high ability’ refer to in this book. Each chapter author will also make
statements about these terms but will focus more on the special need and the
provision and how these interact with high ability. In an analysis of the terms
Gagné (1993) assigned giftedness to those abilities naturally or non systemati­
cally developed, whereas talent applied to those areas of human endeavour in
which skills and abilities were systematically developed (p. 72). Thus gifted­
ness refers to general abilities, some of which can be captured on IQ tests pur­
ported to be measures of ‘general problem solving abilities’, and talent which
is perhaps latent and needs acquisition and practice time such as playing a
musical instrument, running a business, leading a group, painting and so on.
Just occasionally we meet an infant prodigy such as Peggy Somerville, who
painted extraordinarily mature paintings at three years of age. Most other
painters now more famous than her only began to show promise in adoles­
cence. Some had to die before their achievements were recognised. The talent
in some children may only be discovered by accident when they experience
something new. Hence the broadest base of experiences and opportunities is
essential for all children and yet so many live such narrow lives.
Gagne’s definition of terms is merely another version of Spearman’s (1927)
two factor theory of intelligence with ‘g’, a general problem solving ability, and
‘s’ denoting specific capabilities. There is perhaps less evidence for the existence
of the ‘multiple intelligences’ (Gardner 1983) although he did suggest that they
might be better termed ‘talents’. The notion of multiple talents permeated by a
core of general problem solving ability seems to me to be more consistent with
the evidence and the pupils’ behaviour.
The term ‘high ability’ is frequently used in UK literature before the new
initiatives as it is a term that does not imply something perfectly formed and
immutable such as a ‘gift’, rather it encompasses a wider range of capabilities.
Intelligence itself is now known to be capable of increasing over time with
the right sorts of education and environment and an IQ, that part measured by
an intelligence test, only needs to be about the level of 120 for the highest
achievement to be attained (Torrance 1963). In research studies of the gifted it
is usual to confine the ‘gifted’ sample to those who have at least one IQ score at
130 or above. In terms of educational provision it has been characteristic to
include those with IQs at or above 115, or one standard deviation above the

4
 Giftedness and talent

mean, so that all possible potentially gifted might be included, though even
then some would be missed and so any with an above average potential should
be included (Montgomery 1996, 2000). To overcome some of these difficulties
Silverman (1989) suggested that the level for inclusion into Gifted Ed pro­
grammes should be dropped by 10 points in the case of those with a learning
disability. In addition, of course, the standard error of the tests which is usually
plus or minus three points suggests that any fixed score can only be an arbitrary
one.
The area of special educational needs has a longer history and an even greater
resource than gifted education in the UK but only recently has a concern for
‘Double Exceptionality’ developed. Nevertheless gifted pupils with special
needs exist and are more widely found than perhaps had been expected.
Silverman (1989) for example found that one third of the gifted in her large
sample had learning disabilities and Whitmore (1980) maintained that 70 per
cent of children showed a deficit of one standard deviation between IQ and
school attainments.
Those who have tried to bridge the gifted/special gap over the years have
had difficulty obtaining resources or research funding because the topic falls
between two stools and could be regarded as too small a population to merit
concern. Equally, from the intervention point of view, the most obvious sign of
difficulty is the special need; the other, the giftedness, is regarded as a bonus
but they can cancel each other out.
Although in the UK the term ‘difficulty’ is used in preference to ‘disability’,
on a world stage the notion of disability is more readily understood and so the
parts in this book have been labelled as ‘disabilities’. It also emphasises the dys­
synchrony and powerful effect they can have on an otherwise potentially gifted
individual. ‘Extremely high intelligence often comes with quirks that require
great tolerance from the teacher, these tend to diminish as the child gets older’
(Thomson and Wallace 1998).

References

DfEE (1999) Excellence in Cities. London: the Stationery Office.

Gagné, F. (1993) ‘Constructs and models pertaining to exceptional human abilities’, in

K.A. Heller, F.J. Monks and A.H. Passow International Handbook of Research and
Development of Giftedness and Talent. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 69–88.
Gardner, H. (1983) Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic
Books.
Gross, M. (1993) Exceptionally Gifted Children. London: Routledge.
HMI (1992) The Education of Highly Able Children in Maintained Schools. London: HMSO.
Hollingworth, L. (1942) Children Above 180 IQ. New York: World Books.
Kay, K. (ed.) (2000) Uniquely Gifted: Identifying and Meeting the Needs of Twice Exceptional
Children. Gilsum, NH: Avocus Publishing Inc.
Montgomery, D. (1996) Educating the Able. London: Cassell.
Montgomery, D. (2000) Able Underachievers. London: Whurr.
Pickard, P. (1976) If You Think Your Child is Gifted? London: Allen and Unwin.

5
Giftedness and talent

Silverman, L.K. (1989) ‘Invisible gifts, invisible handicaps’, Roeper Review, 22(1), 37–42.
Spearman, C. (1927) The Abilities of Man. New York: Macmillan.
Tannenbaum, A J. (1993) ‘History of giftedness and “gifted education” in world per­
spective’, in K.A. Heller, F.J. Monks and A.H. Passow International Handbook of
Research and Development of Giftedness and Talent. Oxford: Pergamon Press, pp. 3–27.
Thomson, M. and Wallace, B. (1998) ‘The total teacher for the total child’, U. O. Gifted,
11(1).
Torrance, E.P. (1963) Education and the Creative Potential. Minneapolis: University of
Minnesota.
Whitmore, J.R. (1980) Giftedness, Conflict and Underachievement. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.

6
 PART ONE:

LEARNING DISABILITIES

Learning disabilities is the term used worldwide to indicate that there is a dis­
crepancy between pupils’ school attainments and what they might be expected
to achieve given their level of ability. In the UK this group of conditions is
referred to as Specific Learning Difficulties. This term carries with it the
assumption that if the difficulties can be remedied or circumvented by appro­
priate education or therapy then normal achievements will be attained. General
learning difficulties refers to the profile of the slower learner who may also have
specific learning difficulties. In some individuals the learning difficulties are
overt and can easily be identified but in many other cases they are covert or
silent and are frequently not identified. When giftedness and learning difficul­
ties co-occur then they can cancel each other out and to all intents and purposes
the pupil appears average in ability and attainment. There is evidence to
suggest that some 50 per cent of pupils are affected by these silent difficulties.
Three children in 100 statistically have IQs above 130 so there is likely to be
one in every class but in reality there are at least 5 or 6 potentially gifted chil­
dren in every mixed ability class and many more with specific talents, and 50
per cent who are ‘more able’. The discrepancy diagnosis using an IQ test such
as WISC-lll is a popular means of identifying specific learning difficulties such
as nonverbal learning difficulties and dyslexia but there are questions about its
sensitivity and relevance. Alm et al. (2002) concluded that even the ACID profile
(difficulties with Arithmetic, Coding, Information and Digit span on WISC)
was a group phenomenon but did not refer to any individual dyslexic.
Three different groups of underachievers are known to exist:

Group 1 (usually identifiable)

• those who have been identified by discrepancies between high scores on
ability tests and low achievement in school subjects, attainment tests, or SATs
• those who show discrepant scores on IQ tests between verbal and perfor­
mance items (for example, CAT scores) but may be performing in class at an
average level
• those who show an uneven pattern of high and low achievements across
school subjects with only average ability test scores
• those whose only high achievements seem to be in out of school or non-
school activities

7
Learning disabilities

Group 2 (usually the disability masks their abilities)

• those who have a specific learning difficulty – dyslexic type difficulties in the
presence of average reading test scores and school attainments
• those with spelling or handwriting difficulties and average or below attain­
ments
• those with gross motor coordination problems, or sensory impairment and
average or below school attainments

Group 3 (usually not identified)

• pupils with social and behavioural difficulties
• daydreamers, uninterested in school, or ‘lazy’ pupils
• linguistically disadvantaged background but average ability and function­
ing – showing a great deal of compensation going on.

All three groups have learning difficulties, many of which have not been iden­
tified. Group 1 pupils, although they have some high scores on ability tests, will
have underlying learning difficulties which can be uncovered and given
support and will need curriculum modifications and changes in teaching strat­
egies in order to profit. Group 2, because of their overt double exceptionalities,
have patterns of depressed scores on abilities tests that mask their potential, or
their difficulties are focused upon and their giftedness is not attended to. They
will need a ‘talking curriculum’ while being given specialist support for their
specific learning difficulties. Group 3 underfunction for a variety of reasons
such as the need for the ‘cool’ image in boys so they fear to try in case they fail,
or their ‘culture’ is that school is not ‘cool’. Others fear the label ‘boff’ and the
bullying that can ensue. Girls may develop similar images about what is ‘cool’
and ‘uncool’ but also become vulnerable, especially in co-educational schools,
to seeking not to do well or pursue such ‘non feminine’ subjects as maths or be
seen to work hard. For them it even becomes ‘childish’ to do what the rest of
the class is doing; they prefer to sit out and chat. Some pupils come from a lin­
guistically disadvantaged background that hampers their ability to express
themselves adequately in ‘academic’ subjects or in school life as a whole and
practice in talking and listening is essential.
Underlying all of these underachievements a low sense of self esteem is to be
found with a range of strategies being used to defend the sense of self or to prop
it up. Characteristic also is the need in these pupils to have something interest­
ing and challenging intellectually to engage with. But because in many class­
rooms the lessons are teacher led and information is imparted verbally, has to
be recorded in writing and then learned, these pupils lose motivation as their
involvement in making meaning for themselves diminishes. Most commonly
they find school ‘very boring’, and if they cannot achieve top levels in SATs they
feel undermined and grow disaffected as their failures and perceived failures
multiply.
The curriculum manager needs to encourage all departments to identify the
top 20 per cent of pupils in their subject area in each class or year. This will
enable the building of patterns on a grid which shows, for example, subjects,
CATs test scores, SEN and behaviour problems. Particularly significant will be

8
 Learning disabilities

the identification of pupils who are good orally but ‘cannot write it down’ or
only very good when there is some kind of problem to solve, or have a lot of
common sense but only ‘good average attainment’; excellent at art or PE but ‘no
good’ at so called academic subjects; a leader in every bit of mischief but not
school work. The Special Educational Needs Coordinator will have an impor­
tant contribution to make as do parents and the pupils themselves.
We know that boredom and lack of cognitive challenge in the daily curricu­
lum is playing a major role in causing more pupils across the ability range to
become more disaffected and underfunctioning than was formerly the case.
Gifted and underachieving pupils are particularly vulnerable. An inservice
training strategy for key staff such as learning mentors, ‘G and T’ coordinators,
and SEN staff should begin with shadowing one pupil for a day to see exactly
what pupils are subjected to.
The four chapters in this Part discuss a range of approaches and strategies
which are typical of the field. The first two illustrate the complexities of cases
in remediation and curriculum provision. The second two deal with verbal and
non-verbal learning difficulties. In Chapter one Kokot details the methods she
uses based upon ‘HANDLE’ (Holistic Approach to Neurodevelopment and
Learning Efficiency) to overcome the complex and deep learning disabilities of
her students. This approach, in which underlying mechanisms and pathways
are addressed, is reinforced and further exemplified in Chapter four in relation
to non-verbal learning disabilities. In Chapter two, Stewart gives details of how
the curriculum for students with a range of learning disabilities can be modified
and differentiated to meet individual patterns of needs based upon her case
work with the gifted. Chapter three looks specifically at dyslexic type difficul­
ties in gifted undergraduates and how their needs can be met in curriculum and
remedial terms and then traces these difficulties back to school and kinder­
garten age showing what should have been done to help them. A hidden pop­
ulation of gifted dyslexics with residual spelling problems masking their
abilities is identified as well as methods for overcoming their difficulties.
Chapter four deals with the more neglected areas of non-verbal learning diffi­
culties in handwriting and coordination difficulties as well as Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder. Each non-verbal learning disability can mask high
ability and talent but some unfortunate pupils have both non-verbal learning
disability and dyslexia.

Reference

Alm, J. and Kaufman, A. S. (2002) ‘The Swedish WAIS-R factor structure and cognitive
profiles for adults with dyslexia’, Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35(4), pp. 321–33.

9
 A neurodevelopmental approach
1 to learning disabilities: diagnosis
and treatment
Shirley Kokot

The question of why some gifted children fail to thrive in school is a tantalising
one that has occupied researchers for many years. Underachievement is usually
considered to be the result of individual, family and/or school-related factors
(Baker, Bridger and Evans 1998) but many gifted children are recognised as
having neurobiological problems that interfere with academic and social/emo-
tional functioning. It is common practice to label these according to the symp­
toms they manifest. Labels frequently used include ADD, ADHD (Leroux and
Levitt-Perlman 2000), Visual or Auditory Perceptual problems, Tourette’s
Syndrome, Dyslexia (Winner 2000), Dyspraxia, Asperger’s Syndrome (Neihart
2000), Autism (Cash 1999), and so on. These conditions may be accompanied by
learning disabilities that persist in spite of diverse therapies being tried by often
desperate parents.

Therapeutic approaches to learning disabilities

Many different therapies exist that claim to successfully treat particular learn­
ing disabilities. It is not within the scope of this chapter to discuss each one but
suffice to say that too few have had significant success and so the search contin­
ues for real understanding of what causes the behaviours that impede learning.
Most gifted children with learning disabilities show a scatter of high and low
abilities across different tasks. Early theorists and specialists in the field of
learning disabilities believed that composites of traits or faculties (called
‘processes’) were activated when a child performed a task. Weakness in one or
more of the processes would account for the child’s failure on the task.
Following this, it seemed logical that strengthening the faulty process would
lead to improvement of the child’s performance (Farnham-Diggory 1992).
Among these specialists were Ayres, who focused on sensory integration;
Kephart, on perceptuomotor matching; Frostig, on visual–perceptual training;
Delacato, on neurological organisation, and many developmental optometrists,
who believed that aberrant visual systems have an impact on reading and sub­
sequent learning. However, during the 1970s and 1980s these theories and
related practices were evaluated and found to be scientifically invalid and inef­
fectual. Despite such criticism and coupled with the fact that later practitioners

11
Learning disabilities

using those approaches did not effectuate the predicted successes, these thera­
pies are still utilised in many countries around the world.
The late 1980s and 1990s saw an explosion of brain research that clarified some
issues and, indeed, led to support for the basis of many of the earlier theories. It
seems to be accepted now that movement is responsible for the structure of the
brain (Changeux and Conic 1987; Ito 1984; Lisberger 1988) and that the brain’s
proven plasticity means that through movement it becomes possible to restruc­
ture the brain (Le Poncin 1990). These findings mean, in effect, that the body
organises the brain rather than the other way around. Given this understanding
of how the brain functions, it is likely that individuals struggling to cope with
the demands of life and learning may be doing so not because of brain damage
in a specific area of the brain, but rather due to inefficient functioning of several
interactive sensory and motor sub-systems. Take the example of dyslexia.
Previous thinking attributed the problem to an impairment within the language
centre of the cerebral cortex. Evidence now suggests that the person with dys­
lexia may be manifesting deficits of visual memory, directionality, visual track­
ing, concentration and delayed processing of auditory and/or visual stimuli.
In his studies of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome, Lewis (2001) found that more
sub-systems and more energy may be required by some individuals to function,
giving rise to myriad difficulties. This concurred with the theories of Bluestone,
who has been successful over the past 35 years in treating individuals of all ages
with a wide range of problems. She has integrated recent and more long-stand-
ing knowledge and arrived at new insights as to the origins and treatment of
learning difficulties. These she has evolved into the HANDLE approach, the
acronym standing for Holistic Approach to NeuroDevelopment and Learning
Efficiency.

A hierarchy of integrated systems

Figure 1.1 shows the chart that Bluestone developed to represent diagrammat­
ically the integrated and interdependent sub-systems responsible for our effi­
cient functioning. The relative position of each sub-system on the chart is
indicative of the hierarchical nature of the neurological system, and illustrates
how higher level functions depend on those at a lower level. For example, prob­
lems with reading or maths may be traced all the way back to a dysfunctional
vestibular system. In this way, HANDLE attempts to identify the roots of a
learning problem. Practitioners drafting a therapy plan would sequence and
prioritise exercise activities according to where an individual’s weaknesses
would show up on the hierarchy.
Lowest level systems would be addressed first so that, strengthened, they may
support the functions of higher level systems, which could then benefit opti­
mally from corrective therapeutic activities. To address ‘higher level’ functions
– which, in this paradigm, amount to splinter skills – before strengthening the
weakened foundational systems is an exercise in futility: frustrating to the child
and the teacher because such an approach achieves at best minimal gain, and
serves only a stop-gap purpose. While such an approach may possibly improve
a particular splinter skill at the time, it would not resolve the causal issue. This

12
 A neurodevelopmental approach

Interhemisphere Integration
Lateralization
Differentiation
Attentional Priorities

Figure 1.1 Chart showing Bluestone’s representation of integrated and independent sub­
systems. Source: Bluestone (2001b)

results in the weakness remaining to affect other skills – possibly simultaneous

in time, such as interpersonal and emotional skills, but assuredly skills that show
up later – needing those same weak foundations. In addition, even if the higher
level function is relatively intact, energies from these higher levels may be used
to compensate for a weakness in a more foundational system, emphasising the

13
Learning disabilities

need to address inefficient functioning of lower level systems. For example, if a

child’s visual system is well developed, but the tactile system is hypersensitive,
s/he may use vision to remain hypervigilant of the surroundings rather than to
use it freely for tasks of visual discrimination (Bluestone 2001a).

Diagnosing the root causes of learning difficulties

The HANDLE perspective defines neurodevelopment not as a given sequence

of accrued skills but as an interactive hierarchy of brain functions, with a ves­
tibular foundation for skills (such as speech, maths, visual tracking and so
forth) presumed by other perspectives to be isolated in particular sites in the
brain. When neurodevelopment is understood as interactive, no time frame
limits brain function. Learning is thus the lifelong process of using sensory,
motor, social and emotional input to realign output into effective behaviour
(Suliteanu 2001). The holistic nature of the approach also requires recognition
of internal and external influences. This means acknowledging possible causal
roles of chemicals, allergens, nutritional deficits (especially the absence of
essential fatty acids), dehydration and toxins of any kind. In addition, it
includes the individual’s social environment, such as the increasing cocooning
lifestyle that keeps children indoors and inactive and the decreased demand on
their creativity as a result of graphic media (Suliteanu 2001).
Each learning disability and each individual has unique aspects, but the
trained observer can determine patterns of dysfunction in the neurological sub­
systems required to support learning. Those patterns then suggest how to
resolve the disability with gently progressive strengthening of the weak areas.
Crucial observation during assessment of the individual learner includes:

1. what distracts attention from the task at hand

2. what requires energy needed for comprehension
3. what physical/environmental changes affect the learning, and
4. what learning modalities are most successful.

An interactive, non-standardised evaluation protocol identifies such factors as:

1. distractions due to tactile or auditory hypersensitivity

2. vestibular inadequacy to support muscle tone, visual tracking and linguis-
tic/phonetic awareness simultaneously
3. irregular interhemispheric integration interfering with auditory-visual inte­
gration, parts-to-whole configuration as well as problems with central audi­
tory processing due to an inability to integrate the word/language
component with the picture/meaning of the word
4. light sensitivity and visual-motor dysfunctions that cause irregular
visual/visual-motor feedback, etc.

Once information concerning these important issues has been gleaned from the
individual’s behaviour during assessment, an appropriate programme com­

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 A neurodevelopmental approach

posed of activities and exercises is designed to strengthen the weak functions

and resolve learning difficulties at their roots.

The HANDLE treatment programme – key elements

The hierarchical and interactive nature of the neurodevelopmental sub-systems

is crucial to the success of this approach. To reiterate, it is futile to try and
improve the efficiency of higher level systems before systems at a lower level
are regulated and integrated. Lower level systems include the senses of touch,
taste and smell as well as the vestibular and proprioceptive systems. The visual
and auditory systems are at a higher level, and at the highest level would
be systems relying on integrated interhemispheric functioning, such as
visual–spatial, auditory–linguistic processes, and so forth. For example, visual
problems such as difficulty focusing both eyes together on a target or tracking
– following a moving object, or moving the eyes across a line of words – would
not be addressed until the vestibular system can support the visual system.
A second key element to this approach is what Bluestone has coined Gentle
Enhancement. This means the process of introducing therapeutic activities on
a regular, consistent basis strictly according to how much the individual toler­
ates before that activity induces stress. For contrast, observation of patients
treated with Doman-Delacato techniques suggested that the lengthy periods of
re-patterning were causing stress to already stressed systems. For therapeutic
benefit – that is, for the weakened system to accept and incorporate the input –
clients must be carefully monitored for signs of stress, and treatment limited to
as much input as their systems can use. Accordingly, rather than offering
therapy once or twice a week at a therapist’s venue, as well as possibly supple­
menting this with fixed periods of time devoted to rigorous activities at home
each day, a home-based programme is designed that takes only a few minutes
to complete each day – with careful monitoring of the client for signs of stress.
Such signs include change of facial colour, reddening of the ears, change in
visual focus, change in breathing or muscle tone, feelings of nausea or dizzi­
ness, or a general discomfort while performing an activity. In addition, self pro­
tection mechanisms, such as reflexive posturing in order to prevent a body
position, would also be regarded as a definite sign of stress. This is a reason why
HANDLE practitioners do not rely on therapeutic equipment. Rolling a child
over a ball may be a vestibular specific exercise but will obscure the child’s
unwillingness to move beyond a certain point because of experiencing stress.

From theory to practice: case studies

The following case studies illustrate the HANDLE approach with two gifted
children whose problems adversely affected their school performance. In the
first the problem was considered ‘dyslexia,’ in the second ‘Attention Deficit
Disorder with Hyperactivity (ADHD).’ As will be shown, in each case the label
did not correspond to the deficits that actually impaired learning.

15
Learning disabilities

‘Dyslexia’: The case of Mary

Mary was seven years old when she was referred for help. She was a very bright,
articulate, compassionate and fun-loving little person. She was also experienc­
ing great difficulties in her first grade classroom.
Emotional reactivity and difficulty managing transitions were longstanding
issues for Mary. However, these became especially problematic when she started
formal schooling. Her school days were punctuated with tears and occasional
show-stopping tantrums, as she could become overwhelmed by the sights and
sounds of the classroom. The fast pace of the school day proved especially dis­
tressing for her and she would sometimes retreat into an imaginary world of her
own. Stress was evident as she tore papers into tiny bits or chewed her hair at
her desk.
Mary’s thinking was, at times, inflexible. She could get ‘stuck’ on certain ideas,
seemingly stubborn to those trying to help her. Once stuck, she found it difficult
to devise solutions to her problems until she was able to distance herself from
them with time. Attempts to control her environment to reduce her anxiety were
construed as oppositional by her teacher.
As if tantrums were not enough to isolate Mary socially, her driving desire to
touch things and others caused problems with her peers. Her ever-moving hands
during instruction made her appear as if she was not listening, and fleeting eye
contact made reading social cues difficult for her.
Despite her intelligence, Mary was beginning to fall behind her peers academ­
ically. Of primary concern was her writing ability. Verbally gifted and with an active
imagination, she took pleasure in creating stories and songs. However, commit­
ting them to paper was excruciatingly slow and physically painful due to the
death grip with which she held her pencil. Even rotating the pencil in her hand to
shift from the graphite to the eraser was a task for Mary. She would typically drop
the pencil and pick it up again to gain access to the eraser.
She often simply refused to write. When she did write, legibility was impaired
by her letter reversals, uneven spacing and poor letter formation. As the rest of
the class began incorporating accurate spelling into their writing, Mary did not
seem able to break away from the phonetic ‘invented’ spelling techniques that
were taught to her in kindergarten.
Reading and mathematics were not as problematic, but she often distracted
herself during work time as she could not read or work at near point tasks for very
long. Weak motor skills and disorganisation led to additional frustration. Although
her teacher appreciated her exuberance and cheery smile, Mary was described
as a highly distractible and sometimes difficult child with learning problems
related to dyslexia/dysgraphia.

Background information
Mary’s birth was normal and she was an easy baby. She became independent at
an early age, and her curiosity was evident. She met her developmental mile­
stones early, walking and speaking in multi-syllabic words by nine months. She
appeared to be developing beautifully. As she progressed through toddler years,

16
 A neurodevelopmental approach

hints of a developmental derailing began to appear, only to be recognised by her

parents in retrospect. Since Mary was their first child, they did not realise that her
inability to dress herself, inconsistent success with toilet training, inability to
pedal her tricycle, indifference to books and puzzles, and formidable tantrums
regarding her car seat were signs of anything more than Mary’s temperament.
Although her general disposition was enthusiastic and happy, Mary could
reach emotional extremes. ‘Terrible twos’ lingered into three, four and five. Mary’s
mother recalls her pre-school teacher commenting that, at any given moment,
Mary was either the happiest or unhappiest child in the school. ‘Marching to her
own drummer’ was the theme of her kindergarten year, and it was recommended
that Mary repeat kindergarten to be given some extra time to mature socially and
emotionally. Although her second year of kindergarten was much smoother, the
academic demands of first grade set off a downward spiral of poor conduct and
poor scholastic achievement.

Observations
Mary was evaluated in late March. She performed well on many of the tasks
included in the HANDLE assessment protocol and demonstrated deficiencies in
others. Vestibular irregularities surfaced quickly, including the need to move fre­
quently in a rotating pattern, and nystagmus – a jerky movement of the eyes –
coupled with a sense of dizziness when using her eyes to track. When asked to
wear a pair of glasses with one red lens and one blue lens, Mary’s view was red
in one area, blue in another. In rapid succession, Mary saw the white objects in
the room as alternating from red to blue, indicating a visual irregularity known as
alternating suppression. Additional tests revealed that the visual functions of
tracking and binocularity were not operating optimally for Mary. Her eyes tended
to move in a jerky fashion throughout the tracking challenges, and they tired
easily when focusing at near point.
An auditory sequencing task indicated a decrease in processing upon hearing
specific sounds, and it was noted that she retained last segments best. Overflow
movements of her fingers, head and mouth were detected and a whole body
reflexive response, which should have been integrated several years earlier, were
observed. Mary lost track of her writing when her eyes were closed and she was
unable to internalise, through muscle memory, a simple repetitive movement
pattern. Additionally, the assessment revealed a weakness in the integration of
the two hemispheres of the brain.

Conclusions
A complete profile of Mary’s neurodevelopmental strengths and weaknesses was
developed using her reported history and the practitioner’s reflections on her
general behaviour and performance of the assessment tasks. Areas of concern
were identified. Several factors were identified as contributors to Mary’s difficul­
ties. Central were multiple ear infections and associated high fevers causing
weakness in the vestibular system. The vestibular system supports and regulates
audition, balance, dynamic use of the eyes, feeling at ease with where the body

17
Learning disabilities

is in space (proprioception), and having an appropriate state of readiness in

resting muscles (muscle tone). Mary’s history of motion sickness, as well as prob­
lems with balance, proprioception and visual functioning, reinforced the conclu­
sion that the vestibular system was faulty. For Mary, this translated to physical
awkwardness and she displayed timidity in the performance of motor activities.
Consequently, she avoided many typical childhood games, retreating instead to
the safety of solo fantasy play. In this, she missed important opportunities for
social learning and did not stretch herself to enhance vestibular functioning as
most children do naturally through play.
Mary did not spend a significant amount of time in the crawling stage, which
is a crucial period for the development of strong integration between the two
hemispheres of the brain. This underdeveloped area could well have accounted
for the many emotional shifts that Mary experienced, and was holding her back
from reaching her full learning potential. Mary also had unresolved tactile hyper­
sensitivities, many of which interfered with normal grooming. Her parents
reported an aversion to tickling, and roughhouse play almost always ended with
her physically striking out in a manner inconsistent with the intensity of the game.
It was not uncommon for Mary to hit or act aggressively toward other children as
a pre-schooler. She was particular about what she wore, seeking out comfort­
able clothing rather than fashionable clothes. Socks often came home in her
backpack rather than on her feet. Tactile, kinaesthetic and proprioceptive irreg­
ularities were also found to impair Mary’s abilities to express her thoughts in
writing. She had difficulty sensing where her hand was and what movement it had
made unless she monitored each movement visually. If she paid close attention
to her hand, then she became frustrated about losing the ideas she had wanted
to capture.
A weak suck reflex as an infant, coupled again with vestibular weakness, inter­
fered with the healthy development of her visual functions. Mary sometimes lost
her place while reading, her eyes tired quickly, and she had a vexing practice of
reversing letters and numbers. The systems supporting vision and her sense of
position in space were not strong enough to support reading, mathematics and
general organisation in an efficient way. Visual inefficiencies also caused Mary to
be somewhat oblivious to her surroundings. This, coupled with reduced muscle
tone, diminished her ability to interpret facial expression and body language, an
ability that is so integral to social interaction.
No wonder Mary was struggling, and was frustrated by her difficulty to prove
herself despite all the wonderful qualities she possessed. How could her learning
and behaviour improve before these root problems were identified and treated?

Recommendations
Mary and her parents were taught a programme specifically designed to
address each deficiency in her neurodevelopmental profile. The programme
was dynamic, changing over time to accommodate Mary’s progress, and incor­
porating many HANDLE treatment activities. Each recommendation was care­
fully chosen to treat lower levels of neurological sub-systems first, to ensure
that higher level systems did not become stressed by having to function without

18
 A neurodevelopmental approach

sufficiently strong supporting systems. So exercises to first strengthen the ves­

tibular system, such as rolling slowly backwards from a sitting position to the
floor and then up again and from one side to the other, were among the first on
her programme. Simple activities such as drinking water with closed eyes
through a straw manufactured with three loops along its length were recom­
mended to promote sucking in order to help her gently and naturally practise
eye convergence, as well as helping to integrate her two brain hemispheres.
Specific massage techniques related to neurodevelopment were taught to her
parents to help her tactile sensitivity and improve her proprioception.

Follow-up
For Mary, the downward spiral that began in first grade slowed, then stopped,
and then gradually shifted direction. Tears and temper tantrums began to dimin­
ish. By the end of first grade, she could read for longer periods of time and, con­
sequently, her reading skills began to flourish. By summer, the child who
previously cried at the prospect of getting her face wet was jumping off the diving
board and swimming. She learned to ride a bicycle without training wheels, and
an 800 mile car trip was noticeably devoid of stops for car sickness. With the
foundation set, she and her parents decided to give the local public school
another try in the upcoming autumn.
Starting second grade has been a new beginning for Mary. She claims that
‘second grade is a lot calmer’, but clearly it is she who is calmer. Well integrated
into the rhythm and routines of her day, school is a much less stressful place for
Mary. Hair chewing and paper tearing are no longer recreational pastimes. Instead
she is listening, reading, writing and computing. Writing is still her biggest chal­
lenge, and so she continues with specific HANDLE activities to strengthen this skill.

‘Attention Deficit Disorder’ renamed: The case of Alexis

The HANDLE approach holds a view that differs from the one implied by this
‘diagnosis’ of having a ‘lack’ of attention. It contends that no one has an atten­
tion deficit. Rather, everyone is always attending to something, and individuals
who show difficulties in sustaining attention may be blocking certain types of
stimulation and seeking others; they may have difficulties adjusting attention
flexibly to meet varying demands from the environment. Therefore, a more accu­
rate name for this set of behaviours is Attentional Priority Disorder (APD), and the
condition is neither hereditary nor irreversible. HANDLE clinicians incorporate
information gleaned from the evaluation session to discover where a specific
individual’s attentional priorities lie. Usually the answer is found in one or more of
the interactive neurological sub-systems and APD can thus be treated at its
origin, yielding permanent changes in the nervous system. That is, by resolving
issues that focus the child’s attention to more basic and pressing needs, such
that those needs are met, HANDLE frees the child to attend to social, academic,
and other demands from the environment.
While there may be genetic predispositions to neurodevelopmental disorders,
such disorders arise not through heredity but rather through interactions with the

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Learning disabilities

environment. Drugs are not used as part of the HANDLE programme so symp­
toms are not masked and problems are treated at their root causes.

Common patterns of APD

Most people who have difficulty sustaining their attention and/or adjusting easily
to the demands of changing situations show irregularities in specific neurodevel­
opmental functions on both input and output levels.
On an input level, there are frequently signs of:

• hypersensitivity to at least one modality such as touch, vision and/or sound;

• weakness in the vestibular system which supports and regulates such func­
tions as listening, eye functions, balance, knowledge of where our bodies are
in space, muscle tone and so on.

On an output level, individuals with APD may demonstrate:

• insufficient integration between the two sides of the body and brain;
• immature reflex integration and irregularity in differentiation of movement/
response.

The case of Alexis: a gifted child with diagnosed ADHD

Alexis was 7 years and 10 months old when she was referred for help. She was
in Grade 2 and had been diagnosed with ADHD, as well as auditory and
visual–motor perceptual dysfunctioning by a psychologist, neurologist and occu­
pational therapist. She had also received vision therapy. In spite of some scatter
among the scores of an IQ test, she still managed to fall within the superior range
of intelligence. The school described her as a strong-willed child who struggled
with a very short concentration span, and who was unable to sit still and listen or
focus on her work due to distractibility. They considered her to be a very clever
girl who was not reaching her potential.
On a modified Conner’s Rating Scale, her teacher gave her the highest rating
of 3 (‘Very much’) for restlessness/overactive; excitable/impulsive; disturbing
other children; failing to finish things/daydreaming; constant fidgeting; temper
outbursts/unpredictable behaviour; and a rating of 2 (‘Substantial’) for quick and
drastic mood swings and frustration if demands are not instantly met. The neurol­
ogist had prescribed Ritalin and her teacher was very supportive of this.
During the HANDLE assessment, Alexis’ mother expressed the wish that
Alexis could get along better with her friends and be less selfish and jealous.
Alexis wanted to be able to concentrate better and complete tasks before going
on to the next one, but showed a developing low self-esteem with doubts that
she would ever be able to do this or please everyone.

Background information
After a normal, easy pregnancy, Alexis’ birth had some complications. She was
a big baby, weighing 4.21 kg. After three hours of labour, she showed signs of dis­

20
 A neurodevelopmental approach

tress so was delivered with the help of forceps. She had passed and inhaled some
meconium in utero, which was suctioned from her lungs. However, her APGAR
scores were eight and subsequent development was incident free, except that
she did not have much movement stimulation as a baby. Her mother was content
to leave her in her cot or carry her around in a baby chair for most of the early
months. As long as there was something to look at, Alexis seemed to be happy
to be mainly immobile. She achieved normal motor milestones (crawling and
walking) and early language development. After experiencing colic during the first
three months, she was a healthy child with no ear infections or other significant
illnesses.
From toddler days, she showed an ever-increasing liking for movement and
constant activity. She enjoyed wild roundabout rides as well as running and
jumping, and spent long periods walking on her hands, which she mastered at 5
years. She also liked rocking on her school chair – backwards, forwards and side­
ways and did occasionally fall over. She went through phases of being clumsy,
and got numerous bruises on her legs from bumping into chairs, walls, doors and
even people. However, she was a slow starter in the mornings, showing little
urgency to begin the day, and often spent a long time just gazing at herself in the
bathroom mirror.
She was not an extremely restless sleeper but liked company in bed. She
covered her head with her blankets when she slept. She was very sensitive to
light and disliked sunlight, torchlight or waking up in the morning with her
bedroom light burning. She had a very sensitive scalp and thought that her fin­
gertips were also very sensitive to touch – hating having her fingernails trimmed.
She was extremely ticklish and disliked having anyone pretend to tickle her. Her
favourite foods were salads and french fries or fish. She was not very fond of
meat and particularly disliked the texture of chicken and some vegetables. She
was very conscious of smells and seemed to be more sensitive to odours than
most of her friends and family members.

Observations
Alexis did not move very much during the evaluation but soon expressed a liking
for eyes closed activities because she said that her eyes got tired very quickly.
She showed some uneven saccadic movements when asked to follow a moving
object with her eyes and also said that it made her dizzy. Her eyes could not con­
verge easily at close distances either. Low muscle tone was suspected when she
displayed an untidy handwriting and also showed a preference for having her
body supported by the chair or the desk. Her mother further supported the con­
clusion of low tone by commenting that Alexis was often rebuked for ‘slouching’.
She showed a dominant right hand and right eye and it seemed that her left brain
hemisphere processed information more rapidly than the right. She used a tech­
nique known as ‘cognitive override’ to cope with demanding tasks. For example,
she quickly used counting to help her master a finger tapping task.
When given a series of nonsense syllables to repeat, Alexis had some difficulty
accurately recalling syllables with the plosive ‘K’ sound, and she also forgot some
details from a sentence read out to her.

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Learning disabilities

Conclusions
Alexis’ sensitivity on her scalp and fingers and her ticklishness are indications
that her sense of touch is irregular. This, coupled with a hypersensitivity to smell
and light, can be very distracting to a child in a classroom. Her need to move, dif­
ficulty processing the ‘K’ sound, issues with visual tracking as well as her lowered
muscle tone showed that her vestibular system was weak and unable to support
the many functions for which it is responsible. Her slow adjustment to the
morning and her tendency to bump into things pointed to a weak sense of pro­
prioception. Alexis’ vision was still compromised, in spite of vision therapy. Her
light sensitivity and problems with tracking and convergence caused her to expe­
rience dizziness and headaches, and she preferred eyes closed activities
because they gave her eyes a chance to rest. Because of poor proprioception,
however, she found it necessary to depend on her eyes, which became increas­
ingly strained. Alexis needed a great amount of energy to sustain her weakened
systems during the day and her short temper and frustrations were making it hard
for her to maintain interpersonal relationships. One reason why she found it dif­
ficult to attend to language and directions from others is that their words inter­
fered with her own thoughts through which she was directing her movement.
In spite of the problems Alexis was experiencing with so many irregular
systems, she had been compensating well. She was thus using her superior intel­
lect to her advantage, but she did not have the underlying support systems for
focusing and sustaining her attention flexibly and for completing tasks. These
were leading to distress in her relationships with schoolwork as well as with
friends and adults and ultimately to her failure to realise her potential.

Recommendations
The programme designed for Alexis concentrated on activities to strengthen
weak underlying functions and to enhance the connections among the various
functions. Her programme included several activities to strengthen her vestibu­
lar system. These, as well as the special massage that was recommended to
reduce Alexis’ hypersensitivity to touch, were also targeting her muscle tone
issues, to help strengthen this crucial function.
Other simple, non-taxing activities were suggested to strengthen her visual
functions and reduce her light sensitivity, without stressing her weak vestibular
system or relying on muscle tone and differentiation of eye movements from head
movements. One of these was drinking through the ‘crazy straw’ with its many
loops and small diameter. Alexis was also encouraged to supplement her diet
with omega-3 fatty acids, to ensure myelination of those neural pathways that
the exercises were creating and strengthening.

Follow-up
Alexis’ initial assessment took place in September. By late November, her mother
reported much progress. Alexis was beginning to make friends with girls with
similar intellectual interests to her own and was coping better socially, with less

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 A neurodevelopmental approach

aggression. She also showed an improvement in her manners and behaviour at

school and home. According to reports from the school, she was sitting still and
finishing her work, and this improvement was substantiated by the school award­
ing her certificates of excellence. They no longer thought Ritalin was necessary.
Alexis is continuing her HANDLE programme. It is gratifying that the improved
ability to focus and sustain tasks has already helped to reverse her lowered self-
esteem. She now feels proud of who she is and is rapidly forgetting that she was
ever labelled as having ADHD and related learning problems.

Summary and conclusions

It is significant that labels, so commonly used to indicate a supposedly life-long

condition, do not always correctly define a problem. Too frequently those
people labelled with ADHD or dyslexia and so on are considered to be in for a
life-long struggle against an irreversible condition. Management of the condi­
tion is most often in the form of medication and/or behaviour modification
techniques that, while being empirically ‘proven’ to bring about changes in
some individuals, are seldom, if ever, able to cure the condition or be effective
enough to warrant the removal of the label. The label is merely a short-hand
way of communicating the forms of behaviour the person may be displaying in
an attempt to deal with underlying problems. Once the cause of the behaviour
has been identified, much can be done to help individuals restore efficient func­
tioning of their neurological systems. In this way, labels become redundant and
fall away.
Following much anecdotal success over the past decades, empirical research
is now underway to clarify the effect of movement on the brain, with particu­
lar reference to the exercises used by practitioners of the HANDLE approach.
The results should serve as a basis for future developments.
By applying neuroscience in order to understand the problems experienced
by many individuals with a variety of neurodevelopmental concerns, it is pos­
sible for them to gain or restore more efficient functioning. The fact that this
approach successfully identifies the causes of manifested behaviour and learn­
ing problems and treats them at their roots through simple, inexpensive activ­
ities and exercises has important implications for the well-being of many
children in education. This includes those gifted children who struggle to actu­
alise their potential because of inefficient neurobiological systems.

References

Baker, J.A., Bridger, R. and Evans, K. (1998) ‘Models of underachievement among

gifted preadolescents: The role of personal, family and school factors’. Gifted Child
Quarterly, 42(1), pp. 5–15.
Bluestone, J. (2001a) ‘Sucking and neurodevelopment: The most critical human func­
tion, with relationships to autism, bipolarity and other disorders’. Unpublished
article.

23
Learning disabilities

Bluestone, J. (2001b) Personal communication.

Cash, A.B. (1999) ‘A profile of gifted individuals with autism: The twice-exceptional
learner’. Roeper Review, 22(1), pp. 22–7.
Changeux, J.-P. and Conic, M. (eds) (1987) The Neural and Molecular Bases of Learning.
Report on the Dahlem Workshop. Berlin, 1985. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Farnham-Diggory, S. (1992) The Learning Disabled Child. Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press.
Ito, M. (1984) The Cerebellum and Neural Control. New York: Raven Press.
Le Poncin, M. (1990) Brain Fitness. American Edition, New York: Fawcett.
Leroux, J.A. and Levitt-Perlman, M. (2000) ‘The gifted child with Attention Deficit
Disorder: An identification and intervention challenge’. Roeper Review, 22(3), pp.
171–6.
Lewis, D. (2001) Personal communication with Judith Bluestone, Seattle.
Lisberger, S.G. (1988) ‘Neural bases for learning simple motor skills’. Science, Nov.
4(242), pp. 728–35.
Neihart, M. (2000) ‘Gifted children with Asperger’s Syndrome’. Gifted Child Quarterly,
44(4), pp. 222–30.
Suliteanu, M. (2001) ‘Outcomes are in the eye of the beholder’. ADVANCE
Newsmagazine, August 6, pp. 33–4.
Winner, E. (2000) ‘The origins and ends of giftedness’. American Psychologist, 55(1), pp.
159–69.

24
 The gifted and learning disabled
2 student: teaching methodology that
works
Wendy Stewart

The characteristics of Gifted and Learning Disabled (GLD) students generally

mean that they will display subject-specific weaknesses, subject-specific
strengths and often have poor organisational skills. Some GLD students may
display academic weakness across the curriculum and demonstrate their ability
with higher order thinking skills in a purely oral way. Teaching that supplies
success and builds upon strengths is essential as lack of success in school sub­
jects links directly and negatively to motivation, perceptions of self-efficacy and
self-image.
If you don’t get a chance to come to bat, you don’t get a chance to hit, accord­
ing to Gallagher (1983). GLD students create their own challenges in a sterile
educational environment that does not recognise their abilities. If their chal­
lenge is towards society, they are labelled a rebel or misfit. Those who can’t cope
challenge the system and/or drop out. In general it is true to say that if you do
not look for giftedness, you might not find it.

The characteristics of the gifted and learning disabled student

General statistics indicate that more boys than girls are identified as having a
learning disability and Bees (1998) discusses an educational programme where
of 50 students, 46 were male. This of course does not mean that there are more
gifted boys than girls, but that more boys than girls are found to have a learn­
ing disability. Ratios vary around about 4:1 boys to girls for dyslexic difficulties
although even this has been challenged by Shaywitz (1995), who suggested the
ratios are more equal and that boys are more frequently identified because they
exhibit more problem behaviour.
Some common characteristics about the GLD learner that have emerged from
the literature show that about 80 per cent of GLD students are visual spatial
learners. This may of course be a function of their poorer verbal skills and part of
a compensatory strategy. It has implications for both the 80 per cent and the 20
per cent who require different teaching strategies or different learning systems.
Psychometric assessments show a ‘zig zag’ or ‘scatter’ pattern on the
Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC) indicating weaknesses in
the sequential skills such as arithmetic, coding, information and digit span, the

25
Learning disabilities

‘ACID profile’ (Thomson 1984) characteristic of many dyslexics. This also indi­
cates limited working memory capacity, which is also affected to some extent
by anxiety, so students who are anxious about their performance in a test may
perform poorly.

Cognitive weaknesses
Students who are gifted with learning disabilities generally have difficulties in
cognitive processing in just one, but sometimes more, cognitive areas, rather
than affecting overall intellectual ability (Beckley 1999). Difficulties with
spelling are very common, including reversals in reading and writing letters of
the alphabet (Pendarvis et al. 1990); poor reading, writing and spelling skills
(Mendaglio 1993); possibly problems with phonics and therefore spelling
(Willard-Holt 1999; Silverman 1997b); language deficits (Elliston 1993); and dif­
ficulty in memorising spelling (Dix and Schafer 1996). One side of the argument
would say that this indicates problems with auditory sequential processing
impairments (Silverman 1994a; van Tassell-Baska 1992).
However, research done by Vellutino (1979) and Vellutino and Scanlon (1987)
and followed up by Montgomery (1997) does not support this premise. These
authors state that the problem is a phonological processing difficulty which
then makes all verbal tasks difficult to code, and we see deficits in digit span,
coding, arithmetic, naming tasks in general and learning of the alphabet. Thus
when students have difficulty with segmenting and encoding in spelling, they
appear to have auditory sequencing difficulties, however, the underlying cause
is actually the phonological processing problem.
Another problem is the quantity of writing that these students produce. They
may have untidy handwriting (Fall and Nolan 1993; Silverman 1997b) and they
find it difficult to actually get thoughts down on paper (Hishinuma 1996a). In
addition, the use of sentence structure, punctuation and grammar is more basic
(Dix and Schafer 1996).
Reading is an area of frustration to both the GLD student and the teacher
because the student displays obvious inconsistencies when reading aloud, such
as good comprehension but poor reading skills, or good reading skills but poor
comprehension (Dix and Schafer 1996).
Mathematics is another area of difficulty where GLD students may have
problems such as with numeric transpositions, and often, problems with basic
computations which require ability with coding and rote learning (Willard-Holt
1999).

Metacognitive weaknesses
Organisational skills are an area of concern and GLD students often stand out
because of their obvious lack of organisation. An inability to organise them­
selves results in lower school marks, few successes and low motivation. On a
practical level this is demonstrated by the inability to locate the appropriate
materials or implements, failing to complete or hand in assignments, lack of
time management skills, and poor concentration skills (Willard-Holt 1999; Toll

26
 The gifted and learning disabled student

1993). An inability to organise time management skills, goal setting skills and
study skills leaves these students feeling frustrated and negative about their
schooling experiences (Westwood 1995; Rimm 1997).
While most people display some anxiety in a test situation, the GLD student
is particularly disadvantaged. Memory and sequencing ability are vital skills in
any test situation, so anxiety produced under test conditions would contribute
to an increase in short-term memory problems, particularly rote learning prob­
lems and sequencing ability (Willard-Holt 1999; Lerner 1993; Elliston 1993).
GLD students may also have long-term memory problems involved in process­
ing, storage and retrieval of information. These difficulties with rote memorisa­
tion, sequential learning and performance are particularly obvious under timed
conditions (Willard-Holt 1999; van Tassell-Baska 1992). Finally, the GLD
student often has difficulties remembering more than three directions at once
because of poor short-term aural memory (Vaidya 1993; Silverman 1997a).
There are implications for the teacher when a student learns more easily from
visual presentation and has trouble with tasks which are auditory in nature (Dix
and Schafer 1996).

Negative affective impact

Often the GLD student has a poor self-concept, with low self-esteem. These stu­
dents, lacking appropriate goal setting skills, set extremely high goals for them­
selves and are very critical of themselves when they fail to reach these goals
(Lupart 1989; Baum 1990; Conover 1996). Poor skills in goal setting also lead to
unrealistic expectations, an overly optimistic view of their progress and failure
to complete assignments (Willard-Holt 1999; Davis and Rimm 1994). This of
course contributes to a sense of low personal control over their lives, with an
external rather than an internal locus of control. An external locus of control
means that the student accepts responsibility for failures, but not for successes.
A history of lack of success with schooling means that the GLD student is also
often reluctant to take educational risks (Dix and Schafer 1996). GLD students
may also suffer from an over developed sense of perfectionism, the type of per­
fectionism which paralyses rather than produces good work (Conover 1996).
GLD students have some personal characteristics in common. Impulsivity,
where emotions can overpower reasoning, often a case of ‘think it/do it’ before
reason steps in, is a real problem (Silverman 1994b, 1997b; van Tassell-Baska
1992). The GLD student also often displays characteristics associated with
ADD, such as risk-taking, speaking out of turn, rough behaviour and an inabil­
ity to relate consequences to actions (Vaidya 1993; Beckley 1999). Aggression,
carelessness, low frustration levels and disruptive behaviours are all common,
particularly in upper primary and middle school levels (Baum et al. 1989;
Elliston 1993). No-one likes to admit to a perceived failing, so again, the GLD
student attempts to hide the learning disability and acts out frustration in rough
behaviour (Dix and Schafer 1996).
Negativity towards their educational experience is an on-going problem.
These students use their undoubted intelligence in negative ways as defence
mechanisms. These include voluble expressions of boredom; criticisms of

27
Learning disabilities

school or teachers; diversion of topics to those they feel comfortable discussing;

creative avoidance of difficult tasks; absolute refusal to perform in areas of
weakness; or becoming the class clown (Baum 1990; Korinek 1992; Scott 1993).
On the other hand, sometimes there is the passive, withdrawn GLD student.
These students are chronically inattentive, and daydream the day away (Scott
1993; Silverman 1994b). They find it difficult to settle down and pay attention,
and are often unable to follow directions (Willard-Holt 1999; Pendarvis et al.
1990). Whichever way the GLD student responds to the situation, either by
acting out or passively withdrawing, the large majority will also be supersen­
sitive, possibly over-reacting to even the mildest criticism.

Socialisation difficulties
Socialisation problems, in school and within the family, contribute to the lack
of self-esteem. These students do not seem easily to read body language and so
make mistakes in their assessment of a situation (Mendaglio 1993; Piirto 1994).
This means that many GLD students find it more difficult to relate to their
peers, preferring adult company (Bees 1998; Hishinuma 1993). Most teachers
will have encountered the student who prefers to walk with the teacher on yard
duty and discuss a topic at an adult level because the student has had trouble
making friends.

Perceptuomotor difficulties
One last problem affecting the self-image of the GLD student is that some have
poor visual motor integration. Often, physical problems such as a tendency
towards clumsiness mean that these are the students who inevitably kick the
teacher’s chair each time they squeeze past it! Outside the classroom, problems
with motor skills, for example, poor ball handling skills, ensure that these stu­
dents are among the last to be chosen on a team, or difficulties copying neatly
from the blackboard all contribute to low self-esteem (Fall and Nolan 1993; Dix
and Schafer 1996).

The strengths of the gifted and learning disabled student

High scores on the WISC in vocabulary, similarities, block design, abstract

reasoning and spatial reasoning indicate a wide vocabulary which is used
well, and generally, good visual spatial skills (Baum et al. 1989; Hishinuma
1996).

Cognitive strengths
The GLD student, as would be expected from high WISC scores in this area, has
a high level of oral expression, with excellent communication skills and verbal
adeptness, an above average vocabulary, and good creative, expressive ability.
All of these skills allow the student to demonstrate superior abilities in class dis­

28
 The gifted and learning disabled student

cussions, however, these skills are not easily transposed into written work
(Willard-Holt 1999; Clark 1994).
As would be expected from a gifted student, students with GLD often have
a wide variety of interests and intellectual curiosity (Baum 1990; Elliston 1993).
On the other hand, some prefer to become an ‘expert’ in a specific subject, dis­
playing great knowledge of and passion for a topic. Of course, this topic may
not necessarily be related to school subjects (Toll 1993; Korinek 1992).
The complex nature of students with GLD means that where their giftedness
is not compromised by aspects of their specific learning disability, these stu­
dents have the chance to show their exceptional abilities. Providing the learn­
ing disability does not affect mathematical skills, they will often display
exceptional skills in mathematical reasoning, geometry and science (Willard-
Holt 1999; Piirto 1994). Also in mathematics, GLD students are often intuitive
thinkers who arrive at the correct solution without writing down the basic steps
taken (Silverman 1997b; Rivera et al. 1995). From an early age on they may dem­
onstrate extraordinary capability with spatial tasks such as puzzles and mazes
(Silverman 1994a).
Where the visual memory is not affected by the specific learning disability,
they have a keen visual memory, and are quickly able to perceive spatial rela­
tionships (Silverman 1997b). The students are also often particularly skilled
with computers, as the logic of computing suits them (Silverman 1994a; Piirto
1994). They often have great strengths in a creative or technological area, dis­
playing strong artistic, musical or mechanical aptitude (Willard-Holt 1999).
Often these students excel in one modality of learning such as aural or kinaes­
thetic channels (Dix and Schafer 1996). Despite having previously indicated
that spelling is generally an area of weakness, some students with GLD are very
successful spellers because of their strong visualisation skills, as they learn
words in a visual fashion (Dix and Schafer 1996).

Metacognitive strengths
GLD students are very capable users of higher order thinking skills to develop
their problem solving abilities. They use their superior reasoning abilities in
complex concepts such as lateral thinking, abstract thinking and problem
solving (Willard-Holt 1999; Fall and Nolan 1993). GLD students are often diver­
gent thinkers and the teacher can expect the use of unusual, original, imagina­
tive and creative thought processes, which are all difficult to judge, and often
overlooked in the gifted student (Baum et al. 1989; Toll 1993). They also display
flexibility and fluency in generating new ideas (Dix and Schafer 1996). These
are the students who will ask astute questions and in general, they have very
good comprehension skills (Silverman 1997a) and supply the teacher with pen­
etrating insights about the topic being studied, however, these insights do tend
to be verbal rather than written.
The ability to generate complex ideas and to be able to grasp complex rela­
tionships, together with a sophisticated sense of humour, means that the
student is easily able to grasp satire, metaphors and analogies. This ability
enables GLD students to understand and appreciate adult humour well before

29
Learning disabilities

their chronological peers (Willard-Holt 1999; Scott 1993). These are the students
who are systems thinkers, who are able to take a holistic overview, who
are comfortable with complexity and pattern seeking (Willard-Holt 1999;
Silverman 1997b). It is a source of confusion for the teacher when these students
thrive on complexity and learn complex systems easily, but struggle with easy
work.

Positive affective impact

It is possible for GLD students to display amazing productivity and motivation,
especially when their personal interests are involved – unfortunately school
work does not often fall into this category (Baum et al. 1993; Korinek 1992). In
addition, GLD students also have a strong sense of fair play and justice which
will become very evident in verbal discussions (Davis and Rimm 1994). It is
most likely that GLD students will hand in their best work when they are
encouraged to work on their own (Elliston 1993).

Teaching methodology

Academic practicalities
The successful teacher will show these students the big, holistic picture first,
explaining why they are doing the work, what they will achieve by doing it and
where they will be at the end of it (Silverman 1997b). Flexible teachers who are
prepared to provide alternatives to the traditional styles of delivery and assess­
ment of student work are essential. ‘Chalk and talk’ is one delivery style that
teachers appear to feel very comfortable with, however, it is important to
remember that there will be students who are seriously disadvantaged if this is
the only delivery style. It is always a good idea to try to eliminate sources of dis­
traction. A teacher could ask the student to sit in the front rows, could try to
provide a quieter, less distracting environment in the classroom, perhaps
provide earphones (or for adolescents who do not wish to stand out from the
crowd, perhaps a Walkman) to help block out noise when concentration is
needed, and lastly, touch the student’s shoulder or establish eye contact before
speaking (van Tassell-Baska 1992). Depending on the learning disability, the
teacher could either provide tapes of lectures or photocopied notes of lectures
from which the student can make notes. It is vital that the teacher ensures all
assignments or directions are written down. The student is more likely to forget
vital details unless they are written down where the student can easily access
them (Silverman 1997b; Brody and Mills 1997). Rhythm and music can be used
to help memorisation, ranging from singing the times tables to bouncing a bas­
ketball while essential rote learning occurs. The teacher could try giving two
marks for assignments, with one (weighted more heavily) for content and one
for the mechanics such as grammar and spelling (Silverman 1997b). It is also
important to teach with empathy and understanding, and most of all, to make
use of humour (Silverman 1997b; Bees 1998). Inclusive teaching methodology,

30
 The gifted and learning disabled student

where subject matter is presented in a variety of ways to students, and an

emphasis on performance based assessment, allows students to demonstrate
mastery using an array of products. Indeed the emphasis on assessment should
be taken away from the traditional written essay (Nidiffer and Moon 1995;
Fetzer 2000). Electronic assistive technology, both hardware and software pro­
grammes, has come a long way and can be particularly useful. When the teacher
allows the use of word processors or lap-top computers to help with grammar,
spelling and writing, anxiety about the mechanics of writing is lessened ena­
bling the student to focus on producing creative work. The lap-top computer
should be lightweight and robust and able to connect to a printer. It becomes
possible for the student to produce their best work when the teacher also encour­
ages the use of calculators, cameras, video recorders and cassette recorders
(Baum 1990; Fetzer 2000).
Students with GLD often have poor time management skills, so it is recom­
mended that they be given extra time in tests or examinations, which may help
avoid anxiety and aid information retrieval (Bley and Thornton 1995). The
teacher could even allow the student to take the test at home or give oral tests,
or untimed tests (Silverman 1997b; Brody and Mills 1997). It is essential to make
sure students know they are not in competition with others for marks, but com­
peting against themselves.

Cognitive interventions
At all times it is important to remember that we are dealing with gifted students
so it is necessary to provide instruction that appeals to the higher reasoning
abilities which the gifted and learning disabled student excels in, rather than
rote learning or drill-and-practice. For example, in spelling, concentrate on
rule-based learning, or origins of words, rather than rote memorisation
(Hishinuma 1993; Nidiffer and Moon 1995) and remember to use a sight recog­
nition approach to reading, as well as phonics based instruction, because each
methodology has its uses (van Tassell-Baska 1992). The teacher should encour­
age reading for fun and make use of fantasy (Silverman 1993, 1997b).
It is important to recognise prior mastery of a topic, and provide suitable cur­
riculum modification because gifted students do not appreciate going over
work that they have already mastered (Nidiffer and Moon 1995). The empathic
teacher would encourage these students to discover their own methods for
problem solving (Silverman 1997b) and aid motivation by teaching to their
interests, providing meaningful topics or real world problems that are high
interest, challenging and nurturing of the individual strengths of the GLD
student. Where possible the teacher should use an interdisciplinary orientation,
allowing transfer of techniques and information (Nidiffer and Moon 1995;
Korinek 1992). On the other hand, it is equally important that the student is
aware of areas of individual weakness. To support these areas where possible,
teach gifted and learning disabled students strategies to compensate for their
learning problems. Provide structured, explicit work sheets which are simply
and clearly set out. Where possible, provide a graphic organiser (Swartz and
Parks 1994) which forces the student to follow a certain way of completing an

31
Learning disabilities

assignment. Give students direct instruction in basic skills, specifically teaching

time management skills, self-management skills, and study skills such as note
taking (try teaching note taking in pictorial form), sequencing, summarising,
reviewing, memorising and test taking skills (Korinek 1992; van Tassell-Baska
1992). It would also be valuable to do some work on goal setting, where large
goals are broken down into small, achievable and timetabled steps, so that the
student has a plan of study to work towards, including due dates for assign­
ments (Brody and Mills 1997). The GLD student finds being organised particu­
larly difficult, so it is necessary to provide advance organisers to help in both
receiving and communicating information such as syllabus notes, lecture notes,
or study guides for each topic (Baum 1990). It would be useful to provide com­
prehension checklists to help with written materials (Dix and Schafer 1996). For
those times when ‘all the lights are on but no-one is home’ get students to repeat
instructions given to them. A strategy to prevent overloading of memory is to
give instructions in chunks of less than three items together, to organise infor­
mation given into related groups and to make it meaningful by linking it to
something students already know about (Lerner 1993).
One very practical intervention is to simply reduce the amount of written
work required and ask the student to devise some other means of proving
mastery (Rivera et al. 1995). Other strategies to support a poor short term
memory are to promote the use of visualisation and hands-on experiences, to
teach the use of mnemonics for those facts that must be remembered, and to
emphasise concepts, not dates or names (Baum 1990; Silverman 1993, 1997c).
Always encourage students to make lists of things to be remembered
(Silverman 1997b) and teach students to use mind maps or concept webs. This
is beneficial as a strategy because it helps students to organise their thoughts in
a logical fashion before beginning the written assignment, firstly by brain­
storming, then by placing all useful information in an order of priority. Lastly,
the use of loose-leaf folders should be promoted, where work can be inserted
as necessary. The ring binder allows the students to carry all their work in the
one folder, which in theory, is less likely to be misplaced (Silverman 1997b).
When teaching mathematics, new concepts need to be presented concretely,
allowing for a ‘hands-on’ approach, which will help with the transfer of the
concept to written symbols (Chinn and Ashcroft 1993; Nidiffer and Moon 1995).
The empathic teacher would allow the student to use multiplication charts
(Silverman 1997a), and to use calculators to avoid getting bogged down with
basic computation or rote facts (Bley and Thornton 1995). It is also important to
encourage the student to make an estimate before actual computation as a
‘reality check’ (Chinn and Ashcroft 1993).
Teachers should remember to use more over-learning than usual, to help
overcome memory deficits (Korinek 1992). If possible, encourage the student to
‘talk aloud’ a problem, as this allows the teacher to find basic errors of under­
standing which may then be corrected (Korinek 1992; Bley and Thornton 1995).
The teacher should also remember that full automaticity in number facts is
more difficult for these students, so the process/discovery approach used on its
own in mathematics lessons will disadvantage them and revision, re-teaching
and over-learning are essential (Chinn and Ashcroft 1993). Again using music,

32
 The gifted and learning disabled student

rhythm or singing will help with rote learning facts (Munro 1996). The teacher
could also try using daily speed and accuracy tests where students compete
against themselves, and not each other (Westwood 1993). Particularly in the
primary school, teachers could use a multisensory approach, especially a
tactile/kinaesthetic one, to both teaching and learning, with as much variety as
possible (Scott 1993; Dix and Schafer 1996).

Metacognitive interventions
It is very easy for teachers to notice the specific learning disability and to ignore
the gifted aspect of the student. Therefore, it is important to try to focus atten­
tion on the development of the gift/talent in its own right and supply a pro­
gramme which enriches rather than remediates, by paying attention to the areas
of strength and not to the disability (Baum et al. 1989, 1993; Gentry and Neu
1998; Ingleheart 1998; Fetzer 2000). Teachers who enjoy working with GLD stu­
dents will relish and reward divergent thinking and creativity (Baum 1990;
Silverman 1997b). They will also supply a supportive environment that values
and appreciates individual abilities. Often the use of mentors from outside the
school, as role models, removes the potential for conflict and recognises that the
student has talents to develop (Brody and Mills 1997).
As mentioned earlier, it is important to help gifted and learning disabled stu­
dents become aware of their strengths and weaknesses by assisting them to
cope with the wide discrepancies between the two (Baum et al. 1993; Reis et al.
2000). Interventions could include increasing self awareness, self esteem, and
self management with appropriate activities, and building successes into the
teaching programme. Students in general will find themselves more motivated
to succeed when the teacher encourages them to take their part in active learn­
ing and decision making (Korinek 1992; Bees 1998).

Affective interventions
Poor self image and low self esteem need to be improved by teaching directly
to the affective areas, by verbalising specific strengths, by giving training in
social skills, by working to improve self esteem and self confidence, with the
end result of developing responsibility and leadership (Hishinuma 1993). The
teacher and the GLD student together could consider group counselling, one-
on-one counselling and parental counselling (Silverman 1993; Brody and Mills
1997). It cannot be stated too often that teaching that addresses the gifted poten­
tial, rather than emphasising remediation, is an affirmation of ability, which the
student needs to counteract the negative experiences of the specific learning
disability (Bees 1998; Gentry and Neu 1998). The empathic teacher will also
provide a meaningful connection with schooling for disenchanted students,
helping them set goals that link schooling to their life after school. It is also
important to encourage self advocacy and self knowledge in order to request
appropriate accommodations (Reis et al. 2000). There is even a case for a ‘per­
sonal coach’ who advocates for the student where necessary and supplies
encouragement, attention, support and positive feedback (Reis and McCoach

33
Learning disabilities

2000). Lastly, the teacher should carry a giant pencil case at all times! This pencil
case should be filled with as many spare pens, pencils, rulers, erasers etc. as pos­
sible. These are made available in a non-judgemental and empathic way as the
need arises. GLD students do not need to be reminded about their ‘failings’, this
happens often enough.

Practicalities – a personal teaching programme

If students don’t learn from the way you teach, you have to teach the way students do
learn.
Until recently little has been published about the GLD student and secondary
education; even less has been published about designing a curriculum for this
type of student. The problem appears to be that this information is very general,
for example, ‘teach study skills’ or ‘teach time management skills’. This is of
very little help to the classroom teacher ‘at the chalkface’ and the remainder of
this chapter deals with a programme developed by the author, over the last five
years, which attempts to address this issue. With two formally identified GLD
children of her own, it became clear that when these children began school, they
were going to be educationally disadvantaged because of a lack of knowledge
at classroom level. This provided the impetus for the author to complete a
Master of Gifted Education, specialising in the GLD student.
Burton and Halliwell (2001: 28) define curriculum as a ‘dynamic and complex
social process’ which, of necessity, involves ‘teachers, children, knowledge and
milieu’ but to this they add the importance of the social setting (wherever teach­
ing of the particular curriculum takes place). Thus the subject matter of a par­
ticular curriculum should be expanded to take into account the complexity of
interactions of the social setting – the people, the places, the educational ethos.
Until now, with regard to the GLD student, very little has been done to change
the educational ethos in secondary schooling. Reis et al. (2000) in their study of
USA college students, advocate teaching specific compensatory strategies such
as study skills, efficient learning skills, use of electronic assistive technology
and practical (environmental) accommodations, all of which have been previ­
ously discussed. Remembering that a specific learning disability normally
involves a processing deficit, and as this programme is firmly set in a secondary
campus, it was decided to provide learning strategies that would enhance the
way information was processed, that is, cognitive strategies. However, a multi­
disciplinary approach, across the curriculum, might be more possible in a
primary educational setting.
The work done by these researchers provided support for the premise of
concentrating on cognitive strategies. It discussed how a successful pro­
gramme for high achieving university students with a learning disability com­
monly addressed the areas of study techniques, specific training which
compensated for the learning disability and subject specific strategies. Sadly,
this article stressed how many negative attitudes to secondary schooling could
have been reversed if these coping strategies and skills had been taught then,
rather than at college. Counselling was another vital component taking up
much scheduled time with their students. However, they all stressed the value

34
 The gifted and learning disabled student

of counselling and remarked that one third of lesson time was taken up in
counselling.
The author teaches in Adaptive Education at St Ignatius’ College, a Jesuit
school. One aspect of the Jesuit Charism is to encourage students to develop
their abilities to become the best person that they possibly can. In this setting it
was obvious that some clearly gifted students were underachieving and even
educationally at risk. Personally and anecdotally, it appeared that Year 9 GLD
students were at a crucial stage and this idea is supported by Bees (1998), who
stated that this is an absolutely crucial year in student education. It will be no
surprise then, to note that the majority of students who work with the author
are in Year 9.
The ingredients for the development of the following programme were a
cohort of underachieving but obviously gifted students in Years 7 to 10 (an area
of greatest need initially); a teacher with an interest in GLD students and the
qualifications to devise a programme; a programme based entirely around the
needs of students; and a school prepared to pay for the luxury of a teacher
working with small groups of students with GLD (who are after all, not really
failing!). Students are invited to work with the author after the following steps
have been taken: the first step is that initial problems in the student’s organisa­
tion have been identified by a subject or home-group teacher; occasionally,
parents may request the author’s intervention because of concerns at home or
problems at school that they are aware of; and the student fits the GLD profile
(here an IQ test would be an obvious help). The next step is formally to contact
the parents of the student to discuss school and parental concerns, and where
possible, to answer any queries. Lastly, the student is offered the chance to com­
plete an introductory session to gain a ‘feel’ for what it will be like.
Limitations of the programme include: time constraints; there are many more
students requiring help than only one teacher can supply, thus there are a
limited number of lessons available; space is limited because other Adaptive
Education students share the same room and there is no home base for GLD stu­
dents; the school has an academic reputation and some teachers are curriculum
driven, they find it difficult to flex and teach inclusively; the emphasis of this
programme is on organisational skills (time management, study and personal
organisation) and there are other areas that should, but cannot, be included.

Our curriculum, the ‘work smart’ programme

In preference to a title that had connotations of remedial education, this pro­
gramme was named ‘Work Smart’. The emphasis is not on working any harder
but on working smarter to achieve a better result. Realistically, it is impossible
to develop an individual educational plan for each student. Thus the pro­
gramme is based on common characteristics of GLD students in general.
Individualisation of the programme is achieved to a limited degree by making
the programme student-centred in two main ways. First, it is important to note
that teaching of specific skills is not done in isolation but in conjunction with
subject matter the student is having problems with and wishes to work upon.
Students are given an overview of what will be taught and some time is spent

35
Learning disabilities

discussing and understanding the individual components of the overview.

They are then encouraged to ask to work on a skill that they think will be useful
for their current assignment, giving them some ownership of what is being
taught. Second, to keep student interest high and focused on content, we use
many short quizzes or questionnaires to help students learn more about them­
selves and which are based on skills to be developed. For example, ‘How well
do I manage my time?’ or ‘What type of learner am I?’ It is a very human char­
acteristic to be interested in the results of a survey that has been completed.

Outline of the ‘work smart’ programme: a learning spiral to be revisited

21. Introduction, sharing of information. Find out what each student wants
help with. Use of colour, highlighters, scheduling homework. Breaking
work down into achievable goals.
22. Know yourself, an introduction to discovering personal strengths and
weaknesses as a learner. Learning styles and modalities. Right brain, left
brain. Multiple intelligences. Questionnaire.
23. Setting up an environment for active learning. Home and school.
24. Making dull subjects more interesting. Making effective use of technology
to improve quality of work.
25. Homework – breaking work requirements into sections. Effective time­
tabling of sections of work to be done. Understanding own strengths and
weaknesses as a learner. Using knowledge of these to improve quality of
homework.
26. Motivation. Procrastination. How to combat. Self esteem, self efficacy.
Bananas v. Oranges. Homework – setting up for effective homework.
Knowing your preferred ways of learning efficiently. What can you change?
Test to discover personality type for work at home.
27. Active reading skills, taking charge of your assigned reading. Reading
skills revisited.
28. Tips for speed reading. Reading skills revisited.
29. Reading for different reasons – speed, enjoyment, challenge, study, and
how to make the best use of your time.
10. Active reading skills, a selection of strategies. SQ3R, 3S etc.
11. Active reading skills, highlighting key words, topic sentences.
12. Review/revise – use it or lose it. Part 1.
13. Note-taking, continuing with topic sentences and key words. Practice
session.
14. Note-taking, another practice session.
15. Research skills. Organising notes from research.
16. Mnemonics, chunking, silly sentences.
17. Brainstorming. Organising your thoughts. Prioritising ideas.
18. Graphic organisers.
19. Essay writing from notes. The topic sentence. Scaffolding. Practice session.
20. Essay writing, the paragraph. Scaffolding. Practice session.
21. Essay writing, linking ideas together. Practice session.
22. Habits of highly effective teenagers.

36
 The gifted and learning disabled student

23. Habits of highly effective teenagers continued.

24. Review, revise. Use it or lose it. Part 2.
25. Learning for a test. Organising knowledge in preparation for a test – mne­
monics, silly sentences, chunking. Sitting for tests, anxiety response, medi­
tation (safe place). Having a wide knowledge of suitable techniques to aid
learning for tests. Using selected techniques as required. What to do if ‘you
go blank’ in a test.
26. Learning for exams. Organising knowledge in preparation for an exam.
Trial questions. What exactly does the teacher ask? – decoding the question.
Brainstorming. Writing an effective answer.

Below is a sample of a letter that students are expected to take home and com­
plete with the help of their family. Most students genuinely wish to improve
their skills but do not know how to go about it. It is a good starting point.

Dear …………………………… (and family),

You have been invited to work with me and develop skills to help with
your education and learning. I will certainly do my best to help you
develop these skills. However, to improve your skills requires your input
and dedication as well as mine. Please think carefully about the following
questions, answer them, and discuss your answers with your family.
Unless you have the desire to improve your skills and be more successful
in your studies, I can be of little help.
Q: Are you hoping or planning to fail this year?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
You are right of course, no one plans to fail. However, are you planning to
succeed this year?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Q: How much do you want to succeed this year, next year and in the
future?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Q: Are you prepared to do whatever is necessary to achieve this year’s
goals?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Q: Are you prepared to make sacrifices in order to achieve these goals?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Q: Are you prepared to make a commitment to your study?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Q: Do you understand that you will have to work harder than many other
students to achieve a similar result to them?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Q: Are you prepared to work an extra thirty minutes each night to put in
extra effort?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
Q: Are you prepared to put in ‘catch up time’ on weekends if required?
…………………………………………………………………………………….
‘A journey of a thousand miles begins with the first step.’

37
Learning disabilities

Summary and conclusions

Gifted and Learning Disabled students not only have weaknesses, they also
have strengths and it is these that teachers need to concentrate more upon in all
areas of the curriculum. To help them there is a wide range of strategies that can
be used to support the learning of rote items and conceptual aspects and these
have been outlined in this chapter under the subheadings cognitive, metacog­
nitive and affective aspects.
GLD students are intensely aware of their difficulties and shortcomings and
need someone who will advocate for and support them especially if counsel­
ling is not available. In order to cope in their areas of difficulty they need time
and someone to teach them strategies for overcoming or compensating for
them. What they especially need is recognition and support for what they can
do and are successful in and recognition also for their differentness. This is all
too clearly expressed in the following poem by a doubly exceptional student.

‘Square and Brown Inside’1

He always wanted to explain things but nobody cared, so he drew.

Sometimes he would just draw and it was anything.

He wanted to carve it on stone or write it in the sky,

And it would be the sky and things inside him that needed saying,

And it was a beautiful picture.

He kept it under his pillow and would let no one see it,

And he would look down at it every night and think about it,

And when it was dark and his eyes were closed he could see it still,

And it was all of him and he loved it . . .

When he started school he brought it with him,

Not to show anyone else.

Just to have it with him like a friend.

It was funny at school. He sat at a square brown desk,

Just like all the other square brown desks, and he had thought it would be red.

And his room was a square brown room like all the other rooms,

and it was tight and close and stiff.

He hated to hold the pencil and chalk with his arms stiff and his feet flat on the

floor,
stiff, with the teacher watching and watching.
The teacher came and spoke to him.
She told him to wear a tie like all the other boys.
He said he didn’t like them and she said it didn’t matter.
After that they drew . . . and he drew all yellow and it was the way he felt about
morning and it was beautiful.
The teacher came along and smiled at him. ‘What’s this?’ she said.
‘Why don’t you draw something like Ken’s drawing? Isn’t it lovely?’
After that his mother bought him a tie like everyone else and . . . he always drew
aeroplanes and rocket ships like everyone else.

He threw his old picture away.

38
 The gifted and learning disabled student

And then he lay alone looking at the sky and it was big and blue and all of
everything but he wasn’t anymore.
He was brown and square inside and his hands were still and he was like everyone
else.
And the thing inside that needed saying didn’t anymore.
It had stopped pushing and was crowded.
Crushed.
Stiff . . . like everything else.

Note

1
Gifted and Talented Children’s Association of South Australia Magazine. Newsletter. No. 31,
October 1983. (Reprinted with kind permission of the editor, R. Stewart.) (This poem
was handed to an English teacher shortly before its 14-year-old author committed
suicide.)

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41
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia
3 Diane Montgomery

Nearly 90 years ago Edith Norrie, a Danish dyslexic, taught herself to read and
write using an articulatory phonic system. In the UK her method is still used by
dyslexia teachers, especially those taught at the Helen Arkell Centre in Surrey,
and the Edith Norrie Letter Case (1917, 1982) is available.
Edith was born into an affluent and educated family so she had every normal
opportunity to become literate but did not do so although she was an intelli­
gent child. Her motivation to learn to read as an adult was that she needed to
read her fiancé’s letters from the war front. If she could teach herself then it is
likely that many other dyslexics since then have also learned to do so, though
like her they come to literacy late. Literacy is even more prized today and very
bright young children can become exceedingly upset when they see others
whom they regard as much less clever easily learning to read and write.
Whenever reading or writing is about to begin these children cause disrup­
tion or refuse to work and seek by all manner of devices to evade the task. They
are then seen as disruptive rather than in need of special help. Other children’s
frustration can lead them into passive states of evasion and withdrawal such
that they can become emotionally depressed. To survive these stresses the pupil
needs a very supportive family and an advocate or learning mentor in school.
While other children are learning literacy skills and all about the structure of
text the bright dyslexics will be engaged in compensatory learning activities if
the class environment is supportive. They can become highly talented at com­
municating ideas through cartoons and diagrams or by using movement and
drama, or they may focus on becoming a ‘technowhizz’, a computer expert. If
they have musical and sport opportunities and find some aspect in which they
can achieve, this can help them enormously and save them from emotional and
behavioural distress. It is not too much to insist that some special route to
achievement needs to be found for every dyslexic while the literacy skills are
being remediated and brought up to grade level.
Many dyslexics do eventually learn to read adequately, if slowly, but all too
frequently their spelling remains disabled. This is perhaps not surprising as
reading is easier to learn because it is a recognition activity with all the details
already present, whereas spelling is a recall skill when words have to be recon­
structed in their perfect form in the absence of any help. It is characteristic of
gifted children that they have very good memories and they may learn to read

42
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

very quickly purely based upon visual memorising. At the age of about eight
when the curriculum demands magnify they will begin to have difficulties
which will be seen in the reading of more technical vocabulary and in their
written work with problems in spelling. Some, because of deeper learning dis­
abilities and confusing teaching strategies, may fail to learn to begin to read
until about the age of eight years. By the time they do learn, dyslexics may have
lost five or more years of literacy learning and practice time or all of the primary
school years, and their interest and motivation to become literate may also have
been blunted by successive failures and loss of self esteem. Often the behaviou­
ral problems gain them referral for help rather than the dyslexia.
Dyslexics have many icons for forebears who have achieved greatness
despite the odds, and not all have been born into famous families. A few such
icons are Duncan Goodhew, swimmer; Susan Hampshire, actor; Michael
Heseltine, businessman and politician. Some other famous dyslexics have been
Sir Winston Churchill, Hans Christian Andersen, Leonardo Da Vinci, Albert
Einstein, Oliver Goldsmith and Sir Walter Scott.
At a local level many of the shipwrights and motor engineers I know left
school early and went into a skills occupation in which they are now recognised
for their special gifts and talents, but their bills reveal their dyslexia. Currently
50 per cent of the students on my distance learning MA SpLD programme are
‘recovered’ dyslexics who have fought their way through the system mostly
unidentified until late in their careers and who want to prevent young people,
often their own children, avoid such distress. Dyslexia is one of the most
common forms of double exceptionality and has serious educational conse­
quences for bright children.

How dyslexia manifests itself

While a wide range of difficulties have been associated with the dyslexic condi­
tion in the school age child, the educational issues of most concern are an inabil­
ity to learn to read and spell at a level consistent with the child’s age and ability.
The spelling difficulties may be compounded by additional difficulties in hand­
writing due to mild or more severe fine motor coordination problems
(Montgomery 1997a, b). This discrepancy definition is widely used to identify
those in the most need for the meagre resources on offer. In research a two year
decrement between reading and chronological age is usually taken as the cut-off
point to define the population. The DES (1972) recommended that the decrement
for remedial provision should be 20 per cent, with reading the lower. However,
many bright dyslexics by this measure read at or near their age level but with IQs
in the region of 140+ do have severe dyslexic difficulties. Other dyslexics do not
have and never have had reading problems and so are excluded from the help
they desperately need but they do have spelling problems (dysorthographia).
At the adult level, as my teacher education courses in dyslexia unfolded, a
number of ‘closet’ dyslexics revealed themselves. In timed examinations their
condition easily revealed itself by the nature and number of their spelling
errors. They would make on average between 20 and 30 errors, and write about

43
Learning disabilities

a third less than other students as they selected vocabulary they could spell and
took longer to reconstruct some of their spellings. Regression to some very basic
primary grade misspellings could be seen in these scripts and in extremis
mirror writing occurred in one or two cases. Some of them only realised they
were dyslexic on following the Learning Difficulties course! All of them needed
help with spelling rather than reading. Their reading was competent although
it was usually slow and they often had to read a piece of text several times to
extract its meaning. This became increasingly problematic as the texts grew
more academic and complex.
Note-taking in lectures was particularly difficult. Susan could not write notes
and follow the argument at the same time. Brenda found lectures as they pro­
gressed ran too fast for her. Susan’s response was only to study when she had
an essay or assignment to do, whereas Brenda would go over her notes from
lectures, borrow those of friends and read around the subject. Susan knew she
was bright but with a problem and had to avoid literacy tasks where possible;
Brenda thought she was a slow learner who had done well to get so far and
needed some persuading to believe she could gain an honours degree. I felt I
must find a way to help them but there were no guidelines. The dyslexia pro­
grammes available were not suitable, for these students could all read and write
competently for everyday purposes; something tailored to their needs was
required. I therefore began to run some remedial tutorials to explore the
problem. For example, using cases as markers, in Year 3 Brenda’s exam script
contained over 30 misspellings and Susan’s 23 errors with some very basic ones.
In the Year 4 exam Brenda’s errors went down to 7 and Susan’s to 10 but these
were more adult-type misspellings that looked more like slips. The essay fail­
ures took resits and all passed with at least B grades.
Pauline was another non-identified dyslexic who gained entry to higher edu­
cation by dint of hard work and perseverance. She learned her spellings by rote
and got friends to proof-read her coursework. In exams she selected vocabulary
she knew she could spell and of course this meant she had less time to write a
complete answer so she would underperform in exams but gain A grades for
coursework. She was a very bright student and an excellent potential teacher.
In addition to this group of dyslexics there were also about 10 per cent of the
cohorts who had significant spelling and/or handwriting problems without
necessarily ever having had reading problems. Their difficulties became appar­
ent when writing at speed and using specialised or new terminology – ‘jargon‘.
Again they seemed to have few strategies available other than proof-reading
and rote learning and their standard of work was depressed. This hidden sub­
group of able dyslexics would have their counterparts in schools whose needs
were never considered because they could read.

Interventions with bright adult dyslexics

Seventy-five students were due to attend the Learning Difficulties course each
Thursday (108 contact hours) and there was only one specialist tutor. The inter­
ventions took place at three levels. The first was ‘corrective and developmen­

44
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

tal’ directly on the spelling problems, the second was in the reorganisation of
the pedagogy, and the third was to provide as far as possible all the course
topics in the form of study guides, lecture notes and study packs; the basic Year
4 Learning Difficulties curriculum remained the same, i.e. it took an inclusive
approach, which they could model in schools.

The corrective and developmental spelling interventions

Spelling can be seen to be a core problem in dyslexia that would appear to be
more fundamental than reading. Reading in a sense is parasitic upon spelling
rather than the other way round. An analysis of student spelling errors on the
exam papers showed that there were several basic error types related to base
words, roots and prefixes plus problems with the four suffixing rules (in
English). Most misspelling occurred at syllable boundaries and this suggested
that it was syllable structure and syllable rules that should be the focus of inter­
ventions.
The syllable and affixing strategies were then taught to the students together
with a writing strategy as follows:

Twelve cognitive process strategies for spelling

Most misspellings occur in relation to one letter in a word or one letter in dif­
ferent parts or syllables in a word. Thus the cognitive process approach focuses
all the attention on the area of error to identify and correct it. This attention
gives it a higher profile in the memory and at first sounds warning bells as the
spelling approaches and then the strategies can be applied. After a while the
pupil experiences the heightened awareness and writes through the word
giving the correct spelling. Eventually the correct motor programme is auto­
matically elicited on every occasion. Thus it is essential that all corrections are
written in FULL CURSIVE to help establish the automatic motor programme.
The corrective strategies are:-

1. Articulation – clear, correct speech, ‘chimney’ not ‘chimley’

2. Over articulation – parli(a)ment, gover(n)ment
3. Cue articulation – say it incorrectly, Wed-nes-day
4. Syllabification – break it down into syllables, mis-de-mean-our
5. Phonics – try to get a comprehensible skeleton of the word’s sound
6. Origin – the word’s root in another language may give clues
7. Rule – the l-f-s rule and ‘i before e except after c’ can help
8. Linguistics – syllable structure and affixing rules govern most words
9. Family – bomb, bombing, bombardier, bombardment give clues
10. Meaning – to pare or part helps spell separate correctly
11. Analogy – ‘it is like braggart’ helps spell braggadocio
12. Funnies – ‘cess pit’ helped me to remember how to spell necessary
(Montgomery 1997a, b; 2000a, b).

The first six strategies are more appropriate to beginners who are just master­
ing phonics levels, ‘funnies’ suit all.

45
Learning disabilities

The protocol to correct misspellings

• The pupil proof-reads to try to identify misspellings

• Teacher also checks for errors and makes a list
• Pupil selects with the teacher TWO spellings to work on
• The more advanced pupil looks up the words in the dictionary
• The dictionary gives clues to meaning and origin as well as spelling
• Pupil puts a ring round the area of error – the wrong letter or omission
• Teacher and pupil discuss two strategies from the list for dealing with ONE
error
• Pupil applies the strategies and checks to see if they have been successful
using Simultaneous Oral Spelling (SOS), writing the word three times
• Pupil then does the same with the next error and reports to the teacher on
progress
• A day or two later the teacher asks the pupil to spell both of the words orally
as a check
• If they are correct two more can be tackled. After a while pupils will be able
to manage the process themselves.

The 12 strategies were evolved with 900 teachers and 800 undergraduates to
find out the range that good spellers use. Each time the 12 came out almost in
complete form. This format has now been tested on thousands of good spellers
with the same results and Parrant (1989) tested them in a junior school class­
room. She found that in comparison with a control class’s spelling all her
pupils’ spelling improved significantly as well as that of those on the SEN reg­
ister. Morey (2001) and a range of others on the MA SpLD and MA SEN dis­
tance learning programmes since 1993 have found that the techniques were
particularly appealing to bright dyslexics who made rapid progress because
they especially enjoyed the challenge and autonomy it gave them and removed
them from that state of ‘learned helplessness’.

Changing teaching for learning in ITT – the new model

The traditional pattern of teaching in ITT (Initial Teacher Training) was to give
lectures followed by seminars and occasional workshops and tutorials. A
weekly lecture gave a ‘Cook’s tour’ of the general topic. In the seminars
research papers were considered in relation to practice. All students were
enabled to read them and anyone might be selected within their groups of 12–15
to draw out the main points from memory first. Those who had not read the
paper were asked to withdraw and go and do so. The second part of the seminar
was a ‘brainstorm’ to put in some structure and further detail. The final section
involved the students now referring to their notes, working over the paper to
explain its main ideas and themes, to clarify and bring forward relevant criti­
cisms, and draw out applications to and reflections on their own practice.
In these ways we were trying to teach them that if they could not explain to
someone else what they had been reading then they really did not know or
understand it. Similarly, brainstorming and concept mapping, reading for the

46
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

main and subordinate points, and flow charting of themes, chapters and arti­
cles would be study skills strategies they could use with their pupils.
The theoretical model on which the programme was based was that under­
lying all teaching and learning at any level there were two primary objectives:

• to enable students and pupils to think efficiently, and

• to enable them to communicate those thoughts succinctly (Montgomery
1981b).

Learning any subject knowledge and skills was to be subordinate to these higher
order processes. It was argued that teaching for the development of intellectual
skills had been mainly incidental to teaching curriculum subjects and this
deprived the pupils, and later the students, of the ability to learn how to learn
more. If the student teachers were to be able to teach their pupils to learn how to
learn then they would need to go through similar processes at their own level.
In the new model it was noticeable that students developed different strate­
gies to enable them to cope. Some began to organise themselves into study
groups of twos and threes to hold a briefing meeting before the actual seminar,
others undertook shared and paired reading, stopping at intervals to discuss
what they had read. Some took turns to be the key reader of a paper then brief
the others on the main ideas before they undertook the reading themselves. In
the seminar they had the opportunity to ‘microteach’ sections of the paper and
be challenged. All these ‘talking techniques’ were particularly essential for dys­
lexic learners as part of a ‘talking curriculum’ in which to ground their literacy
skills. We had been telling the student teachers about these methods and now
they had the opportunity to experience and evaluate them.
An example day ran as follows:
One hour lecture – giving an outline of concepts, theories and research in a
defined area. Topic: ‘What makes a good test?’ For example, norming, standar­
disation, reliability and validity.
One and a half hour practical workshop – set up by the tutor but not super­
vised. For example, one early task was to select one of the tests and to deter­
mine according to the criteria given in the lecture whether or not it was a good
test.
One and a half hour seminar – the first half hour was a debriefing session on
the workshop. This was followed by a seminar for half the tutorial group on
alternate weeks so that the numbers were kept down to 12–15 to enable a proper
discussion to take place.

At the beginning and end of the day tutors offered individual and group tuto­
rials and held their own weekly briefing/planning meeting. The collaborative
groups and positive supportive learning environment in which students’ ideas
were valued provided an appropriate climate for the encouragement of creativ­
ity and motivation to learn (Deci 1988; de Alencar 1999).
First there were some interesting learning problems. The workshop described
was introduced early in the course because it could bring these problems to
light. Many students left the workshop rooms after twenty minutes or so,

47
Learning disabilities

flipping through the tests. At the debriefing session when they were given back
their summary reports with D and C grades there was an outcry. Tutors were
blamed for not explaining properly what had to be done and a lot of heat was
generated. It was then explained to them again how they should have applied
the information given in the lecture and about how to judge standardisation,
reliability and validity to determine if the test was a ‘good’ one. They were very
unhappy but were allowed to ‘negotiate’ the opportunity to repeat the whole
workshop again the following week. They needed an opportunity to gain
mastery of the situation and to prove to us we had only to explain things prop­
erly for them to be able to achieve. In the event it was the best thing we could
have done. They all did the task the following week extremely well with all
grades in the B+ to A range. What was more important was the strong, positive
effect it had on their motivation for the rest of the term. They arrived at lectures
before time, sat poised ready to make notes and catch the tiniest clue to what
‘games’ we would get up to next. They remained ‘on alert’ all day and often
spent five hours at a time on the seminar preparations, especially when we
posed them as a problem, such as giving them an empty flow chart of a research
paper to fill in. When it came to the final examinations they reported that they
had a much more satisfying time with their revision because they could remem­
ber so much of the work on which they had done the problem solving, study
skills and collaborative learning. Many for the first time enjoyed an exam!

The pedagogy underlying the applied course

People are born according to Kelly (1955) as investigative problem solvers and
it was argued that student learners would also be motivated by a real problem
solving approach – and so it proved.
In the course of these developments a series of six teaching strategies called
cognitive process pedagogies were defined to help them see the range of pos­
sibilities (Montgomery 1990, 1996, 1998). These were later set in the context of
critical thinking theory (Resnick 1989 and Paul 1990) and redefined as part of
the ‘cognitive curriculum’ for all learners (Montgomery 2000a).

Cognitive curriculum
This consisted of:

• cognitively challenging questioning

• deliberate teaching of thinking skills and protocols
• creativity training
• developmental positive cognitive intervention
• reflective teaching and learning
• cognitive process teaching strategies, e.g.:
games and simulations
investigative problem solving
cognitive study skills
collaborative learning
language experience methods
experiential learning

48
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

The study guides

Booklets had been compiled for inservice training on a range of topics and thus
it was an easy matter to develop more and make these available for a small sum
to the students as readers and study guides. All the articles for seminars were in
folders in the library and copyright clearance was obtained for multiple copies.
Study packs were assembled for the workshops and in the later sections the stu­
dents themselves did the teaching and preparation as we handed the work and
responsibility over to them as the course neared its conclusion. There was no
formal coursework requirement in Year 4 but to our relief the examination
results were transformed. Instead of the bell-shaped curve with one or two
‘firsts’, there was a ‘negative skew’ with 17 first class grades, six more very close
and all the rest more or less evenly divided between 2.1 and 2.2 grades. An
understanding external examiner supported our arguments about quality in
teaching and learning and the grades were allowed to stand. The three dyslex­
ics outshone their previous performance, two gained firsts and the other a 2.1.
To summarise this section on helping bright adult dyslexics, it can be seen
that while their spelling errors were addressed they needed the support of a
talking and cognitive curriculum in collaborative pairs and groups; their note
taking was supported by having study books and guides written especially for
them around the course topics – as they read them they said they could hear the
lecturer’s voice.

How to identify dyslexia in the early years

In the 1970s longitudinal studies were undertaken to identify factors which

would predict dyslexia and the results have been confirmed by later studies.
The two best predictors are: a) failure to develop symbol–sound correspon­
dence by the methods used in ordinary classrooms, and, b) an inability to name
or say the sounds of the letters of the alphabet (Liberman 1973; Golinkoff 1978).
Dyslexics who finally do crack the alphabetic code do so late and then appear
to become stuck at about an eight year old level of skill. Chall’s (1967) research
had already shown that meaning emphasis methods disadvantaged dyslexics
more than phonics approaches but neither were effective with a core of about 1
per cent and this has been upheld in later studies (Clay 1979, 1992; Hurry et al.
1996).
The first question that arises for the teacher and researcher is how does the
failure to acquire the alphabetic principle manifest itself? In studies of thousands
of children’s work in reading and writing the most obvious and easy record of
their problems can be found in their marks on paper (Montgomery 1997a). The
following sample of pupils’ writing illustrates the differences between normal
literacy development and that of dyslexics. The pupils are asked to write their
news or a story without any help from the teacher using any spelling skills they
can muster. In identification terms there is an unexpected decrement between
the child’s apparent higher ability and the performance on literacy tasks. This
decrement widens as the child grows older unless action is taken.

49
Learning disabilities

‘I went to bed.’ Yacob, 5 years 2 months

‘The tree fell on top of the telephone pole wire.’ William, 5 years 2 months

‘She is in bed. She is sick. She has chickenpox.’ Kelly B, 5 years 1 month

Figure 3.1a Writing of non-dyslexic 5 year olds after three weeks in school

‘Once upon a time there was a Christmas fairy.’

Figure 3.1b Emma K, 5 years 2 months

Emma K had a teacher who was encouraging developmental writing and who also used copy
writing and tracing techniques. Emma’s work was the most advanced in the class and the
above was her first attempt at free writing.

The writing of the five year olds in Figure 3.1 shows that they have ‘cracked’
the alphabetic code and that they will not become dyslexic.
In Figure 3.2 Annette is five years 11 months and wrote the piece on wood­
land animals in 10 minutes. She had a memory span of 11 digits (average span
at six years is about 4 items so it is likely we are seeing some photographic recall
here. Her IQ score was reported to be above 145).

50
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

‘I went to the Titanic exhibition and saw some things from the Titanic and some things were
real.’
Maria, 5 years 10 months. Began reading at 4 years. Good reader now, highly verbal, wide
vocabulary. (1⁄3 size)

Annette, 5 years 11 months (1⁄3 size)

Figure 3.2 The spelling of two gifted pupils

Maria (Figure 3.2) taught herself to read at four years old and is bilingual in
German and English. She is a highly skilled verbaliser with a very good vocab­
ulary. However, we can see here that she has a distinct problem with spelling
in comparison with reading and is a candidate for later dysorthographic diffi­
culties unless she is given some remedial help at this early stage.
Stephen and Caroline (Figure 3.3) have not cracked the alphabetic code

51
Learning disabilities

Steven, 6 years 6 months (1⁄2 size)

Caroline, 7 years (1⁄2 size)

‘My name is Caroline and I am 7 years old. I have 3 brothers and 3 sisters. Some of them live
at home and some of them do not. My mum and dad live at home and so do my goldfish.
Paul, Breda and Mark still live at home. They are a lot older than me. Paul is 21, Breda is 21
and Mark is 22. My other brothers and sisters are a lot older than them.’

David, 8 years (1⁄2 size)

‘Tiny was a big animal and slept a lot at night and in the morning I have to keep waking him
up. I have to keep waking him up to have his breakfast. When I go to the shops I have to drag
him with me . . .’

Figure 3.3 Writing of able dyslexic pupils across the age range

52
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

Gavin, 10 years (1⁄2 size)

A spelling test. Item 13 was the word ‘parcel’

Kevin, 14 years (1⁄2 size)

‘The candle flame flickered and suddenly the door creaked open. The wind blew the candle
out and I saw a figure standing at the door with a gigantic knife in his hand and then I saw
another and another and . . .’

Stephen’s writing after 6
20 minutes of TRTS – cursive writing was not permitted by his
school. (1⁄2 size)

Figure 3.3 (continued)

53
Learning disabilities

although some whole word knowledge can be seen in Caroline’s writing. David
has just begun to ‘crack the code’ and Gavin and Kevin have succeeded but they
are five and nine years delayed. Gavin and Kevin also have a mild handwrit­
ing coordination problem as well as the dyslexia. Gavin has an IQ above 140
and is showing emotional and behavioural difficulties during any literacy
activities, singing and shouting and swaying about on one leg of his chair.
For policymakers what we can glean from these examples is that complex
tests for dyslexia are not necessarily required and that a teacher with a short
course of training can do the analysis. Looking at the examples we can see dys­
lexics stuck in Frith’s (1985) logographic stage, others in the alphabetic stage and
some halfway through the orthographic stage. This suggests we need three
levels of intervention but probably not three different methods. First the origin
of the difficulties needs to be identified, as Kokot has pointed out in Chapter one.

What is the origin of dyslexic difficulties?

The origin of a difficulty to a large extent defines the intervention that is given
to remediate it and the history of dyslexia is littered with out of date and irrel­
evant or plainly wrong theories. Traditional teaching wisdom was that supply­
ing the dyslexic with phonics training would solve the problem and this was
and still is the main remedial provision, to which is now added a multisensory
dimension. Thus it was possible to find pupils in dyslexia centres who were fail­
ures by the usual method, failed in the extra reading and phonics tuition, failed
in the remedial withdrawal multisensory phonics setting: three times failures.
This led me to conclude that multisensory phonics teaching was necessary but
not sufficient for the dyslexic to develop basic literacy skills. If the alphabet was
the key then it was a total mystery that, for example, a pupil with an IQ of over
150 could not learn the names and sounds of 26 letters of the alphabet when he
or she could at the age of five discuss quasars and planetary motion. It could
not be a memory problem though that was and is a popular theory.
The alphabet apparently has only been invented once and by the
Phoenicians, who were maritime traders. The key turned when it was learnt
that the Phoenicians spoke a Semitic consonantal language made up of 22
letters! It must be the consonants that are crucial in linking sound and symbol.
Both sound and symbol are, according to researchers such as Ehri (1980),
abstract perceptual units that change and vary within words, making them dif­
ficult to tag. But every one of them has a distinct and concrete pattern of feel in
the mouth so that when we say ‘l’ or ‘t’ or ‘k’ we can feel the differences and
learn to associate this with the sound and symbol as we articulate for reading
and spelling. Thus if dyslexics had an articulatory awareness problem they
would not be able to use this feel pattern and would become very confused by
the alphabet’s arbitrary symbols. It would make any list learning of arbitrary
units difficult, such as the names of the alphabet, left and right, ‘b’ and ‘d’, days
of the week, months of the year, tables, digit span and so on. From this it became
obvious how Edith Norrie had taught herself to read; she had cracked the code
using an articulatory phonics method. Dyslexics who learn to read and spell

54
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

eventually do so too. It is possible that their articulatory awareness develops

late or there is a lag or temporary block in development, which seemingly clears
up at about eight years of age.
In a series of case analyses and experiments the articulation awareness (AA)
hypothesis was developed and tested (Montgomery 1981, 1990, 1997a) with the
following results:

Table 3.1 To Show Articulation Awareness (AA) and Phonological

Segmentation (PS) Mean Scores in Controls and Dyslexics
Chron. WISC R. Age S. Age PS AA M:F
Age Full (10) (10)

HIGHLY 10.2 126.8 8.5 8.5 8.0 5.3 5:1

ABLE Ds
N =30
DYSLEXICS 10.1 109.6 7.8 7.4 7.8 5.2 5:1
N = 288
CONTROLS 8.05 108.7 8.7 8.7 8.7 8.2 1:1
N = 94

As can be seen the now popular theory of phonological processing difficulties

(Vellutino 1979, 1987) was also put to the test using phonological segmentation
(PS) items (for example, saying stimulus words without their initial sounds).
AA was tested by getting pupils to identify articulatory features such as mouth
open or closed, teeth open or closed and where the tip of the tongue was touch­
ing or its position in the mouth in relation to 10 key initial sounds and two
dummy items. The results were interesting, as all the dyslexics were on a reme­
dial programme of some kind and were on average 10 years old, they were
overcoming any articulation awareness problems they may have had but the
AA score can be seen to be significantly depressed in comparison with the
younger controls. PS scores in dyslexics appear to be at a level consistent with
their spelling. This suggests that phonological difficulties are more a result of
failing to learn to spell rather than a cause of dyslexia itself with segmentation
a sub-skill of spelling.
There would also appear to be neurological support for an articulation
awareness hypothesis in the work of Geschwind (1979), who associated dys­
lexia with problems in the angular gyrus, where articulatory information is
linked to the auditory and visual. We can hypothesise that in some pupils the
delay is temporary and clears up by itself, in others direct articulatory aware­
ness training is required, in some it may be part of a more fundamental set of
difficulties involving deeper and broader areas of the cortex. In the sample dis­
cussed this was 30 per cent, where the literacy difficulties were associated with
handwriting coordination difficulties or dysgraphia. Some also had gross
motor coordination problems or dyspraxia.
An articulatory training procedure was devised called Multisensory Mouth
Training and was incorporated into the specialist remedial programme called
Teaching Reading Through Spelling (TRTS; Cowdery et al. 1984, 1994). Some

55
Learning disabilities

results were spectacular with one pupil gaining two years in reading and
spelling in a fortnight. The policy implication to be derived from this is that to
help learners crack the code all Reception Year teachers need to be trained to
use Multisensory Mouth Training in association with the other developmental
strategies they normally use. In AA screening at five years and one month, only
a handful of 200 children had AA problems.
Another feature of the results was that when the able pupils were separated
out (at least one WISC score over 130) the highly able were seen to have much
higher literacy scores than the other dyslexics. In policy terms this leads to them
being referred later, if at all, although their needs are equally great. Thus IQ
scores must be included as a consideration in any referral procedure. The
records showed that most of the more able group were referred because they
were developing EBD (emotional and behavioural difficulties).
Girls, and particularly able girls in the same study (Table 3.1) who had
learned to copy neatly, were at risk of being excluded from specialist help. Girls
as a group were referred at least a year later than boys and in a lower ratio than
the national average of 4:1 (Rutter et al. 1970). More recently Shaywitz (1995)
has reported the ratio difference was gender biased and maintained that it was
closer to 1:1.
Research by Tallal (1994) has found that dyslexics are slower than controls at
processing auditory information, which may have implications for learning to
read. However, the slow processing may be a result rather than a cause of dys­
lexia, as identification of dyslexia does not occur until the students are at least
nine or ten years old. Similar problems exist for the eye movement studies. If,
however, we focus upon developing spelling, speed of auditory processing and
eye movement problems need not be involved. Beginners can be seen mouth­
ing and repeating the initial sound such as ‘l-l-l-look’ as they write the letter.
The fact that the human ear cannot hear the separate sounds in a syllable
because they are shingled on top of each other (Liberman and Shankweiler et
al. 1967) means that the only concrete cues are articulatory ones and the initial
sounds’ greater energy. This is why an onset and rime strategy for reading
should accompany an articulation awareness training for spelling. It is also
evident in the writing of beginners who have just begun to crack the code, for
example, ‘I wt t bd’ (I went to bed); it shows that syllable structure needs to be
directly taught once spelling begins to develop.

Effective remedial teaching programmes for dyslexics

For older dyslexics who have not fully cracked the code a specialist remedial
programme which is multisensory, including Multisensory Mouth Training,
and APSL (Alphabetic-Phonic-Syllabic-Linguistic) is needed to enable them to
catch up with peers and fill in those elements which over the three to five years
they have missed.
The most effective approach is a programme that gives multisensory training
linking reading, writing and spelling developed at the Scottish Rites Hospital
by Orton et al. (1940), and Gillingham and Stillman (1956). It was from there that

56
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

Kathleen Hickey, Beve Hornsby and others learned of it and Hickey anglicised
and developed it in the UK (Hickey 1977; 2nd edition by Augur and Briggs
1991). Hickey set up the Dyslexia Institute at Staines in Surrey; her programme
(DILP – Dyslexia Institute Language Programme) is widely used. Hornsby
became Head of the Word Blind Institute at Bart’s Hospital and later set up her
own Dyslexia Teaching Centre in Wandsworth. She wrote her variant of the
Scottish Rites programme with a phonic linguistic emphasis called Alpha to
Omega (Hornsby and Shear 1975, 1994).
At Kingston in Surrey, Cowdery, Morse and Prince-Bruce were trained by
Hickey and went on to develop their own version of the Gillingham-Stillman-
Hickey programme which is called Teaching Reading Through Spelling (TRTS)
and is also a multisensory Alphabetic-Phonic-Syllabic-Linguistic programme
(Cowdery et al. 1983–1987, 1994). We wrote it down as an inservice develop­
ment project.
In the tables set out below, comparisons can be made of the effectiveness of
different programmes over a one year span by looking at the calculations of
actual reading and spelling progress. Progress of one year or less cannot be
judged as remedial success although it may launch a pupil into literacy after a
period of no progress. Remediation should seek to bring the pupils’ scores at
least up to that of peers matched for age, preferably within two years. The more
severe the dyslexia the greater the initial gains will be (the ‘catapult’ effect). It
is then that progress often stops at about the eight year old level and it is at this
point that bright dyslexics can be driven mad and refuse to participate in the
overlearning training needed for automatisation. For them it is now very
important to switch to the more informal and autonomous Cognitive Process
Strategies.

Table 3.2 The Relative Effectiveness of Different APSL Programmes in

One Year
APSL R. Progress S. Progress Researcher Numbers

A to O 1.93 1.95 Hornsby et al. (1990) N=107

TRTS 2.45 2.01 Montgomery (1993) N=38
TRTS 3.31 1.85 Webb (2000) N=12
(H and A to O) 1.21 0.96 Ridehalgh (1999) N=50

Table 3.3 The Relative Effectiveness of Non APSL Remedial Programmes

in One Year
Programme R. Progress S. Progress Researcher Numbers

Non APSL 0.53 0.32 Hornsby et al. (1990) N=?

Non APSL 1.06 0.16 Montgomery (1997a) N=15
SME 0.69 0.65 Ridehalgh (1999) N=50
SME 2.2 1.14 Webb (2000)* N=12

(SME – Spelling Made Easy; Brand 1993)

* Webb used some TRTS method here in SME (ethics)

57
Learning disabilities

The results in the tables show the strong effect of the APSL programmes in rem­
ediating dyslexic difficulties based upon two lessons per week in matched
pairs. The entries need some qualification in that in the use of the APSL pro­
grammes in Ridehalgh’s research and in Webb’s using TRTS, the lessons were
shortened by the timetabling structure and this often caused the spelling pack
work and the dictations to be omitted. Of course these are crucial components
of the APSL structure.
According to Goulandris (1994), research shows that teaching a child how
spelling patterns represent sound patterns improves eventual spelling and
reading ability. Teaching phonological skills in isolation is less effective, as ‘they
must be explicitly linked to spelling patterns to effect improvement of literacy
skills’ (p. 413). The research of Hatcher and Hulme et al. (1994) showed that reme­
dial instruction needed to forge alphabetic links in which the sounds in words
and letters used to represent them in written language are explicitly taught.
Because of their detailed and complex nature specialist APSL remedial pro­
grammes cannot be taught within other lessons and by non-experts. They need
to be taught in withdrawal sessions, preferably of 50 minutes’ length to
matched pairs of pupils at least twice a week (Ridehalgh 1999). It is not diffi­
cult to work out why the pairs teaching was more effective in relation to learn­
ing theory and metacognition. We all need thinking and mental rehearsal time
– the too close attention and interaction between teacher and single learner does
not always allow this. Another feature of the results is that the APSL
approaches directed equally, but differently, to spelling and reading transfer to
reading and promote it more than spelling. However, the reverse is not the case;
approaches orientated to reading do not directly become transferred to
spelling. In policy terms specialist intervention is required in Reception or Year
One. Although some false positives may occur in identification they will easily
be discovered and the literacy difficulties resolved. Although specialist inter­
vention will involve additional tuition costs these will be counterbalanced by
the savings in the long term. It will keep many out of units and special schools
for the behaviourally disturbed and also out of prison (Alm et al. 2002). Double
exceptionality can make literacy failure doubly distressing but an entrepreneur
in a legitimate or criminal career can always pay for a clerk.

High ability and spelling difficulties in schools

If recovery to grade level can be achieved before entry to secondary schools this
will ensure students can cope with the typical writing curriculum there. As they
approach the later stages of secondary education they may need a top up course
directed to spelling and study skills to help them cope with the examinations.
Highly able pupils may be dyslexic but mask this by having very good visual
memories and so read at the level of age peers but have ‘severe problems with
spelling’. At the age of about eight years, as text vocabulary rapidly increases,
they suddenly begin to fall behind. When their spelling is examined, however,
it is clear that the problem could have been remedied earlier.
Recently, the British Dyslexia Association has suggested that the incidence of

58
 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

dyslexia in the UK is 10 per cent and this would seem to be borne out by my
most recent studies of spelling samples of some whole school cohorts as set out
in Table 3.4. But there could well be an even larger number who are suffering
spelling difficulties alone. Silverman (1989), for example, found that 17 per cent
of 1200 students were both gifted and learning disabled.

Table 3.4 A Comprehensive School Cohort, Year 7 (12 year olds) Showing
Spelling Errors in a 20 Minute Essay in 2000
Standard
Deviation
SD Errors: 0–6/7 7–13 14–20 21–27 28–36 Total number

SET 1 (top) 17 8 1 (2) – 28

SET 2 7 12 4 – – 23
SET 3 10 5 (1) (2) – 18
SET 4 13 5 4 (2) – – 22
SET 5 5 5 3 (1) – (2) 15

TOTAL 52 35 13 4 2 106
% 49.10 33.02 12.26 3.77 1.89 100.00

(Sets 2, 3, 4 are parallel sets for ability) SD: 6.65 Mean Errors: 8.76

Dyslexic: N = 10 (9.43%) (18+ errors and type, in brackets in table)

Proportion of ‘good’ spellers (0 – 1 S.D.) N = 52 (49%)

Proportion of ‘poor’ spellers (– 2 – 5 S.D.) N = 54 (51%)

These results show that some 50 per cent of pupils in this year group have sub­
standard spelling skills for 12 year olds. Whereas an undergraduate might be
expected to misspell three or four words before a tutor would express concern,
we might expect that school pupils on average are allowed a bit more leeway.
Here the cut off point used is one standard deviation with all borderline cases
given special attention. Only different errors were counted in the scripts, not
repeated misspelling of the same word. The pupils were writing about their
favourite topic and so were on familiar ground and working within a known
vocabulary as part of a handwriting speed test. More able students were
grouped in Set 1 and were better spellers on the whole.
Two case example interventions with more able students follow, showing
how they gain control of the process and how Cognitive Process Spelling
Strategies (CPSS) could be taught to all children.

Case study of Maia by Karen Morey (2001),

Head of Learning Support at a School in Nairobi
Maia was taken into the Learning Support programme at seven years one month,
and at eight years eight months her spelling was 15 months behind and reading
was four months behind the level where she was at the former age. She was a
highly articulate child, in the high average range of ability, from a linguistically rich
social background but was not making progress, especially with spelling. She
was put on the first level of the Teaching Reading Though Spelling programme

59
Learning disabilities

(Cowdery and Montgomery et al. 1994) and given Multisensory Mouth Training
as she seemed unaware of the feel of blends she was making. She received two
35 minute individual tutorials per week during the autumn term and at times made
progress. She would then regress as she seemed unable to see the relevance of
segmenting the sound for spelling. Onset and rime strategies did not work either
unless she was interested. As an experiment, in the spring term of 2000, she was
switched to the CPSS. Immediately there was an overwhelming change in the
relationship between the teacher and the student. Maia began arriving at the
lessons announcing which areas were giving her difficulty. This required some
careful negotiation and rethinking on the part of the teacher who was using a
structured programme and who had to decide whether to continue with any of
this or involve herself fully in the latest concerns of Maia. By March 2000,
although there were still problems with the spelling, Maia had become much
more effective in the use of her literacy skills and there had been a dramatic
improvement in her reading ability – it had jumped to five months above her
chronological age. The spelling deficit had reduced from 15 months to 12
months. She had become reflective about her literacy work and interested in
words and their construction, whereas before she had used mainly visual strate­
gies and some phonics to no good effect.

Case study of Carl by Juliet Wraith (2001)

Carl was nine years eleven months old with a spelling age of eight years four
months and had been diagnosed as ‘moderately dyslexic’ by an educational
psychologist. Carl was a keen fan of Harry Potter and was given a dictation from
one of the books to encourage his interest in proof-reading for the errors.
He found the following errors: monning (morning); itsalf (itself); bewiching
(bewitching); foled (followed); terbern (turban).
He missed these errors: cristmas (Christmas); midde (middle); coverd
(covered); sevulal (several); soled (solid); punshed (punished); thay (they).

Each lesson followed the format below:

Lesson 1
Christmas – Carl missed the ‘h’ in this word and said that he sometimes missed
the ‘t’ as well.
Cue articulation: we pronounced the word ‘Christ mas’
Meaning: we talked about the fact that Christmas is all about Jesus i.e. Christ. We
looked up ‘mass’ in the dictionary and discovered it can mean a meal or a body
and that at Christmas we have a big meal to celebrate that Jesus came to earth
in a human body. Carl had never realised that the word ‘Christ’ was in Christmas.
Funny: as soon as I spelt this word correctly for him Carl said ‘Oh look, my
brother’s name’. He has a brother called ‘Chris’ whose name he can spell quite
happily so it really helped him to remember that the name Chris is in ‘Christmas’.
Simultaneous oral spelling (SOS): he found it quite hard to make himself use
cursive writing at first but said it got a lot easier as he repeated the word. He also
found it easier to remember the spelling if he shut his eyes.

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 Giftedness, talent and dyslexia

Followed – Carl spelt this as ‘foled’

Syllabification: He needed help to see how this word can be broken down into
syllables then he spotted the word ‘low’
Analogy: he was able to think of a rhyming word for ‘foll’: ‘doll’. As soon as past
tense was mentioned he remembered he needed an ‘ed’ ending.
SOS (Simultaneous Oral Spelling)

Lesson 2
Carl was able to spell both ‘Christmas’ and ‘followed’; without difficulty, he just
needed to be reminded that Christmas should have a capital letter. In the lesson
‘monning’ and ‘coverd’ were tackled and so on.
At the end of the six sessions Carl redid the Harry Potter dictation. The writing
was much more joined than on the first occasion and all the 12 target words were
spelt correctly. Initially he resorted to his incorrect spellings of ‘covered’ and
‘punished’ but in both cases he immediately realised his error and self corrected;
he was hesitant over ‘several’ but after some thought wrote it correctly. At first
he wrote ‘terban’ but immediately corrected it to ‘turban’.
These mini lessons took place over a period of only two weeks and through­
out them it was interesting to see Carl becoming far more involved in the process
of selecting strategies and also becoming more conscious of the way in which
words are made up. He became particularly adept at recognising syllables and
found cue articulation and funny ways of remembering things most memorable.
His class teacher has noted an improvement in his written work and has
observed him using the strategies on a wider scale than in the tutorials. The cor­
rected spellings have stayed corrected.

Summary and conclusions

In the majority of cases dyslexia is associated with verbal rather than visual pro­
cessing difficulties. Contrary to general belief it is more than a reading difficulty,
at its core is a severe spelling difficulty. In cases where the condition is not per­
vasive and complex, it is possibly the result of a developmental delay which can
be remedied in Reception class so that the reading and spelling difficulties do
not have the opportunity to arise. It would appear that many gifted children
with this learning difficulty eventually overcome the problem by themselves but
the delays to literacy development can be very damaging educationally. Most
do learn to read satisfactorily and some never have any reading difficulties at all.
Their spelling, however, remains disabled unless they are given a specialist
APSL multisensory programme. As soon as progress is made on this it will be
necessary to switch to a cognitive set of strategies for spelling to maintain their
interest and motivation. The strategies automatically transfer to reading.
At undergraduate and adult level most gifted dyslexics read and spell ade­
quately for everyday purposes but as text becomes specialist and complex their
difficulties are revealed. Their spelling becomes deficient and their understand­
ing of the meaning and deep structure of text is slowed or deficient because
of the years of missed practice. This means that there is frequently a serious

61
Learning disabilities

mismatch between their potential ability and their academic attainments.

Because the giftedness can mask the dyslexia the difficulties may not be iden­
tified and help given. The difficulty then remains as a disabling condition and
the students are regarded as of just average ability and come to see themselves
as such. They then miss out on many more challenging and appropriate learn­
ing and career opportunities.
The incidence of dyslexia across the ability range would appear to be about
10 per cent with at least two per cent of these being in the gifted category.
However, it would seem that in the population at large most of the gifted and
dyslexic students go unnoticed and undiagnosed and there are possibly 10–20
per cent more of them, a silent, sleeping majority.

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties
4 Diane Montgomery

Research into non-verbal learning difficulties (NLD) has a long history, like that
of dyslexia. The term does not mean that the child cannot speak but that verbal
skills superficially do not appear to be affected or causing problems. The diffi­
culties lie primarily in skill acquisition and development and those abilities
governed by the right hemisphere in 95 per cent of the population. The difficul­
ties observed range from those who, left alone, get lost in Woolworth’s; to the
clumsy and disorganised; those whose handwriting is illegible; those with poor
social skills; those who cannot sing in tune or draw and those with attentional,
impulsive and hyperactive conditions, ADHD and ADD.
Patricia was a classic case. At 12 she was already a gifted linguist, and good
at maths and English with a very good memory for facts and strong at all sub­
jects requiring them. She was not so good at science, could not sing in tune and
painted lollipop trees and stick persons in art with the skill of a five year old.
Her movements were ungainly and twitchy and she was not at all good at sport
or PE and was never chosen for a team. Her voice was a rather strangely pitched
monotone and her social skills were somewhat limited. She showed a range of
what are called ‘soft neurological signs’. With her linguistic gifts she obtained
a place to read languages at Oxford University. At first she became a teacher of
modern foreign languages but, not surprisingly, had difficulty in class control
and so was obliged to change career.
Not all children with NLD are as fortunate as Patricia and their difficulties
can be more broadly based and more deeply disorganising and dysfunctional.
Each pattern will be different. Characteristically the neurological impairment is
more identifiable than in dyslexia, where most often no neurological difficul­
ties are found except in complex cases and these are often where they are linked
to coordination and/or language difficulties.

Neurological difficulties/disorders

The underlying condition in NLD is said to arise from problems in the myelina­
tion of particular tracts of nerve fibres in the brain (Rourke 1989). Thus although
the brain functions they serve may be intact, the connections between them may
be disrupted to a greater or lesser extent. Rourke argues that as there are larger
areas of the right hemisphere given over to these fibres (white matter), complex
connections are upset, as are pathways between areas and hemispheres and

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through to the cerebellum, which contains the ‘programmes’ for learned move­
ments such as walking, swimming, writing, playing the piano and so on. When
we learn a new skill the frontal regions of the cerebral cortex are heavily involved,
where they are responsible for organising, controlling and learning new volun­
tary movements. While they are busy developing more and more efficient skilled
movements for the required purpose, the cerebellum shadows this process and
lays down the programme that will eventually allow us to operate the skill with
minimal perceptual and cognitive input. This enables us, for example, to drive a
car and talk at the same time. When we perform a complex reversing car move­
ment we frequently have to suspend talk while we concentrate on the task. Doing
two tasks at the same time is particularly problematic for children with NLD. It
is also characteristic of infants; they have to develop proficiency in walking, for
example, before they can do another task at the same time.
Duane (2002) considers Asperger Syndrome, Tourette Syndrome, Attention
Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and
Epilepsy all to have characteristic neurological NLD patterns in common, as
well as unique differences. In a sample of 200 10 year olds he found more boys
affected in the ratio of 2 or 3 to 1 girl. He found 45 per cent of samples with
ADHD had depression and when he discovered that 36 per cent of those with
dyslexia had depression he began to suspect they had a gene for mood disor­
der in common. One third of those with reading disorder also had ADHD.
The history of the study of NLD has been dominated by neurology. In the
early 1900s the term ‘congenital maladroitness’ was used and the condition
came to be regarded as due to Minimal Brain Dysfunction (MBD). The term
MBD according to Clements (1966) referred to children of near average,
average, or above average intellectual capacity with certain learning and or
behavioural disabilities ranging from mild to severe that are associated with
deviations of function of the central nervous system. The characteristics are:
short attention span; distractibility; hyperactivity or hypoactivity; impulsive­
ness; labile emotions; poor motor integration; deficits in perception of space,
form, movement and time; disorders of language or symbol development, often
delay in talking and learning to read and spell. Repeated drills appear to create
learning but then fade; they know them today but not tomorrow.
In 1979 in the UK, Blythe and McGowan introduced the term Organic Brain
Dysfunction (OBD) to describe a range of difficulties with neurological involve­
ment and produced a lengthy questionnaire to help identify their cases. Some
key questions were:
Is there any evidence of:

1. Headaches that are aggravated by stooping and/or physical stress?

2. Finding bright lights disturbing?
3. Finding noise disturbing with higher or lower than normal tolerance?
4. A tendency to rock at times of stress or anxiety?
5. Difficulties at time differentiating between right and left – says left and puts
out right hand?
6. Handwriting deteriorates while writing, spelling ability deteriorates in the
process?

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties

They identified two ‘perceptual problems’ in OBD. The first was an increase in
‘nystagmus’. (Close eyes and rapidly spin in a circle. Stop and open eyes and
the world reels the opposite way. The eyes flick rapidly in the opposite direc­
tion as you recover.) Disturbance in the neural pathways makes this sensation
worse and the child may jerk and fall over. Nystagmus is regarded as a ‘soft’
neurological sign. The second condition was a lack of ‘yoking’ of latent strabis­
mus. This is an inability to ignore irrelevant stimuli within a configuration – a
‘stimulus bound’ difficulty and poor scanning ability that will interfere with
visuo-motor integration (VMI) tasks such as in learning to write. Their reme­
dial programme is called Reflex Developmental Patterning. The training
returns the child developmentally to the stage where the reflexes failed to be
inhibited, modified and transformed. They are also returned to stages of motor
development that may have been missed in part or in whole. This gives the
individual a second chance to correct an aberrant pattern and continue devel­
opment. When they are put through regression in the physical dimension they
are also seen to regress emotionally too and this allows unresolved conflicts to
be ventilated (p. 83). The programme involves identifying the critical reflex not
inhibited, purposely eliciting it to give the individual sufficient time and prac­
tice so that it can be inhibited. A continuously elicited reflex will gradually give
a weaker and weaker response. This is the inhibition process at work. Blythe
and McGowan (1979) report simultaneous gains in reading skills in their
patients with dyslexia when RDP is given without any extra reading coaching.
It can be seen how their programme might well be suitable for a sub-popula-
tion with their pattern of OBD and dyslexia but not for dyslexics without OBD.

Neurological screening
A physician will be likely to carry out a clinical assessment for ‘soft neurologi­
cal signs’ or MBD/ABD (Atypical Brain Development). This is not so far from
what the observant teacher will also note and the following activities will be
checked for speed and efficiency:
• hopping on one foot, toe-heel walking, balancing on one foot then the other
• skipping (ages 7–10)
• touching fingers with thumbs in sequence
• slapping knees alternately with palms and backs of hands – slow, fast, sep­
arately and together
• tapping index fingers on thumbs
• observing mirroring or spreading movements in tasks 1–5
• right–left confusion, touch left ear with right hand etc.; point to examiner’s
left ear etc.; stand feet together and turn right, turn left, left again etc.; turn
only head or torso; lean to one side then the other (this latter is significant of
immaturity if not mastered by seven years)
• eye tracking – watch examiner’s finger, head still (observe quality of tracking,
there are problems if jerky or flicks/jumps of eyes as the mid-line is crossed)
• writing to dictation on unlined paper, note reversals, confused letter
sequences, laboured writing, spelling errors, and reckless speed, often asso­
ciated with ADHD.

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Learning disabilities

In school the teacher can also note drawing and copying and jigsaw comple­
tion. The child with visuo-motor difficulties will show difficulty with activities
involving crossing the mid-line and in not making mirroring or contra-lateral
movements while doing a task one-handed. If pencils or pieces to use are placed
on the left the child with problems, for example, will reach for them with the
left and then transfer them to the right. Balance on apparatus, and coordination
in PE and in ball skills and games can all be observed for signs of immaturity
and dyssynchrony.
As a rough indicator of ability and/or visuo-motor skill the ‘Draw a Person
Test’ (Harris 1963) can be used as part of everyday classroom activities up until
about the age of 10 years to give some indication of potential problems. At five,
holding a pencil with the full fist rather than between thumb and fingers can be
considered immature. When such delays and immaturities are observed, or the
persistence of them and reflex movements beyond the standard periods, then
remedial intervention is recommended. Blythe and McGowan (1979) address
the reflexes, Laszlo et al. (1988) the proprioceptive feedback and Kokot (Chapter
one) the vestibular system.
The term Atypical Brain Development (ABD) was proposed for wider use
when referring to children’s difficulties by Kaplan (2000). She argued that the
disease model presented by MBD and OBD does not fit well with developmen­
tal problems. In ABD the ‘atypical’ emphasises and can include areas of excel­
lence; it can include sub-types and is not a unitary condition; there is no
evidence of brain trauma and it is not pejorative.

Pure hyperkinetic Pure learning

type Mixed types disability type

ADHD NLD Dyslexia

Figure 4.1 Venn diagram to show patterns of overlapping conditions in and between NLD
and other conditions

There are a number of patterns of NLD that can cause pupils in school to under-
function, despite having recognisable gifts and talents in other areas. It is the
disability which gets focused upon and masks the talents. If no supportive help
is given and the child becomes the subject of bullying then there is loss of self

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties

esteem and motivation. Because the difficulties only affect ‘non academic’
school subjects then it may not be deemed important enough to give support
and serious underfunctioning may be missed. However, they may overlap with
verbal learning difficulties such as dyslexia (see Figure 4.1).

Physical impairment from brain injury

It is important before investigating dysfunctional difficulties to look briefly at

physical impairment and giftedness. Nowadays it is common for children with
a physical impairment, for example limbless, very small in stature, paraplegic
or with disabling medical conditions to be educated in mainstream schools
with assistance from trained staff with their welfare and mobility. While they
can function at their intellectual level with minimal support and are expected
to do so, the same is not true if they are immobile and/or with impaired speech
and they are treated as intellectually limited as well. Gifted children with pro­
found physical disabilities desperately need the intellectual challenge of main­
stream and gifted education, which it is almost impossible for them to obtain in
a special school setting.
Joey was in a large hospital for the mentally handicapped before the doors
were opened. He had Cerebral Palsy as a result of severe brain damage at birth.
He was strapped into a wheelchair and occupied a corner of the room where he
could see all that was going on and greet everybody as they arrived. However,
it was extraordinarily difficult to understand anything he said. He was tiny,
thin, very much alert and with a keen sense of humour. Mike was his friend and
would push him around in the wheelchair and feed him and so on. They were
inseparable. Mike also had a severe language impairment, however, quite
extraordinarily, he could understand everything that Joey said. Mike would
translate Joey’s howlings into a form closer to English, some of which could be
grasped. More understanding was possible as the listener gained practice. One
day when an old typewriter was left for the residents, Joey developed a plan.
He would dictate his life story to Mike, who would spell it to their friend Dave,
who typed it up with one finger. Joey’s book was published and with the money
from it they were able to have a bungalow built in the grounds of the hospital
with all the services and supports the three needed and they lived out their lives
happily. They did not want to move away from the only place they had known
and all the people there who were their friends.
Christy Brown, an Irish poet, was similarly locked away in a damaged body
but his mother knew somehow he was intelligent and wanted to communicate.
She was right and with the support of computer assisted technology he was
eventually able to write via movements of a toe.

Developmental dyspraxia

Praxis is the ability to motor plan, and ‘dys’ means difficulties with this. Praxis
implies that there is a motivation to plan, an ability to produce the skilled hier­
archies of movements, satisfactory functioning of the brain at neocortical, basal

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Learning disabilities

ganglia, cerebellar and brainstem levels; adequate kinaesthetic and propriocep­

tive feedback; and storage ability. Developmental dyspraxia indicates that the
function has never normally developed because of some impairment of innate
cerebral mechanisms or understimulation due to faulty input or feedback path­
ways. It is sometimes characterised as a ‘dysfunctional difficulty’ that may be
possible to remedy or overcome by the right sort of training or therapy. In the
USA the term Developmental Co-ordination Disorder (DCD) is used (APA 1994).
It takes only a small amount of disturbance of the nervous system to disrupt
the smooth functioning of a motor skill. This can lead to difficulties in coordi­
nation of gross locomotion functions that in the past was termed the ‘clumsy
child syndrome’ (Gubbay 1975). Clumsiness is a relative term, for the newborn
is clumsy and a teenager may temporarily become so during growth spurts. A
child does not have a motor impairment but a dysfunction in planning and inte­
grating movement (ideational difficulties) if s/he can use a key to open a door
but cannot pretend to do it when the key and door are absent.
Developmental dyspraxia is characterised by difficulties in some or all of the
following:

• Ideational difficulties – impairment or immaturity in planning and carrying

out complex movement
• Movement – hesitant, inefficient, uncontrolled, twitchy
• Language – uncontrolled rhythm, volume, sequencing of sounds – some
have speech difficulties, delayed speech and articulatory problems
• Perception – copying patterns, letters
• Attention and concentration deficits
• Thought – organising, sequencing difficulties
• Memory – especially difficulties following instructions
• Emotionally sensitive, lability – over reaction
• Poor motivation, fear of failure
• Visuo-motor and perceptual difficulties
• Abnormal behaviours
• Often overactive
• Educational difficulties

According to Henderson and Sugden (1992) the most commonly occurring

cases are where children have movement difficulties but these are not accompa­
nied by intellectual retardation, rather by educational or behaviour problems.

Among this group are children who find it difficult to concentrate at school
and become the class nuisance, children who are unhappy in school because
they are bullied or socially isolated, children who cope with their clumsiness
by becoming the class clown and children who withdraw completely from
participation and remain unnoticed until it is too late to help them.
(Henderson and Sugden 1992: 6)

Dyspraxia may arise in a number of different ways such as developmental

immaturity; inherited or family difficulty; anoxia at birth; brain damage;

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deprivation of stimulation such as is caused by spina bifida and extensive hos­

pitalisation and immobilisation periods. The difficulties may range from severe
and profound right along a continuum to mild and circumscribed.
Anna was delivered after a long and difficult birth and had been almost
buried in the placenta. As she developed there was just a mild, right-sided lack
of coordination. It did not stop her learning to ride a bicycle, although she fell
off more times than other children. Because she was very determined she learnt
to dance, play tennis and play the piano to grade eight standard and beyond.
She had a beautiful singing voice and joined various choirs and concerts. Her
IQ was 137 and beyond. What hampered her progress in the early years in
school was bead threading, pencil control, drawing and sewing. Later the prob­
lems were manifested in handwriting and spelling and they were never entirely
overcome through her life, leading to many job applications being turned
down. It was only as an adult that the diagnosis of motor impairment was real­
ised, too late to go on those application forms and only discovered when one
employer explained why she had been turned down. Obviously she should
have word processed the forms and recorded the difficulty. However, there is
still little sympathy for such disabilities if you do not use a walking stick or
write neatly.
In motoric terms developmental dyspraxia may affect not only locomotion
but also dressing and other organisational skills. It may affect learning to swim
and ride a bicycle, and learning to play a musical instrument or participate in
ball skills and team games. It may be accompanied by difficulties in fine motor
skills. Alternatively it may only be observed under stress and fatigue.
Ben had suffered some brain damage at birth. This had affected his locomo­
tion, which was awkward and ungainly and his fine motor skills in handwrit­
ing, cutting and drawing. At seven he was managing in the mainstream
setting very well, although he had to be delivered to the school and helped to
the classroom and only participated in some PE activities. He was intellectu­
ally very bright but was beginning to become extremely upset by his teacher’s
continual complaints about his untidy handwriting. At home he would spend
hours trying to write out his work neatly and carefully to please this teacher
but he would become exhausted and anxious. The whole situation was affect­
ing his mental health and stability and he was becoming depressed and
fearing to go to school. With specialist advice the parents found that Ben was
in fact gifted and needed to stay in mainstream education and perhaps be
accelerated when things stabilised. They managed to insist that he should be
permitted to use a lap-top in class to present his work. Reluctantly the school
agreed as the parents paid for it. Relieved of the pressure Ben was keen to get
back to school. It is typical that while the school could recognise and accom­
modate his general coordination difficulties they did not recognise their effect
and permeation into the area of handwriting and make allowance and provi­
sion for this (see Figure 4.2).
Chesson et al. (1991) found that in their sample of children with coordination
difficulties, over 50 per cent had had speech therapy. Some of the group were
only identified on entry to school. Half their sample were doing well at maths
but the rest had spelling and handwriting problems that were hampering their

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Learning disabilities

Figure 4.2 An example of Ben’s best writing (1⁄2 size)

progress in school. Primary schools are the best place to address the needs of
such children but since the imposition of the rigid approach to ‘academic
studies’ in the National Curriculum in the UK, the opportunities for movement
education have radically diminished and teachers who always felt a little
underskilled in this area now receive even less training.

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties

The screening test by Gubbay (1975) shows how easily teachers may assess
and monitor children’s motor coordination using everyday items and school
tasks. Gubbay’s test items for clumsiness in 8–12 year olds included:

• whistle though parted lips (pass or fail)

• make 5 successive skips without skipping rope (pass or fail after 3 attempts
– 2 demonstrations allowed)
• throw a tennis ball, clap hands up to four times, catch ball with two hands,
then dominant hand
• roll tennis ball with dominant foot in spiral fashion around six matchboxes
set at 30 cm intervals (18 seconds allowed)
• thread 10 beads in 18 seconds (beads 3 cm diameter, bore of 0.8 cm, string
stiffened at each end)
• pierce 20 holes in graph paper in 24 seconds (use hat pin, 2 rows in 0.1
0.1
cm squares)
• posting box – fit six different plastic shapes into appropriate slots in two
seconds each (fails if takes longer than 18 seconds).

He identified children as clumsy by six or more failures at eight years; five or

more at nine years; four or more at 10 years; three or more at 11 and two or more
at 12. A condition known as ‘oral dyspraxia’ is identified by difficulties in
yawning, whistling and teeth chattering.

Developmental dysgraphia

In some individuals the dyspraxia may only be manifested in fine motor skills.
When this is the case the condition is usually called ‘developmental dys­
graphia’. It is this seemingly minor difficulty that can cause major educational
problems, for dysgraphia prevents them getting enough spelling practice. They
will engage in elaborate avoidance strategies whenever they are required to
write something down. Their school reports always bemoan their lack of effort
and motivation when the reverse is usually the case.
At least a third of dyslexics have dysgraphia in addition to the dyslexia. In
the population at large, surveys indicate that the incidence is five to 10 per cent
for dyspraxic difficulties in general (Gubbay 1975; Laszlo et al. 1988; Henderson
and Sugden 1992) but estimates of handwriting difficulties vary. Alston found
from 40 to 60 per cent of pupils in her survey in local schools complained of pain
when writing. Roaf (1998) found 25 per cent in her school unable to write faster
than 15 words per minute. These were the pupils who were struggling in all
lessons where a lot of writing was required. A close link between self-concept
and handwriting presentation was found. The majority of the slow writers
showed difficulties with motor coordination, spelling and letter formation. A
speed of 25 words per minute was regarded as a successful rate. Recently I
found that 50 per cent of a Year 7 cohort had handwriting difficulties.
Thomas (1998) described a policy adopted in her Kent infant school in which
the creative aspect of expressing children’s thoughts was developed only orally.
They spent a longer time than before on developing an automatic joined

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hand. As a result they have seen a new quality in the creative written work. The
teachers did not act as scribes and the pupils did not engage in copy writing.
She compared the usual system in the UK with that which operates in France,
where teaching cursive writing is a lengthy process, has high priority in schools
and teacher training, begins on entry to school and takes precedence over
reading as it once did in the early part of the twentieth century in the UK.
Following a research study of handwriting speed in her own school, Allcock
(2001) became concerned that many did not have adequate speed and fluency
to take advantage of their secondary school demands. She devised a 20-minute
test of writing speed and then obtained further samples of some thousands of
pupils across the age range. She found that the average speed in free writing
was one word per minute more than the age of the pupil so that at 12 years the
average speed was 13 words per minute and so on. 25 per cent of pupils at 16
had a speed of less than 12 words per minute and it was recommended that they
be given 25 per cent extra time in examinations to make up for their difficulties.
Such difficulties are often associated with dysgraphia (Montgomery 1997a,
1998, 2000). Table 4.1 presents handwriting and spelling data from three differ­
ent schools using Allcock’s (2001) 20-minute free writing test format.

Table 4.1 To Show Spelling and Writing Scores of Year Cohorts in Three
Different Schools
AGE/YEAR NUMBER Writing speeds Spelling errors Spelling errors
av. words av. w.p.m. per no. of wds

School A (2001)
SET 1 YR 7 28 317.20 15.86 7.11 44.75
(More able 12 years old)
SETS 2/3/4 YR 7 63 278.00 12.04 8.65 32.13
SET 5 YR 7 15 217.60 10.88 12.73 17.1

School B (2001)
SET 2/3 YR 6 16 130.13 6.56 10.01 17.00
SET 1 YR 5 29 196.25 9.81 14.76 13.3
SET 2/3 YR 5 28 134.43 6.72 10.07 12.6

School C (Pre NLS 1998)

YR 2 17 84.83 7.84 17.71 4.79
(+7 no score)

In Table 4.1, as spelling errors decrease handwriting speed increases. The final
column shows the frequency of spelling errors in relation to words written. The
more able Set 1 in Year 7 make on average one spelling error every 44 words,
whereas Set 5 make one every 17 words and the Year 2 pupils make one error
approximately every five words. This was in a school where spelling SATs were
very low and for whom the Developmental Spelling Handbook (Montgomery
1997b) was written. Within two terms the spelling SATs had improved by 40 per
cent, reading by 10 per cent and maths by 5 per cent. They already had a cursive
writing policy from Reception but it was not linked with teaching of spelling.

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties

Handwriting difficulties are distributed across the ability range but wherever
they occur there is little sympathy in schools; children are told they must write
neatly, never how to do so or why they have problems. Some become fright­
ened of putting pen to paper because of the sharp criticism they will get, the
content can be regarded as worthless if the child ‘cannot even be bothered to
write it legibly’. Of course this is unfair and it seriously damages the child’s con­
fidence and motivation when a little help is all they need. Gifted children’s
thoughts may run much faster than their writing skills can cope with and so
they will be criticised too and again content can be ignored. It is only when a
piece of work arrives word processed and appears to be deeply thoughtful that
the busy teacher may realise the potential there. Sadly, it may be assumed that
the lengthy thesis has been copied from the Internet or is the parent’s work and
it is back to handwriting again.
Subjects use a range of strategies to cover up their spelling problems; they
repeat the same words and phrases, they select from a vocabulary they know
they can spell which slows down the writing speed, and some use illegible
squiggles as they scribble away at speed. Slow handwriting may arise for a
number of other reasons. The pupil may write in an elaborate and florid manner
or use a style such as Gothic or Italic which requires careful execution. Others
lack practice and write in a slow and laboured fashion; some have difficulties
assembling their spellings and this slows the writing process; in some writing
is too large and consumes not only space but time; those who have not been
taught a fluent and easy letter form will waste time on inefficient strokes, and
finally some types of writing such as print script are slower to produce than a
fluent, running, joined hand. However, the most serious difficulty is that of fine
motor coordination, which can underlie and undermine all handwriting activ­
ities. Most of these can be overcome with handwriting training but where
there is a deeper cerebellar involvement, an ataxic type problem, or wider co­
ordination disabilities then a lap-top should be used from pre-school onwards
for all except name signing.
Fluency and a well-formed hand take time to develop and so beginners
cannot be expected to achieve this. At Year 7, however, we should be able to
expect that all the pupils have developed a serviceable running hand. Unlike
the rest of the world, in the UK a print script is generally taught first, such as is
found in children’s story books, and then a cursive but half joined form is intro­
duced after about two or three years. This means that one set of motor pro­
grammes have been laid down and then these have to be replaced by another
set. It is not surprising that some children refuse to change, some half change
and others with coordination difficulties develop further problems.
Pupils on the whole do not deliberately write poorly and untidily. Instead
illegibility is an indication of their handwriting problems and various squig­
gles may also help conceal spelling difficulties. Pupils with handwriting co­
ordination difficulties experience little practice and this of course also inhibits
their ability to spell. Each spelling may have to be thought out instead of
appearing automatically. As all this engages a considerable amount of brain
processing power, it results in the content of the narrative being diminished and
fatigue setting in very quickly. It is therefore crucial that all pupils very quickly

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Learning disabilities

learn a fluent style. Wedell’s (1973) research showed that pupils with a co­
ordination problem must use a joined script. For a beginner, the high precision
skills of positioning the pencil on an imaginary line, starting each new letter
afresh and making them all lie in the same direction with equal spaces between
them are not available. Likewise pupils with even a mild coordination difficulty
can find this perceptuomotor task well-nigh impossible. Being made to use a
print form until they can ‘write neatly’ results in them never acquiring a running
hand and so they are handicapped by the writing curriculum and this handicaps
spelling – both problems damage learning in all subject areas where writing is
required. Even the gifted pupil’s good oral abilities may be overlooked in the
drive for neat writing. Girls tend to be better at this and more persistent than
boys and so neat writers with little talent gain the highest marks because their
scripts are easy to read. In later years girls who write neatly can be handicapped
and thought to be rather dull because their work is so legible! Sassoon (1989), for
example, found that 40 per cent of boys and 25 per cent of girls at age 15 said that
writing was actually painful and avoided it whenever possible, whilst 21 per
cent of nine year olds in some Cheshire schools were found to be ill-equipped
for the writing demands of secondary schools (Alston 1993).
However, there is no need for writing to be painful as a significant propor­
tion of such difficulties are brought about by bad posture, incorrect writing
positions, inappropriate furniture, and wrong positioning of the paper. Minor
handwriting difficulties can be resolved by teaching cursive from the outset.
Even so there will be the rare occasion when a pupil with spidery, shaky writing
cannot improve whatever style is used because the underlying difficulty is not
amenable to training. This may be the case in motor impairment when the effort
needed to write is excessive and then the pupil should be given a lap-top com­
puter to use from entry to school.
The following piece of writing contains a number of clues to a pupil’s mild
motor coordination difficulties.

Figure 4.3 Sarah’s unaided writing, 7 years 6 months (1⁄2 size): ‘Our Christmas Party’

(Chronological age: 7.5 years; Reading age 7.2; Spelling age 6.75 years). It took her three
quarters of an hour to write and she copied most words from the dictionary in front of her.
Sarah is well above average in intelligence.

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties

The signs of motor coordination difficulties in writing are:

• writing pulling in from the margin towards the mid line
• ‘rivers’ of spaces running down through the writing
• apparent capital letters spotted about but which are really large forms of the
lower case out of control, especially of s, w, k, and t
• writing which looks scribbly or spiky
• shaky and wobbly strokes on close examination of letters
• writing that varies in ‘colour’, sometimes dark and in other places very faint,
indicating variation in pressure
• writing that produces ridges on the reverse of the paper and even holes in it
due to the pressure exerted
• inability to maintain the writing on the line
• difficulties in copying fluent letter shapes in one fluid movement

Dyslexics and dysgraphics must be taught full cursive writing from the
outset to support their spelling and overcome any handwriting coordination
difficulties. In this system all letters must begin on the line with a lead-in stroke.
An ovoid cursive has been found to be the most natural and easy to learn. The
APSL programmes of Hickey (1977, Augur and Briggs 2nd edition 1991) and
Cowdery et al. (1983–87) demand cursive in order to reinforce the sound,
symbol and kinaesthetic links and establish the automatic syllable and whole
word motor programmes (see Figures 4.4 and 4.5).

Figure 4.4 An example of the Learning Difficulties Research Project (LDRP) ovoid cursive
(Montgomery 1997b)

The specific reasons for teaching cursive handwriting are that it:

• aids left to right movement through words across the page

• eliminates reversals and inversions of letters
• eliminates the need to relearn a whole new set of motor programmes after
the infant stage
• induces greater fluency in writing, which enables greater speed to be devel­
oped without loss of legibility

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Learning disabilities

Figure 4.5a Mark’s writing before and after intervention, age 10 years

• helps store the motor programmes for spelling whole words, bases and
affixes and so spelling accuracy is improved
• makes spaces between letters and between words orderly and automatic
• helps develop a more efficient, fluent and personal style
• causes less pain and difficulty as speed and fluency increase
• improves legibility of writing
• reinforces multisensory learning, linking spelling, writing and speaking.

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties

Thus it can be seen that handwriting and spelling are intimately related in the
remediation of dyslexia. Reading, a pattern recognition skill, is more parasitic
on the writing process and also responds to different strategies to promote its
development. In many cases there are symptoms of handwriting difficulty,
which if addressed, will clear up in a few weeks and spelling will improve as
well.
Jack needs more training in finger painting and finger strengthening exer­
cises to support his writing development.

Figure 4.6 Jack’s writing, age 5.1 years

Tourette Syndrome (TS)

Jim was my laboratory assistant and seemed unaware that during a series of
instructions for setting up apparatus he would interrupt with a set of explosive
bursts of ‘Excuse me’, and ‘Yes, yes’ and other repetitive noises. It was often
accompanied by body twitches and occasional snaking arm movements and
groping himself.
He was small and rounded in stature with an obsessional interest in small
arms and gun clubs or so it seemed, but was good at his job. He would disap­
pear at intervals muttering to himself and engage in serious bouts of hand­
washing. There seemed little point in telling him about Tourette unless he
broached the subject. One day he rushed into my office flushed with triumph
and announced he had read an article in a Sunday magazine all about him, he
was ‘a Tourette’, a ‘gifted child’, then poured out his life story, which was a cav­
alcade of bullying, intimidation, misunderstanding and special schooling.
After this he developed a new sense of self-confidence and was much more
relaxed, less prone to bouts of depression and illness.

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Learning disabilities

TS is a neurodevelopmental disorder that is much less rare than we have sup­

posed. In a study of Year 9 pupils in an Essex secondary school nearly three per
cent of pupils were found to have signs of TS (Mason and Banerjee et al. 1998).
The APA (1994) diagnostic criteria are that the children have multiple motor
tics and one or more vocal tics. A tic is an involuntary, rapid recurrent non-
rhythmic motor or vocal action. They can be simple as in blinking, grimacing,
throat clearing or shoulder shrugging. A complex tic would be twirling,
bending or touching self or others. The vocal tics like Jim’s comprise of out of
context utterances such as ‘shut up’. This can upset teachers greatly, as can be
imagined, unless they know about the condition. The onset is usually at about
seven years but may be earlier and to confirm the diagnosis the tics have to have
lasted for more than a year and occur many times a day. Adults may have
complex vocal tics involving swearing – coprolalia – which are obscene but this
is more rare in children.
The prevalence of ADHD in Tourette is thought to be at least a third, and TS
is often co-morbid with Obsessional–Compulsive Disorders (OCD). Some chil­
dren have rage attacks or explosive outbursts, all of which contribute to them
being regarded as behaviour problem cases rather than having NLD. None of
these combinations is good for their school work and they perform poorly
(Chowdery and Christie 2002). They also have social skills deficits that cause
them to misinterpret the interactions of peers and this leads to further disrup­
tion and isolation. Treatment involves medication such as Clonidine (Robertson
2000), which also helps with any hyperactive symptoms. Other treatments
involve talking through the difficulties and the syndrome and, before key
events, giving the tic massed practice to weaken it before an exam; converting
it into a socially appropriate gesture such as stroking one’s hair or pulling one’s
jacket together; relaxation therapy; and physical exercise (Mansdorf 1995). In a
recent conference keynote presentation the distinguished speaker engaged in
37 left arm tics and about five facial tics. The number of tics diminished as he
warmed to the subject, ‘Intelligence and test measurement’.

Treble exceptionalities

Dyslexia and dysgraphia often co-occur and frequently are accompanied by

ADHD and giftedness all in the same individual. As most individuals with
NLD also have coordination problems and some with dyslexia do too, it can be
seen that it will be necessary in these cases to address the underlying symptoms
as well (see Kokot, Chapter one).
Nicholson and Fawcett et al. (1995) have located dyslexic difficulties as a cere­
bellar problem in the failure of the automatisation processes in articulation,
reading, writing and spelling and thus advocate the inclusion of multisensory
training in specialist remedial programmes as the means by which automatisa­
tion is achieved. But it can be tedious and time consuming especially in the early
stages, after which the progress does speed up. ‘Audiblox’ (Strydom and du
Plessis 2000) is a multisensory programme addressing a multiplicity of difficul­
ties in non-verbal and verbal learning areas. Its name is based upon ‘auditory’

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties

because it enhances auditory skills among other things and ‘blox’ because the
main materials are little coloured blocks. The training covers patterning,
sequencing, audition and attention, logical thinking, directional coordination
and balance exercises, using an arrows card, shoe box, bean bags and paper
crumpling. Finally, there are mathematical exercises using counting and the
blocks again.
The extent to which the principle of repetition is built into Audiblox is best
illustrated in the language training element. A five-chapter book has to be read
by the tutor onto five separate tapes and each chapter repeated many times on
each tape. The student with language disabilities is then required to put the first
tape on a ‘Walkman’ and listen to it for at least three hours each day for several
months, or until his or her own language structure and vocabulary matches that
on the tape. The listener then progresses to Chapter two. As can be imagined
great persistence is required.
If we add ‘intellectually gifted’ and ‘creative’ into this framework we have a
potentially explosive situation. The giftedness and the creativeness do not mix
well with repetition, hence the HANDLE interventions are very short. Gifted
learners in particular need to see the rationale behind what they have to do to
‘engage brain’ with the process and they need targets by which they can assess
progress. It is then that it can become more effective or be stopped and changed
if it is not working. The children do know best. Forcing them into rigid routines,
even school, can make them become disturbed and depressed, or consigned to
waste time by day dreaming school away and losing valuable years of learning
and much of their enormous capability as they learn to underfunction.

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

Interest in the condition was first aroused in the United States in 1918 follow­
ing an epidemic of encephalitis. Many children who had recovered from the
disease showed catastrophic changes in personality. They became irritable,
unruly, distractible, destructive, antisocial and hyperactive. It was then discov­
ered that similar symptoms could occur in cases of brain injury after accidents
and anoxia at birth when the mechanisms of inhibition were disrupted. The
condition came to be named ‘hyperactivity’ after its most overt symptom and
at first it was thought to be a brain damage syndrome. However, when most
children with hyperactivity were found to have no history of brain injury it was
labelled an MBD. Later it became linked with visuo-motor difficulties and was
termed the ‘Strauss Syndrome’ and not only did parents complain but teachers
reported that the child could not sit still (Strauss and Lehtingen 1947). Estimates
of the incidence vary from three to five per cent in the USA to one to two per
cent in the UK with two to three boys to one girl (Rutter 1975). The narrower
definition of ADHD in the UK has led to finding a lower incidence (Cooper and
Ideus 1995). In the 1970s and early 1980s as the condition became more widely
known, every other overactive child was labelled ‘hyperactive’. We have seen
this again in the late 1990s in the renamed ADHD condition. An increase in
numbers does appear to have occurred in this cycle, but as yet the origin is

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Learning disabilities

unknown and may be due to better information and diagnosis. For example, in
1993 in the USA, 900,000 children were diagnosed with the condition but in
2001 5.5 million were given the diagnosis. This could be due to the recognition
of ADD without hyperactivity for impulsivity and inattention and ‘opposi­
tional defiant disorder’.
Cooper and Ideus (1995) make the point that in the UK children with ADHD
would have previously been included in the grouping of those with Emotional
and Behavioural Difficulties (EBD) as a category of special educational need: an
educational rather than a medical and psychiatric definition. They list from the
Elton Report (DES 1989: 31) a survey of teachers’ views on discipline in schools,
behaviours about which teachers are concerned:

• talking out of turn, calling out, distracting others, chatting

• calculated idleness or work avoidance, not having books and equipment
• hindering other pupils, distracting and interfering with their work
• making unnecessary non-verbal noises, banging and scraping chairs, whis­
tling, humming
• persistently infringing school dress codes and rules
• leaving seat without permission
• verbal abuse to pupils and teacher
• cheeky or impertinent remarks or responses

Not only are these behaviours characteristic of children with EBD, each of the
behaviours could also be categorised under the headings of impulsivity, hyper­
activity and/or inattention.
Therein lies the danger of course that all problem pupils become ADHD and
are administered Ritalin. To the characteristics we have to add the dimensions
of morbidity, pervasiveness and severity in cases of ADHD, i.e. the disorder is
manifested across all lessons and both at home and at school and does not
respond to the ordinary teacherly management behaviours such as reasoning,
ignoring aversive behaviour and punishment.
Sam at six is bright, drives his father’s tugs, runs the family about in the dory,
sails and rows and plays at the boatyard. He has tea with the men and discusses
boats and sails like a little old man. During the week he has to go to school and
finds sitting about all day tedious and tells his teacher so. He is used to manag­
ing his own time and learning and continues this at school to the annoyance of
the teacher. He is easily bored and wanders off to do his own thing as well as
deliberately disobeying to see how far he can go. The teacher is at her wits’ end
with him as he is out of her control, ‘cheeky’, overactive and disobedient. The
parents are called in and told he is hyperactive and needs Ritalin medication.
Of course he did not need Ritalin and was not hyperactive, just different, used
to talking with adults on equal terms.
In 1970, Stewart in a study of 37 ‘patients’ and 37 six year old controls from
matched backgrounds found that there were significant differences between
them. 81 per cent of the patients were unable to sit still at meals as opposed to
eight per cent of controls and 84 per cent were unable to finish projects com­
pared with 0 per cent of controls. The patients showed many forms of antisocial

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behaviour such as fighting with other children, irritability, defiance, lying and
destructiveness, and 50 per cent were unpopular with other children. Stewart
found that the condition was always evident by the time the child was three or
four years old. Mothers usually noted unusual behaviour before the age of two
years where this was not the first child.
One hundred years previously Heinrich Hoffman (cited in Stewart 1970)
wrote about such a case of ADHD as follows:

Fidgety Phil,
He won’t sit still;
He wriggles
And giggles, . . .
The naughty restless child
Growing still more rude and wild

As the studies into hyperactivity progressed it became clear that the underly­
ing difficulty was not the hyperactivity but an inability to maintain attentional set
either posturally or in eye movement and in its second incarnation it has come
to be known as Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), in which
there are three main symptoms contributing to the diagnosis:

1. Inattention – this includes behavioural, ocular and postural set

2. Hyperactivity – extreme and incessant mobility and restlessness
3. Impulsivity – shouting and calling out and cannot take turns.

When the symptoms are present without the hyperactivity the diagnosis is
made of Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD). The ADD condition is frequently
overlooked as it can appear as a case of dreaminess, disorganisation and quiet
withdrawal, an easy child to manage in a busy classroom, but little learning
takes place. The overactivity does not always continue into adolescence and
may be replaced by underactivity, inertia and lack of motivation. In the USA in
ADD three subtypes are identified (APA 1994). The first subtype is character­
ised by all the symptoms (ADHD – Combined), the second subtype consists of
inattentiveness without impulsivity or hyperactivity (ADHD-I) and the third
type is hyperactivity with impulsivity (ADHD-HI). Studies show that those
with hyperactivity are more likely to show aggressive behaviours whilst those
without show a sluggish, cognitive tempo. However, individuals will have
their unique patterns depending on levels of arousal, temperament and rearing
techniques (Baum and Owen et al. 1991).
ADHD and ADD are one of the group of specific learning difficulties and co-
occur with dyslexia and other SpLDs (Knivsberg et al. 1999). In extreme forms, i.e.
chronic, pervasive and severe hyperactivity, biological causes are strongly impli­
cated. Where there are less severe forms the biological aspects of the condition are
inconclusive (Cooper 1997: 6). However, in this area there is a tension between
pathology and ecological models of deviance. In terms of gifted children, those
with ADHD tend to show precocious motor development, intense interest in
certain topics, problems following up school work, and difficulties with peers.

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Learning disabilities

A typical profile is as follows:

Richard, aged 13, was diagnosed with the condition ADHD after pulling a knife
on a friend. His father said, ‘It is like walking on eggshells. You are constantly
on your guard, always looking over your shoulder. To be honest there is a con­
stant tension because the slightest thing will set him off into a tantrum. He will
rip his clothes, bang his head or drop to the floor and writhe around. Sometimes
he will run away or dash in front of cars, and on one occasion he set fire to the
carpet and wrecked the house’ (www.adders.org/story21.htm 6/7/2001). His
father had been working as an insurance broker in the City until Richard was
four but then had to give up work because his wife could not cope alone.
Schooling was erratic because of his disruptive behaviour, and even the special
school he was referred to expelled him after three days. For the last 10 years his
father has been sleeping fully dressed in a sleeping bag on the couch because
the boy gets up very early – any time after midnight – and the father has to be
ready in case he runs out of the door or tries to burn the house down. Richard
is now on medication, Ritalin, which has not helped his behaviour but has
improved his concentration so that he can catch up with his school work. He
now attends a special needs unit but has to be taken there each day. He is a
bright child, well into computers, and has his own web site although he is still
behind in educational attainments.
At one extreme is the view that ADHD is a postmodern social construction
resulting from a modern technological system and media driven society. A system
unsympathetic to the social and psychological wellbeing of humans, such as tele­
vision lives where families never sit down to eat and talk together but ‘graze’,
shout and ‘zap’ through television programmes. This life style is thought by some
to induce ADHD in vulnerable children. At the other extreme it is regarded as a
pathological condition which has to be medicated. In reality it is possible that both
extremes can evoke the condition and it is not uncommon to find highly able chil­
dren, bored and frustrated at school, earning the diagnosis, as may abused chil­
dren acting out their distress. It is the treatment paradox which is most prominent
in ADHD studies. Although it might seem logical to prescribe sedatives for a
hyperactive individual it was found that these made the condition worse. Instead
stimulants such as Ritalin, the commercial name of particular amphetamines, was
found to improve the child’s behaviour, calming the hyperactivity and increasing
attentional set. Amphetamines release the neurotransmitter noradrenaline from
the nerve endings; this has a calming effect in specific areas such as the reticular
formation and the frontal lobes. The drug has to be used very carefully and is
usually only used to help the child settle back into school in case drug dependency
develops. The dose effect is temporary: four hour, six to eight hour or slow acting
doses can be obtained. Administration needs to be coupled with a behaviour
management programme to help the child gain control of the behaviour.
Clonidine is also often prescribed to decrease the aggressive behaviour.
In 1999, Fischman and his colleagues reported on research that showed
abnormally high dopamine transmitter substances in the brains of those with
long standing ADHD. Dopamine is a facilitator at the synapses. Because of the
fleeting attention and the classroom disruption it is frequently found, as in
Richard’s case, that there are accompanying difficulties in reading and writing

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 Non-verbal learning difficulties

secondary to the main problems. In the period of administering the drug a

remedial programme for literacy teaching needs to be implemented. Because of
the good memory skills of highly able children, reading is usually easy to rem­
ediate but handwriting and spelling remain very problematic.
In the same period a behaviour management programme needs to be imple­
mented which both teachers and parents learn to follow. This would consist of:

• keeping the child close to the teacher so that the teacher has prior attention
and can use touch to calm, or quietly name or point the finger
• setting up low stimulus areas to reduce distractibility: carrels, carpeting and
headphones all help
• structuring the child’s day very carefully so there is a known routine and no
sudden changes and upsets
• limiting instruction about tasks to small steps making sure the child is
attending
• asking the child to repeat the instructions to help programme the behaviour
• allowing frequent breaks for physical activity
• avoiding over stimulation and excess fatigue
• establishing clear and firm limits on behaviour and what will not be
accepted; a prearranged signal can be used to give a warning
• trying to CBG (Catch the pupil Being Good, Montgomery 1989, 1999) rather
than nag or punish
• rewarding any desirable behaviours or their close approximations
• anticipating outbursts and tantrums and redirecting attention to positive
events
• having a ‘time out’ space, cushion or chair where there is quiet and time to
collect oneself and calm down.

Ritalin treatment does not work in a significant number of cases and then other
treatments and models are sought. One of these is the allergy model. A number
of children have been identified with hyperactivity who have an allergy to pre­
servatives and tartrazines – additives in foods such as sausages, soft drinks and
crisps, all things that children enjoy. Yet others are allergic to chocolate, cheese,
flour or milk protein and an appropriate diet has to be constructed. In the light
of this some schools have replaced sweets and crisps in their tuck shops with
fruit and have found significantly calmer and more attentive behaviour in
classes in the afternoons.
In ADD without the hyperactivity a pattern of uninhibited curiosity and
meddlesomeness is seen in pre-school. There tends to be continual trial and
error learning, wandering away from the guarding adult, rash acceptance of
strange adults and proneness to accidents. It is a form of impulsive inconse­
quential behaviour.

Creativity and ADD

What researchers tend not to see is the other side of ADHD and ADD. Johnny
was a colleague in the science department, he taught physics, much of it learned

85
Learning disabilities

in the Services. By day he was a teacher, at night and weekends he was a dem­
olition worker. It was the only way he could use up his surplus energy and fulfil
the need to be constantly on the move. Jack, like Johnny, had a wild youth,
became a boxing champion, talked his way into university without the proper
grades and later became the head of a Mercantile Exchange, earning millions of
dollars a year (Jaksa 1999). Jaksa reported other cases who manage and use their
ADD to advantage such as Phil, who insisted that it made him a more exciting
speaker, comedian and motivator. He claimed it was a gift although he admit­
ted that at school teachers took early retirement when they found he was going
to be in their class.
An association is beginning to be made between creativity and ADD. For
creativity to occur the conditions needed are a willingness to take risks, intrin­
sic motivation, tolerance of ambiguities, independence of thought and a belief
in oneself despite what others say, the ability to redefine and look at problems
from different perspectives – lateral thinking, skills of insight in which unusual
connections between things can be made – and the strength of motivation to
overcome barriers and obstacles (Hartmann 2000). Gifted individuals are fre­
quently reported to have high levels of energy and creativity along these
dimensions and these are shared to some extent by the person with ADD. The
constant switching of attention assists in refocusing in problem solving and so
on. In fact, it might be suggested that many of the creative, energetic and suc­
cessful figures in a range of fields have ADD. Those on Ritalin often stop taking
it at key output times because they enjoy the ‘buzz’ they get and the high energy
released, which they learn to channel into their work.
Typically those with ADD succeed in adulthood but not in school, where the
daily routines and static nature of classrooms drive them to distraction. If the
programmes of teaching and learning were made more flexible and offered
greater potential for direct participation, activity and creativity by learners then
more underfunctioning pupils with such disabilities might find success.

Summary and conclusions

Non-verbal learning difficulties are the result of atypical brain development

and are neurodevelopmental difficulties. If correctly identified there are a range
of remedial programmes and strategies that can be used to overcome them and
compensatory strategies that can relieve the pressures. In most NLD there is a
motor coordination problem.
In schools in particular the needs of pupils with non-verbal learning difficul­
ties have not always been understood. Some types of difficulty such as hand­
writing and gross motor coordination attract a great deal of criticism and
bullying. The child is blamed for carelessness and fault and little help is given.
All this is very demotivating and undermines the self concept and progress in
school. Any giftedness and talent is then masked.
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is also one of the non-verbal learning
difficulties and the lack of time spent on tasks can prevent the easy acquisition
of basic skills and the learning of school subjects. This increases the frustrations

86
 Non-verbal learning difficulties

of gifted learners as the disparity between their abilities and their achievements
grows. This, coupled with their problem behaviour and inability to get on with
peers, can make them early candidates for exclusion from school and thus very
vulnerable. In all these cases the educator needs to be able to understand the
disability and recruit the necessary support, therapy or treatments which
improve all the time, and then the giftedness can be promoted. Sometimes edu­
cators can also be therapists and education can be therapy.
At time of publication, educational systems seem to be doggedly opposed to
educating to the needs of pupils with non-verbal learning difficulties. Their
strengths and their difficulties frequently go unrecognised, leading to disaffec­
tion and exclusion because they are regarded as lazy, defiant, awkward and
problematic.

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 PART TWO:

SENSORY DISABILITIES

There have always been a few acknowledged high achievers, or the gifted and
talented with sensory difficulties such as Beethoven, who became deaf as he
grew old and Helen Keller, who was deaf-blind as a result of an early Rubella
infection. Today there are a number of well-known deaf icons such as Emma
Nicholson and Jack Ashley, politicians, and Evelyn Glennie, musician.
Representing the blind there are Peter White, broadcaster; José Feliciano and
Ray Charles, musicians and David Blunkett, former Secretary of State for
Education and now at the Home Office. Before these people came to prominence
in such careers the blind might more frequently have been met as masseurs and
piano tuners and the deaf as switchboard operators using special visual cueing
equipment – careers thought to be suitable for them by sighted and hearing
persons. Now we can see from the achievements of these exceptional people
what any other student with sensory disabilities/difficulties might aspire to.
What we have to do when looking at these high achievers is to question how
many more might and should be taking their place in a wide range of careers
with the rest of us. Are they represented in all fields of endeavour and are there
sufficient of them given the numbers with sensory difficulties? The answer to
both these two questions would seem to be no, not yet. In fact the discrimina­
tion that still operates is so strong that it was only recently (2002) that a Disability
Discrimination Act was placed on the UK statute books, more than three
decades after the Race Relations Act and nearly three since the Sex
Discrimination Act.
The talent and ability of these highly successful people in the face of all this
prejudice must have been prodigious and their determination extraordinary to
have succeeded against such odds, even with a supportive family around them.
In the next two chapters Rosemary Starr explores visual difficulties and gifted­
ness – a rare condition because of the few born with severe visual impairment
– and Carrie Winstanley examines the needs of the doubly exceptional in the
deaf population and the long-standing issues raised by deaf culture and teach­
ing and learning methods in ordinary schools.
It has not proved easy to find authors who would be prepared to think about
double exceptionality and find research in any of these areas and it makes me

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Sensory disabilities

wonder if in education we have adopted the somewhat patronising approach

to disability where we are more concerned to do good to than promote the good
of individuals.
It seems especially important to listen to these exceptional individuals and
learn from them.

92
 Show me the light – I can’t see how
5 bright I am: gifted students with
visual impairment
Rosemary Starr

Interest in this topic began in the 1970s. The limited studies conducted during
this period continued into the mid-1980s, when sporadic discussion then
emphasised the need to correctly identify students and alert teachers and
parents to the possibility of a student being both gifted and having visual
impairment. Some programmes were established in the US, generally in uni­
versities or medical research centres. The need for appropriate programmes to
meet the specific needs of gifted students with visual impairment was raised
again in the 1990s. Few educational programmes appear to continue, despite
their established need. Recent books about giftedness now have chapters on
gifted children with disabilities, but despite this, there are few published
studies about reliable and valid instruments to identify these children and their
cognitive and behavioural characteristics.
Definitions can vary according to the priorities regarding the type or types of
abilities a system is most concerned with developing. Budgetary constraints
also play a very important role as these affect the eligibility criteria and limit the
scope of the definition. Generally the more limited the funds, the higher the
level of giftedness that is required for participation in special programmes,
therefore students with disabilities would tend to be overlooked.

Definitions

Visual impairment
Hardman, Drew, Egan and Wolf (1993) maintained that visual impairment is
associated with three groups of eye problems – refractive eye problems, which
includes cataracts; muscle disorders, which includes nystagmus (uncontrolled
eye movements that may move sideways or up and down); and receptive eye
problems, including retrolental fibroplasia, which often results from too much
oxygen being administered to premature babies. Visual impairment includes
the educationally blind, those who are partially sighted/have low vision and
those with limited vision, according to Pagliano (1994).

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Sensory disabilities

Gifted children with disabilities

Those children with potential giftedness/talents who showed some evidence

of underlying ability, which had not been observed earlier through lack of
opportunity, due to the focus on their disability, should be classified as gifted.
The functionally talented were defined as having demonstrated ability beyond
that of their peers with the same disabilities in one or more domains. Hackney
(1986) maintained that there were no guidelines in the literature to identify
gifted students with visual impairment, and the differential education for
gifted children with disabilities was still at developmental stages. It was sug­
gested by Hardman et al. (1993), that even though adaptive uses of computers
and related technologies were becoming more widespread, there is little known
about the service delivery systems and materials that are best suited for these
individuals. It was estimated by Corn (1986) that three to five per cent of the
general population are gifted. People with visual impairment constitute one per
thousand of the school population, or 0.1 per cent, therefore, to be gifted with
visual impairment would occur in one per twenty thousand. However,
Braggett (1988) maintained that there may be proportionally as many gifted
among those with a disability as among the general population, but their gifts
may be obscured by their disability. Teachers may, for example, attribute atyp­
ical behaviour to the disability rather than to giftedness.
For purposes of the research to be described, intellectual giftedness was
defined as having a Verbal Scale score of 130 or above on the WISC-111.

Educational needs of gifted children with disabilities

It was not until the 1970s that suggestions were being made about the educa­
tional needs of gifted children with disabilities. But even in 1987, Minner et al.
found teachers reluctant to include gifted students with disabilities in gifted
programmes, fearing the student would be unable to cope. For some, the iden­
tification itself is a huge hurdle, but that is only the beginning, as much preju­
dice needs to be overcome before a student can be included in an appropriate
gifted programme.
There are numerous problems involved in being identified as gifted with any
disability, according to Johnson (1987) and Maker (1977). In relation to the vis­
ually impaired gifted students some of the problems included stereotyping,
developmental delays (particularly in spatial awareness) and often incomplete
information. For example, opportunities are not always available to those with
disabilities to show their high abilities in an appropriate environment, coupled
with stereotypic expectations and test limitations that usually restrict the
numbers of atypical gifted students identified. Measures generally used to aid
identification tend to recognise ability and not potential. To overcome this,
Baldwin (1987) stressed that programmes need to be differentiated for all gifted
students and therefore gifted students with disabilities could be included and
appropriately accommodated. A further problem is that the gifted with disabil­
ities were still being treated under a medical model with the greater emphasis

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 Gifted students with visual impairment

on the disability rather than giftedness. However, the shift towards more
school-based provision of programmes was becoming increasingly important
in the 1980s.
In 1988, Braggett stated that there were no programmes in Australia catering
specifically for gifted children with disabilities. A current literature review indi­
cates that as no published studies are available concerning programmes for
gifted children with disabilities, the situation has not changed since Braggett’s
statement. Vialle and Paterson (1996) raised the issue of lack of provision in
Australia for appropriate programmes and the need for identification of gifted
children with hearing impairment.
The difficulties encountered by visually impaired gifted children in gifted
programmes would be the same as for any group of minority students being
included within a gifted programme, according to Gallagher and Courtwright
(1988), and they need the same type of provision as other gifted students
(Yewchuk and Lupart 1993). There is no evidence for teachers’ fears that they
may not be able to cope. Caton (1985) proposed that visually impaired students
be educated in mainstream settings with children of similar abilities. The visu­
ally impaired need the same academic curriculum and would need to learn
adaptive skills for improved orientation and mobility, and the use of tape
recorders and other equipment to develop the use of listening to facilitate adap­
tation. It is critical that they learn to use any residual vision efficiently. Seeley
(1989) maintained that gifted students with visual impairments use their
strengths to learn compensation skills.
Whitmore and Maker (1985) discussed at length the behavioural and emo­
tional adjustments that the gifted with a disability frequently have to face.
Often these children have to cope with mixed messages from others that accen­
tuate their abilities and differences. They are different from other children with
disabilities, children without disabilities and also from other gifted children.
The intellectually gifted with a disability are vulnerable to lowered self esteem.
Sensitivity and perfectionism is common with all gifted individuals, but those
with a disability also have extreme desires for independence. Often these stu­
dents experience communication problems with their sighted peers. According
to Corn (1986), visually impaired gifted students often stated the need to be
better than gifted students without disabilities in order to be recognised.
Gifted children, as a whole, are usually self-critical. However, the gifted with
disabilities are considered to show even greater sensitivity according to Corn
(1986) and Maker (1977) and believe that they have to prove themselves by
being better than other gifted students. The findings of Cohen and Ambrose
(1993) would support this and they continued to caution that the gifted with
disabilities often have unrealistic expectations as to what constitutes giftedness
and, as a result, often experience depression and intensity of emotions.

Identification

Karnes and Johnson (1986) claimed that identification of gifted students with
disabilities gives them an opportunity to excel, raises their self esteem and leads

95
Sensory disabilities

to changed perceptions of peers and teachers. As a result, parents become more

accepting of the disability and are often more optimistic about the future for
their child. In order to identify giftedness in these students with visual impair­
ment, Anastasi (1988) advocated using the Verbal Scale of the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC), as high verbal ability can often be asso­
ciated with high intelligence, and concluded that the results were reasonably
satisfactory. It is suggested in the literature that those with visual impairments
tend to score higher on verbal fluency, verbal flexibility and verbal originality.
Johnson and Corn (1989) suggested that some of the difficulties with identifica­
tion were due to the checklists of characteristics of giftedness being used but
not adapted for children with visual impairments. Another difficulty involved
with identification was that frequently the group making the decision about
inclusion in gifted programmes would contain teachers with qualifications in
giftedness, but not also in special education. Davis and Rimm (1985) suggested
that gifted students with disabilities frequently underachieve so it is necessary
to encourage them to see the worth of their achievements.
Four obstacles to being identified as gifted with a disability were listed by
Johnson and Corn as follows:

1. Parents and professionals often had a limited knowledge about potential –

most found it hard to understand that a child could co-function with two
areas of exceptionality.
2. Due to the small percentage of gifted children with disabilities, teachers have
not always had experience of teaching children with disabilities and may,
therefore, not have a positive attitude towards such a child being included
in a programme for the gifted.
3. Inappropriate methods or instruments for identification are used which may
not highlight the student’s strengths.
4. Funds are often limited and the costs of accommodating a child with a dis­
ability into a gifted programme by the provision of spoken output comput­
ers for the visually impaired, magnification of materials etc., may be too
great for the budget.

Research study in Victoria, Australia

Selection of the students for the study

The children were selected through enquiries to the Directorate of School
Education, Catholic Education Office, Royal Victorian Institute for the Blind
and the Visiting Teaching Service for Students with Visual Disabilities. The five
students in this study met the dual selection criteria of having visual impair­
ment and possibly being gifted. Participants in this project were a sample of five
children (four girls and one boy), ranging in age from three years 10 months to
16 years one month. Four of the students had nystagmus, a muscle disorder
resulting in rapid eye movements either from side to side or up and down.
However, three also had comorbid visual conditions of albinism, small optic

96
 Gifted students with visual impairment

nerve hypoplasia, and congenital cataracts. The other student had retrolental
fibroplasia, a receptive eye problem. The students all attended mainstream set­
tings and had support, once a week, from the Visiting Teacher Service for
Students with Visual Disabilities.

Test instruments and checklists

The children were assessed using the following measures:

1. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Third Edition (WISC-111) As the
students in this project had severe visual impairments, it was inappropriate
to administer the Performance Sub-tests. The Verbal Scale requires skills in
understanding verbal information, thinking with words, and expressing
thoughts in words. The Verbal Scale provides an objective measure of Verbal
Intelligence.
2. Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept Scale (Piers 1984) was used to examine the
self esteem of the participants in this study.

The parents were required to complete the following measures and checklists:

1. The Parents’ Identification Checklist was the one recommended by the

Victorian Directorate of School Education in the Bright Futures Policy
Statement, published in 1995.
2. Multiple Intelligences Parent Inventory (Adapted from In Their Own Way –
Seven Intelligences Inventory (Shannon 1991) by L. G. Kronborg, Krongold
Centre, Monash University).
3. Social Skills Rating System – Parent Form (Gresham and Elliott 1990).

The teachers were required to complete the following checklists:

1. The Renzulli-Hartman Scale for Rating Behavioural Characteristics of Superior

Students (Renzulli and Hartman et al. 1971).
2. The Social Skills Ratings System – Teacher Form (Gresham and Elliott 1990).

Findings from the study

WISC-111 profiles
The students in this project were not homogenous in terms of age, grade level
and school attended, although they shared two characteristics in common.
They all had a visual impairment and were gifted. From a survey of the litera­
ture, it was anticipated that certain characteristics may be shared, apart from
visual impairment and giftedness. According to Tillman (1973) and supported
by Maker (1977), gifted students with visual impairment present a WISC Verbal
Scale sub-test profile where Digit Span and Information are elevated and
Comprehension and Similarities are lowered. Maker (1977) asserted these

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Sensory disabilities

results were due to those with visual impairments reaching their maximum
capacity somewhat later than people with sight. Maker (1977) proposed that
children with visual impairments may have difficulties with abstract conceptu­
alisation problems at a concrete, functional level, especially if tested using the
Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale, where the gifted tend to perform at the level
of older children. Whitmore and Maker (1985) would support this viewpoint.
The profiles from the Verbal Scale of the WISC-111, therefore, were expected to
show elevated scores on the Information and Digit Span sub-tests and lowered
scores on the Similarities and Comprehension sub-tests. The following table
shows the students’ results on these subtests.

Table 5.1 WISC-111 Sub-Test Scaled Scores or Age Equivalent Scores

Digit Span Information Comprehension Similarities

Case A 25 84 99.9 99
Case B 84 95 99 99.9
Case C**+ 6.0 5.10 7.10 6.6
Case D 37 37 99.6 84
Case E 99.6 75 98 95

**Age equivalent scores are presented for Case C, as the WISC-111 norms begin at 6 years 0
months.
+ Chronological age at time of testing: 3 years 10 months

As can be seen from the above table, none of the students in this project shares
the profile proposed by Tillman (1973) and Maker (1977). All of the students had
raised scores on Comprehension sub-tests and demonstrated highly developed
understanding of societal rules and conventions with thorough explanations.
All the students also had elevated scores on the Similarities sub-test, and were
able to conceptualise verbal information with a high degree of abstraction.
Case A had lower than expected Digit Span scores, when compared to A’s
other sub-test scores on the Verbal Scale. However, Case D was the only student
with lowered Information and Digit Span sub-test scores, which is the opposite
of the profile of the Verbal Scale scores on the WISC, according to Tillman (1973)
and Maker (1977). This is contrary to their suggested hypothesis in expecting
raised scores on the Information and Digit Span sub-tests. It could be an indi­
cation of a verbal processing deficit characteristic of dyslexics (Montgomery
1997; and see Chapter three), suggesting double disability and giftedness each
masking the other, or triple exceptionality.
Lin Shan Ping and Sikka Anjoo (1992), in a review of the literature, concluded
that both Comprehension and Similarities sub-test scores would be lower for
those who are gifted and have visual impairment. They thought a lower
Comprehension sub-test score could be due to a limited visual input and a
restriction on the range of experiences for the comprehension of concepts.
Slower development in abstract thinking could be caused by generally restricted
interaction with the environment, fewer opportunities for learning through imi­
tation, and fewer experiences for the development of abstract concepts, but this

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 Gifted students with visual impairment

is not borne out in the case details here. Perhaps they were placing too much
emphasis upon the importance of visual input in the construction of higher
mental processes in visual impairment, or it is not so relevant in gifted cases.
The expected elevated Digit Span and Information sub-test scores could be
attributed to those with visual impairments relying more on other sensory
avenues. More specifically, according to Maker (1977), auditory memory
should be weighted in predicting intellect with the visually impaired. Although
Caton (1985) had maintained that often visually impaired gifted children have
exceptional auditory memory, advanced problem solving skills and superior
verbal communication, Hardman et al. (1993) stated that there was no empiri­
cal evidence that those with visual impairment develop greater capacity in
other sensory areas. In fact the alternative hypothesis would seem more apt. We
might expect a higher level of achievement in Comprehension and Similarities
in these gifted students, for they are obliged to focus upon auditory and verbal
learning, making it a strength.
Braggett (1988), Hardman et al. (1993) and Pagliano (1994) asserted that there
may be deficits in meaningful verbal learning and students with visual impair­
ments have a tendency to reach maximum levels of achievement at a slower rate
than their sighted peers. But the evidence here for gifted students suggests a
different profile.
For example, Cases B, C, D and E had elevated scores in all the four sub-tests
identified by Maker (1977) and Tillman (1973) as likely to be lower. It is inter­
esting to note that another student who was visually impaired, but who only
achieved a Verbal Scale IQ of high average and therefore could not be formally
included in this project, also presented with a profile where scores on the
Information, Similarities and Comprehension sub-tests were elevated and the
Digit Span sub-test score was lower.
One possible reason for the different profiles in this study, when compared to
those of the literature, could be that these students are all gifted as well as
having visual impairment and therefore their processing skills are superior.
Another contributing factor may be due to the changes in education methods
since the 1970s, where greater recognition is made of the different learning
styles of children. Modification in teaching strategies is now made through
greater use of sophisticated computer technology, combining auditory and
visual input with visual techniques. There may be greater awareness that stu­
dents with visual impairment may have difficulties with the concepts in the
Comprehension and Similarities sub-tests of the WISC-111.
Since the 1980s, there has been greater emphasis on students with visual
impairment attending mainstream schools with support from the visiting
teachers for the visually impaired. These students are taught techniques relying
on more visual concepts in the learning of language. In the mainstream schools,
students with visual impairment would be more exposed to their sighted peers
and therefore would have more opportunities to adapt and learn other tech­
niques with the help of the visiting teachers.
Freedom from Distractibility was not looked at in earlier studies of WISC
profiles as WISC-111 has only been available since the early 1990s (see Table
5.2). Freedom from Distractibility was considered to be a worthwhile aspect of

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Sensory disabilities

Table 5.2 Freedom from Distractibility Scores on the WISC-111

Case A Average
Case B Superior
Case C Very Superior
Case D Average
Case E Very Superior

the students’ verbal profile to investigate as Freeman (1991) and Klein (1992)
and other researchers had shown that gifted students had superior memory
and the ability to concentrate and attend to a task for extended periods of time.
The gifted with visual impairments would be more likely to have better verbal
communication skills than their sighted peers and better memory function,
which could be an indicator of their giftedness, according to Caton (1985).
Arithmetic and Digit Span sub-test scores comprise the Freedom from
Distractibility score. The Arithmetic and Digit Span sub-tests rely on ability to
remember auditorally presented digits and require attention and concentration.
The Arithmetic sub-test also involves mental arithmetic knowledge. Anxiety
and verbal processing problems can contribute to lowered Arithmetic and Digit
Span sub-test scores. Cases B, C and E obtained Freedom from Distractibility
scores within either the superior or very superior range. Cases A and D scored
Freedom from Distractibility scores within the average range. Thus it is sug­
gested that either these two students did not find the retention of digits in iso­
lation a task that was motivating for them and, therefore, did not attend as fully
as in other circumstances where their interest was fully engaged, or that they
had a mild verbal coding deficit. It was noted that Cases A and D were anxious
during those particular sub-tests. Even though Case B’s Freedom from
Distractibility was within the superior range, Case B was distracted during the
Digits Forward part of the sub-test, was able to re-focus for the Digits Backward
part of the sub-test and still obtained a percentile score of 84 for the Digit Span
sub-test. This was a relative weakness for Case B, when compared to Case B’s
other Verbal Scale scores. Case B’s Arithmetic sub-test score was within the very
superior range and therefore contributed to raising B’s Freedom from
Distractibility Scale score to within the superior range.
In all five cases, the students’ mothers indicated a broad attention span and
ability to concentrate well. This may give some support to a possible explana­
tion for Case A’s and Case D’s scores being lowered because of anxiety, or their
ability to pay attention and concentrate is more focused in other activities that
hold greater interest for them. There seemed no other indication of a learning
disability, however.
For gifted students with a disability to succeed, Caton (1985) asserted that
they needed an intense desire to reach goals and a recognition of their strengths
and weaknesses. Their self esteem was often fragile and motivational factors
were very important in enabling these students to reach their potential. In a
study conducted by Beaty (1991), investigating the self esteem of visually
impaired and non-visually impaired adolescents, it was found that the self
esteem of the adolescents with visual impairment was significantly lower than
that of adolescents without visual impairment. However, the students in

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 Gifted students with visual impairment

Beaty’s study and those in the Pagliano study (1994) were not classified as being
gifted.

Self esteem

Table 5.3 Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept Scale Scores

Behavioral Intellectual & Physical Anxiety Popularity Happiness &
Cases attributes School status appearance satisfaction

A A AA AA A BA AA
B AA AA BA A A BA
C* — — — — — —
D BA A BA BA BA BA
E AA AA AA A AA AA

BA = Below Average A = Average AA = Above Average

* (C was not administered the Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept Scale due to age
constraints.)

In this group overall the self concept ranged from above average to below
average (see Table 5.3). Ludwig and Cullinan (1984) cautioned against general­
ising findings that attempt to link self esteem and giftedness, as being consis­
tently high or low. Feldhusen (1986), however, suggested that gifted children
record a higher overall self concept particularly when successful affective rela­
tionships are established with other highly able people. All of the students in
the current study have participated in extension programmes and therefore it
could be expected that this exposure to like minds would eliminate one aspect
of difference that these students have. Due to the small numbers of students
who are gifted with visual impairment, chances of making contact with other
gifted students with visual impairment would normally be slim.
Case D was in early adolescence and, at the time of the assessment for this
study, was in the first year of secondary school. The other students who were
administered the Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept Scale were older and
more established in secondary school. This transition from primary to secon­
dary school may have accounted for Case D’s lowered self concept when com­
pared to the other students in the study. This supposition had support from
Milgram and Milgram (1976) for in their study, changes in self concept became
less positive as children approached adolescence. This may account for the stu­
dents in this current study rating themselves as within above average to
average range, except for Case D.
In all four cases, Intellectual and School Status was rated as within the above
average or average range, so that these students acknowledge their academic
abilities. This was the only domain where there was consistency between the
students. The work of Kelly and Colangelo (1984), Loeb and Jay (1987) and Ross
and Parker (1980) supports the consistency of raised academic concept in such
cases. Loeb and Jay (1987) discussed the need to differentiate between the gen­
erally raised academic self concept of the gifted and the lowered social self

101
Sensory disabilities

concept. Ford (1989) found that on self report, gifted students described them­
selves as being at least within the average range, if not better. In this project, each
of the students rated themselves as being within either the above average or
average range in academic self concept. With Case D, this was the only domain
rated above the below average range. This may have been due to acknowledge­
ment by Case D that placement in extension programmes was appropriate, even
though Case D was unable to accept positive aspects of the other domains.
According to researchers such as Ross and Parker (1980), gifted students
maintained that they were different from their peers and were insecure in the
social sphere. This was because, according to Davis and Rimm (1985), the gifted
students with visual impairments may not have well-developed social skills.
Research by Hardman and Drew et al. (1993) confirmed this. They found that
generally, students with visual impairments had poor social skills.
Cases B and E rated their Popularity as either within the above average or
average range. Popularity was rated as being below average in Cases A and D.
Case A mentioned to the examiner that there were often feelings of social iso­
lation due to the family’s financial circumstances and A’s visual disability,
which A stated interfered with the active participation that A would like with
sighted peers. Case D explained that currently relationships with peers were
good, although this was different to what had occurred in primary school. This
was not borne out in the self ratings on the Popularity domain. In this sample
there does not seem to be consistent confirmation of the findings of Davis and
Rimm (1985) and Hardman and Drew et al. (1993) relating low social skill devel­
opment and visual impairment. Both Cases B and D give an appearance of
being confident and happy. However, both rated Happiness and Satisfaction as
within the below average range.
Whitmore and Maker (1985) maintained that once students are identified as
gifted, when they already had a disability, their abilities and differences are
accentuated. In addition to such problems the gifted with disabilities often have
unrealistic expectations and can as a consequence experience depression
(Cohen and Ambrose 1993). Anxiety was rated as between above average to
below average in all four cases. Anxiety was a common factor for all the stu­
dents, either actually stated during the interview and assessment process, or
evident through mannerisms such as wringing hands or the possible fluctuat­
ing levels of attention and concentration with Cases A and D. All the students
who completed the Piers-Harris were adolescents and coming to terms with
their new roles in the home, school and general community. This transition can
often contribute to greater levels of anxiety. The students in this study stated
that they experienced a level of difference compounded by their giftedness and
the difficulties of coping with visual impairment.

Social skills
There is little consistency in the literature about the level of social skills of gifted
students, particularly when compared to age peers. Davis and Rimm (1985) and
Hardman and Drew et al. (1993) suggested that the gifted with visual impair­
ment may have more poorly developed social skills than sighted peers. Davis

102
 Gifted students with visual impairment

and Rimm (1985) proposed that the social skills of gifted students with disabil­
ities may not be well developed as they would have had few opportunities to
mix socially with the gifted. However, all the students in this study attended
mainstream schools so they would have had more opportunities to mix with
sighted peers. For those gifted students with visual impairments, poor under­
standing of body language and non-verbal communication skills, with frequent
mismatch of the words used and body language, could lead to social difficul­
ties, according to Hardman and Drew et al. (1993).
There was consistency however, between the parents’ and teachers’ ratings
of social skills. Both parents and teachers rated Assertion, Cooperation,
Responsibility and Self Control as either above average or average, except Case
C, who was rated by the teacher as being below average in Self Control and
Cooperation. The teachers’ and parents’ ratings of the students’ social skills
ranged from above average to average. However, the students self-rated
Popularity on the Piers-Harris Children’s Self Concept Scale as ranging from
above average to below average.
Each teacher rated each student as being within the average range for
Externalising and Internalising Behaviours. Case A’s mother rated
Externalising Behaviour as being below average. Case B’s mother rated
Internalising Behaviour as being below average. Apart from these two excep­
tions, parents rated Externalising and Internalising Behaviours as generally
within the average range. Case C was the only student in the sample who was
rated as having Internalising Behaviours within the above average range. A
possible explanation for this may have been that Case C’s IQ was higher than
others in the sample and the asynchrony experienced by Case C contributed to
a greater awareness of difference from age peers. It was expected that more of
the students would be rated as having elevated levels of Internalising
Behaviours due to the sensitivity of gifted students generally, as stated by
Freeman (1985), Mendaglio (1995) and Schnitz and Galbraith (1985) and
because of the levels of anxiety noted during the interview and assessment. The
gifted with disabilities displayed even greater sensitivity than their gifted peers
without visual impairment, according to Cohen and Ambrose (1993), Corn
(1986) and Maker (1977). There was no evidence to support this in the current
study, as the Social Skills Rating System is not a measure of sensitivity.
Anecdotal evidence from the parents would suggest that these students are
very sensitive.

Multiple intelligences
The Multiple Intelligences Inventory is based on the model proposed by
Gardner (1983) that each individual possesses seven intelligences in varying
degrees of strength. Each person exhibits a unique intellectual profile with pre­
ferred methods of approaching and solving problems. The seven intelligences
include: Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily/
Kinaesthetic, Musical/Rhythmic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal. There was no
pattern found in this study that was common to all students in relation to the
intelligences most likely to be used.

103
Sensory disabilities

Musical/Rhythmic Intelligence was rated by parents of Cases A, B and C as

either the intelligence most likely to be preferred or equally preferred. This is
despite all students playing musical instruments, and the musical ability of the
students was mentioned with pride by the parents. It is possible that parents
may have valued either Linguistic or Mathematical Intelligence as being more
appropriate as a first choice of intelligence rather than Rhythmic/Musical
Intelligence.
It was expected that as all the students involved in this study had some form
of visual impairment, Spatial and Bodily/Kinaesthetic Intelligences would be
the least likely to be favoured. This was the case for all students except C.
Perhaps C’s young age may be a factor in this situation.
Therefore more consistency was evident about the intelligences least likely to
be preferred by the students in this project.

Parents’ nominations
There are a number of common characteristics indicated by parents of the stu­
dents in this study. The following cases obtained a top rating on each of these
questions. The results obtained are shown in Table 5.4.

Table 5.4 Characteristics and Ratings

Characteristics Parental ratings

Recalls facts easily. A, B, C, D, E

Has a broad attention span that allows concentration on and
perseverance in problem solving and pursuing interests. A, B, C, D, E
Has advanced vocabulary, expresses self fluently and clearly. B, C, D, E
Is an avid reader. A, B, D, E
Has a great deal of curiosity. A, C, D, E
Reasons. A, B, D, E
Seeks own answers and solutions to problems. A, C, D, E
Follows complex directions. A, B, D, E
Likes ‘grown up’ things and to be with older people. B, C, E
Has a good sense of humour. A, C, E
Tends to dominate others if given the chance. A, D, E
Shows initiative. A, C, E
Sets self high goals. A, D, E
Is independent and self sufficient. A, C, D
Thinks quickly. C, E
Wants to know how things work. C, E
Is persistent – and sticks to tasks. D, E
Enjoys complicated games. A, C
Is adventurous. A, C
Has a wide range of interests. A, C
Is a leader. A
Puts unrelated ideas together in new and different ways. C
Asks reasons why – questions almost everything. C
Has a great interest in the future and world problems. C
Continually questions status quo C

(A = Case A; B = Case B; C = Case C; D = Case D; E = Case E)

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 Gifted students with visual impairment

As can be seen, the recalling of facts easily and a broad attention span are
characteristics shared by each of the students. This is despite Case A scoring
within the average range on the Information sub-test and both Cases A and D
scoring within the average range for Freedom from Distractibility. Advanced
vocabulary, being an avid reader, showing a great amount of curiosity, reason­
ing skills, seeking own solutions to problems and an ability to follow complex
instructions were characteristics shared by at least four of the students.
Therefore, this subjective instrument confirms the objective scores on the Verbal
Scale of the WISC-111, where each of the students performed within the super­
ior or very superior ranges.

Behavioural characteristics of superior students

Table 5.5 Renzulli-Hartman Scale Scores for Each Case Rated by Teachers
CASES A B C D E

Leadership Characteristics VS S HA HA S
Motivation Characteristics HA HA VS A S
Creativity Characteristics S HA S HA HA
Learning Characteristics HA HA HA HA HA

A= Average; HA = High Average; S = Superior; VS = Very Superior

It is interesting to note that only one parent rated their child as having lead­
ership characteristics on the Parent’s Nomination Form (see Table 5.4).
However, teachers have presented a range of Leadership Characteristics as
being from very superior to high average (see Table 5.5), suggesting that these
students are giving indications of leadership qualities in the school setting that
are not being recognised fully at home.
It would have been expected that the creativity characteristics would have
been rated higher as parents had rated seeking own solutions to problems, a
great deal of curiosity and advanced vocabulary in four of the five students. It
may be possible that the students’ creativity is not being developed fully at
school. However, in the literature review, it was revealed that researchers had
indicated limited valid measures of creativity.
Ratings on Motivation Characteristics ranged from very superior to average.
Except for Cases C and E, the other students may not be producing to their
potential at school because of limited educational stimulation.
The relatively low scores for all students on Learning Characteristics could
indicate that these gifted students are not being appropriately accommodated
and stimulated to ensure development of their full potential, despite the fact
that all students are being included in extension classes of some kind.
All families were very cooperative about participation in this project, despite
some hesitation as to the attribution of giftedness. They all stated that perhaps
some of the difficulties the children and their families experienced could be
avoided by others through increased awareness as to the possibilities for chil­
dren with visual impairments who are also gifted.

105
Sensory disabilities

Summary and conclusions

The literature review suggested that the use of the Verbal Scale of the WISC-111
would present some indication of the cognitive functioning of the students. No
single measure on the WISC-111 was considered to be appropriate in the iden­
tification of these students. Objective and subjective input from parents and
teachers was necessary to present a picture of the wider strengths and abilities
of the children. Each of the five students scored a Verbal Scale IQ within the
superior range, which was set at 130 or above. The scores on the Comprehension
and Similarities sub-tests of the Verbal Scale of the WISC-111 were consistently
elevated in each of the five students. Greater variability was shown with the
Digit Span sub-test scores, ranging from average to very superior. Information
sub-test scores ranged from average to superior. Freedom from Distractibility
scores on the WISC-111 ranged from average to very superior. The results of the
Comprehension, Similarities, Information and Digit Span sub-tests on the
WISC-111 were not consistent with those suggested in the literature.
Three of the students rated their self esteem as either average or above
average. The other student rated self esteem as below average. Each student
rated Intellectual and School Status domain as either average or above average
and this was the only domain where there was consistency for each student.
It had been suggested in the literature that the gifted with visual impairment
may have poorly developed social skills. However, both parents and teachers
rated Assertion, Cooperation, Responsibility and Self Control as either above
average or average, except Case C, who was rated by the teacher as being
below average in Self Control and Co-operation. Social skills were rated as
above average or average by both parents and teachers.
Parents nominated top ratings for all the students on the recalling of facts
easily and broad attention span. Advanced vocabulary, being an avid reader, a
great amount of curiosity, reasoning skills, seeking own solutions to problems
and an ability to follow complex instructions were characteristics shared by at
least four of the students at the top rating student level. None of the other char­
acteristics shared by gifted children were consistently rated at the top level.
Not all students had the same learning styles, with different ‘Intelligences’
being indicated as preferred, by the parents. However, there was more consis­
tency about the intelligences least likely to be preferred by the students in this
project.
On the Renzulli-Hartman Scale for Rating Behavioural Characteristics of
Superior Students, there was consistency presented in the scores on leadership
characteristics, creativity characteristics and learning characteristics, with each
of these scales ranging from high average to very superior. More variability was
shown on the motivation characteristic scale with scores from average to very
superior.
The perception of the learning styles of these students, indicated by both
parents and teachers, revealed that some aspects of the students’ abilities are
more obvious either in the home or school environments, but not necessarily in
both. Justification, therefore, is provided for the use of parent and teacher check­
lists in the identification of gifted children as a contribution to the knowledge

106
 Gifted students with visual impairment

about the students’ strengths gained by use of objective measurement on the

WISC-111. Useful information is thus gained and can help ensure appropriate
programme provision for these gifted children with visual impairment.
Another aim of this project was to compare the cognitive and behavioural
profiles of the students in this study with findings from other studies. Due to
insufficient available information in the literature, this aim was only partially
fulfilled.
The early identification of these children through appropriate, ongoing eval­
uation using valid instruments, adapted specifically for children with visual
impairments in order to optimise opportunities, is needed. This would enable
children with visual impairment to be compared to others in this sub-group and
their giftedness more easily identified. This would involve input from special
education staff, skilled in teaching those with visual impairment, and special­
ist psychologists who are involved with identification of the gifted. Objective
measures and student observation and checklists, completed by teachers and
parents, would assist in gaining a full assessment of skills and adaptive beha­
viours.
There may be reluctance to establish specific programmes for the gifted with
visual impairments, due to the small numbers. However, each child is entitled
to an education that will enable him or her to fulfil their potential.
Exceptional children are provided with Individual Education Plans, and
these must also be developed for visually impaired gifted children. Children
with visual impairments who are also gifted should be included in existing pro­
grammes for gifted children, modified to accommodate their impairment.
Emphasising strengths rather than impairments would raise the self esteem of
these children, and in the context of programmes with other gifted children,
provide much needed opportunities to establish social contacts.

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gifted’. Exceptional Children, 47(2), pp. 6–10.
Schnitz, C.C. and Galbraith, J. (1985) Managing the Social and Emotional Needs of the
Gifted: a Teacher’s Survival Guide. Minneapolis: Free Spirit Publishing Co.
Seeley, K. (1989) ‘Underachieving and handicapped gifted’, in J. Feldhusen, J. Van
Tassel-Baska and K. Seeley (eds) Excellence in Educating the Gifted. Denver CO: Love
Publishing, pp. 29–37.
Tillman, M.H. (1973) ‘Intelligence scales for the blind: a review with implications for
research’. Journal of School Psychology, 11(1), pp. 80–7.
Vialle, W. and Paterson, J. (1996) ‘Constructing a culturally sensitive education for
gifted deaf students’. Australian Association for the Education of the Gifted and
Talented. Conference Proceedings. www.nexus.edu.au.
Wechsler, D. (1992) Technical Manual of the Australian Adaptation of the Wechsler
Intelligence Scale for Children (Third Edition). New York: The Psychological
Corporation.
Whitmore, J.R. and Maker, C.J. (1985) Intellectual Giftedness in Disabled Persons.
Rockville MD: Aspen.
Yewchuk, C. and Lupart, J. L. (1993) ‘Gifted handicapped: A desultory duality?’, in
K.A. Heller, F.J. Monks and A.H. Passow (eds) International Handbook of Research and
Development of the Gifted and Talented. Oxford: Pergamon, pp. 709–25.

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 Gifted children with hearing
6 impairment
Carrie Winstanley

The DfES website (2002) reports the following about deaf people and their edu­
cation:

There are 8 million people in the UK with some form of hearing loss. Deafness
at birth or in childhood has significant effects on the learning of basic skills
and this affects 180,000 people in the UK. A further 500,000 people become
severely or profoundly deaf later in life. For them, deafness does not in itself
create a need for basic skills, but those who wish to acquire basic skills might
find it difficult to access appropriate provision. There are two important sub­
groups of deaf learners: those who use British Sign Language (BSL) as their
preferred language and those who use speech and lipreading. Although the
best medium of instruction is different for each group, the required strategies
for teaching and learning are similar. The last survey of deaf school leavers
was in 1979. It found that the average reading age for all deaf learners was
8.6. This situation has not improved. (paragraph 35)

And also:

The quality of current provision is variable. . . . There is no standard nation­

ally of what should be the minimum qualification for tutors. . . . Overall,
there are too few resources for tutors and deaf students. (paragraph 37)
(www.lifelonglearning.co.uk)

Research in this field is scant and in need of updating. Hunting for material
about highly able children who are deaf, proved a complex task.

Defining dual exceptionality

This chapter considers issues facing highly able deaf students, their teachers and
families. Before exploring the area it is important to clarify exactly who is being
discussed. Both gifted and hearing impaired groups are notoriously difficult to

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

define and even deciding on terms of reference is a minefield. Such decisions are
far more than empty political correctness; they are vital aspects of the discussion
that strikes at the heart of the difficulties faced by high ability children with a
whole range of hearing problems. There is much argument about the exact
meaning of ‘talent’, ‘gift’ and ‘high ability’ and as these ideas have been widely
rehearsed, I will merely use the terms ‘gifted’ and ‘highly able’ interchangeably,
rather generally, referring to students who are capable of making connections
and seeing relationships in a way that is in advance of their age peers. However,
the difficulties of describing deaf people are central to this chapter and will be
considered in some depth.
Such a discussion entails an explanation of the complexity of deafness and
deaf culture, a phenomenon that makes deafness unique amongst ‘disabilities’.
Those with hearing problems do not agree on what to be called, with many
rejecting the title ‘hearing impairment’ as a deficit model, implying the aim of
normalising the deaf, to make them like the hearing. Some people are happier
to describe themselves as ‘hard of hearing’ (HOH) and others call themselves
‘deaf’. (Throughout this chapter I will be using the convention ‘deaf’ to describe
people with any degree of hearing loss and ‘Deaf’ when referring to cultural
aspects of deafness.) ‘The Deaf community does not view deafness as a condi­
tion to be pitied and cured as is the view held by the “medical condition” con­
struct that has characterised much of deaf education in the past’ (Vialle and
Paterson 1996: 1).

Deafness and deaf culture

In recent years, two different ways of categorising the deaf have been com­
monly used and these are defined as ‘clinical-pathological’ and ‘cultural’.

The contrast in orientation is obvious. The cultural provides a way to call in

to question the deeply entrenched view that profound deafness is to be asso­
ciated automatically with disability, and thereby inability. In a society that
sought to accommodate rather than assimilate difference, to maximise poten­
tial rather than reify difference as unacceptable, the position of deaf people
would indeed be different. (Baker and Cokely, cited in Brien 1981: 46–7)

In defining the notion of culture, shared language is paramount, and Deaf

communities worldwide have sign languages that are sophisticated and
advanced. This is often cited when arguing for granting deaf people status as
a distinct minority cultural group. In the UK, British Sign Language (BSL) is
most commonly used, although a simpler language, Makaton, is often adopted
for children with speech and communication problems, such as those with
autism. This separate cultural identity is often denoted by the capitalisation in
‘Deaf’.

Traditionally, deaf people have been classified as a disability group but as

many of the educational problems they face are more closely related to their

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Sensory disabilities

communication skills, it may be more appropriate to examine their needs

alongside other language minority groups. (Vialle and Paterson 1996: 1)

Hearing people often know very little about sign, and are surprised to learn
just how diminished the role of speaking can be in Deaf culture. This lack of
awareness can result in teachers unwittingly plunging children into conflict by
asking them to ‘use their voice’. ‘Exaggerated speaking behaviour is thought of
as “undignified” and sometimes can be interpreted as making fun of other
people’ (Padden 1980, cited in Gregory and Hartley 1991: 42).
Most class teachers would, of course, be unable to pick up on the complexity
of sign, and are unaware even of the existence of dialects and accents. Some
accents are so strong that parents have been known to move their children to
different schools to avoid adopting the sign accent of those around them. In
schools for the deaf that advocate an oral approach, sign is discouraged and
sometimes completely disallowed. This is viewed by some members of the Deaf
community as devaluing the child’s home culture, and a violation of a child’s
basic rights. However, advocates of the oral approach argue that the deaf child
is given optimum opportunity to function in a hearing world if they have devel­
oped strong speech, and that this is only really possible if sign is not taught.
Power (1992, cited in Vialle and Paterson 1996: 1) describes ‘a handicapping
society’, and this is clearly seen in schools in which a child’s first language is
disallowed if it happens to be BSL. In other minority groups, it would be con­
sidered an outrage if children were punished for using their home language in
the playground, but this is not unheard of in oral schools for the deaf, or in units
attached to mainstream schools.
In general, ‘deaf’ is understood as a description of severe to profound hearing
loss, and ‘hearing impairment’ to cover the whole range of differences in
hearing, including the minimal loss that commonly accompanies the ageing
process. In the hearing world, this emphasis on varying degrees of hearing loss
is considered important, but such distinctions do not apply in the Deaf world.
There is even some argument that hearing people can be described as ‘Deaf’
(but not ‘deaf’) as they are fully assimilated into the Deaf community but are
hearing people.

‘Deaf’ is not a label of deafness as much as a label of identity with other deaf
people. . . . The existence of conflict brings out those aspects of the culture of
Deaf people that are unique and separate from other cultural groups. It also
shows that the group of Deaf people is not merely a group of like-minded
people, as with a bridge club, but a group of people who share a code of beha­
viours and values that are learned and passed on from one generation of Deaf
people to the next. Entering into Deaf culture and becoming Deaf means
learning all the appropriate ways to behave like a Deaf person. (Padden 1980,
cited in Gregory and Hartley 1991: 42)

While emphasising the similarities between the Deaf and people of other lin­
guistic minorities, it is also important to highlight the differences. Many vocif­
erous people in the Deaf community have fought long and hard to achieve

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

some kind of recognition of their deafness as a positive part of their identity,

rather than something for which they are to elicit sympathy and pity. This is, of
course, to be applauded and it is hoped that their hard work will serve to help
the general public better understand what it means to be D/deaf. The recent
effect of this campaigning may be seen in the media coverage of a deaf lesbian
couple making a deliberate attempt to conceive a deaf baby, through the use of
donor sperm from a deaf friend. Some reports expressed outrage about their
gay identity, but were more accepting of their desire for a deaf child, demon­
strating some understanding of the notion of the Deaf community.
The following statistics were obtained from the National Deaf Children’s
Society (2002). Congenital deafness occurs in around 840 babies born annually
with significant permanent hearing loss. Half of all deaf children remain un­
diagnosed by the age of 18 months and one quarter of deaf children are not
diagnosed by three years. This leads to insufficient support, with less than half
of deaf children with access to hearing aids by two years of age. This is prob­
ably related to the fact that nearly all (90 per cent) of deaf children are born into
families with no experience of deafness, although most children under eight (80
per cent) experience temporary deafness caused by glue ear and so raising
awareness would be of use to almost all parents and teachers of primary aged
pupils. 16 per cent of permanent deafness may be acquired, progressive or of
‘late onset’ and in these cases it is often part of a cluster of difficulties. One third
of acquired deafness is caused by meningitis, and this often brings other health
issues such as visual problems. Treating a student with such difficulties as if
they have only some kind of linguistic difference would clearly result in a
failure to address their real needs. Of course, ‘deaf children face tremendous
difficulties learning to read, write and communicate in the hearing world
around them’ and ‘are more vulnerable to neglect, emotional, physical and
sexual abuse’ National Deaf Children’s Society (2002).

Understanding deafness

In the 1960s, studies of deaf people with emotional problems tried to under­
stand congenital and early onset deafness and the psychological aspects of such
conditions (Basilier 1964). The term ‘surdophrenia’ was coined to describe the
psychological consequences of deafness and although research emphasised
that most deaf people lead happy and fulfilled lives, there were differences
recorded in the dream experiences and emotional health of the deaf.
Investigations concluded that the deaf are likely to suffer from isolation and
detachment that can result in aggression, apparent when deaf people ‘attempt
to communicate’. It was also noted that emotional turmoil and difficulties
cannot be easily expressed and that this could lead to the absence of diagnosis
of a potentially serious problem. Clearly, these problems are caused by commu­
nication difficulties and could be alleviated by allowing deaf people access to
professionals trained in the first language of their clients. The report exposed
the unsurprising fact that the Deaf were not very well served by the psycholog­
ical services. This has been addressed in the last 40 years, of course, but the basic

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Sensory disabilities

premise still exists; that people who may have difficulty expressing themselves
in the majority language, are likely to be mis-diagnosed, or have difficulties
being allocated appropriate treatment.
A more positive and enduringly useful observation concerned the finding
that a secure family unit significantly helped in the reduction of problems asso­
ciated with deafness. Those working with deaf children support this, placing
huge value on the contribution siblings and parents can make. There are, of
course, many deaf children who are not in happy family circumstances and
some cultures are ashamed of deafness, viewing it as something to hide and
making it difficult for deaf family members to see themselves as Deaf. Although
it would be wrong to make generalisations about different cultural groups and
to isolate any one community, it is true that the incidence of deafness in Asian
communities is higher than in other populations. It thus follows that Asian deaf
children have a higher chance of being exposed to problems, despite the Asian
community’s well-documented strong family ethic. Some Asian families reject
the deaf community, resulting in isolation and insufficient support for children.
For a gifted, deaf Asian child this would be an even more complex group of
competing forms of identity.
Add to that the influence of gender and the picture is yet more crowded.
Psychological studies demonstrate that ‘females with disability tend to cope with
that disability better than do males’(Vernon and La Falce-Landers 1993: 431).

A sense of self
Developing a sense of identity as a deaf person seems to be very important for
gifted students and the case studies from Vialle and Paterson’s work illustrate
this. (A selection of quotations taken from their 1996 paper is incorporated in
the case study section at the end of this chapter as I feel that there is a deep res­
onance with the issues tackled here.) There is a clear emerging theme of:

. . . reluctance on the part of the interviewees to be double-labelled as gifted,

when many of them have struggled to attain a sense of identity as a Deaf
person. Identity with Deaf community was also seen as critical factor in their
successes. Nearly all the interviewees had experienced an identity crisis that
had affected their ability to achieve. It was the successful resolution of such
crises, through identification with the Deaf culture, that enabled them to
attain their potential. (Vialle and Paterson 1996: 8)

Building a robust and positive sense of self is a key purpose of schooling;

there exist some particularly critical developmental periods such as primary–
secondary transfer and early adolescence. Many programmes for supporting
the highly able child are aimed at secondary pupils and deaf students have been
known to reject the special activities for the able as they consider this to impinge
upon their developing identity as a member of the Deaf community.

Through interaction with others, the individual is able to develop an aware­

ness and acceptance of self. Through participation in the various organisations

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

that make up the community, individuals are able to acquire a sense of self-
esteem which may be impossible to develop in the hearing world. (Brien
1981: 50)

Complex issues associated with adolescence, including gender aspects, the

formation of enduring friendships and sexuality, are stressful enough, without
having to battle with the addition of ‘gifted and talented’ to the group of labels
already assigned. There is also a difference between the imposition of a label
and the personal adoption of an identity. Generally, teachers nominate pupils
to be placed on the gifted and talented register and such an accolade is expected
to be welcomed. Students who are referred by peers are more likely to embrace
their ‘new identity’, as this demonstrates endorsement from friends. It would
also represent the kind of atmosphere in school that valued high ability.
Commonly though, the attitude of peers means that being part of the ‘gifted
and talented’ cohort can conflict with the desire to be perceived as popular,
well-liked and ‘cool’. The school ethos generally dictates the way that this issue
develops.
There are very few role models for deaf children, making it difficult for them
to keep their expectations and hopes high unless they are lucky enough to be
surrounded by a truly understanding and supportive family. Similarly, for
those who experience late onset deafness, the lack of support ‘robbed them of
their career, isolated them from friends, and damaged, or destroyed their family
life’ (Vernon and La Falce-Landers 1993: 430). This reinforces the significance of
the Deaf community.

The problems of dual exceptionality

‘That nearly 40 per cent required mental health treatment speaks to what
happens when a brilliant intellect is confined by the double condition of deaf­
ness and inadequate opportunity’ (Vernon and La Falce-Landers 1993: 433).
Key problems are found among the late onset deaf group and this constitutes
around three quarters of the deaf population. ‘Traditionally the needs and
potentials of such people have been almost totally ignored. The findings of the
current study suggest that this segment of the deaf population may represent
the greatest wasted potential and suffer the most widespread emotional distur­
bance to be found among the deaf and hard of hearing’ (op. cit.).
Labelling able children through their deafness can lead to a focus on poten­
tial problems, with remediation being provided without attention being given
to the exceptional ability. LEAs have stipulations about statementing and pro­
vision for special education, but there must be the flexibility to adapt to dual
exceptionalities. As Vialle and Paterson (1996) note, ‘the effect of labelling chil­
dren as deaf results in the tendency to focus on disability so that a child with
even outstanding abilities may be overlooked in the preoccupation with the
child’s deafness’ (p. 2). Specific social and emotional needs accompany the dual
exceptionalities of high ability and deafness, as noted above, and it should also
be remembered that working with such students presents its own set of chal­
lenges. Teachers must be equipped to deal with such demands effectively and

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Sensory disabilities

would benefit from a variety of support. This could take the form of network­
ing with teachers in similar situations, and national and international fora, such
as conferences and publications. Brody and Mills (1997) highlight this, noting
that teachers need help with ‘. . . understanding the characteristics and needs
of gifted students with disabilities, as well as strategies to facilitate their learn­
ing’ (p. 292).
Informal discussion with the DfES (July 2002) indicated that dual exception­
ality is high on the agenda for attention within the current gifted and talented
strategy and it is likely that more research will be commissioned.

Deafness and learning disabilities

There is much literature on disabilities and associated learning difficulties,

making it easy to slip into the thought pattern that treats the two as synony­
mous. It is not automatically the case, however, that sensory difference or phys­
ical disability will result in a learning disability, particularly when the student
is highly able and the difficulty is mild. There is a difference between having a
learning disability (such as dyslexia, dyspraxia etc.) and having a difficulty
with learning. Being unable to learn because the pedagogy is inappropriate is
not the same as having trouble learning, even if the teaching is adapted to take
learning differences into account. The emphasis here is on the fact that deaf stu­
dents are sometimes confused with other students whose needs are different. A
dyslexic student may well benefit from strategies that will be of no use to a deaf
child.
Compensation and masking can prevent accurate diagnosis and this usually
occurs as the pupil either attempts to fit in with classmates, or just makes the
best of their situation, unaware that other pupils can hear or see more clearly.
Brody and Mills (1997: 282–3) present three subgroups of gifted learning dis­
abled students, with characteristics as follows:

• behaviour problems due to lack of diagnosis of a learning problem;

• learning problems have been recognised, but not high ability;
• functioning at just below grade level and therefore assumed to be satisfactor­
ily achieving their potential.

Gifted deaf school children often fall into the second category as many
schools do not recognise dual exceptionality. While, as noted, it is not automat­
ically the case that deaf children will have learning disabilities, communication
difficulties associated with the experience of deaf children in school are almost
certainly going to affect attainment. If there was a different structure in place,
or a school-based culture that was more understanding of individual differ­
ence, the label of learning disabled may be redundant. However, as the school
system currently stands, with the focus on tests and measurable standards, deaf
children are likely to be unpopular in selective schools as they are in need of
learning support if they are to keep a school’s league table rating attractively
high. In order to qualify for support, they will have to be assessed and labelled

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

and as already mentioned, when this is done insensitively it can cause problems
with a developing sense of identity.
Accurate assessment of needs is, of course, a positive strategy, but must be
undertaken with care and be fair to a child who has a minority language. There
are many deaf children who are also affected by visual difficulties and other
medical issues that may make working to their intellectual potential particu­
larly difficult. It is valid to consider that many deaf children would indeed
benefit from effective support for learning disabilities as understood at present,
but this should never make using the label ‘deaf’ tantamount to calling a child
problematic.
There will also be a small number of deaf children who are gifted and who in
addition have a dyslexic difficulty, and a few with non-verbal learning difficul­
ties that handicap their ability to sign and/or to lip read. These are trebly excep­
tional children and need the most sensitive identification and support.

UK government strategies for the gifted

At this point it is worth mentioning some reservations about the UK governmen­

tal approach to the provision for and the identification of pupils targeted for
special programmes in the year 2002. The choice of the term ‘gifted and talented’
adds to the difficulty as it is loaded with baggage and confusion, with teachers
and academics disagreeing about the meanings of the words, making clear iden­
tification even more awkward. The target group of the top 10 per cent of school
children highlights achievement, rather than potential. Of course, it is easy to see
why this is so; it is difficult to make accurate predictions of possible future
achievement and easy to ascertain who is already doing well, but this means that
under-achieving children are often denied the benefit of provision. Many people
working with the children in question prefer terms such as ‘more able’ to ‘gifted
and talented’, as this allows for less focus on established academic success and
keeps alive the debate about who should be in receipt of support, covering
emerging talent and abilities. It also permits a wide interpretation of the defini­
tion of ability and the nature of intelligence beyond measures and test scores.
Because of the rigidity of systems, in some geographical areas, the way that
support is calculated disallows children from being in receipt of help for more
than one aspect of education. For example if they are on a gifted programme
they may not be allowed reading support (Boodoo 1989; Baum 1994, both cited
in Brody and Mills 1997).
As with many programmes for the gifted, the organisers are open to charges
of elitism. The resource pot for education is small and the demands are many
and expensive. Why support children who are already ‘advantaged’ through
their high ability? The government has highlighted such concerns in recent
ministerial speeches (Morris 2002) and aiming for excellence is its answer.
Adjusting Local Education Authorities’ Special Educational Needs definitions
and requirements to incorporate able children with difficulties will help to
balance the provision and silence critics (Van Tassel-Baska 1989, cited in
Feldhusen and Jarwan 2000: 275).

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Sensory disabilities

A strongly egalitarian line is often taken when pupils have dual exceptional­
ities. This suggests that ethical reasons are the basis for allowing provision and
that some needs are more deserving than others. If pupils are known to be able,
and yet coping with a difficulty, they are deemed as undeserving of support.
Extra help is only available if a pupil is causing problems or struggling academ­
ically, dragging down overall school achievement. An example of this was
when ‘. . . it was ruled that a very bright young deaf girl was achieving at near
grade level and so was not entitled to an interpreter’ (Vernon and La Falce-
Landers 1993: 433).
Government policy demands that the top group of each school are ‘gifted and
talented’ but of course academic and other standards vary from school to school
and from neighbourhood to neighbourhood. Special schools and mainstream
schools with units will upset this simple cut off formula and affect the resulting
provision, especially when this involves the coming together of local varied
schools. Will there be appropriate resources and facilities? Will there be gifted
and talented specialists who can communicate through BSL? Rittenhouse and
Blough (1995) explored the problem of finding a reference group for compara­
tive selection for gifted programmes. They raise the question: ‘Is that reference
group gifted students, hearing students, or other students with hearing impair­
ments in the same school?’ (p. 51). There is also the range of hearing differences
to take into consideration. A profoundly deaf child of hearing parents is likely
to have a very different experience of deafness from a late onset mildly hearing
impaired child of deaf parents, for example. A direct comparison would be dif­
ficult to draw.

Identification of high ability

Teachers are exhorted to look out for different aspects of development at differ­
ent stages of children’s school careers, all of which affect the way in which the
gifted are identified and their provision. Deaf students are usually excluded
from gifted programmes as they ‘rarely meet the rigid cut-offs of most identifi­
cation procedures’ (Fall and Nolan 1993, cited in Brody and Mills 1997: 283).
Even from the youngest stages, deaf children are at a disadvantage. In babies
and pre-school children, alertness is considered a great indication of ability
(Freeman 1991) and a child who seems to be unaware of aspects of her sur­
roundings may be considered as not very able. That this is due to a hearing
problem is not always easy to spot and such children can easily go undiag­
nosed, with obvious ramifications for the way in which the child is treated by
those around her. Recommendations for extra stimulation are likely to be made
for children, whatever their ability, but a simplification of language and con­
cepts is typical if the child is considered less able. This limits the exposure to
complexity and without the excitement of challenge, the child’s response is sim­
plified and may become dull. So begins the vicious circle.
The main forms of identification of the able make use of verbal tests or those
with a verbal component, such as WISC-III or Stanford Binet. Teachers and
learning support workers are becoming more familiar with the spiky score

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

syndrome, or ‘subtest scatter’, as literature and research focus on variety of

abilities. In some places composite scores are still exclusively used, meaning
that highly able children with weaknesses in one or more aspects of the test
will not be selected for gifted programmes, as their low scores bring down
their total and strengths may be overlooked. Increasing use is being made of
Raven’s Progressive Matrices tests (1983), which can be teacher administered.
Brian was a seemingly intelligent 6 year old with severe hearing loss in both
ears and was in a unit for 5–11 year old deaf children that insisted upon oral
communication. Brian seemed incapable of lip reading and was showing diffi­
culties in learning to spell, read and acquire any spoken vocabulary. He com­
municated by gesture and mime, often in the most amusing way, which made
his teacher think he was more able than his school achievements suggested. The
pressure on lip reading from the unit leader, banning signing, was making
Brian become increasingly frustrated and his behaviour was problematic. He
had made no progress on the Derbyshire Language Scheme (Knowles and
Masidlover 1982) or the Language Assessment Remediation and Screening
Procedure (Crystal, Fletcher and Garman 1976) when retested. However, when
he was tested on Raven’s Progressive Matrices colour version he was found to
have a visual-perceptual intelligence in the top two per cent of the population.
He was a very bright little boy with a double difficulty: a severe hearing impair­
ment and an oral language learning difficulty. He responded very well and very
rapidly to the signing system that his teacher secretly taught him (Montgomery
2000).
Teacher referral tends to rely on one of the numerous available checklists and
these almost always suggest that a wide vocabulary and a love of words and
language are key indicators of high ability. Teachers who cannot sign may be
unaware of a child’s love of words and their meanings, if there is only minimal
speech. It has already been demonstrated that the subtleties of BSL can be easily
overlooked by those outside of the Deaf community. Many experts in gifted
education (for example Gross 1993; Freeman et al. 1996; George 1998) highlight
early speech as the key to identifying the able, but this does not allow for the
developmental delay that often accompanies deafness.
The central focus of language as the main indication of ability needs to be
shifted, not only for the Deaf, but for all groups that are linguistically disadvan­
taged. Bernstein’s work in the 1970s concerning Restricted and Elaborated
Codes can be invoked as the starting point for educators realising the impor­
tance of this area. Despite research and rhetoric, there are still many school chil­
dren denied access to the full curriculum and appropriate gifted and talented
programmes due to their lack of familiarity with the majority language. ‘The lit­
erature over the last two decades has emphasised the need for multiple means
of identification and appropriate curricula. In practice, however, use of stan­
dard English tends to be used as a de facto measure of intelligence’ (Vialle and
Paterson 1996: 1).
It follows, therefore, that an identification system that uses a range of indica­
tors is clearly more useful than narrow IQ-based studies. The use of Gardner’s
(1993) Multiple Intelligences approach or the adoption of the Nebraska Starry
Night observation schedule (cited in Winebrenner 1995) could allow for a

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broader range of children being identified and receiving support. Language

scores are likely to bring down the overall score for deaf children and as some
programmes can be enjoyed without a particularly high level of language, com­
posite scores should be used as entry qualifications only when absolutely nec­
essary. Other methods such as parent, peer and self nomination are also of use,
but where expectations are held at a low level through a misunderstanding of
the nature of deafness, these are not always useful.
Checklists focus on behaviours and personality traits and even among the
hearing population there is so much variety that many lists even contradict
themselves. Typical lists can contain the following ‘help’ in spotting a gifted
child. They are likely to:

• be gregarious;
• be shy;
• have many friends;
• have no friends;
• spend long hours on the same task, completing it to perfection;
• leave things unfinished once the main thinking has been accomplished;
• be sensitive to those around them;
• demonstrate limited empathy.
(conflated from a variety of different checklists)

With such confusion, it is difficult to build a clear picture of an able child and
when the effect of deafness on behaviour in school is added there is an even more
complex portrait. Other obstacles such as ‘stereotypical expectations, develop­
mental delays, incomplete information about the child . . . and lack of challenge’
will only make things more difficult (Feldhusen and Jarwan 2000: 275).
What is needed, therefore, is a complex range of assessment tools encompass­
ing cognitive abilities, some aspects of behaviour and focusing less on verbal
approaches to measuring potential. The tests need to identify giftedness as well
as finding areas of weakness that would benefit from support (Brody and Mills
1997; Feldhusen and Jarwan 2000: 279). Assessments will have to be regularly
updated to ensure the appropriateness of provision and the development of
emerging abilities, and the best current conceptions of ability and most up to
date rating scales should be adopted.

Underachievement

The underachievement of the Deaf is an on-going problem, and the low attain­
ment of deaf school children is reinforced by the associated low expectations.
This cycle can, and must, be broken. It will require a rethink of the identifica­
tion of the needs of the deaf child along with more effective training for teach­
ers and a thorough programme of deaf awareness primarily among schools, but
also within broader society.
DfES findings are presented at the opening of this chapter, and figures from
the US note that the ‘status of the education of the deaf was unacceptable and

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

characterised by inappropriate priorities and inadequate resources’ and that

only 33 per cent of hearing impaired students graduate with high school diplo­
mas. Other minority groups, such as black students, have a 75 per cent gradu­
ation record (Holdcomb et al., and McLoughlin, cited in Vialle and Paterson
1996: 2). A further disappointing statistic shows that 30 per cent of deaf people
able to enter the work force were unemployed (Vernon and La Falce-Landers
1993: 427).
It is important to spot children who are ‘coasting’ at school as early as pos­
sible. The lack of stimulation may force the child to look for another way to make
school entertaining. This is often something anti-social, such as distracting
peers. There is a likely prospect of a rather negative cycle of behaviours to form,
worsening as the child progresses through the education system, with hearing
classmates’ achievement accelerating increasingly away from their Deaf peers.

Provision for dual exceptionality

There are other definitions and terms for the students, including ‘gifted handi­
capped’ (Clark 1992, cited in Feldhusen and Jarwan 2000: 275) but currently
‘dual exceptionalities’ seems to be in favour. Brody and Mills (1997: 287)
bemoan the lack of clarity and agreement about what constitutes gifted stu­
dents with learning disabilities. Their suggestions encompass more students
than just the deaf, but are still relevant. They suggest:

1. there is a rationale for thinking about these students as a separate subgroup;

2. students with LD who are gifted represent a heterogeneous group with
many different types of gifts/talents and disabilities;
3. a performance discrepancy is essential for identifying gifted students with
learning disabilities; and
4. for appropriate intervention to take place, it is necessary to establish causal
factors for the learning problems, or at least to rule out other causal factors
that could lead to very different interventions.

All of these suggest that teacher education must focus on dual exceptional­
ities in order to make optimum provision for children. There are many disgrun­
tled deaf students who would reinforce this view.

Anecdotes from deaf people are numerous about their teachers’ inability to
sign to them or children being forbidden to sign to one another. Under these
circumstances, it is difficult to imagine an atmosphere that is conducive to
creativity, imagination and discovery of students’ giftedness. (Vialle and
Paterson 1996: 1)

Alternatives to formal schooling are being considered with increasing seri­

ousness as the development of technology allows for a more genuinely inclu­
sive approach, catering for a far broader range of learning styles and needs.
Home education is increasing and schools and colleges are being forced to

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adapt course materials for distributed and distance learning. Common propo­
sals are typified by Adcock (1995), who emphasized home and resource centred
learning and community based work incorporating learning institutions such
as museums and galleries. He suggests a role for a ‘critical pedagogue, chal­
lenging and supporting the learners in the process of learning and at the same
time constantly developing and researching his/her own professional practice
as an integral part of that learning process’ (cited in Lloyd 2000: 149).
The National Council for Educational Technology (1995) reported that a
further way of helping deaf children to become excited about learning is
through technology such as CD-ROMS and websites. Since their report, the
market has exploded and there is amazing choice and variety available to buy
or through loan schemes (TEEM Teachers Evaluating Educational multimedia).
Concerns about exclusion through the use of sound in multimedia were allayed:
‘in spite of our scepticism, projects from around the country show that multime­
dia has captured the imagination of these pupils in a way that no other technol­
ogy can’ (p. 5). Particularly valuable has been the fact that ‘. . . it can be an almost
entirely visual medium. If the authors choose, they can present their ideas
entirely via BSL, animation and illustrations. For once they have a medium
which plays to their strengths’ (p. 6). Technology can also help to foster genuine
interaction in the classroom. Software that converts speech to text allows stu­
dents to participate without the presence of a note taker and for those daunted
by text there is a possibility of real time signing or BSL video clips (p. 31).

Implications for classroom practice

Teacher expectation is vital in helping able pupils achieve highly. The traditional
failure of deaf children in formal schooling has developed into a stereotype that
can be combated through teacher education and the raising of awareness.

Because teachers of deaf children are not prepared in their teacher education
programmes to respond to gifted and talented students and, in fact, may be
predisposed to teach in ways specifically determined by the child’s hearing
loss . . . it is likely that these specially prepared teachers miss important learn­
ing opportunities in their own classrooms. (Rittenhouse and Blough 1995: 53)

The deaf friendly school and teacher will probably have undergone some
kind of deaf awareness training. In a project entitled ‘Developing Deaf Friendly
Schools’ carried out in 2001 by the National Deaf Children’s Society, deaf
awareness training was provided for primary school pupils and teachers
(www.ndcs.org.uk). A whole school approach guidance booklet was written
and it is hoped that the successful project will secure more funding and there­
fore be extended. Although teachers considered the training very useful, they
felt that more support was needed if they were to cope with having deaf chil­
dren in the mainstream. Teachers of the deaf, however, reported that the aware­
ness raising made a notable positive impact for deaf children in both classroom
and playground settings.

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

Kaderavek and Pakulski (2002: 17) suggest functional and simple advice con­
cerning specific aspects of the teacher’s role:

• Ensure that heating/lights are repaired to decrease vibration and ‘hum’;

• Fit carpets, curtains, even egg crates to reduce sound reverberation;
• Do not speak louder over classroom noise;
• Position yourself with light on your face, in full clear view and move closer
to students when addressing them, to encourage their attention on your face;
• Rephrase sentences in clear contexts when there is misunderstanding. This
is preferable to shouting;
• Be aware of students’ coping strategies such as bluffing and apparent lack of
interest. These are commonly used to mask confusion.

Other, more general ideas include (summarised from Rittenhouse and

Blough 1995: 53):

• Assume students have unique talents

• De-emphasise verbal test scores
• Evaluate your students against a local gifted programme inventory
• Individualise instruction and subject matter
• Create thematic units drawing on your students’ talents.

Conclusions drawn from other projects echo these recommendations, and

this signifies the generalisability of findings despite typically small sample
groups. The conclusions below are summarised from Baum’s project, where the
emphasis was on Renzulli’s Enrichment Triad Model (1986), adapting this to
make use of approaches that ‘bypass weaknesses in reading’, undertaking ‘no­
fail entry activities’ (Baum 1988: 227). These characteristics are wholly appli­
cable to deaf students, and the following key points are also relevant:

• ‘Focused attention should be given to the development of a gift or talent in

its own right’ – this should result in enrichment rather than remediation,
which will help to build self-esteem.
• ‘Gifted learning disabled students require a supportive environment which
values and appreciates individual abilities’ – students were equipped with
tools for building their own research projects and so ‘their disability was
minimised while their strengths were highlighted’.
• ‘Students should be given strategies to compensate for their learning prob­
lems as well as direct instruction in basic skills’ – the use of word processing,
spell checks, photography and other technology allowed these students ‘to
author without getting bogged down in the physical act of writing’.
• ‘Gifted disabled students must become aware of their strengths and weak­
nesses and be helped to cope with the discrepancy between them – the stu­
dents in the model programme were told that the enrichment programme
was designed to focus on their special abilities whereas their learning disabil­
ities programme would continue to provide remedial support’ (Baum 1988:
230).

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Sensory disabilities

Case examples

Here are examples of the kinds of achievements of which the deaf children and
their families should rightly be proud, as well as some instances of good school
and family practice.

1. The BBC See Hear programme filmed a hearing mother and deaf daughter
project designed to raise sign awareness, in which an original song was
written and interpreted through sign by a 12 year old girl. This was broad­
cast nationwide.
2. A selective independent school in London has agreed to accept a deaf girl
despite admitting that this will require training for staff as there are no spe­
cialists. They have been prepared to make adjustments (such as carpeting
noisy wooden floors and changing teaching rooms) to allow a particularly
able student to benefit from the academic environment and small class sizes.
This child’s deaf father has managed to persuade the LEA to foot the bill by
pointing out that the school fees are around £19,000 less than the proposed
specialist school. In this instance, having a brother and father who are both
able and deaf, and an able mother, has ensured optimum educational oppor­
tunity for the child.
3. A ten year old deaf boy is in a mainstream school with a unit for deaf chil­
dren where he is set across all subjects. Fairly typically of deaf students, he
needs to undertake literacy classes in the unit, but is very able in mathemat­
ics and is in the top set where he completes accelerated work. This positive
action has helped raise his self-esteem. Schools with less understanding of
the deaf (and indeed of high ability) are likely to disallow this uneven accel­
eration where there are still literacy issues to be addressed.
4. The whole family of a ten year old girl moved across the country in order to
facilitate her attendance at a specialist school in which signing is positively
encouraged. She had argued with teachers in her oral school and despite
citing aspects of the Children Act was still punished for making use of sign
in school. Like a number of deaf children, this girl is likely to lose her sight
and so will have to rely on hand on hand communication at some point in
her life. Being taught using a combination of oral and signing methods will
help to facilitate this development. Her parents are both hearing but have
managed to enter into their daughter’s world through celebrating her special
qualities. She is considered a remarkable child, with great resilience and
exemplary interpersonal abilities.
5. A deaf Asian child in a mainstream school with a unit for deaf children has
exceptional linguistic skills, being able to communicate in BSL, Arabic Sign
Language, English and Arabic. His parents recently flew him to Iran to
attend a school where he could learn some Arabic Sign Language, with a
focus on signing the Qur’an. A hearing child able to communicate in four
languages would surely be recognised as highly able. This boy is subjected
to the ridicule of peers when he selects to use BSL and some teachers (still
undergoing training) have yet to decide whether they prefer an oral or a
signing method. This would be equivalent to a bilingual school being unde­

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

cided about which language they will choose for lessons. It is not an envi­
ronment that is obviously conducive to consistent educational achievement.
6. A six year old boy who has a cluster of difficulties characterised by develop­
mental delay has only recently been able to express his abilities. He has been
locked into a world where he was unable to communicate as the delay in gross
motor skill development, part paralysis and deafness had made it impossible
for the development of speech. The focus on his mobility and learning to use
the Rolator he needs to get about, detracted from other areas of development,
but once introduced to sign, it became clear that he is highly able, dealing with
complex and abstract issues in a confident and impressive manner. People
meeting him assume that he has been signing for all six years of his life, as he
has a natural and fluent style despite less than 12 months of experience.
7. Ruth – a deaf child of hearing parents. ‘I started mixing with Deaf people . . .
I realised they’ve got a lot of answers to my identity. I didn’t see myself as a
deaf person who could achieve. I saw myself as someone who was sick, who
couldn’t really achieve in a hearing community; they were my answer; the
Deaf community was my answer.’
8. Greg reports one particular incident when he was caned in front of the school
assembly because he failed to line up when the bell was sounded! Greg does
not use the term ‘gifted’ to describe himself or his attainment. He attributes
his achievements to his identification with a Deaf community: ‘I identify
myself as a Deaf person and I live within the Deaf community. With identity
comes pride as well and in being Deaf I feel that I’m not different to any other
person.’ He stated that he felt he could have achieved more if he had ‘estab­
lished his Deaf identity’ earlier in life.
9. Jan suffered from self doubts and an identity crisis. She felt that teachers
did not listen to her own beliefs about her needs and did not challenge her
intellectually.

The following quotations are from Vialle and Paterson (1996):

Alice – In essence, the teachers expected less of Deaf students, despite the fact
that the school catered specifically for Deaf students. ‘I think bilingual
schools are excellent . . . you’re not putting down sign language, you’re
encouraging that as a natural language.’ (pp. 3–4)

Stephen – . . . ‘when I go into the education system and I teach Deaf students
I act as a role model and in doing that it raises the expectations of the Deaf
students themselves about what they can do and what they can’t do.’ (p. 5)

Summary and conclusions

This chapter has identified the immensely important role of Deaf culture in the
development of able children with any kind of hearing loss. Sign language is
central to this culture, whose communities have been vital in fostering the pos­
itive development of deaf individuals and their families. The formation of self

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Sensory disabilities

identity and a positive self image is best carried out within this context, and
further research into D/deafness is needed to help explain exactly why this is
so.
Such research would also help to raise the profile of the doubly exceptional
able deaf pupil whose related learning problems could be better helped if the
government and, in turn, schools were appraised of appropriate courses of
action. Controversy concerning identification of high ability and ways of
dealing with under-achievement should be aired, and resolutions must be
made in order to help teachers improve classroom practice. If inclusion is to be
workable the tasks noted in this chapter should be prioritised.
The UK government is committed to inclusive schooling as far as possible. To
engender real transformation and positive development in supporting the able
pupil with deafness, there needs to be a sea change in the attitude to under­
achievement in general. For such shifts it seems helpful to look beyond psycho­
metric tests and psychological constructs to the more philosophical
underpinnings and assumptions upon which these ideas rest. Schultz (2002)
does this in a recent paper, in which he presents an overview of the field, con­
sidering a range of notions from a variety of disciplines. The key summary
point he raises echoes ideas stated at the opening of this chapter as specific to
the Deaf culture.

Historically, underachieving gifted students in the classroom have been

viewed as defective merchandise in need of repair. . . . Future research needs
to move away from (this notion) . . . to . . . working with students to develop
understanding and learning. . . . Alleviating tendencies leading to learner
marginalisation and perceived underachievement is the goal. (Schultz 2002:
204–5)

As can be seen, to allow deaf able children a fair chance in school, there will
have to be substantial attention directed towards their needs. A reorganisa­
tion of the training of teachers of the deaf is vital, as is the opening up of the
debate about different teaching methods, particularly oral and signing.
Parents and pupils should be presented with relevant facts to help them
make choices, and if inclusion is to be the nationwide strategy, it must be ade­
quately funded and honestly assessed. Policy makers should be properly
aware of the issues involved, recognising that general education program­
ming is insufficient and that teacher education is vital. (Rittenhouse and
Blough 1995: 53)

These ideas are summarised in Lloyd’s (2000) paper: ‘. . . as long as the organ­
isation of schooling, the curriculum, and assessment and testing procedures
remain unchallenged, equal educational opportunity will remain a myth’ (p.
133). The paper concludes by drawing attention to the way in which policy
‘reaffirms inequality and poor educational experience’. She recommends a
‘considerable shift in understanding about the aims of education and its pur­
poses’ in order to provide both excellence and equity (p. 149).

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 Gifted children with hearing impairment

At the time of writing, two pertinent stories have grabbed the headlines. The
South African swimmer Natalie du Toit has made world history by swimming
in both able bodied and disabled categories in the Commonwealth Games. In
the second story, outrage has been expressed because Anastasia Fedetova, a
profoundly deaf student, achieved six ‘A’ grade A levels but was rejected by
Oxford on the basis of the interview, but could such a test be fair? The key
benefit of the row is the raising of awareness of the difficulties faced by the
doubly exceptional deaf and highly able person but there is still a long way to
go. It seems there is some hope.

Acknowledgement

In writing this chapter enormous thanks are owed to an able Deaf friend, T-J
Jobson, who graduated with a degree in Education and has gone on to estab­
lish and run ‘Reversed’, a youth club where the language is BSL. Deaf and
hearing children are welcome and all have to communicate through sign. (For
more information see the NDCS magazine, issue no. 186, May/June 2002.)

References

Basilier, T. (1964) ‘Surdophenia: the psychic consequences of congenital or early

acquired deafness’, in S. Gregory and G.M. Hartley (eds) Constructing Deafness
(1977). London: Pinter/Contiuum and The Open University, pp. 74–9.
Baum, S. (1988) ‘An Enrichment Program for Gifted Learning Disabled Students’,
Gifted Child Quarterly 32(1) Winter.
Brien, D. (1981) ‘Is there a deaf culture?’, in S. Gregory and G.M. Hartley (eds) (1997)
Constructing Deafness. London: Pinter/Continuum, in association with Open
University, pp. 46–52.
Brody, B. and Mills, C. (1997) ‘Gifted Children with Learning Disabilities: A Review of
the Issues’, Journal of Learning Disabilities 30(3) May/June, pp. 282–96.
Crystal, D., Fletcher, P. and Garman, M. (1976) A Language Assessment Remediation and
Screening Procedure (LARSP). London: Arnold.
DfES (2002) www.lifelonglearning.co.uk (DfES website).
Feldhusen, J. F. and Jarwan, F. A. (2000) ‘Identification of Gifted and Talented Youth for
Educational Programs’, in K. Heller, Monks, F.J., Sternberg, R.J. and Subotnik, R.
(eds) The International Handbook of Giftedness and Talent (2nd edn). Oxford: Elsevier
Sciences Ltd, pp. 271–82.
Freeman, J. (1991) Gifted Children Growing Up, London: Cassell.

Freeman, J., Span, P. and Wagner, H. (eds) (1996) Actualising Talent. London: Cassell.

Gardner, H. (1993) Frames of Mind: A Theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York: Basic

Books.
George, D. (1998) The Challenge of the Able Child. London: David Fulton.
Gregory, S. and Hartley, G.M. (eds) (1991) Constructing Deafness. Milton Keynes: Open
University.
Gross, M. (1993) Exceptionally Gifted Children. London: Routledge.

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Sensory disabilities

Kaderavek, J.N. and Pakulski, L.A. (2002) ‘Minimal Hearing Loss is Not Minimal’,
Teaching Exceptional Children 34(6) July/August, pp. 14–18.
Knowles, S. and Masidlover, M. (1982) The Derbyshire Language Programme. Derby:
Speech Therapy Services.
Lloyd, C. (2000) ‘Excellence for all children – false promises! The failure of current
policy for inclusive education and implications for schooling in the 21st century’,
International Journal of Inclusive Education 4(2), pp. 133–51.
Montgomery, D. (2000) MA Specific Learning Difficulties, Module 7 Study Guide: Language
and Speech Difficulties. London: Middlesex University.
Morris, E. (2002) ‘Excellence across sectors’, 16 May. Available at
www.dfes.gov.uk/speeches/16_05_02/01.shtml.
National Council for Educational Technology (1995) Focusing on Deaf People: A Report
on the Focus on Deaf People Conference. Coventry: NCET.
National Deaf Children’s Society (2002) Childhood Deafness – the facts.
www.ndcs.org.uk/ch_deaf/c._facts.htm.
Raven, J. (1983) Coloured Progressive Matrices. Oxford: Psychological Corporation.
Rittenhouse, R.K. and Blough, L.K. (1995) ‘Gifted Students with Hearing
Impairments’, Teaching Exceptional Children 27(4) Summer, pp. 51–3.
Schultz, R. (2002) ‘Understanding Giftedness and Underachievement: At the Edge of
Possibility’, Gifted Child Quarterly 46(3) Summer, pp. 193–207.
Smithers, R. and Ward, D. (2002) ‘Admissions row engulfs Oxford’, The Guardian, Aug.
20, p. 5.
Vernon, M. and La Falce-Landers, E. (1993) ‘A Longitudinal Study of Intellectually
Gifted Deaf and Hard of Hearing People’, American Annals of the Deaf 138(5), pp.
427–34.
Vialle, W. and Paterson, J. (1996) ‘Constructing a culturally sensitive education for
gifted deaf students’, Australian Association for the Education of the Gifted and
Talented. Conference Proceedings. www.nexus.edu.au
Willard-Holt, C. (1998) ‘Academic and personality characteristics of gifted students
with cerebral palsy: A multiple case study’, Exceptional Children 65(1), pp. 37–50.
Winebrenner, S. (1995) Teaching Gifted Kids in the Regular Classroom. Mass: Free Spirit.

128
 PART THREE:

SOCIAL, EMOTIONAL AND

BEHAVIOURAL DISABILITIES

My interest and involvement in behaviour problems might be said to be life­

long, having nearly been excluded from schools on several occasions for mis­
behaviour from an early age. As a teacher I thus had experience that helped me
to understand and predict when behaviour problems might arise and why they
might occur. So often the origin seemed to lie in the unutterable boredom and
sameness of the school day and of the teaching and learning going on there and
the aversive and hostile nature of some teachers.
In initial teacher and in-service education one of the main areas of training
has needed to be in the study and management of emotional and behavioural
difficulties (EBD) in mainstream schools. In pursuing research and practice in
this area it quickly becomes apparent that many gifted learners become labelled
‘EBD’ and thereafter their giftedness or talent is not addressed. In a recent study
of pupils excluded from schools for problem behaviour (Smith 2002) one had
unidentified Asperger Syndrome and the other 17 had unidentified dyslexic
difficulties. One of the group had a non-verbal IQ well above his age level and
verbal score suggesting giftedness as well as dyslexia and EBD. Three more had
dyslexia with IQ scores at a level with chronological age or only six months
below, suggesting that they were of at least high average ability or more, taking
into account the dyslexia’s effects on test performance. None of this appeared
to have been considered in their reports or placements.
It can only be imagined how great the frustration and depression may have
been in the presence of such discrepancies between ability and achievement. It
is not unlikely that such intelligence would find its way into other interests such
as ‘annoying the teacher’, oppositional behaviour, cheekiness, clowning and
disruption every time literacy tasks were introduced or lessons became boring.
How boring is not revealed until the researcher ‘shadows’ such pupils for a
whole day to see what the educational diet has on offer.
In Chapter seven Sisk examines the problems that arise for gifted students in
‘ill fitting’ environments and how dyssynchronicities in abilities and competen­
cies can make them vulnerable to emotional, social and behavioural difficulties.
She shows how these difficulties may be identified and how additional stress is
created and then how education as therapy can help them resolve the problems.
Through applied research with gifted students she shows how education for
self-understanding, counselling and the use of myth in teaching methods can

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

all help the students achieve mastery and equilibrium in emotional and other
areas.
In Chapter eight Montgomery analyses the condition known as Asperger
Syndrome, which has only recently come to prominence since it was separated
out from other autistic spectrum disorders. The chapter explains how isolated
talents in autism can occur and how the high abilities and specific talents in
Asperger Syndrome can be overlooked in concern for the social and behaviou­
ral problems and the lack of emotional empathy. She then describes how indi­
vidualised programmes of behavioural, social and life skills training can be
constructed to establish the students as independent learners and adults.
In the final chapter in this part McCluskey and his colleagues describe the
results of an extensive series of last chance and rescue programmes run with ‘at
risk’ groups of talented but troubled children and youths in the Manitoba area.
They use Creative Problem Solving techniques as the core and combine them
with other strategies such as mentoring and career awareness planning.
In the UK we have a number of successful projects run in local areas, such as
Compact Club 2000, run in Birmingham by Chris Traxon, and in Portsmouth by
Nigel DuPree, Director of the SMART Foundation, to develop self advocacy, lit­
eracy and social and behavioural skills. However, there is no overall coordination
of such provision as yet and high ability and talent as a special dimension and dys­
synchrony do not as yet figure as a major concern. This is not to say that the talents
they undoubtedly uncover are not recognised: they are, and are celebrated.
Every school is required to have an agreed behaviour management policy
and set of practices and these are usually based upon positive behavioural man­
agement techniques promoted by a range of trainers and authors. Nevertheless
the training is not reaching into the deeper regions of classroom interactions.
For many learners are becoming disaffected and alienated from school. The
increase in problem behaviour perhaps arises from a number of factors includ­
ing a standards based education system with its failures identified early at Key
stages 7, 11, 14, and GCSEs; a teacher directed talk and writing based curricu­
lum; the changing cultures of the educated and educators; the mismatches
between promoted icons and models of success; and traditional values and the
Protestant ethic and so on.
We do need a closer analysis of the origin of problem behaviours in relation
to the inflexibility of the UK curriculum, giftedness and talent and emotional
literacy or lack of it. The development of emotional literacy could and should
be reintroduced into the mainstream curriculum, not as an add-on, but as inte­
gral to teaching and learning as described by Sisk and McCluskey. Although
they were engaged in special projects, the essence of what they did can be trans­
ported into mainstream education as it once was.

References

Smith, L. (2002) ‘An investigation of children having emotional and behavioural diffi­
culties and dyslexic-type difficulties in three special schools and one pupil referral
unit’. Unpublished MA SpLD Dissertation. London: Middlesex University.

130
 Gifted with behaviour disorders:
7 marching to a different drummer
Dorothy Sisk
If a man does not keep pace with his companions,

perhaps it is because he hears a different drummer.

Let him step to the music which he hears, however

measured or far away.

Henry David Thoreau

Individual differences have intrigued and challenged educators for centuries,

and the understanding and application of this concept greatly motivates edu­
cators; yet, practical classroom responses to individual differences are elusive,
particularly for gifted and talented students. One pioneer in gifted education in
the United States, Ruth Martinson, said individual differences are positive and
should be considered as a resource in schools. She stressed that effective school­
ing expands the differences between students, rather than restricting them.
Martinson championed the idea of expanding diversity, rather than seeking
conformity and inappropriate uniformity. Most gifted students would prob­
ably agree with her statement, which is no surprise since Ruth Martinson was
a highly gifted individual.
Sternberg (2000) uses the term ‘success intelligence’ to describe the ability to
achieve success in life, given individual personal standards within a given socio­
cultural context. The possibility to achieve success depends on the individual’s
ability to capitalise on strengths and correct or compensate for weaknesses
through a balance of analytical, creative and practical skills. Sternberg says in
order to adapt, shape and select environments, gifted people do these things at
a higher level than do others. Sternberg stresses that gifted individuals have a
superior aptitude to interact with their environment and to utilise their abilities.
Whether the gifted maximise their strengths is dependent on their environment
including the family, school and sociocultural context.
Neihart et al. (2002) report that there is no evidence that gifted children or
youths as a group are inherently any more vulnerable or flawed in adjustment
than any other group. They found no evidence of social or emotional vulner­
abilities or flaws unique to intellectually gifted learners or to those with high
creative potential; but they do state social and emotional problems related to
giftedness occur, and they most frequently reflect the interaction of an ill-fitting
environment with an individual’s personal characteristics. It is this flawed
interaction between the gifted individual, their family, school, peers and
culture that impacts on social and emotional development. Using Sternberg’s
‘successful intelligence’ as a focal point, the question that needs to be addressed
is: What can education do to help gifted students be successful in ill-fitting
environments?

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Neihart et al. (2002) identified numerous researchers who agree that talented
students are subject to unique stressors and vulnerable to difficulties with social
and emotional adjustment (Genshaft, Greenbaum et al. 1995; Hoge and Renzulli
1993; Hollinger 1995; Silverman 1993; Webb, Meckstroth et al. 1982); and gifted
children and youths have a similar collection of problems identified by numer­
ous researchers (Webb 1993; Clark 1983; Silverman 1993).
Linda Silverman says gifted students have complex thought processes and
emotions that are mirrored in the intricacy of their emotional development:

Idealism, self doubt, perceptiveness, excruciating sensitivity, moral impera­

tives, desperate need for understanding, acceptance, and love – all impinge
simultaneously. Their vast emotional range makes them appear contradic­
tory: mature and immature, arrogant and compassionate, aggressive and
timid. Semblances of composure and self-assurance often mask deep feelings
of insecurity. The inner experience of the gifted . . . is rich, complex and tur­
bulent. (1993: 84)

Dyssynchronicity

Terraiser (1985) describes dyssynchronicity as having two parts: internal refers

to disparate rates of development in intellectual, psychomotor and affective
development, such as a gifted five year old with an elaborate vocabulary and
imagination and an inability to write or use the computer. The second type of
dyssynchronicity is social, in which the gifted child feels out-of-step with the
social context. An example would be a gifted child in a heterogeneous class­
room keeping her advanced information or knowledge to herself because the
other children don’t understand, or they are not interested in her comments and
ridicule her. Terraiser uses dyssynchronicity to describe the dilemma of being
gifted and maintains because of advanced cognitive ability, the gifted are faced
with the dilemma of experiencing different mental, emotional, social and phys­
ical ages. This phenomenon coupled with intensity creates experiences that are
qualitatively and quantitatively different for gifted students.
Terman’s (1931) classic study of intellectually gifted individuals addressed
the issue of dyssynchronicity. Precocity unavoidably complicates the problem
of social adjustment. ‘The child of eight years with a mentality of twelve or four­
teen is faced with a situation almost inconceivably difficult. In order to adjust
normally, such a child has to have an exceptionally well-balanced personality
and to be well nigh a social genius. The higher the IQ, the more acute the
problem’ (p. 579). As one gifted adolescent said, ‘I limit myself to three
responses per class, that way no one groans when I respond; although, when it
appears that the teacher needs an answer, I’ll sometimes add another response
just to help move the lesson along.’
Another pioneer in gifted education, Hollingworth (1931), said the further
removed children are from the average in intelligence, the more pressing their
adjustment problems become. In her study of social adjustment, she found
gifted adolescents to be much less neurotic, much more self sufficient, and

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

much less submissive than non-gifted adolescents. Yet, she did report that as
the intelligence of gifted children increases so does their difficulty with peer
relations.

Selected characteristics that cause concern for gifted students

Persistence, intensity, perfectionism and sensitivity are characteristics that can

cause considerable concern for gifted students. Persistence is viewed nega­
tively by both parents and educators when the gifted child’s persistence con­
flicts with established or set times for meals, household chores, assignments
and school responsibilities. Parents and educators often describe this character­
istic as stubbornness. Intensity whether intellectual, emotional, sensual, imag­
inational or psychomotor as described by Dabrowski (1964, 1972) usually
positions gifted students in conflict with the demands and expectations of the
environment at home or at school. Dabrowski called these intensities overexcit­
abilities, and research comparing overexcitabilities (OEs) has found a greater
incidence of OEs in gifted children and adults in comparison with other popu­
lations. When parents and educators fail to understand the overexcitability of
gifted students, the students’ behaviour may become even more intensified and
result in behaviour disorders or emotional disturbance.
Intellectual intensity can manifest itself with gifted children asking probing
questions, becoming preoccupied with theoretical problems, displaying an
avid desire for knowledge about a given topic and wanting to analyse material.
It can also include independence of thought, a sharp sense of observation, striv­
ing for synthesis of knowledge and searching for truth. In the regular classroom
in which a harried teacher is concentrating on introducing a concept with the
highest hope that the students will remember the facts, the intellectual inten­
sity of a gifted child becomes problematic. Emotional intensity can result in
great intensity of feeling including concern with death, fears, anxieties and
depression. It can also include a concern for others and a high degree of inter­
personal feeling. Sensual intensity can be expressed as wanting to be in the
limelight and seeking sensual outlets, including touching things, tasting and
smelling. When an opportunity for a ‘star’ role arises, most gifted students step
forward and volunteer. In a group of gifted students, often there are ‘all chiefs
and no indians’. Psychomotor intensity can be noted in a love of movement,
rapid speech, restlessness and impulsive activity. When I first began teaching
gifted students, I would look out on my class and see a ‘sea of movement’: some
students were twisting their hair, others were finger drumming or foot-jiggling,
and there were always one or two bounding from their seats with, ‘I know
about that.’ Imaginational intensity can be associated with inventiveness,
vivid animated visualisation, and the use of images and metaphor in verbal
expression. It can be noted in poetic creations and dramatisations to escape
boredom in the classroom or at home. When gifted students are given an oppor­
tunity to use a journal, they may choose to draw images rather than write. The
psychologist Jung, in his later years, used images in his journal, rather than
writing, saying images were quicker and more accurate.

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Perfectionism as a characteristic in gifted students results in dissatisfaction

with schoolwork and work around the home. One way many gifted students
handle perfectionism is to refuse to try a task if they feel they cannot do it in
the manner in which they want it accomplished. Perfectionism can become a
stimulus for a lifetime of under-achievement. As a teacher, I learned to quickly
appropriate art work or poetry from several perfectionistic gifted students
before they had an opportunity to destroy their products in frustration.
Perfectionism in gifted students leads them to say ‘it doesn’t look like I want
it to’.

Importance of accurate and appropriate feedback

When gifted students receive feedback from parents and school personnel that
‘they’ are the problem, gifted students without appropriate coping mechanisms
can begin to feel estranged from peers and school, and they may begin to exhibit
behaviour disorders and be classified as emotionally disturbed. As Director of
the Office of Gifted and Talented in Washington, DC, I received a call for assis­
tance from the Pennsylvania state consultant for the gifted. She said that over
50 per cent of the students referred to the emotionally disturbed programme
who were given individual assessments by psychologists could be classified as
gifted students. The questions we decided to address were: Do teachers view
characteristics of gifted and talented students as characteristics that they want
‘fixed’? Were the students twice-exceptional students, gifted and emotionally
disturbed? Had ‘ill-fitting environments’ of school, family and community
manifested in behaviour disorders?
The answer to the first question addressing teacher perception was found to
be mostly true. From a careful examination of the referral forms and anecdo­
tal data, we found that the teachers had listed behaviours that were unaccept­
able, including critical, confrontational, argumentative, overly sensitive, and
inability to get along with peers (who were chronological peers, rather than
ability peers). The answer to question two was that the students were twice-
exceptional. They manifested negative behaviours toward themselves, and
were disruptive in the regular classroom; yet they contributed large funds of
information to classroom discussions and demonstrated considerable creativ­
ity. The answer to question three was the most disturbing – we found that
many of the students who were referred came from homes and schools in
which the parents and professionals were unaware of the special needs and
strengths of the gifted and talented.
A major educational goal emerged: to assist these gifted students in devel­
oping into the healthy, fulfilled and actualised young people that they were
capable of becoming. The strategy we used was to help the students discover
who they were, and to accept and develop positive feelings about themselves.
Teachers and counsellors agreed to focus on helping the gifted students
understand and accept the ways in which they were similar to less gifted stu­
dents, and the ways in which they were different. They stressed that different
doesn’t mean better, it just means different, and that addressing the gifted

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

student’s behaviour disorder entailed capitalising on their strength, as well as

considering their weakness, with an overall goal of turning problems into
strengths.

Vulnerability of gifted students

Adolescence and young adulthood are times of vulnerability for all individu­
als, but even more so for gifted youths enrolled in colleges and universities,
who are away from their families and their support. There is a common mis­
conception in the field of gifted education that gifted and talented students
suffer from few personal problems and traumas and that they don’t need
special guidance and counselling; nor do their teachers need training to
understand their unique emotional needs. Being gifted does not preclude
experiencing serious emotional trauma in interpersonal relationships or in
establishing and reaching goals in education and career paths. It is important
that parents and professionals become aware of the special needs and
strengths of the gifted. Gifted adolescents set about the task of integrating a
system of values that will give their life direction and a personal identity with
great determination. In forming their personal philosophy of life, they endea­
vour to make key decisions relating to religious beliefs, sexual ethics and
values, all of which centre around identity. They are searching for who they
are, where they are going and how to get there. Conflicts can arise around role
confusion and models are especially important at this time. Gifted students
also experience diverse pressures from parents, peers and society, and they
often find it difficult to gain a clear sense of identity. These pressures can man­
ifest in depression, in rebellious behaviour or in some cases in the conscious
decision to solve what appears to be an insurmountable problem by taking
one’s life.

Precursors of suicide

In examining the causes for suicide, a number of precursors have been iden­
tified by psychologists and researchers that are used to reconstruct the pres­
sures an individual who has committed suicide may have experienced. One
precursor is perturbation, in which the individual perceives himself or herself
as a failure; lethality is a precursor that includes thoughts about death and dis­
cussions of thinking about suicide; there is interpersonal disruption, such as
the disintegration of the role of a significant other in the family or disruption in
relationships with peers; and helpless failure feelings, viewing one’s life as
burned out. All of these precursors impact on an individual’s decision to
commit suicide.
Schneidman (1985), one of the foremost researchers and theorists in the area
of suicide, defines suicide as a conscious act of self-induced annihilation, best
understood as a multidimensional malaise in a needful individual who defines
an issue as one in which suicide is perceived as the best solution. He selected a

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

sample group of 30 individuals from the Terman study in which five of the
group committed suicide as adults. Using the above precursors of suicide,
Schneidman selected judges who were provided access to biographical data of
the selected Terman group, and they were able to predict with accuracy the five
individuals who would commit suicide.

Added stress of universities on gifted students

Many universities refer to these years as the most troubled times, or the
‘decades of self destruction’. Since 1990 undergraduates at MIT have been three
times more likely to commit suicide than those at other colleges. Morrisey
(1994) says that when troubled youths learn that others have committed
suicide, that makes suicide seem a more viable option for other students to end
their own pain, as suggested in the Schneidman definition. He says even one
suicide a year increases the risk that another will occur. MIT has 4,258 students
enrolled in its undergraduate programme, and officials at MIT who have been
investigating the suicides have found some alarming results: 74 per cent of the
students surveyed reported suffering from emotional problems that interfere
with their lives and studies, with some students saying they had to wait 10 days
to see a counsellor. In response, MIT has added extra evening hours at its
mental health clinic and assigned additional counsellors to work in the resi­
dence hall. MIT says research indicates that men take their lives more often than
women, and that their suicide statistics are skewed since the MIT student body
is 60 per cent male. However, the rigorous curriculum of MIT may represent a
problem for perfectionistic high achieving gifted students. MIT has produced
22 Nobel laureates in 140 years.
The Student Affairs Dean said that he has never seen a suicide where the pre­
cipitating factors were not extremely complicated, and that growing up is dif­
ficult and especially so in these difficult times. He said MIT has the best and
brightest students in the world (the gifted) and they often arrive with consid­
erable psychological baggage. One student at MIT had been despondent for
months, and the 19 year old sophomore biology student finally set herself on
fire. She was described as having a drive to succeed, wanting to be A1, and her
father said ‘she didn’t want to disappoint us’. She had repeatedly told residents
in her dorm that she wanted to kill herself (Lethality precursor). Another MIT
student ingested cyanide; she was described as absolutely brilliant, performing
in Broadway musicals, and she came from an upper middle class professional
family. She chose MIT because she considered it the ‘best’ university. At MIT
she experienced interpersonal and relationship problems with a young man
who was stalking her. She filed a harassment complaint, but she felt no one
really cared about her anguish (Interpersonal disruption).
At Oxford University there were 21 deaths reported over a 14 year period
from 1976 to 1990. Researchers found that student suicides were associated
with worries about academic achievement or coursework in general (Hawton
et al. 1995). Other factors that were problematic included relationships, health
or family disruption. Nearly half of the students who committed suicide

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

were clinically depressed, and most had been receiving treatment for depres­
sion, and negative expectations and hopelessness were important themes for
them.
The Beck Hopelessness Scale has demonstrated that it can predict whether a
person is at increased risk of suicide (Beck et al. 1990). In one study of patients,
all but one of the 17 who had killed themselves scored above nine on the Beck
Hopelessness Scale. People whose scores were above nine were 11 times more
likely to commit suicide than ones with lower scores. Perfectionism increases
the chances of suicide even more than hopelessness (Blatt et al. 1995).
Baumeister (1990) has developed an escape theory of suicide in which suicide
is viewed as an attempt to escape aversive self-awareness.
A great deal of the behaviour demonstrated by troubled university students
who commit suicide falls under the Anxiety Withdrawal dimensions of disor­
dered behaviour (Sisk 1999), and these behaviours include mood disorders
listed on DSM-IV, which is used to diagnose emotional disturbance:

• Previous depression or mania

• Current mood
• Guilty feelings, self-esteem, or sense of worth
• Financial or business difficulties
• Increased sexual activity and indiscreet sexual behaviour
• Rapid switches in mood
• Hallucinations or delusions
• Previous suicide thoughts or attempts
• Change in level of energy or fatigue
• Change in pattern of sleep
• Significant weight loss or weight gain.

Prevention of suicide

The risk of suicide cannot be discounted among gifted college and university
students. Konza (1999) reports that Australia has the highest rate of youth
suicide in the Western world, and she says there is no evidence to suggest that
being gifted can protect a young person from selecting suicide as a solution to
life’s problems. Dixon, Cross et al. (1995) agree that some characteristics of
giftedness, such as excessive sensitivity, divergent thinking, excessive intro­
spection, extreme emotionality and for some a preoccupation with negative
themes can be directly associated with the risk of suicide. It is often pointed out
that gifted individuals may not seek help because they feel they should be able
to solve their problems.
Hayes and Sloat (1989) take a ‘tough love’ approach to gifted students who
are thinking of suicide. They suggest a commitment be drawn from the gifted
students to put aside whatever they may be thinking about until they have dis­
cussed the problem with a professional, and that we should tell them they have
nothing to lose when the alternative is the loss of their life.

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Indicators of suicide

Appleby and Condonis (1990) list a number of indicators of suicide that

include:

• An actual suicide threat or statement indicating a desire to die

• An unsuccessful attempt at suicide
• Signs of mental depression, low energy levels and expressions of hopeless­
ness and worthlessness
• Changes in eating or sleeping patterns, more time spent alone or less inter­
est in previous activities
• Giving away prized objects.

Educators and counsellors need to be aware of these indicators of suicide and

work to change cultural attitudes so that gifted students under stress will feel
that it is acceptable to seek help rather than feeling that this shows a weakness
of some kind. In times of stress, adolescents turn to one another, and peer pro­
grammes have been successful when the peers know the indicators that reflect
emotional problems. Also it is important that significant others and peers listen
to troubled gifted students and not trivialise their concerns. A checklist for emo­
tional stability and maturity to help ‘signal’ stress and emotional problems can
be used to assist students in peer programmes.

A CHECKLIST FOR EMOTIONAL STABILITY AND MATURITY

How do you rate yourself in emotional stability and maturity?
Strong (S), Not So Strong (NS), Weak (W)
___able to admit mistakes ___integrated
___able to set pointers ___open
___accepting of criticism ___predictable
___assertive ___purposeful
___calm ___responsible
___committed ___secure
___controlled ___self confident
___cooperative ___self efficacy
___dependable ___self-reliant
___ethical ___sensitive
___flexible ___sincere
___forthright ___steady
___hardy

Interactive factors

Figure 7.1 depicts the interaction between risk or vulnerability factors, resil­
iency or protective factors, precipitating factors and the decision to commit
suicide.

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

Risk or vulnerability Resiliency or

factors protective factors

Precipitating factors
Life events

Suicide

Figure 7.1 To show the interaction between factors

Importance of coping strategies

Coping strategies that counsellors, educators and parents can use with gifted stu­
dents to help prevent suicide include helping them learn how to carefully plan
their activities, how to set priorities to better manage the stress of school, find a
close friend, and get involved in diversionary activities such as sports, music,
theatre, as well as shopping, eating, etc. Rebellious behaviour can also be diver­
sionary, and in some cases when a troubled gifted student finally rebels, this can
be viewed as positive action. To maximise personality integration of gifted stu­
dents, counsellors and teachers can focus on enhancing and building self esteem,
reinforce their ability to ‘feel in charge’ and to see options, and most importantly
for them, to be able to select solutions. These personality behaviours signify to
troubled gifted students that they are ‘in charge’, which is one of their basic needs
and characteristics. It is vitally important that troubled gifted adolescents do
something, take that first step and perceive that they have self efficacy. The high
and difficult goals that gifted students set for themselves require commitment
and effort, and a feeling of what many psychologists call ‘hardiness’ – viewing
life as a challenge and having a sense of control over one’s life.

Hardiness

One coping strategy is to increase one’s physical fitness, which is a component

of hardiness and includes defining challenges as difficulties and perceiving
oneself in control of the decisions that affect life. It is important that troubled
gifted students refrain from counterfactual thinking or dwelling on alternative
behaviour and thoughts such as ‘if only I had’ or ‘it wouldn’t have happened if
I had . . .’ When troubled gifted students become aware of their ‘counterfactual
thinking’ it is helpful for them to note the importance of their environment and
its effect on them. They can modify the environment with pleasant music, fra­
grance, lighting, art, supportive friends, any change that will help to improve a
pessimistic mood.

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Chronic depression, hopelessness, a clear plan for taking one’s life and prior
suicidal attempts are all clues that need to be taken seriously by parents, teach­
ers and counsellors. Morrisey, a researcher in suicide, says that educators and
counsellors need to be alert to the following eight behaviours:

1. talking about committing suicide

2. giving away prized possessions
3. taking unnecessary risks
4. being preoccupied with death and dying
5. having made previous suicide attempts
6. losing interest in hobbies, school and work
7. having had a recent severe loss
8. increased use of alcohol or drugs.

Morrisey stresses that a cry for help must be taken seriously and educators
and counsellors must refer gifted students for medical and psychological assis­
tance.
As gifted students experience risks and pressures, their abilities can become
detoured toward defensive and avoidance patterns. In helping gifted students
cope with their dyssynchronicity, it is essential that they develop coping strat­
egies to manage and deal with daily life stress, and learn how to prioritise their
goals, values and investment of time and energy.

Supportive strategies to minimise stress and to build self understanding

Group counselling
To meet the growing counselling needs of gifted students a group counselling

technique was developed and refined at the University of South Florida that

integrates the creative problem solving process and group counselling to assist

participants in dealing with problems that arise as a result of dyssynchronicity

(Sisk 1987). This technique proceeds in six stages, and in the first stage of sym­

biosis, gifted students engage in establishing a sense of trust and recognising

group similarities and differences. A sense of trust is established by involving

a group of gifted students (ideal size 11–15) in responding to open-ended ques­

tions:

If you could have the answer to any one question, what would you ask?

If you could have an extended conversation with any one person, who might it

be?
If you were to describe yourself with one word, what word would you use?
If you could change one thing about yourself, what would you change?
If you could be a song, what song would you be?

As students participate in this first stage, the questions are answered round-
robin and students may say ‘pass’ if they wish to be skipped, but it is important

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

for the teacher/leader to come back to any student who requests a pass. This
stage flows easily into the second stage of problem identification in which the
leader/teacher says, ‘Think of a problem or concern that you may have and
word it in a how might I? format.’ Each student is then given an opportunity
to identify and share a concern or problem. These problems/concerns are cap­
tured on a flip chart for the group, either by the leader/teacher or an assistant,
or in some cases a group member. Then the leader/teacher selects one question
to focus on with the group. In problem selection it is important for the
leader/teacher to select a problem that appears manageable, that is not too dra­
matic or stressful, and for the first go-round the leader/teacher may want to
select a problem from a student who has demonstrated willingness to be open
and articulate in the symbiosis stage.
After the problem has been selected, the group proceeds to the relationship
stage in which the leader/teacher asks the group to share any similar situations
that they have experienced with the student who identified the problem. The
purpose of this stage is to reassure the student with the identified problem that
he or she is not alone in ‘owning the problem’, and that other gifted students
have experienced similar problems. If the group counselling session concludes
at this stage, there would be positive outcomes because the student with the
identified problem no longer feels isolated. The leader/teacher participates
with the group and responds with suggestions. Students are always interested
in how the leader/teacher interacts with the group; consequently, the model­
ling of open interaction is essential for the leader/teacher. When all or most of
the students have shared examples of how they have experienced similar con­
cerns, the leader/teacher then moves on to the next stage.

Alternative solutions

In this stage the leader/teacher asks the student who identified the problem to
maintain a ‘deferred judgement’ attitude and to refrain from saying ‘I have
already tried that’, ‘That idea is super’ or ‘I’d never do that’ – this information
is shared by the leader/teacher with humour to help set the stage for open
sharing of ideas for solutions. Ideas are captured in the ‘exact words’ of each
group member, and if there are 7 students participating, the leader/teacher will
write the numbers 1–8 to encourage the students to ‘aim’ for that number of
alternatives. When the group exhausts their ideas for alternatives, the student
who identified the concern is given a highlighter pen and asked to proceed to
the next stage of choice making. In this stage, the student with the concern
circles one or two suggestions that he or she will try to implement prior to the
next group session. The leader/teacher then asks the student making the choice
to share the criteria used in making the selection. The last stage, implementa­
tion, is focused upon in the next group meeting in which the successful or
unsuccessful implementation of the selected alternatives is shared, and then
another student concern is identified for the process to continue.
When the technique was originally developed, it was intended as a tech­
nique primarily to be used with parents of gifted children in group counselling,

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

and was called the Child Study Technique. In using it with gifted students,
they quickly suggested that it be renamed the ‘PSST’ Problem Solving Student
Technique since it gets the student’s attention. In using the technique, teach-
ers/leaders report that gifted students demonstrate sensitivity toward one
another as they engage in problem solving. Typical problems that have been
discussed include: How can I convince my mother that I need to spend more
time with my father, since they are divorced? How can I develop a better rela­
tionship with my maths teacher, who really doesn’t like me? How can I go
about getting a bigger allowance? How can I reassure my family that I’m old
enough to drive? How can I improve my test-taking strategies, I get brain-
dead during tests? How can I convince my parents that I can go to the school
dance?

Building self-awareness: Gestalt exercises

The Growing Person: How to Encourage Healthy Emotional Development in Children

(Shallcross and Sisk 1982) includes numerous self-awareness activities to use in
assisting gifted students to overcome their dyssynchronicity. The Gestalt exer­
cises are particularly successful with gifted students in building self-awareness.
Gestalt is a German word meaning ‘form’, ‘shape’ or ‘the whole’ and in
psychology vernacular it refers to ‘getting it all together.’ According to Gestalt
psychologist Fritz Perls, when you get it altogether, there is an experience or
sense of wellbeing, of being in control of yourself and capable of integrating the
various parts of the whole. Perls used the idea of sub-selves and referred to
them as top dog and under dog. In using this technique with gifted students,
you ask them to create a dialogue that might occur between the two conflicting
sub-selves. Students can move from one chair another as each sub-self talks. By
way of a brief example, a dialogue might go like this:

Top dog: I know today is going to be a great day, I’m going to ‘Ace’ that test in
Physics.
Under dog: Don’t be so sure of yourself, you could go in there and blow it.
Top dog: No, I really have a positive feeling about this test today!
Under dog: That’s what you said the last time.

Gifted students enjoy this technique because they are keenly aware of the
numerous emotions that they experience and the range of feelings they have
about themselves, and the ‘PSST’ technique helps to build greater understand­
ing of their multi-dimensional personalities.
Another Gestalt technique, talk like, is a modified version of top dog and
under dog and it uses chairs to represent dialoguing selves. Place one chair
away from the other chairs in the room, ask a student to sit on the chair and to
say things that the sub-self might say in the manner or way the sub-self might
talk.
Talk like your smart self . . .
Talk like your loving self . . .

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

Talk like your useless self . . .

Talk like your jealous self . . .
Talk like your happy self . . .
When this activity is completed, the leader/teacher can help the students
‘process’ what they have experienced. Processing brings a completeness to
activities and provides the students and the leader/teacher with an opportu­
nity to reflect on what occurred, to clarify meanings and to more accurately
interpret the significance of the activity for individual growth and understand­
ing. It is important that the processing does not suffer from ‘overkill’ – there will
be a natural time to conclude. Processing elevates the previous group experi­
ences that were primarily affective to a level of cognitive awareness. By helping
gifted students explore and verbalise their emotionally based responses, they
gain greater insight into understanding themselves.

Stryker morphological approach

An adaptation of Gestalt work for older gifted students, who are usually more
capable of identifying sub-selves in their personality structure, is the following
activity based on Fran Stryker’s morphological approach to story plotting. Fran
Stryker is best known as the original author of the Lone Ranger series, and his
technique for creating a different plot for the nightly radio show provides the
structure for this activity. Stryker separated the four basic elements of each
short story plot into Character, Goal, Obstacle, and Result:
Using Stryker’s model as a format, Gestalt theory can be applied to a personal
story. The characters in the original model now become the sub-selves, or the
different characters within oneself. With modifications to suit this purpose, the
new blank chart would be as shown in Table 7.1a.

Table 7.1a Modifications of Stryker’s model

Sub-self Goal Obstacle Usual Outcome Desired Outcome Alternative Behaviour

This chart helps gifted students identify the roles that their sub-selves play in
facilitating or hindering an integrated personality structure, and the com­
pleted chart provides a ‘picture’ of what is going on in their life at a given
time. By identifying sub-selves and how they function, gifted students
become more aware of their positive and negative personality features. The
use of the Stryker chart provides gifted students with a ‘grayline’ view of
where conflicts occur between and among sub-selves. Filling in each column
for a sub-self can be revealing, for beyond identifying the sub-self, the stu­
dents are able to examine how each sub-self functions to either serve or hinder

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

in the total picture. For example, an eighth grade gifted young man who was
classified as a behaviour disordered student identified ‘the clown’ as one of
his sub-selves and completed the chart as shown below.

Table 7.1b Completed table for Stryker’s modified model

Goal Obstacle Result Desired Alternative
Outcome Behaviour

To be funny, Sometimes it I get teacher In this class to be Be funny, but not

make students gets me in frowns, punished, popular same as when it gets me in
laugh, to be trouble with the not called upon or GOAL trouble
popular with the teacher in class yelled at
class

Importance of counsellors

Counselling needs to be an essential component of educational programmes for

all students, but particularly for gifted students with behavioural disorders.
Sensitive, caring teachers can provide a great deal of assistance and support for
troubled students, but many of these students will need the assistance of a more
specialised counselling programme. Two life skills that gifted students need to
learn have been addressed, those of problem solving and self-awareness, that
teachers can model and teach to build resilience and a positive proactive
approach to daily challenges. People with resilience have an internal locus of
control, that is essential for troubled, gifted children and youths engaged in
struggles for power or autonomy. Effective counselling techniques can include
the use of visualisation exercises and journal writing to provide opportunities
for the students to express their thoughts or insights.

Using visualisation integrated with journaling to build resilience

In a session with a troubled gifted teenager, who was experiencing bouts of

depression, and engaged in an ongoing power struggle with her mother result­
ing in abusive language and physical abuse, the student was asked to gaze at a
picture of a dolphin swimming in water with a smaller dolphin nearby. After a
few moments, she was asked to close her eyes and visualise the two dolphins
together, and to let the images flow of their own accord. She was asked to ‘be
aware of any sounds that you might hear, notice the colours, and if there is dia­
logue between the two dolphins. Hear what they are sharing . . . gathering any
insight that you might from their interaction.’ Using the picture as a visual stim­
ulus, followed by a guided visualisation, in which she was in control, she was
encouraged to observe and to hear the interaction of the mother/child dol­
phins. This activity focused her attention on the sensual or sensory responses
that are usually open to most students. Then she was offered an opportunity
to project what she thinks/wants the dolphins to say to one another. This

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

provided her with an opportunity to tap into her ‘inner knowing’ for informa­
tion. The wording of the question: ‘What knowledge or insight are you gather­
ing from this conversation?’ further stimulated her to pull the images and
thoughts together, to synthesise and move from the sensual, affective experi­
ence to a more cognitive experience, resulting in an abstract thought of personal
meaning.
When she was provided with an opportunity to write about her experience
in the visualisation exercise in her journal, she quickly began writing very
fluidly and remarked, ‘The ideas come to me so quickly and I feel calm just like
the dolphins.’ In her journal she wrote:

There once was a young dolphin who travelled with her family and other
dolphins in the Atlantic Ocean. She thought her world was a beautiful one,
but she had heard elders speak of their travels to the sea of tranquility. When
she asked about travelling there, the elders told her that she must find the
way herself.
She swam into a cave looking for a secret passage, but found none. She
swam as far as she could in one day, but to no avail.
One day she came across her mother floating with her eyes closed. And
when the young dolphin sounded to her, her mother did not seem to hear her.
The young dolphin became increasingly upset that she could not awaken
her mother. Finally a number of minutes later, her mother awakened from her
trance.
‘Why didn’t you hear me, mother?’ the young dolphin asked.
‘I was in the sea of tranquility,’ replied the mother.
‘How is that possible?’ asked the confused young dolphin. ‘You were right
here.’
‘My child, the sea of tranquility is within me,’ explained the mother.
All of us have a sea of tranquility.

When she was asked for a copy of her journal to share with teachers in a grad­
uate class in Creativity and the Gifted Child, she replied, ‘Sure if it will help
them understand what it means to be gifted, most of my teachers never liked
me.’ Her statement sounds harsh and accusatory, but many teachers and coun­
sellors are less than enthusiastic about teaching gifted children and youths.
They view many characteristics of gifted students as a challenge, such as their
resistance to control, use of humour that can be scathingly direct, critical ques­
tioning, advanced vocabulary and extensive knowledge that can be somewhat
intimidating.

Applied research with gifted adolescents

For the last five years, the Dabrowski theory of overexcitability has been used
in an ongoing research programme with secondary gifted students in the Texas
Governor’s Honors Program. Dabrowski’s theory is composed of two parts:
five overexcitability levels and five levels of development. He theorised that the

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

strength of overexcitabilities, along with special talents and abilities, makes up

a person’s developmental potential, and that overexcitabilities are develop­
mental and can be observed in infancy. The five overexcitabilities (OEs) are
psychomotor, sensual, imaginational, intellectual and emotional. Dabrowski
studied gifted children and youths in Warsaw and found every one of them
showed considerable manifestation of the overexcitabilities (Dabrowski 1972).
Dabrowski’s theory of emotional development addresses a core of personal
characteristics that distinguish the behaviour of gifted students. Dabrowski
said it is in the nature of many gifted students to steadfastly uphold the princi­
ples that they believe in and to attempt to be individuals who are true to them­
selves (Level 3); Level 4 is where an individual is well on the way to
self-actualisation and attempting to make a difference, and Level 5 is where the
struggle for self-mastery has been won. Level 1 and Level 2 students are not
always steadfast in upholding principles.
Students in the Texas Governor’s Honors Program volunteer to take the orig­
inal Dabrowski questionnaire, which requires thoughtful responses and con­
siderable time set aside for completion of the questions during a busy three
week residential session. All of the participating students scored Level 3 on
emotional, imaginational and sensual overexcitabilities. In analysing their
responses, the students who scored at Level 3 psychomotor were actively
involved in sports, and had selected aerobics, soccer, Tae Bo, basketball, swim­
ming, tennis or football. The students who scored at Level 3 on sensual had
selected art, musical production, dance, drama, history of jazz and instrumen­
tal ensemble as activities. The students who scored at Level 3 on imagination
selected advanced creative writing, British poetry, journalism, and sculpture.
The students were curious about Dabrowski’s theory, and when it was
explained to them following the administration of the questionnaire, they
enjoyed discussing the questions and their responses. They agreed with
Dabrowski’s contention that intensity is not a deficit. The five OEs are summar­
ised and adapted using descriptions suggested by Piechowski (1997). Selected
student responses of the Texas Governor’s Honors Program students at Level
3 of all OEs are shown below:

Imaginational OE (M) is the capacity for free play of the imagination and creative
vision. It is recognised through rich association of images and impressions (real or
imagined), inventiveness, vivid and often animated visualisation, and use of image
and metaphor in speaking and writing. Daydreaming, distractibility, predilection
for fairy tales, magical thinking, imaginary companions, love of fantasy, poetic crea­
tions, dramatising to escape boredom, and a taste for the absurd and surrealistic are
characteristic expressions of Imaginational. A student example:

Sometimes when I am imagining something, I can be composing a short

musical piece and my mind usually is filled with music that I have heard or
performed, but it is in the moments of internal quiet that I hear new things.
(Female, age 16)

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

Emotional OE (E) is the heightened intensity of positive and negative feelings.

It is recognised in the way emotional relationships are experienced; in strong
attachments to persons, living things or places; in the great intensity of feelings,
emotions and an awareness of their full range. Characteristic expressions are:
inhibition (timidity and shyness); enthusiasm; emotionality; compassion and
understanding of others; strong affective recall of past experiences; concern
with death, fears, anxieties and depressions; and occasional feelings of unreal­
ity. Intense loneliness may be combined with an intense desire to offer love, or
a deep concern for others. Intrapersonal and interpersonal feeling achieve a
high degree of differentiation. A student example:

Last summer, I became involved with the Summer Special Olympics for chil­
dren with disabilities. We worked hard for weeks and weeks and finally the
‘big day’ came. I was able to see our hard work pay off. To see this excellence
in these special little children’s eyes flooded my soul with happiness. I don’t
think I’ve ever had a rush quite like that. (Female, age 17)

Psychomotor OE (P) may be viewed as excess energy or heightened excitabil­

ity. It may manifest as love of movement for its own sake, rapid speech, pursuit
of intense physical activity, impulsiveness, pressure for action, drive or the
capacity for being otherwise active and energetic. A student example:

I feel tons of energy after I do really well in a race. If I win or improve my

track times I get lots of energy. With all of this new found energy I usually
annoy people. It comes out in the form of hyperness and excitement. (Male,
age 16)

Sensual OE (S) is sensory aliveness and heightened capacity for sensual enjoy­
ment. It finds expression in heightened experiencing of pleasure through touch,
taste, smell, sight and sound, as well as in seeking sensual outlets for emotional
tensions. Sensual overexcitability is manifested as a desire for comfort, luxury
or aesthetic delights; it includes the pleasure derived from being admired, being
in the limelight; it may also manifest itself as intense sexuality. Sensual outlets
of emotional tension include overeating, buying sprees, and other forms of self-
indulgence to soothe oneself. Sensual OE may also demonstrate itself as
extreme sensitivity, and sometimes irritation to sensory input. A student
example:

All the time, I am always trying to create scenes from my surroundings.

Sometimes I imagine people that I would like to talk to and, don’t laugh, talk
to them. Much as they did in the movie ‘Tap’. I listen to the sounds around
me and hear music in it. (Male, age 16)

Intellectual OE (T) is intensified activity of the mind. Its strongest expression

is manifested in asking probing questions; avidity for knowledge and analysis;
preoccupation with logic and theoretical problems; and striving for under­
standing and truth. Other behaviours include: sharp thinking, development of

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

new concepts, striving for synthesis of knowledge, and a desire to search for
knowledge and truth. A student example:

I would first find a pattern and follow it. What goes on in my head would be
how one solves the problem. Second, I would tell myself that I’m not con­
fused. Think why do we have to understand this idea? Last, find the pattern.
(Female, age 16)

Using moral dilemmas to promote social/emotional development in middle

school gifted

Twenty-three gifted students who were referred to their school psychologist

for disruptive classroom behaviour and as possible candidates for their
school’s behaviour disorders programme were provided with moral dilemmas
for dialogue and discussion. The students were encouraged to engage in self-
observation and self-analysis to reflect on their values and those of others.
Twenty-five moral dilemmas were developed and introduced to the students.
As an introductory activity, Benjamin Franklin’s list of 13 values was given to
the students and they were told that, at the end of each day, Franklin engaged
in self-analysis to ascertain if he had measured up to the virtues on his list,
noting any errors and lapses. Franklin’s list included: temperance, silence,
order, resolution, frugality, industry, sincerity, justice, moderation, cleanliness,
tranquillity, chastity and humility. The students thoroughly enjoyed discussing
these virtues and applying them to their lives and to the lives of others. They
were also introduced to the concept that for a ‘belief’ to become your own belief,
it has to follow a process of freely choosing the value; choosing it from alterna­
tives after thoughtful consideration of consequences; prized and cherished;
publicly affirmed; acted upon in reality; and acted upon repeatedly. This
process was adapted from Raths, Harmin and Simon (1978). In evening sessions
from 7:00 to 9:00 pm the gifted students read and discussed a moral dilemma
employing a simple discussion format of What, So What and Now What. Pre-
and post-tests on the Loevinger–Wessler scale were given to the students and
each student kept a running daily journal for reflection. An example of one
moral dilemma is the following:

Sara, who is thirteen, has a sixteen year old brother named Dylan. They share
ideas and talk about almost everything, including boyfriends and girlfriends.
When school started in September, Dylan began hanging around with some
new kids. He began to lose weight and his personality also began to change. He
had always been a happy-go-lucky person, but now he is always fearful and
nervous. Sara and Dylan’s parents are very concerned and worried about him.
At dinner they ask if there is anything wrong, but Dylan always says that they
are just being overly concerned and that there is nothing wrong.
Late one night Sara and Dylan are talking and Dylan begins to cry and says
that he is taking drugs. The other kids that he hangs out with are also doing
drugs, and as a result, he has become involved. He also shares that he has

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

shoplifted to pay for drugs, which are very expensive. Dylan says that the drugs
make him feel very good, but that he feels sick when he can’t get any. He makes
Sara promise not to tell anyone what he has said – especially their parents. He
also promises to stop taking the drugs as soon as he can.
The next day Sara’s mother comes to her and asks her if she knows what is
wrong with Dylan. She knows Sara and Dylan talk about everything and she
expects Sara to tell the truth.
What should Sara do?

1. Should she break Dylan’s confidence?

2. Should a promise be kept?
3. Is there any way that Sara has a right to tell her mother what Dylan has
shared?
4. If she doesn’t tell her mother, is she justified in saying she doesn’t know any­
thing?

The gifted students examined the moral issues involved in the dilemmas and
discussed each dilemma to bring the ethical issues into clear focus for analysis.

Findings
The pre- to post-test changes on the Loevinger–Wessler ego maturity instru­
ment, using a 10 point scale, indicated a significant shift from Stage 3
(Conformist) and Stage 3–4 (Transition from Conformist to Conscientious)
toward Stage 4 (Conscientious) Stage 4–5 (Transition from Conscientious to
Autonomous) and Stage 5 (Autonomous) occurred during the twenty weekly
sessions. Twenty-one of the twenty-three gifted adolescent students in the orig­
inal intervention study completed the follow-up testing. A person at
Loevinger’s Stage 4 level of Conscientious behaviour displays complex think­
ing and perceives complexity, and absolute standards and rules are often
replaced at this stage with ones in comparative and contingent form. The Stage
4 person views life as presenting choices and they are not pawns of fate. They
feel in charge of their own destiny. Achievement motivation is at its height at
this stage, along with a strong sense of responsibility and a concept of privi­
leges, rights, justice and fairness. Self-evaluated standards, differentiated feel­
ings and concern for communication are also manifested in the Stage 4 level.
The Stage 4–5 (Transition from Conscientious to Autonomous) person evi­
dences greater complexity in their concept of interpersonal interaction, in
psychological causality and in their concept of individuality. Clearly, we would
want gifted students to operate at Stage 4–5, and to be capable of using their
potential in positive, constructive endeavours that are fulfilling to them and
helpful to society. The scores of the students on the Loevinger–Wessler scale are
shown in Table 7.2.
This study indicates that it is possible to promote positive socio-emotional
growth in troubled gifted and talented students through linking discussion and
moral dilemmas. This type of discussion can be easily integrated into Social
Studies and Language Arts classes, as well as in Science, with examinations of

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Table 7.2 Students’ Loevinger Scores Using 10 Point Scale

N Mean Score Standard Deviation T value Significance Level

PRE 21 6.29 0.78 1.79 .05

POST 21 6.67 1.07 4.56 .001
ONE YEAR FOLLOW UP
21 7.38 0.97

moral dilemmas in scientific research. The gifted students wrote in their journals
that they enjoyed the discussions, and that they were able to apply what they were
learning in the discussions to their daily life at school and at home. The teachers
of the students also indicated that the experiences had led to more effective
student responses in the classroom when real moral dilemmas were presented.

Using the study of myths to build self-knowledge

Self-knowledge comes through facing life’s challenges with courage and

strength, but gifted students can accomplish this same self-knowledge vicari­
ously and safely by reading stories and myths of Greek gods, Norse heroes,
Polynesian tricksters, and Native American warriors, all replete with profound
lessons about life. By reading and discussing myths, gifted students quickly rec­
ognise that myths are related to real life problems through shared inquiry.
Myths have a mysterious capacity to contain and communicate paradoxes, and
they encourage gifted students to experience complex relationships and ideas
that help them formulate their own ideas. Myths also encourage gifted students
to see through, around and over any dilemmas they may be experiencing. One
dilemma many gifted students face is the high expectation of parents and the
spoken and unspoken message ‘You are to carry on our family name, to higher
and higher levels of accomplishment.’ To address this dilemma the theme of
Parents and Children was used to explore ‘truths’ in myths.

Parents and Children theme

To explore the theme of Parents and Children, gifted students can read Thetis
and Achilles, the story of how parents expect nothing less than everything from
their children. The theme of this Greek myth revolves around the ambition
Thetis has for her child. She wants her son to be a god, and in the myth, Thetis
conveys tremendous insight into the secret hopes, longings and dreams that
parents may unknowingly and knowingly ask of their gifted children. Thetis,
the goddess mother, wants her child to be divine like her, rather than mortal like
the father. Another myth, Orion and Oenopion, was used to explore the Parents
and Children theme in which a father attempts to totally possess his daughter,
and to make all her decisions for her.
Gifted students can keep daily journals to help them assess their level of
understanding concerning the myths and the dilemmas; this helps gifted stu­

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

dents recognise their ability to apply the concepts to their lives. After reading
the two myths, a group of gifted adolescents shared sacrifices that their own
parents had made for them and how when they failed in school work, in music
and swimming competitions, their parents were disappointed or angry. Such
discussions help gifted students build a better understanding of the world and
how it works, but more importantly they help gifted students build a better
understanding of themselves in relation to others. Other themes and myths that
can be used to build self understanding include the following:

• Becoming an individual, including leaving home (Peredur, the son of

Evrawe)
• Fighting for autonomy (Gilgamesh and the Tree of Life)
• Pursuing the quest for meaning (Perseus)
• Greed and ambition (King Midas) etc.

Gifted students with their well-developed reasoning, ability to engage in the

higher levels of thinking and analysing or synthesising information can step
back from the myth and make applications to themselves. One troubled gifted
adolescent said, ‘I like the fact that instead of just reading, we can discuss, and
we can have our own feelings.’ This ownership of feelings is an important step
for gifted students in being able to recognise how they interact with others. Their
insights are evident in comments concerning their reading such as ‘Did you ever
notice that in the darkness of loneliness, failure and loss, they always discover
light and hope?’ Listening to this student, it was obvious that she was viewing
her particular problem with hope and perhaps new conviction that it could be
solved. A boy who suffers from perfectionism in his school work, in his appear­
ance and career choices (he wants to be an actor or talk show host) said, ‘Looks,
talent, power and wealth bring their own forms of suffering.’ After his profound
comment, there was a palpable silence as the group of students pondered his
ability to face his dilemma of being perfect and offered him a respectful silence.
A project conducted with eighty-five gifted middle school students in Texas
entitled Mythic Journey has demonstrated that this type of study can have pos­
itive results with gifted students, and that it represents a viable option to assist
gifted students in becoming better prepared for adulthood (Sisk 2001).
Gifted students find themselves within an increasingly complex world and
unless we adapt and modify the curriculum to ensure that it is not ill-fitting and
help parents, counsellors and educators to understand the unique needs of
gifted students and their vulnerability to perfectionism, stress, depression and
suicide, we will continue to do them a great disservice, as well as a disservice
to ourselves. The intellect and enthusiasm of gifted students for learning when
properly channelled can bring added excitement to the schooling process.

Summary and conclusions

In spite of a recent book by Neihart et al. (2002) in which the authors state that
there is no evidence that gifted children or youths as a group are inherently any

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more vulnerable or flawed in adjustment than any other group, there is consid­
erable evidence that ill-fitting environments whether they be school, family,
peers or culture greatly impact on the social and emotional development of
gifted children and adults. Numerous researchers agree that gifted students are
subject to unique stressors, and that they are vulnerable to difficulties with
social and emotional adjustment.
Terrasier (1985) described how the unique characteristics of giftedness mani­
fest in ill-fitting environments as dyssynchronicity and unavoidably compli­
cate the social adjustment of gifted individuals. This problem of social
adjustment can be traced to characteristics that can cause considerable concern
for gifted students including persistence, intensity, perfectionism and sensitiv­
ity. Dabrowski’s theory of the positive aspect of overexcitabilities provides a
helpful way to understand and utilise the overexcitabilities that gifted students
often possess as strengths in manifesting their talents.
The precursors to suicide were examined in an attempt to reconstruct the
pressures that individuals who have committed suicide may have experienced
and the added stress of university life on gifted students was examined.
Students who commit suicide fall under the anxiety-withdrawal dimensions of
disordered behaviour including guilty feelings, low self esteem or sense of
worth, change of levels of energy or fatigue, and previous thoughts or attempts
at suicide. Konza (1999) noted that Australia has the highest rate of youth
suicide in the Western world, and she reminded us that there is no evidence to
suggest that being gifted can protect a young person from selecting suicide as
a solution to life’s problems. A checklist for emotional stability and maturity
was included for individuals to rate themselves on those factors. The interac­
tion of vulnerability factors, resilience or protective factors and precipitating
factors was examined as a precursor to the decision to commit suicide.
The importance of coping strategies that counsellors, educators and parents
can use with gifted students were discussed including physical hardiness,
group counselling, building self-awareness and visualisation integrated with
using journals to build resilience. Applied research using the Dabrowski theory
of overexcitability was discussed to chronicle the responses of gifted adoles­
cents, followed by research on using moral dilemmas to promote social and
emotional development in middle school gifted students and on its effect on
ego maturity.
Finally, the study of myths to build self-knowledge was presented in which
gifted students gained self-knowledge vicariously and safely by reading stories
and myths of Greek gods, Norse heroes, Polynesian tricksters, and Native
American warriors, all with profound lessons about life. The challenge for edu­
cators, counsellors and parents is how to guide gifted students in formulating
their own ideas, to see through, around and over any dilemmas that they may
be experiencing. Through reading and discussing myths, gifted students can
experience catharsis and build considerable self-understanding, and under­
standing of others. Gifted students find themselves in an increasingly complex
world, and they need to develop strong coping mechanisms to navigate suc­
cessfully through the schooling and life process to contribute to society and lead
meaningful satisfying lives.

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 Gifted with behaviour disorders

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154
 Children with Asperger’s Syndrome
8 and related disorders
Diane Montgomery

Asperger’s Syndrome is a recently differentiated condition in education within

the autistic spectrum of disorders, although it has been known in the clinical lit­
erature for decades. Like autism it is now considered to be a disorder of devel­
opment (Wing 1995) that lasts throughout the lifespan but the more extreme
manifestations can be ameliorated by appropriate kinds of intervention and
training. According to Wing, autism or Kanner’s syndrome occurs in four or
five cases in 10,000 births, whereas Asperger’s is more common; it is found in
36 cases in 10,000. The gender ratio is four boys to one girl. It is estimated that
there are about 3,000 in the childhood autistic population in comparison with
30,000 with severe learning difficulties; but there could be at least 20,000 with
Asperger’s. Now that the characteristics are understood, it is possible that a
number of well known eccentrics could have been Asperger cases.
Kanner (1943) first thought of autism (autos – Greek for self) as a single con­
dition affecting the way people communicated and related to the world around
them. However, the work of Wing (1986) established a condition known as
‘classic autism’, and the ‘autistic continuum’ or ‘autistic spectrum disorders’
(ASD) which co-occur and overlap (Jordan and Jones 2001) and include
Asperger’s Syndrome and Semantic Pragmatic Disorder.
While Asperger was working with more able young men with good structu­
ral language skills, Kanner was working with a group of 11 children who were
mainly female with a much more severe condition. Both independently and
separately observed patterns such as social withdrawal, obsession with rou­
tines and the development of peculiar interests to the exclusion of all else.
Kanner’s subjects also had severe language and social impairment and thus it
was that Asperger’s cases came to be seen as the more able end of the autistic
spectrum. It was Wing’s (1981) concern that Kanner’s model did not fit all chil­
dren diagnosed as autistic that caused her to coin the term ‘Asperger’s
Syndrome’ and there is increasing agreement over Wing’s (1995) proposal that
Autistic Spectrum Disorders involve a triad of impairments in:

• reciprocal social interaction

• social communication
• imagination and repetitive behaviour

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Bishop (1989) positioned autism, Asperger’s Syndrome (now the convention

is Asperger Syndrome) and Semantic Pragmatic Disorder on continua between
two axes from abnormal to normal as follows:

Normal
Interests and social relationships

Semantic Pragmatic
Disorder

Asperger's
Autism Syndrome

Abnormal
Abnormal Normal
Meaningful verbal communication

Figure 8.1 Bishop’s two-dimensional approach to autistic spectrum disorders (Source:

Bishop 1989, p. 117)

Social and medical models were used to explain ASD but Reichelt (2001), at
Oslo University, has developed a biochemical model and suggests that the child
with ASD has a genetic predisposition, an error gene. Reichelt and his col­
leagues screened over two million children from 1979 to 2001 in Norway and
found that in children with ASD casein and gluten peptides in flour and milk
cannot be properly broken down. This results in abnormally high opioid pep­
tides being found in the urine. The opioids lead to the sensory, perceptual and
behavioural disturbances reported.
Parents have to keep food journals and remove all casein and gluten prod­
ucts from the child’s diet. At first they report that the children get worse, as fre­
quently they have been overdosing on milk and flour products. After three days
a transformation takes place. A non-communicative five-year-old began speak­
ing in coherent sentences, others began to play constructively and in interaction
with siblings, and their behaviour came back in the normal range. According to
their parents, the children still remained autistic or Asperger but were able to
settle in school and learn, and find suitable careers. These studies have been
replicated at the University of Sunderland by Paul Shattock at the Autism
Research Unit (http.//osiris.sunderland.ac.uk/autism).
Perhaps in the future a urine test in the first week of life will identify ASD
and a suitable diet could prevent the opioids accumulating and doing damage
as in the case of Phenylketonuria. Gene therapy could be a future scenario.
In this chapter the abilities and talents of children with Asperger’s Syndrome
will be the main focus but will be put in the context of autism and gifted
‘savants’ and children with Semantic Pragmatic Disorder.

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 Children with Asperger’s Syndrome

Classic autism

According to Hermalin (1969), the following are characteristics of autism:

• aloofness
• abnormality of speech and language
• compulsive behaviours and rituals
• motor abnormalities – rocking, head banging, tiptoeing everywhere
• cognitive subnormality in most cases

At that time many autistic children were placed in secure hospitals and
adults in asylums for the mentally handicapped. For example, Stan, about 40
years old, had found sanctuary in the art therapy classes. He would wait at the
door for hours for the class to begin and when it did he would paint all day. His
favourite subjects were detailed and beautiful copies of complex pictures of
rustic scenes on jigsaw and chocolate boxes. He had been shown the technique
of enlargement by covering picture and canvas with squares, which he then
completed and so built up the picture. The staff were impressed. His paintings
were very popular as gifts and he was paid for them. Stan was unable to speak
a word or understand much of what was said to him although he had normal
hearing. He made only fleeting eye contact when he was spoken to but when
his painting was admired he seemed to glow with pride. Stan is characteristic
of about 10 per cent of autistic people known as ‘Savants’. They have isolated
talents among their severe disabilities, typically these may be artistic, musical,
or computational. Lorna Selfe (1977) described the case of Nadia, an autistic
child with a prodigious talent for drawing at the age of three to four years. Her
drawings of galloping horses were compared in their effect and depiction of
movement to those of da Vinci and Michaelangelo. Strangely, as she began to
learn to speak and read, her fabulous gift deteriorated to childlike proportions
and stereotyped forms.
At the age of five years it is characteristic that autistic children have no speech
but if they have high IQs – it is rare to find an IQ above 110, the top 30 per cent
have IQs between 70 and 100 – they have the best chance of developing func­
tional language. The language of autistic children (Hermalin 1969) has a
number of distinctive features as it develops:

• echolalia
• confusion
• difficulty
• semantic and grammatical errors
• concrete speech
• phonological oddities

In addition, they show only fleeting eye contact and severe impairment in
social skills, they are often very graceful and have a symmetry in facial features
that is unusual. In infancy parents often recall how good the baby was and,
characteristically, autism is not identified until about two years of age when no

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

language has developed and the toddler is difficult to manage. He or she can
engage in screaming bouts that last for days because a snowflake fell on them;
refuse to walk round corners but only in a straight line; will walk only on tiptoe
for six months; and if the furniture in a room is moved will walk across the room
over the furniture in the route they have always used.
Education for autistic children in special units and schools during the 1970s
featured improved facilities for them. Six year old Frances had been diagnosed
as autistic and had recently joined the reception class of the special school. She
had no command of speech or language. She was prone to screaming bouts,
biting and head banging if she was prevented from doing something or when
she wanted attention, usually when the teacher and helpers were telling a story
to the other children or just talking to them. On my arrival to sit and observe
and ostensibly work quietly with another pupil, Frances, from the lap of the
teacher, eyed me under her lids, secretly – gaze avoiding. She left the teacher’s
lap to crawl over to me. The teacher warned ‘Be careful, her favourite thing is
to get on your lap and then wet’. She tried, I avoided. She returned to her
teacher to put beads on a string. At the break the teacher warned me to guard
the orange juice jug for her for a moment for Frances would suck the beads then
fly across the room to lift the lid and plunge them in so nobody could drink the
juice. I guarded. The teacher returned, poured out some juice and put the jug
down, turning to speak to me. In an instant, Frances, whooping, had the jug, the
beads were in and she was standing triumphantly watching us. She appeared
greatly to enjoy the fuss the teacher made and then became upset, looked cross
and wetted. More mess to clear up. I wondered whether she would have both­
ered to try so hard again if we had ignored her success with the beads. My role
was to advise on how to help the teachers reinforce any positive behaviours, or
their approximations, which these difficult pupils displayed. By school age they
had indeed learned a large repertoire of anti-social activities. Frances seemed to
have a cunning and manipulative way with her that suggested a considerable
degree of intelligence, but not the sort that would register on an IQ test. She was
highly anti-social and prone to scream for days. This was one of her better
periods. However, her teacher had decided to learn Makaton and as she intro­
duced this signing system Frances gradually became absorbed in it and calmed
down considerably as she was more able to communicate her wishes.
Temple Grandin, a high functioning person with autism, explained that the
condition was like watching a video of life rather than being part of it. She is
now in her 40s, has a PhD and a successful international career designing live­
stock equipment. She has written extensively about her difficulties and frustra­
tions and gives the following useful pointers for teachers:

• appreciate the need for structure and routine

• break instructions down into short steps and, for more than three items, write
them down
• use practical demonstrations and give concrete examples for thoughts are
often visual not verbal
• use artistic and computer skills and fixations to motivate and develop aca­
demic work

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 Children with Asperger’s Syndrome

• use a quiet, calm voice that will not distract those who are sensitive to sound
• check for any background noise – people outside or the hum of a heater can
interfere with the ability to listen
• use visual input wherever possible for they find it difficult to remember
things if they cannot visualise them, for example phone numbers, instruc­
tions, lists
• reading writing in different forms is difficult and typing is easier than hand­
writing
• place work table near natural light as there may be sensitivity to flicker of
screens and fluorescent lights; laptops are easier for there is less flicker
• remember they are ‘unichannel’ so do not ask them to look and listen at the
same time
• in looking up to copy from the board they may lose track of ideas; put screens
close to keyboards for the same reason
• coloured paper helps to reduce contrasts of black on white and coloured
overlays can also help. (Grandin at http://www.autism.org/temple/
inside.html)

Donna Williams (1996) in her book writes, ‘I am diagnosed as having autism.

. . . If you ask me what the word means, I would tell you that, for me, it is about
having trouble with connections . . . this also causes trouble with tolerance and
trouble with control’ (p. vii). She then goes on to explain these problems in
making connections in the following ways. Her attention is distracted from the
whole and is drawn to the details, her perception is deficient in that she can only
process bits or parts and does not know where she has been touched. She has
difficulties with sensory integration, which is a form of unichannel operation,
so she is able to listen but not see, speak but not think. Information is accumu­
lated but without its context so she is unaware of what has been learned and
needs some external trigger to recall it. Then it may be recalled in the exact voice
and phrasing, which she then repeats (echolalia).
She describes the situation in which she received a serious lecture about not
writing graffiti on Parliament House during an excursion. She agreed never to
do that again and ten minutes later was caught outside writing different graffiti
on the school wall. She was not ignoring what they said, nor trying to be funny,
she had not done exactly what she had done before. For her the instruction was
specific to the moment and context.
Temple and Donna might be identified as not having high functioning autism
(HFA) but are certainly on the ASD continuum and more likely to be included
in Asperger Syndrome (AS). However, there are researches by Klin et al. (1995)
which distinguish HFA from AS in visuo-motor impairment (VMI), visuo­
spatial impairment; non-verbal concept formation; visual memory; fine motor
skills and gross motor skills. In cases where there were deficits in articulation,
verbal output, auditory perception, vocabulary and verbal memory, a diagno­
sis of ‘not Asperger Syndrome’ could be given.

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Asperger Syndrome (AS)

AS was originally thought to be high functioning autism but now the charac­
teristics are more clearly defined, there are some doubts about this. In AS there
is serious impairment in social skills, there are repetitive behaviours and rituals,
problems in fantasy and imaginative activities and play, concrete and literal
comprehension of speech and a monotonous speech pattern and motor impair­
ment; this latter is in contrast to autism, in which there is usually good coordi­
nation, even gracefulness, but severe impairment in language, perception and
social skills.
In contrast to autistic children, children with AS speak well before the age of
five years and do not remain aloof. They usually speak at the normal age but
walking may be delayed. Grammar is usually acquired but difficulties may arise
in using pronouns correctly with substitutions of second and third person pro­
nouns. For example, asked ‘Do you want an ice cream?’ they may say, ‘You want
an ice cream’ and mimic the voice in which it is said. Their discourse is lengthy
and pedantic with repetitions of words and phrases, and invented words.
Wing (1981) also found in her AS sample that there had been a lack of inter­
est and pleasure in human company in the first year of life, which should have
been there from birth, and a lack of babbling (or a limited quality in it) and a
lack of interest and attention to things going on around them. As toddlers they
did not bring toys to show people. There was a lack of gesture and smiles and
laughter and an absence of imaginative play.
As they get older they do show an interest in people and are at least average
in intelligence, with a significant number of them in the high ability range. A
few are ‘gifted’ but the risk of psychiatric illness, especially depression, appears
high. As adults they can be highly successful with important jobs, especially if
they have good self care and a placid nature (Wing 1981) but they remain
socially isolated, egocentric and idiosyncratic. They need to find work that fits
their pattern of difficulties, which means they do not have to work with others.
They cannot engage in small talk, tending to hold long monologues irrelevant
to the listener, and fail to obey the interactional rules in conversation such as
looking at the other person at the end of a statement to cue them to begin talking
and so on; sometimes they may gaze off and stare straight through the listener.
Their interests are obsessional in a limited range of topics and it is difficult to
switch them off when they get started. Their speech can sometimes sound odd
and monotonous. They fail to develop good social skills and will often request
a set of rules to follow and advice about what to say to get a date with a peer.
They appear to lack insight into their own thinking processes, they lack meta-
cognition (Wing 1981) and have great difficulty understanding the perspective
of others. In social and emotional terms they seem to remain in the egocentric
stage of early childhood and lack empathy.
Neihart (2000) identified seven characteristics that children with AS have in
common with gifted children, which makes it difficult in some cases to distin­
guish the AS. The gifted education expert may, for example, think that this is
just another eccentric little gifted individual (Gallagher and Gallagher 2001).
The characteristics in common are:

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 Children with Asperger’s Syndrome

• verbal fluency or precocity and excellent memory

• fascination with letters or numbers and enjoys rote learning
• absorbing interest in a specific topic, memorises vast quantities of informa­
tion
• annoys peers with limitless talk about the interest
• asks awkward questions and gives lengthy discourses in answers to ques­
tions
• hypersensitivity to sensory stimulation – refusal to eat this or wear that, may
scream at loud noises
• extraordinary skill in a special area and average in others – an uneven pattern.

The child with AS is differentiated from the ordinary gifted according to

Neihart by the following:

• pedantic seamless speech in which they run on, mixing fact and personal
detail
• low tolerance to change, may ignore class and school routines completely
• does not understand humour, understanding is literal
• clumsiness in 50–90 per cent
• inappropriate affect and lack of insight – may laugh at a funeral
• frequently has stereotypic behaviours and rituals.

Early identification of the ‘giftedness’ may be vocabulary based; they are

hyperlingual but comprehension shows deficits. There are no verbal quo-
tient–performance quotient discrepancies unless there are also learning disabil­
ities present (Gallagher and Gallagher 2001). In case studies they noted
extended parallel play and presence of the myth of the ‘goofy gifted’ and found
that the presence of giftedness often masked the identification of AS. They
found also that identifying the giftedness alleviated some of the depression but
it was the social issues that precipitated it. They are usually strong visual think­
ers (Attwood 1998) and think best in concrete literal pictures. Most classrooms
emphasise verbal skills and verbal learning and this can handicap the child
with AS as soon as the talk moves away from the literal to the imaginative, infe­
rential and abstract. Teachers thus need to support learning using diagrams,
visualisation, pictograms, videos, concept mapping and graphic organisers. For
these children rote learning is recommended and they can pass examinations
that require them to recall factual information and so gain places at universities.
However, rote learning is not at all recommended for ordinary gifted children!
In AS learning needs to be built in a systematic way from parts to the whole, for
they tend to overfocus on the detail. The lack of creativity and imagination
would lead us to infer that the high functioning person with AS cannot be
gifted, for Cropley (1994), in his analysis of giftedness and talent, has said that
there is no true giftedness without creativity. However, this must make us think
further, for Nadia and Temple and Donna are at least significant exceptions
either in giftedness or in ASD.
In AS extra sensitivity to sound or touch makes them over-respond or
become anxious and may even lead to panic attacks on just hearing the whistle

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

or the school bell. They may refuse to stand in line in case they are touched or
join in contact games. This can lead to confrontations with teachers who regard
it as disobedience and very quickly can escalate into a major scene. For them
sensory integration therapy is recommended consisting of massage, deep pres­
sure stimulation, hand massage and rubbing and brushing.
Some children with AS pay no regard to school routines and rules at all as
they see no relevance in them to themselves, which is particularly difficult to
cope with in a large class.
They will, as already indicated, need social skills training and Rogers (1996),
who is head of a school where many AS pupils were placed, said that he found
the most problematic aspect for the school was the lack of social skills and social
awareness. They had to develop social rules and step-by-step protocols for
them. It is at adolescence that many do become aware of their difficulties; they
may then become oversensitive to criticism and appear very vulnerable and
pathetic or very childish.
Nathanson (2001), in a study of 10 young people diagnosed with AS attend­
ing college, explained that the literal interpretation of language led to difficulty
for the student in interpreting the set tasks and difficulty for the lecturer in
appreciating the direct ‘no guile’ response of some of the students to question­
ing and evaluation of activities. Over time staff developed strategies to cope
with the comments that may be addressed very directly to the support worker
or to the tutor but the initial directness has sometimes proved hard not to take
personally. What others might just think, these individuals actually say.
To help with social skills training, Gray (1990) devised a set of social stories
and comic strip conversations. The stories are very short and give the child a
protocol of four types of sentence. These are:

• descriptive – explain where and what

• perspective – explain feelings and behaviour of others
• directive – state what the child is expected to do
• control – strategies the child can use to remember.

In using the protocol Gray advises using one directive and/or control state­
ment to every two to five descriptive/prescriptive statements. The system
works in the following way:

Sometimes my friend Toni tells me to ‘chill’. (descriptive)

This means I am getting loud and bossy. (descriptive)

Toni does not want to sit with me when I am loud and bossy. (perspective)

I will lower my voice when Toni tells me to ‘chill’. (directive)

When Toni says ‘chill’, I can imagine putting my voice on ice. (control) (p. 227)

The behaviour of children with Asperger Syndrome can be so difficult that

like Kelly they finish up excluded from school and in a unit for those with social,
emotional and behavioural disorders (Smith 2002) without their condition or
double exceptionality ever being noticed. Their behaviour can be rigid and
resistant to change, which brings the child into conflict with other children and

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 Children with Asperger’s Syndrome

school staff so that having been told to sit still and be quiet the child continues
questioning loudly or gets up and walks around, oblivious to the instruction.
Some engage in compulsive rituals such as shelf tidying or hand flapping,
others are prone to sudden aggressive outbursts, temper tantrums, hyperactiv­
ity, anxiety or phobic attacks. Medication is usually only given to alleviate the
more extreme psychiatric conditions such as phobic attacks, obsessional
thought disorder and depression. Depression, for which the drug imipramine
is given, is a high risk (Wing 1981; Attwood 2000) as they become socially iso­
lated for they are very sensitive to teasing but continually engage in precisely
the behaviours that provoke it. Ritalin is also prescribed in some cases and this
helps where there are hyperactivity symptoms.
In 1996, Barber described the case of a 15 year old pupil with AS in main­
stream school who had been accelerated in maths, physics, biology and
modern foreign languages and supported by enrichment programmes. In Year
eight he took GCSEs and obtained ‘A’ and ‘A*’ grades. With the help from a
lecturer at the local university’s Department of Education he pursued A levels
but while he enjoyed his specialised academic programme his behavioural
and social skills were of great concern. In Year nine Barber developed a special
out of school programme for him. This involved bus journeys together to the
city centre. On the first visit Barber paid the fare, took an agreed route through
the shopping centre and discussed what to do and say if anyone stopped them
and asked for directions. The next time the pupil paid the fare and ‘took’ the
tutor on the trip. On the next occasion he went alone while she followed the
bus in her car and finally he went through the whole procedure on his own.
In his evaluation he wrote, ‘This was useful as it helped me to gain indepen­
dence and I learned how to use the bus service. I would like, if it were pos­
sible, to do this again, over a longer distance’ (p. 21). As can be imagined,
parents given some support could have begun this sort of training several
years earlier.
Barber went on to develop a behaviour management programme for him to
stop him grumbling under his breath, looking as angry as he could, and scream­
ing when asked to do something he did not want to do. When asked why he
behaved in this way he said it was because of his urge to learn and because the
teachers often covered work with which he was already familiar (p. 22). The
range of future behaviours that Barber had determined to target such as shop­
ping, planning a meal and using the telephone (p. 24) illustrate the extraordi­
nary range of high abilities and deficits – deficits in areas in which pupils at a
much younger age develop competencies without specific instruction.
This structured approach is also needed in the rules of interaction in conver­
sation, such as to look at the person when they are speaking and only get ready
to speak when they signal they are coming to a close by looking away and then
looking back to you. How to ‘chat up’ a potential girlfriend was high on the
wants list of the youths in Roger’s school. They required a set of rules and ‘chat
up’ lines and sequences that they could learn and then operate on; they were
unable to ‘wing it’ or adapt the routine if it did not go to plan. Similarly, in a
shop or out on the street they could not cope with an unplanned conversational
interaction and could become highly anxious and upset.

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

A similar project is described by Teasdale (2002) in the case of Mark, which

involved taking him on a residential trip to Cambridge, where he was to apply
for a university place. Completing the application forms was particularly frus­
trating for him. He had difficulties in writing them, acquiring the stamps,
cheques, photographs, envelopes and photocopies. He had to be cajoled to
produce a final neater copy than his original. As he had never travelled on his
own before, the interview presented huge problems in getting him through a
complex train journey and into overnight accommodation. Teasdale purchased
his tickets, planned a detailed itinerary with him, drove him to the station and
persuaded his mother to let him go and to remain in touch with him by mobile
phone during the trip. Mark returned more eloquent, animated and confident
and positive about his abilities to cope. Later he will need extra support from
university tutors and the Student Welfare office to ensure he is coping with the
practicalities.

Semantic Pragmatic Disorder (SPD)

Children with SPD in common with those with AS have a language impairment
in a social setting but the motor, sensory and cognitive deficits are minor in con­
trast and also make up one of the group of specific language impairments.
Bishop (1997), in studies of Specific Language Impairment (SLI), suggested that
the incidence in the UK could be as high as seven per cent in children if it
follows the pattern in the USA. She found there are genes that put children at
risk from SLI but that environmental factors make these manifest. A phonolog­
ical short term memory test was a useful indicator in both resolved and persis­
tent cases.
According to Dehaney (2000), the characteristics of SPD are similar to those
with AS in relation to speech and comprehension, imaginative play and
behaviour and social interaction. Analysing SPD in relation to the teaching of
English and the literacy hour, she concluded that the pace of the programme
was too fast and the emphasis on oral and listening skills meant that there was
a failure to comprehend before the lesson moved on. This meant that the child
missed out on much learning. The child also cannot imagine or see things from
another’s perspective, which often even simple texts require. In the National
Literacy Strategy the assumption is that what is missed can be caught up but
this is not possible for these children for they need special learning support and
more appropriate strategies tailored to their needs in a ‘parallel class’.
Talent in SPD is seen in the non-verbal areas in visual and performance
studies but as yet there is a lack of report of their dual exceptionalities.

Summary and conclusions

The autistic spectrum disorders are a complex and developing area for educa­
tionalists in mainstream settings, although they have been known about in clin­
ical and special educational circles for many decades.

164
 Children with Asperger’s Syndrome

Three of the more common patterns: classic autism and Savants, Asperger
Syndrome and Semantic Pragmatic Disorder have been outlined. There has
been a focus on Asperger Syndrome, where a number of high achieving indi­
viduals are being discovered and their stories told. They are certainly talented
and definitely gifted in ASD terms. The question of whether they can be
regarded as gifted in general terms remains an interesting one.
The linkages and overlaps with non-verbal learning difficulties can be seen
particularly in the AS facility with verbal skills and difficulties in coordination,
but the deficits in comprehension in AS would suggest that there is deeper lan­
guage difficulty, a problem in connecting labels and reflecting on mental pro­
cesses in some way, a lack of theory of mind.
Promoting interest in the topic to this wider audience will bring some
answers and many more examples. There are many more people with ASD than
in the clinical population, who are holding down jobs or living quiet sheltered
lives. For example, Maria, who was bilingual in Portuguese and English, was
on her first solo trip abroad. She said her brother usually kept her locked in the
house. She did not stop her monologue for hours. Her initial open friendliness
deteriorated into intrusion. She needed the social skills training that schools
and learning support could provide and then would not need to be locked in
for her own protection and lack of guile. She could then have pursued her edu­
cation and taken up a job.
There is also research needed into possible links between ASD and the occa­
sional eccentric loner with obsessional interests and lack of empathy who suffers
from depression and commits gun crimes. It might be possible with earlier iden­
tification and intervention, diet and medication to prevent such tragedies.

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167
 Interventions with talented at-risk
9 populations with emotional and
behavioural difficulties
Ken W. McCluskey, Philip A. Baker, Mike
Bergsgaard, and Andrea L. A. McCluskey1

This chapter reviews several projects designed by the authors to serve at-risk
populations. In these initiatives, Creative Problem Solving – in combination
with mentoring, career awareness and other interventions – has been used suc­
cessfully to reduce the recidivism rate of native Canadian inmates (the Second
Chance programme), to reclaim talented but troubled high school dropouts
(lost prizes) and other underachieving young people and to support inner city
children and youths at risk of alienation, school failure, and gang involvement
(MARS – Mentoring At-Risk Students).

If education is always to be conceived along the same antiquated lines of a

mere transmission of knowledge, there is little to be hoped from it in the bet­
tering of man’s future. For what is the use of transmitting knowledge if the
individual’s total development lags behind? (Maria Montessori (1949), The
Absorbent Mind)

Underachievement

Underachievement is a complicated, galling phenomenon (Gallagher 1975;

McCluskey and Walker 1986; Rimm 1986; Whitmore 1980). Various researchers,
including Betts and Neihart (1988), have endeavoured to identify categories of
young people who are most likely to fall into the trap of substance abuse,
become involved in criminal activity, and/or drop out of school. Certainly,
there are many high ability young people who see the educational curriculum
as irrelevant (Baum, Renzulli and Hébert 1995): they often challenge authority,
create disturbances and refuse to conform to the system. In their view, schools
are unfeeling places with inflexible attendance and discipline policies that push
nonconformists out of the door (Radwanski 1987). Students dismissed as ne’er-
do-wells or underachievers by teachers may well develop confrontational
behaviours to live up to the negative perceptions (Mukhopadyay and Chugh
1979). It can also be difficult to meet the diverse needs of students who have dif­
ferent types of talents or ‘intelligences’ (cf. Feldhusen 1995; Gardner 1983;
Sternberg 1988) that do not fit into those typically covered by the conventional
school curriculum.

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 Talented populations with EBD

There is very little doubt that schools are losing many young people who are
capable of making it, but don’t. A report by Statistics Canada (1991) highlighted
the fact that talented students can be very much at risk – they often grow bored,
discouraged and unproductive. Indeed, more than 30 per cent of the dropouts
surveyed had averages of A or B, and only eight per cent identified academic
problems as their reason for quitting. Most indicated that ‘not belonging’ was
the major issue. The ‘tough bright’ – those who don’t fit comfortably into the
traditional education system – face a clear dearth of services (Peterson 1997).
There are even some school administrators who, intentionally or otherwise,
draw lines in the sand to force troubled and troubling students from their build­
ings (McCluskey 2000a). This action creates larger difficulties and costs for
society as a whole.

The cost of things gone wrong

‘Crime and bad lives are the measure of a State’s failure, all crime in the end is
the crime of the community’, said H. G. Wells (1905) in A Modern Utopia.
Educational underachievement carries with it an emotional cost. Since high
school dropouts generally have a tough time obtaining and holding down jobs,
quality of life is affected: many are forced to take low paying positions with
little opportunity for job satisfaction or advancement. And because unem­
ployed or under-employed people tend to be less happy than their better edu­
cated counterparts, there is considerable potential for social problems and
upheaval (Levin 1989). High unemployment has been related to decreased self-
esteem, a rise in suicide and mortality rates and increased need for psychiatric
care (Gage 1990). Many unemployed individuals are less effective decision
makers, and they tend to function well below potential (Levin 1989).
Information we examined a decade or so ago (when we were beginning to
develop many of our projects) indicated that there is an economic price, both
personal and societal, to be paid as well.
Although it may be impossible to quantify, there is also the social cost of what
might have been. ‘What is the “cost” of a symphony unwritten, a cure not dis­
covered, a breakthrough not invented? In today’s complex world, and in pre­
paring for tomorrow’s certainly more complex one, we can scarcely afford to
waste “talent capital” of any sort’ (McCluskey and Treffinger 1998: 216).
Lack of productivity may not be the half of it. Those blocked from positive
attention and legitimate paths to success are likely to turn their talents instead
toward unsavoury pursuits. Troubled youth with promising interpersonal
skills might, if things go awry, seek leadership positions in youth gangs. A
major conclusion that arose from the First World Conference on Gifted
Children in London in 1975, was that high ability individuals whose needs are
not met may well become severe social problems. Lacking direction and left to
make it on their own, some at-risk young people move in unfortunate direc­
tions.
Of course, large numbers of young offenders are caught by the law. In these
cases in Canada, it costs approximately $46,000 each year to incarcerate one

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

youth in a correctional facility (Manitoba Department of Justice 1995–96). More

than 75 per cent of incarcerated adults had had behaviour problems and were
offenders in their youth (National Crime Prevention Council 1996). Poor school
performance is the best predictor of future criminal involvement – only 12 of
540 adults sentenced to prison in Manitoba in 1995 finished high school (Carson
1996).
When considering the overall state of affairs, we’re reminded of the words of
an old commercial: ‘Pay me now, or pay me later.’ Thinking it better to prevent
than to lament, we decided long ago to attempt to make a difference by focus­
ing on the at-risk domain. The literature, and our own work in a variety of set­
tings, convinced us that there is an abundance of untapped potential out there,
and far too many young people falling through the cracks, as it were. Due to
lack of opportunity, it appears many ‘diamonds’ are destined to remain ‘in the
rough’ unless we can begin to intervene in a productive way. Creative Problem
Solving (CPS) has provided one mechanism for doing precisely that.

Planning with CPS

‘One looks back with appreciation to the brilliant teachers, but with gratitude
to those who touched our human feelings. The curriculum is so much necessary
raw material, but warmth is the vital element for the growing plant and for the
soul of the child’, as Carl Jung (1943) put it in The Gifted Child. Actually, in the
beginning, we saw Creative Problem Solving more as a planning tool to help
introduce systemic change and it served that role nicely. In a volume entitled
Lost Prizes (McCluskey, Baker et al. 1998), some of us, along with colleagues affil­
iated with a number of different programmes, offered articles that dealt with
employing CPS to help plan and develop (1) a support facility for at-risk chil­
dren and youth and (2) a summer institute for Sikh youngsters in our commu­
nity, schools from Northern Manitoba.
It is important to give some sense of the broad impact that planning with CPS
has had in our part of the world. To that end, we’ll review one of the other pro­
jects discussed in the Lost Prizes anthology in more depth.

BEST Beginnings
BEST (an acronym for Beausejour Elementary School Team) Beginnings, a pro­
gramme described in a chapter by O’Hagan, Tymko et al. (1995), was born at a
‘breakfast club’ meeting, not unlike those held by educators the world over.
Between bites of toast and sips of coffee, administrators and special educators
in Agassiz School Division in Manitoba voiced opinions (argued), churned out
ideas, and jotted down possibilities. Basically, impromptu brainstorming – con­
sidering how best to reach some hitherto unreachable children and their
parents – was underway. The players got as far as coming up with the problem
statement: ‘How might we creatively attract parents of at-risk children into the
school?’ However, seemingly overwhelming issues and challenges just kept on
surfacing, until the process became bogged down in a morass of confusion.

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 Talented populations with EBD

After a variety of training sessions at home and further afield, they revisited the
problem, suffice it to say that staff – recognising family dynamics and poverty
as major risk factors – decided to address four main areas: (1) parent–child
interactions; (2) literacy levels of parents and children; (3) development of
parental skills; and (4) parent employability.
Armed with new CPS strategies, the team went on to create a do-able project
designed to offer concrete support to at-risk children and their families. BEST
Beginnings, in its final form, featured an integrated approach (where parents
and children learned together), academic skill building for parents, and mean­
ingful short term employment for parents in the school (Tymko and O’Hagan
1993). More specifically, parents were (1) provided with academic upgrading
via computer assisted learning; (2) hired in the school to fill visible and signifi­
cant roles (for example tutoring, office duties, lunch or recess supervision,
library work, and making teaching materials); and (3) encouraged to read to
their children at home, and to spend more time with them in community res­
taurants, theatres, and recreational centres. Since one of the main goals was to
raise literacy levels and academic performance in general, parents also worked
(on prearranged learning activities) with their own children in the classroom
for several hours per day, four days per week.
The evaluative data made it clear that this CPS generated project had a tre­
mendous impact. Parents, once suspicious and fearful of school due to aver­
sive experiences in their own pasts, became comfortable in the educational
setting. Not surprisingly, their academic skills shot up, and the children, more
excited about learning once their parents had become involved, improved
their grades significantly. One finding in particular was an eye-opener: for the
vast majority of the 25 students (grades 1 through to 7) in the first phase of
the programme, there was a substantial increase in home reading time. At the
onset of BEST, parents read with their children only .36 times per week on
average; 17 months later, the mean number of weekly parent–child reading
sessions had risen to 4.12. Academic growth resulted. After a six-month
period, educators – using pre- and post-test scores from the Johns (1988) Basic
Reading Inventory – noted dramatic improvement in word knowledge for
almost all students. The same instrument also showed pronounced gains in
reading comprehension. Even after allowing for the maturational and educa­
tional growth that would have been expected with the passage of time, a
within-subject analysis of variance performed on these data yielded a signifi­
cant treatment effect (F = 49.1, df = 1, p. < .01). Incidentally, there also appeared
to be concomitant improvement in student self concept, with mean scores on
the Coopersmith (1986) Inventory rising 12.26 points during the life of the pro­
gramme. Behavioural incidents – such as outbursts, fighting, and detentions –
dropped off noticeably. Yet another spin-off was the organisation of intensive
professional development in the at-risk realm for teachers. Training for all
school staffs in CPS was part of this process, and that soon turned out to have
positive ramifications for the district as a whole. With all the successes it was
only natural that variations of the BEST Beginnings project eventually started
up in a second Manitoba district, and in schools in our neighbouring province
of Saskatchewan.

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Doing with CPS

‘You must train the children to their studies in a playful manner, and without
any air of constraint, with the further object of discerning more readily the
natural bent of their respective characters’, Plato as quoted by Socrates, The
Republic, Book 7, Section 537. About the time CPS was being used to help plan
BEST Beginnings and other projects, some members of our team were asked to
tackle an intervention programme with native Canadian inmates in our provin­
cial prison system. Given the plight of our indigenous people and the state of
our jails, that proposition was about as ‘at-risky’ as it gets. In any case, it
occurred to us that those who ‘make it’ in today’s world tend to arrive at deci­
sions by considering the social-cultural context, selecting wisely from among
possibilities, and responding in ways that meet their own needs and fit within
prevailing norms. Perhaps inmates, many of whom continually re-offend,
might not be as adept in terms of that sort of problem solving.

Second Chance

At the time when we were approached by Human Resources Development

Canada to design and deliver what became known as the Second Chance
project, it had been determined that each inmate cost Canadian taxpayers
$51,047 annually (Corrections Services 1991). The situation was exacerbated by
the fact that criminal acts tend to be repeated – a disproportionately large
number of prisoners have had previous convictions. Gendreau, Madden et al.
(1977) found that 65.6 per cent of inmates in our country re-offended, and
Canfield and Drinnan (1991) pointed out that recidivism rates are higher for
Aboriginal populations. A point of clarification here: in Canada, the term
Aboriginal is used to refer to native ‘First Nations’ people, the Inuit, or the Métis
(whose lineage is mixed – often Native and French Canadian).
Briefly, the project provided pre-release support – in the form of Creative
Problem Solving training, career awareness, and work experience – to native
Canadians incarcerated in Manitoba jails for drug offences, fraud, break and
entry, assault, physical or sexual abuse, or even murder (as a juvenile). Many had
previous convictions. The 31 inmates (27 male; 4 female) – in treatment groups of
16 and 15 – took part in an 11 week ‘life skills’ classroom component, followed by
a four week supervised job placement. One early week of the in-class segment was
devoted specifically to CPS (see Figure 9.1), and then the tools learned were inter­
woven and practised in later sessions dealing with anger management, conflict
resolution, learning styles, peer pressure, relationship building, self-fulfilling
prophecy, verbal and non-verbal communication, and career exploration (via
interest inventories, resumé writing, interview simulations, and job searches).
The approach worked relatively well, but we weren’t entirely satisfied.
Members of our first group began to assert, as others have done in later work
(Isaksen, Dorval and Treffinger 1994), that life isn’t merely a ‘marble drop’,
where problems are magically solved by applying easy-to-follow, step-by-step
formulae. Fortuitously remembering the make-up of our target population and

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 Talented populations with EBD

Image Not Available

Figure 9.1 Linear View of CPS Components and Stages (Source: Treffinger and Isaksen 1992,
p. 19)

the native emphasis on circular world views, we changed gears abruptly. Since
sharing circles and models such as the Circle of Courage (Brendtro, Brokenleg
and van Bockern 1990) seem to be preferred by our Aboriginal community, it
only made sense to shift toward the circular representation of the CPS process
shown in Figure 9.2. That simple change made a radical difference – things
hummed along nicely from that point.
As in all our CPS training programmes, we strove to help the participants in
question develop a creative climate, use their own problem-solving styles effec­
tively, learn to differentiate between creative and critical thinking, and build
personal ‘tool boxes’ of practical techniques. By training’s end, the emphasis
had moved toward dealing with relevant issues, generating workable ideas,
and taking meaningful action. The job placement portion of the project offered
all individuals a chance to practise their newfound skills in an authentic, real-
life context.
To put it succinctly, our mission was successful. After individuals in our two
Second Chance groups had ‘done their time’, completed the programme, and
been released into society, they were monitored for a year to see if they would
‘go straight’ or run afoul of the law once more. Simultaneously, members of a
matched group of native Canadian offenders – from the same home reserves as
our participants – were monitored over the same period.

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Image Not Available

Figure 9.2 Circular View of CPS Components and Stages (Source: Treffinger, Isaksen and
Dorval 2000, p. 14)

People in this control group, however, were simply warehoused through the
correctional system in the traditional manner and left to fend for themselves
upon release. The recidivism rates for the control group and the two Second
Chance groups are compared in Figure 9.3.
This schematic makes it abundantly clear that the project had a prodigious
impact. Recidivism during the follow-up year was 90.32 per cent (28 of 31) for
the unsupported control group, but only 38.71 per cent (12 of 31) for our ‘second
chancers’. While the distressingly high rate of re-offending in the non-treated
condition is an indictment of our present judicial and penal systems, the results
suggest that promising alternatives – featuring a combination of CPS, career
awareness, and work experience – are worthy of serious consideration.

Lost Prizes
Picking up on the successes and lessons learned in previous work, three
Manitoba school districts – Agassiz, Interlake, and Lord Selkirk – began the joint
Lost Prizes venture to ‘recapture’ at-risk, high ability school dropouts. Despite
their talents, these young people had been lost to the system: they had left (or
been ‘asked’ to leave) school and were basically ‘going nowhere’. At best, they
were accomplishing little; at worst, they were in serious trouble with the law.
The intent was to reconnect with these troubled youths, awaken dormant crea­
tive potential, and encourage thoughtful and productive action on their part.

174
 Talented populations with EBD

Image Not Available

Figure 9.3 Recidivism of Native Ex-Inmates in Control and Experimental Conditions

(Source: Place and McCluskey 1995, p.144)

Lost Prizes ran from September 1993 to June 1996. During that period, 88 stu­
dents participated. Each year, using Feldhusen’s (1995) Talent Identification
and Development in Education (TIDE) model, educators in the three jurisdic­
tions identified dropouts who had displayed talent in the domains shown in
Figure 9.4.
The project ran separately, for two months per year, in each of the districts.
From the outset, the majority of students let it be known that they were decid­
edly reluctant to return to their high schools – too many unpalatable things had
happened to them there. Therefore, during the month long first phase of the
programme, our facilitator – along with many invited resource people – deliv­
ered the information sessions, career exploration curriculum, and CPS training
in rented premises away from the schools. This time around, using the
approach outlined in Figure 9.5, we placed much more importance on the need
for the re-engaged young men and women to consider how to move from their
‘current reality’ to a ‘desired future state’ (Treffinger, Isaksen and Dorval 1995).
Individual Growth Plans were mapped out to help each ‘prize’ identify and
work toward goals (Feldhusen 1995). Gradually, the emphasis shifted to real-
life problems, generating more and better alternatives, and moving good ideas
into action plans. Throughout the in-class segment, there was plenty of oppor­
tunity to practise and develop the skills involved. Students completing this part
of the programme earned one high school credit.
One word of caution. With our first group, we made the mistake of pre­
paring only one Growth Plan per participant: there ended up being several

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

Image Not Available

Figure 9.4 Talent Identification and Development in Education (Source: Feldhusen 1995,
p. 14)

Image Not Available

Figure 9.5 Comparing Current Realities with Desired Futures (Source: Treffinger, Isaksen
and Dorval 1995, p. 33)

disappointed young people who did not achieve instant success on their
chosen path; in all subsequent groups we urged the ‘lost prizes’ to develop
multiple plans. Each student learned to ask: If my first plan doesn’t work, what
might I try next? And after that? Single plans usually did not do the trick, but
having two or three fall-back positions worked like a charm.

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 Talented populations with EBD

Phase two of the programme, again a one month job placement (that matched
student interests to the employment site), allowed the young people to gain
experience in the world of work. Quite clearly, they benefited from the oppor­
tunity to encounter and address some real-life problems with the help of caring
partners in the business community. Using prescribed guidelines, these work­
place hosts – along with the facilitator – monitored performance. Students
faring satisfactorily in the workplace received a second credit.
Entrepreneurs in the respective regions were eager to provide training grounds
for the refocusing youths. In truth, the business partners were not expected to
offer a traditional work placement as such, but rather to serve as ‘philanthropic
mentors’ to guide and support the students in a concrete way. Most, working
cooperatively with the school systems, bonded with, went that extra mile for, and
virtually ‘adopted’ their students. By the way, one ingredient that helped estab­
lish a firm foundation for Lost Prizes was the in-depth training put in place for
many of the business partners and educators. During this and related pro­
grammes, several of the ‘names’ in the fields of Creative Problem Solving, talent
development and mentoring (i.e. Dorval, Feldhusen, Isaksen, Noller, Renzulli,
Treffinger, and others) visited Manitoba to conduct intensive workshop sessions.
Not every one of the participants blossomed, they were, after all, chosen from
a seriously at-risk population. A total of 21 young people, uninterested or over­
whelmed by further troubles of one kind or another (for example run-ins with
the law, family break-ups, pregnancy, illness, and so on), withdrew without
completing even the first credit. And 10 others (who had earned at least one
credit) moved and were impossible to track. Nonetheless, as a result of Lost
Prizes, many formerly disenchanted, disillusioned, and disconnected dropouts
did respond by ‘getting their acts together’ in dramatic fashion (once their
talents were identified, appreciated, and nurtured). A ‘current status’ review of
successful participants – summarised in Table 9.1 – showed that 24 entered the
work force and obtained permanent, full-time employment (four of these grad­
uated, and two were self-employed), 18 returned to school and were perform­
ing solidly, nine had just graduated from high school, and six more went on to
university or community college after completing grade 12. Of the 88 at-risk
dropouts who were enrolled in Lost Prizes, then, 57 (or 64.77 per cent) ended
up returning to high school, entering post secondary programmes, or securing
employment (McCluskey, Baker et al. 1998).
Perhaps the highlight of the project occurred in November 1995, when seven
of the ‘prizes’ with very visible talents were invited to speak at the National
Association for Gifted Children (NAGC) Conference in Tampa. Imagine the
excitement of young people, most of whom had never left the province, on the
plane to Florida. Imagine the trepidation of the adult supervisors, travelling
with and responsible for several known drug users with chequered pasts.
Happily, the former problem students – determined to make the most of the
opportunity – all behaved in an exemplary manner. During the session at the
conference, each spoke briefly about troubled lives and suddenly promising
futures. The poets recited, the photographer showed slides of his work, and the
artists displayed their wares, and the band, formed just a couple of months
before the big event, belted out original and powerful songs.

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

The novice presenters took the proceedings seriously, rehearsed speeches

and songs for hours, and bonded into a tightly knit group. It was work, but
great fun as well. Five years later, the Lost Prizes travellers are all still close and
supportive of one another.

Table 9.1 Number of Lost Prizes Students in Each ‘Current Status’

Category
Current Status 1993–94 1994–95 1995–96

Employed full-time 13 5 6
Returned to and performing 5 7 6
well in high school
Just graduated from high school 5 2 2
Graduated and attending college 4 1 1
or university
Withdrew 10 3 8
Unknown 4 5 1
Total 41 23 24

After the NAGC session, members of the audience began offering rather
exorbitant amounts (in US dollars – gold to Canadians) for Ryan’s sketches and
paintings. Swamped by positive attention, compliments, and hard cash, Ryan
– in the midst of signing copies of the newly released Lost Prizes book (which
featured his cover art) – exclaimed excitedly: ‘This is a bigger high than drugs.’
That sentiment really sums up the programme.

MARS – Mentoring At-Risk Students

The question which concerned us was, ‘How might we have a more enduring
impact?’ We’ve learned through experience that some elements of our pro­
grammes are ‘musts’, pure and simple. CPS training, for one, is an obvious
‘keeper’. A project called Prism taught us that mentoring too has some exciting
possibilities for reclaiming at-risk populations. However, feeling that we had
fallen somewhat into the mentoring-without-thinking trap in that endeavour,
we decided to backtrack and define terms and goals more carefully. The term
mentoring is bandied about indiscriminately in the media and in the profes­
sional literature, to the point where many well-intentioned initiatives become
loose, unfocused, and less effective than first envisioned. There is need for clar­
ification (Treffinger 2000).
Torrance (1984: 2) has suggested that ‘A mentor is a creatively productive
person who teaches, counsels, and inspires a student with similar interests. The
relationship is characterised by mutual caring, depth, and response.’ This
refreshing definition has many interesting components: it emphasises the rela­
tionship, the high expectations of the commitment, and the two-way nature of
the connection. Our view that a mentor ought to become a ‘talent spotter’ fits
nicely into this conceptualisation (McCluskey and Treffinger 1998). Daloz
(1986) stated that a mentor should be a guide, rather than a tour director, who

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 Talented populations with EBD

offers support through advocacy, listening, sharing, establishing structure,

emphasising strengths, and making the experience positive. Kierkegaard,
without using the term, captured the essence of the mentoring experience by
observing that life is lived forward, but understood backward, and Grey Owl
summed it up well when he noted that, ‘A mentor is a person whose hindsight
can become your foresight.’ Like so many other terms, the word ‘mentoring’
has come down to us from ancient Greek literature (Nash and Treffinger 1993;
Noller and Frey 1994). It originated in Homer’s epic poem The Odyssey, wherein
Odysseus (Ulysses) – setting off for the Trojan wars – left his son Telemachus in
the care of his trusted friend Mentor. To complicate matters in true Homerian
style, Mentor eventually turned out to be the goddess Athena in disguise.
Boston (1976), linking his argument to mythology, proposed that ideal mentor­
ing should involve three crucial elements: (1) servicing other roles while enter­
ing into the relationship (Mentor did not allow himself to be simply a full-time
babysitter); (2) becoming a conduit for the wisdom of others (Mentor, as the pro­
verbial ‘guide on the side’, provided direction for Telemachus by channelling
information to him from many other sources); and (3) building a long-term con­
nection (Mentor continued to provide support as the boy grew to adulthood).
It is worthwhile keeping these components in mind when developing a men­
toring programme.
There are other lessons to be learned from the foregoing attempts at defini­
tion: emphasise the quality of the relationship, expect creative productivity, and
match mentors and mentees extremely carefully. Of course, informal, ‘sponta­
neous’ mentoring often happens naturally (Noller and Frey 1994) – unplanned
connections can uncover and nurture talent in troubled individuals (cf. Brown
1983; Seita, Mitchell et al. 1996). In other situations, relationships are definitely
planned and systematic.
At California State University, Fresno, a large-scale initiative has been devel­
oped to support young, high risk students (Meyer 1997). In that programme,
pre-service teachers mentor needy elementary school children from local com­
munities. In other words, mentoring is being used to help address issues of cul­
tural diversity, parental neglect, poverty, transient lifestyles and low academic
achievement. What better training for pre-service teachers than to establish real
relationships with at-risk children? And what a potentially important support
for youngsters in desperate need of attention, understanding, and direction.
Through this ongoing project, collegians work with the children in the schools
– typically twice a week at day’s end. The amount of person power involved is
considerable: by late 1997, there were 180 pre-service teachers in the pro­
gramme. Undoubtedly, several lives have been touched through this work.
Following this lead, and responding to the University of Winnipeg’s mandate
to address urban, inner city, and Aboriginal issues, we in the B.Ed. Programme
have recently introduced several mentoring projects of our own. We believe
that, for a number of reasons, the University of Winnipeg’s mentoring efforts
move far beyond those offered by most other agencies and academic institu­
tions. For one thing, there are several committed faculty and staff – including
Mentoring Project Coordinator – who devote considerable time to the pro­
grammes. As well, although mentors opt in altruistically (i.e., we select only

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

from among those who express an interest), there are course requirements that
remove some of the uncertainties that plague many volunteer operations. Most
importantly, we have the advantage of drawing mentors from a population of
pre-service teachers who have received considerable preparation for the task at
hand. Since careful screening took place prior to their acceptance into the B.Ed.
Programme, the majority of these educators to be have solid academic ability
to go along with their passionate desire to work with young people. Far from
being neophytes in the university setting, our mentors – with several years of
post-secondary training under their belts – already possess a broad repertoire
of developing skills.
We’ve also upped the ante considerably by developing a third year course,
Issues with At-Risk Children and Youth, to introduce our education students to
topics such as resilience, gangs and gang prevention, bullying, diversity, and
the ‘Circle of Courage’ (Brendtro, Brokenleg and van Bockern 1990). In the
course, which now runs three times a year, the pre-service teachers also have an
opportunity to learn about Life Space Crisis Intervention (LSCI) (Wood and
Long 1991), a strength-based technique that helps caregivers: (1) reframe prob­
lems as learning opportunities (i.e., shift from ‘crisis management’ to ‘crisis
teaching’); (2) redefine the conflict cycle (i.e., understand the triggers, recon­
sider the phases, and explore strategies for de-escalating aggression and
counter aggression); (3) decode the meaning of behaviour; and (4) recover after
a crisis.
It goes without saying that Creative Problem Solving figures in the mix as
well. All students in the At-Risk course are given basic information about CPS,
some of its tools, and its potential role in talent development (including the use
of the current realities/desired futures approach outlined in Figure 9.5. Our
university now offers, on a fairly regular basis, three-credit-hour courses
devoted entirely to inner city issues, LSCI, and CPS. In our CPS Summer
Institutes, students – including many of our mentors – are exposed to the
newest, user-friendly models and terminology, and to other recent theoretical
and practical developments in the field (Isaksen 2000; Isaksen, Dorval and
Treffinger 1998, 2000; McCluskey 2000b; Noller 1997; Treffinger, Isaksen and
Dorval 2000; Treffinger and McCluskey 1998). The point is, of course, that our
pre-service teachers are not just thrown willy-nilly into the breach: they bring
relevant knowledge and talent to their mentoring relationships. Chosen from
among the ranks of interested students who have completed the At-Risk
course, these mentors take part in what is essentially a practicum providing the
experiential link between theory and the real world. To sum up briefly, the pre-
service teachers mentor for four hours or so per week for one university term.
Very frequently, though, the experience gets extended: many mentors warm to
their mentees, put in far more time each week than expected, and continue their
involvement long after the practicum officially comes to an end. While the At-
Risk course is run in fairly traditional fashion – with tests, term papers, and
letter grades – the mentoring practicum itself is much more flexible.
Mentors are connected with mentees on an INSED basis, and meetings take
place whenever it is most convenient for the individuals involved (including
evenings and weekends). Since we didn’t want to take away from the focus on

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the relationship, Pass/Fail grades are assigned based upon ‘following through’
and recording experiences in personal reaction logs. In their logs, mentors note
down their objectives, action plans, strengths and needs of the mentee, sup­
ports and resources provided, successes, concerns and possible follow-up
issues. Contact hours, meeting times and other observations are included as
well. MARS was our first initiative. Our partner in this venture is Winnipeg
Native Alliance (WNA), an agency dedicated to reclaiming Aboriginal young
people who have joined youth gangs or who are at risk for gang involvement.
Its founder, Troy Rupert, is a study in resilience: he has come full circle, from
life in native gangs, multiple stints in the youth centre, and ‘hard time’ in a
federal penitentiary, to tireless community worker and director of a respected
social agency. WNA maintains core programmes in school outreach (geared to
keeping high risk youth in the educational system), urban sports camps (to
facilitate access to recreational and spiritual activities), and institutional
support (to provide help, guidance, and direction to youth while in custody and
upon release). As an inner city agency facing formidable challenges, WNA is
always on the lookout for more human and material resources. Our mentors,
matched with needy mentees by the agency personnel, have been a tremendous
help in reaching at-risk children and youths who otherwise might have been
lost.
With respect to data collection, it is not difficult to gather information con­
cerning behavioural incidents, drop-out rates, and school achievement of
mentees. However, although our original intent was also to obtain precise pre-
and post-test measures of self-concept, creativity, and the like, in the face of
feedback from mentors – who insisted that any kind of formal testing of the
mentees interfered with rapport building – we abandoned the more grandiose
plans in favour of relying primarily on the reaction logs, growth plans and life
accomplishments. Early indications (from our Mentoring Project Coordinator,
who is beginning to pull everything together for analysis) are that this type of
information will end up being very rich indeed. Other ‘Planet’ mentoring pro­
jects followed from MARS.

Summary and conclusions

In closing, mentoring through the University of Winnipeg provides tangible,

meaningful support to large numbers of at-risk children and youths. It is diffi­
cult to imagine a youngster who would not benefit from a relationship with an
empathic mentor and, at present, we send out 70–80 pre-service teachers per
annum. Since most of our current projects are sustainable, the waves of mentors
will be available year after year. Although the emphasis is naturally upon the
mentees, MARS and the other planet projects open up wonderful, authentic
opportunities for pre-service teachers to experience the at-risk situation first­
hand by getting into the real world trenches. As such, everyone benefits from
the approach (likened, by some colleagues, to a TELESCOPE – Teaching
Effective Lessons to Every Student with Capabilities Overlooked by Popular
Education).

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Social, emotional and behavioural disabilities

We have welcomed this opportunity to share some of our projects of the past
decade. Because they all were designed primarily as educational support pro­
grammes, the main focus has always been on the goal of making a difference,
rather than on experimental rigour. Still, although it was never our intent to
attempt to quantify so many uncontrolled and overlapping treatment variables,
some interesting data has emerged. Surely, it is clear that the total package
approach has generally had a positive impact, and that Creative Problem
Solving has been an integral part of the process.
Indeed, the CPS piece of the puzzle has become the cornerstone of much of
what we do. When all is said and done, however, what really matters is that –
as a result of programmes featuring a combination of interventions – many for­
merly at-risk individuals have succeeded in turning their lives around. ‘It is the
supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge’
(Albert Einstein, Motto for the Astronomy Building of Junior College,
Pasadena, California).

Note

1
This chapter is based upon a selection of original researches by the authors ini­
tially published as Monograph 308, February 2001 by the Creativity Research
Unit, The Creative Problem Solving Group, Buffalo. The Creativity Research
Unit draws upon an internationally renowned network of creativity research­
ers with expertise in topics such as the climate for creativity, organisational
leadership, change and idea management, cognition, problem solving, person­
ality and creativity development.

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 PART FOUR:

COGNITIVE DISABILITIES

It may seem surprising that in a book on the gifted and talented a chapter on
Down’s syndrome, or Down syndrome as now used in international literature,
should appear. It is possible to consider the large number of Down’s children
as a separate group in the population whose abilities are on a normal distribu­
tion for their cohort, with their own high fliers and, at the other end of the dis­
tribution, some severely disabled learners.
However, it is only relatively recently that inclusion in mainstream schools has
applied to these children, and parents have fought hard – with the support of the
UK Down’s Syndrome Association – to enable their children to take up places in
nursery schools and then in ordinary or regular classrooms. Because we are
beginning to understand these children’s learning needs better, through authors
such as Sandy Alton, we are beginning to see how much more they can achieve.
I was brought up next door to Tricia, a much-loved girl with Down’s syn­
drome. She was a little younger than me but in those days there was no oppor­
tunity for her to go to school, although she wanted to. She always seemed to be
much more aware and acute than her speech and motor difficulties implied.
The opening later of an Adult Training Centre was a great boon for her and she
developed in skills and sophistication very rapidly, but she should have been
permitted to go to school.
I became even more convinced of this and interested in the subject after
reading of the story of Abigail in ‘Abigail defies the odds’ (1990, Times
Educational Supplement, 18.5.90, p. A5).
Abigail was a pupil in Oxfordshire, due to take GCSEs in Rural Science and
Childcare along with the rest of the pupils in her year. She was the first child
with Down’s to achieve this it was thought. Others had taken GCSEs but were
older than 16-year-old Abigail. Her parents had struggled to keep her in the
mainstream, even moving house to Oxfordshire where there were units for chil­
dren with special needs attached to mainstream schools. Abigail could read
when she was five, helped by her mother who was a teacher. She coped in a
primary school class of 30, with no special support at first. At 11 she transferred
to a comprehensive school and spent 60 per cent of her time in the unit and the
rest with her tutor group. As well as taking her GCSEs, she also followed GCSE
courses in drama and keyboarding. She was then due to go to FE college to do
an agricultural course and she hoped to work with animals.

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Cognitive disabilities

News such as this was quickly followed by the ground-breaking research of

Sue Buckley, who described the success of Down syndrome children in learn­
ing to read through using her visual training methods. This was later followed
by Wishart’s studies on the attitude to success and failure, and on the different
learning needs of Down’s children because of their ‘avoidant’ learning styles.
These studies all offered fascinating insights.
Even so, I think we are only at the beginning of understanding how much
these children can be enabled to achieve, as Alton’s chapter shows.
In this chapter, Sandy Alton prefers to use the Down’s Society convention
‘Down’s syndrome’, but the references reflect the other authors’ choices.

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 Gifted children with Down’s
10 Syndrome: a contradiction in
terms?
Sandy Alton

It is easy to be misled by the concept of giftedness. In particular, wherever

another label is available, it is important to look both within and beyond that
label to ensure that all children are enabled to fulfil their potential. This has
especial implications where the education of children with Down’s syndrome
is concerned.
Many more children with Down’s syndrome are now entering mainstream
schools in the UK and many other countries. This is the result of several factors.
There has been a general push to include pupils with special needs in main­
stream schools if the parents so wish. In addition, increasing amounts of
research have been published enhancing knowledge about the capabilities and
potential of children with Down’s syndrome, opening new opportunities for
learning. Parental awareness of the value and the benefits of inclusion has
grown and more parents now wish their child to attend their local mainstream
school with their siblings and friends.
This change has implications for schools in understanding the learning
profile typical to children with Down’s syndrome, both in terms of paving the
way to successful inclusion and in recognising the potential of this new cohort
of children whose range of ability varies enormously. When dealing with any
pupils with complex special needs, the approach to differentiation must be
child-centred, taking into account the particular nature of those needs. In this
context, looking at how content is delivered is as important as the content itself.
For pupils with Down’s syndrome, therefore, it is essential to have a knowledge
of the syndrome and any characteristic attributes and disabilities that are likely
to impact upon learning.

Characteristics

Pupils with Down’s syndrome develop more slowly than their peers, arriving
at each stage of development at a later age and staying there for longer. The gap
between pupils with Down’s syndrome and their peers thus widens with age.
Moreover, research has shown that many children with Down’s syndrome have

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Cognitive disabilities

a particularly inefficient learning style, which can inhibit their learning and
delay the acquisition and consolidation of new skills (Wishart 1993). However,
it is not just a matter of general delay in development, resulting in the need for
a diluted curriculum. These children have a specific learning profile with char­
acteristic strengths and weaknesses, which can inhibit – or aid – their ability to
learn new skills, information and knowledge. This learning profile is then the
key to the ability to learn and acquire new skills: it is particularly important that
the teaching of children with Down’s syndrome is designed both to develop
their learning experiences most effectively and to increase their motivation and
self esteem. This learning profile, and the approaches to teaching and learning
that address it, form the main body of this chapter. However, two relatively
recent major developments in the approach to the education of children with
Down’s syndrome neatly illustrate the issues that arise when the needs of
special learners are not recognised.
First, infants with Down’s syndrome often have delayed speech and lan­
guage and poor hearing. They are, moreover, better visual learners than audi­
tory ones. As a result, the natural interplay between mother and baby is not
sufficient to meet the needs of the child in terms of the development of speech
and language skills. This can lead to a spiral of poor learning and performance,
which in turn can lead to lowered motivation, poor attitude and opting out.
However, an early intervention programme pioneered in Oxfordshire, which
made consistent use of signing (Makaton) along with the spoken word, built on
the children’s strong visual skills and encouraged communication during that
crucial early phase. As the child became better able to communicate through the
spoken word, the signs were naturally dropped.
Similarly, an understandable assumption about children with significant lan­
guage delay is that the focus must be on the oral/aural: there is no point in con­
sidering the written word. For a child with Down’s syndrome, this assumption
would be very wide of the mark, as a programme teaching children to read run
by DownsEd in Portsmouth showed. The programme achieved considerable
success, with reading ages well ahead of those implied by the children’s speech.
Once again, progress resulted from a recognition that, for children with this
learning profile, the visual patterns of the printed word might be easier to rec­
ognise than the aural ones of speech.

Educational provision

Effective teaching and learning, then, must use the pupils’ strengths and learn­
ing styles, while taking into account their areas of weakness and developmen­
tal stage. Pupils with learning difficulties are often the ones who are the most
vulnerable to ill-chosen learning, making them more susceptible to avoidance
behaviours and failure. This is particularly the case for pupils with Down’s syn­
drome, who often do not cope well with many common classroom practices –
whole class teaching, learning through listening, and follow up work based on
the completion of text activities or worksheets.

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 Gifted children with Down’s Syndrome

Teachers will therefore need to review schemes of work to identify learning

objectives within the subject or topic that the pupil can access and achieve with
success. This may require a wide range of material. In some cases, moreover,
pupils’ levels of understanding and attainment may mean that programmes of
study – and performance descriptions – from earlier key stages should be used.
This calls for creative thinking, imagination, common sense, flexibility and
additional resources. It may involve tasks being reinterpreted to enable the
pupil to demonstrate achievement in age appropriate contexts.
This all requires good planning and liaison between staff to help prepare dif­
ferentiated materials. With such planning and liaison, this breadth of differen­
tiation can normally be achieved successfully and children with Down’s
syndrome can make effective use of their talents.
The key to effective differentiation for pupils with Down’s syndrome is to think
VISUAL, think BASIC, think REINFORCE. It also requires consideration of the
content, the approach and context, presentation and the assessment of the response.

Content
• Decide upon the main focus you wish the pupil to learn i.e. appropriate
learning objectives.
• Look at level descriptors below the standard key stage and at programmes
of study from earlier key stages for guidance and ideas.
• Check content relates to previously acquired knowledge and skills.
• Try to reflect points from the pupil’s IEP.
• Ensure pupils’ personal skills such as independence and cooperation with
peers can be developed.

Approach and context

• Ensure learning objectives are broken down into small steps.
• Ensure they are clearly focused and short.
• Use familiar and meaningful material.
• Build in additional repetition and reinforcement.
• Choose appropriate context – whole class, small group, partner, one to
one.
• Choose appropriate level of support – LSA, peer support, class teacher.
• Consider learning outcomes at the same time as planning activities and tasks.

Presentation
• Remember: pupils learn best through a multisensory approach – seeing,
copying, doing, feeling.
• Remember: many pupils benefit from more repetition and a wider range of
explanation within a variety of contexts than their typically developing
peers.
• Present all work visually – print, adapted worksheets, flash cards, sen-
tence/sequencing cards, diagrams, pictures, icons, symbols.

191
Cognitive disabilities

• Ensure oral instructions are reinforced visually to serve as a reminder to stay

on task.
• Use concrete and practical materials whenever possible.
• Demonstrate activities wherever possible.
• Use simple and familiar language.
• Keep instructions short and concise.
• Reinforce instructions with diagrams/signs.
• Focus on Key words – teach them carefully and ensure meanings are under­
stood.
• Reinforce key words and subject specific vocabulary, visually with symbol,
icon, and diagram.
• Be prepared to use specific/additional resources.
• Decide who will find and prepare additional resources.

Assessment of the response

• Ensure that pupils’ methods of response are realistic and appropriate.
• Provide alternative means of recording – pictures, symbols, flash cards, etc.
• Look at level descriptors below the standard range for the key stage.
• To enable writing, provide the words within pupils’ sight vocabulary, includ­
ing key words (see section on Writing).
• Decide how progress will be monitored and recorded so that small advances
are not missed.
• Review, evaluate, and amend.

When differentiating to meet the needs of pupils with Down’s syndrome, one
must begin with the syndrome and its characteristic learning profile. The fol­
lowing factors are typical of many children with Down’s syndrome. Each has
implications for their education. Of course, not all children will have all these
characteristics and it is important to consider each individual child when devel­
oping a teaching programme.

Learning needs

Factors that facilitate learning

• Strong visual awareness and visual processing skills.
• Ability to learn and use sign, gesture and visual support.
• Ability to learn and use the written word.
• Ability and desire to learn from their peers, to imitate and take their cue from
them.

Factors that inhibit learning

• Delayed motor skills, fine and gross.
• Auditory and visual impairment.

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 Gifted children with Down’s Syndrome

• Speech and language delay.

• Poor short-term auditory memory.
• Poor auditory processing ability.
• Shorter concentration span.
• Difficulties with consolidation and retention.
• Difficulties with generalisation, thinking and reasoning.
• Sequencing difficulties.

Some of these factors have physical implications whilst others have cognitive
ones. Many will overlap and have a mixture of both. The next section attempts
to deal with each factor individually, identifying its implications in the class­
room, and then suggesting a range of differentiation strategies. However, many
of the factors mentioned can also be found in other pupils with learning diffi­
culties. The differentiation strategies suggested should be equally useful for all.
In addition, some strategies often appear at several points because they will
help to remedy several different factors.

Hearing impairment
Many children with Down’s syndrome experience some hearing loss, espe­
cially in the early years. Some will have a permanent loss; others a fluctuat­
ing one. Up to 20 per cent may have a sensorineural loss, caused by
developmental defects in the ear and auditory nerves. Over 70 per cent are
likely to suffer from a conductive hearing loss due to glue ear and frequent
upper respiratory tract infections. (These often occur as a result of small
sinuses and ear canals.) Hearing levels can also fluctuate daily and it is impor­
tant to ascertain whether inconsistencies in response are due to hearing loss
rather than lack of understanding or poor attitude. In addition, many children
have more difficulty listening in situations where there is constant back­
ground noise – for example busy classrooms – or amplification, such as school
halls. Any problem with hearing will, of course, also affect a child’s speech
and language development.
Differentiation strategies:

• Place pupil near front of class.

• Speak clearly and directly to the pupil.
• Reinforce speech with facial expression, sign or gesture.
• Reinforce speech with visual backup – print, pictures, concrete materials.
• Write new vocabulary on the board.
• When other pupils answer, repeat these answers aloud.
• Rephrase or repeat words and phrases that may have been misheard.

Motor skills
Generally speaking, development of motor skills in many children with
Down’s syndrome is slower, lagging behind that of their typically developing
peers. This is especially noticeable in the early years and primary age range

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Cognitive disabilities

although, given additional and appropriate practice and encouragement, many

children can make good progress. The main reason for the slower development
is poor muscle tone (Hypotonia) and loose joints. Both gross and fine motor
skills can be affected.

Gross motor skills

Problems with gross motor skills in children with Down’s syndrome often
improve by the time the child has reached some ten years of age. However,
many may continue to find it difficult to keep pace with peers during PE, games
and sports activities and some children dislike participating in large team
games, often finding them confusing and overwhelming. In many cases, this
may be due to the fact that the child cannot keep up with the pace of the game,
tires more quickly, is overly sensitive to the noise level, but also may not under­
stand the rules and strategies.
Differentiation strategies:

• Provide additional visual cues – gesture, markings on hands, feet, floor to

indicate correct positions etc.
• Ensure pupil understands the rules of games and activities.
• Offer pupil short breaks.
• Pair up to ‘shadow’ a suitable partner.
• Offer lots of encouragement and praise.
• Offer alternative opportunity to participate in small group or partner activ­
ity with set objectives if pupil is very wary of joining in large team games.

Fine motor skills

Many children have particular difficulties with their fine motor skills. In addi­
tion to Hypotonia, the fingers are often short and the thumb set lower down.
This inevitably affects a pupil’s level of dexterity, manipulation and hand–eye
coordination skills. It is important therefore to provide a range of activities that
aim to increase general dexterity and coordination, strengthen wrists and
fingers and practise pincer grasp and thumb control. Children will acquire these
skills better if they are learnt through meaningful and interesting activities and
are fun and varied rather than learnt solely through rote learning and repetition.
In addition, to achieve good fine motor control, it is important to be seated in a
stable and upright position with both fleet flat on the floor and forearm comfort­
ably on the desktop. Finally, all motor skills improve with practice!

Differentiation strategies

• Use a wide range of multisensory activities and materials – spring-loaded

scissors for cutting skills, sand, finger paint, play dough, chalk, magna-
doodle etc. – sensory awareness plays an important part in developing fine
motor skills.

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• Encourage independence in self-help skills e.g. using buttons, changing for

PE etc. Give plenty of regular but short practice sessions. (See also section on
Writing.)

CASE HISTORY 1
George was an able little boy who had just started in Reception. He had a sight
vocabulary of over 150 words and was speaking in short phrases but he had par­
ticular difficulties with his fine motor skills. His hand–eye coordination and pencil
control were very poor and he tired very quickly when practising writing or other
fine motor skills. His Teaching Assistant put together an attractive box of colourful
and interesting materials and activities that would develop the muscles in his wrists
and fingers and practise general hand–eye coordination. Items included colourful
and tactile stress balls, pop together toys, fishing games, pegs games, colourful
bulldog clips in a range of sizes, mazes, and dot-to-dot activities. When George
finished a class activity earlier than his peers he would choose some of the activ­
ities from his ‘Hands Box’. This enabled him to strengthen his muscles and gave
him added practice in coordination skills in an enjoyable but effective way.

Speech and language in the classroom

Children with Down’s syndrome typically have some level of speech and lan­
guage impairment, although this varies greatly. It is caused by a combination
of factors, some of which are physical and some due more to perceptual and
cognitive problems. First impressions of a child with Down’s syndrome are
often wrong as assessment is mistakenly based upon their level of speech.
However, receptive skills are greater than expressive skills and so children with
Down’s syndrome understand language better than they are able to speak it. It
is important, therefore, to be aware that this mis-match can mask other abilities.
Any delay in learning to understand and use language is likely to impact upon
a child’s level of knowledge and understanding and thus ability to access the
curriculum. It is important therefore that particular attention is given to the
type of language and vocabulary used and to developing appropriate differen­
tiation strategies when teaching pupils with Down’s syndrome.
Common features of delay in language acquisition:

• Slower language development.

• Smaller vocabulary leading to less general knowledge.
• Difficulty learning the rules of grammar, leaving out connecting words, prep­
ositions etc. This results in a telegraphic style of speech.
• Ability to learn new vocabulary more easily than grammar.
• Greater problems in understanding abstract words and curriculum specific
language.
• Greater difficulty in understanding complex sentences, text and instructions.
• More difficulty articulating words due to the combination of having a
smaller mouth cavity and weaker mouth and tongue muscles.
• More difficulty producing longer sentences.

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Differentiation strategies:

• Give time to process language and respond.

• Listen carefully – your ear will adjust.
• Ensure face-to-face and direct eye contact.
• Use simple and familiar language and short concise sentences.
• Ensure texts are written as far as possible in familiar language containing
new vocabulary only where it is essential.
• Check understanding – ask pupil to repeat back instructions.
• Reinforce speech with facial expression, gesture and sign.
• Reinforce spoken instructions with print, pictures, diagrams and symbols.
• Emphasise key words, reinforcing visually.
• Teach meanings of new vocabulary explicitly and reinforce visually – dia­
grams, symbol and print.
• Avoid closed questions and encourage pupil to speak in more than one word
utterances.
• Encourage pupil to speak aloud in class by providing visual prompts.
Reading information may be easier than speaking spontaneously.
• The use of a Home–School Diary can help pupils in telling their ‘news’ as
well as form a basis to develop writing and language skills further.

CASE HISTORY 2
Holly attended her local mainstream secondary school and was in Year 7. In
Science, the pupils were asked to conduct an experiment to find out if a cup of
hot water with a lid retained heat better than one without a lid. Pupils had to
record the temperature of the water in the two cups every three minutes over a
15-minute period. Although a good reader, much of the wording and vocabulary
on the investigation report sheet was too complex, scientific and unfamiliar to
Holly. She was therefore provided with a differentiated report sheet, which used
simpler language and asked fewer questions. Holly was able to read and under­
stand this report sheet independently but as she worked and wrote at a slower
pace than her peers, she was asked to test the water every five minutes rather
than three. Holly participated well in the lesson with some adult support and
finished at the same time as her peers. On questioning, Holly understood the aim
and conclusions of the experiment well.

CASE HISTORY 3
Joe was in a Year 7 class at his local mainstream secondary school. In English,
the class were reading The Hobbit. This is quite a complicated text for many Year
7 pupils let alone a child with speech and language impairment. Although Joe
was a good reader, both the level of the vocabulary and the pace at which the
text was read aloud were too high and he had great difficulties in understanding
and following the story. Joe was given an illustrated cartoon based version of The
Hobbit, which he read alongside the class text. As a strong visual learner, Joe
was thus enabled to understand the more unfamiliar vocabulary, which was being

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continually reinforced visually. His support assistant would provide further rein­
forcement and consolidation for the section he had read at other stages during
the lesson, much of which involved testing his understanding of the text through
cloze procedure. Joe was quite happy to be given a differentiated text and devel­
oped a basic understanding of the key characters and story.

Writing skills
Producing any form of written work is a highly complex task. Difficulties in short-
term auditory memory, speech and language, fine motor skills and the organis­
ing and sequencing of information make a considerable impact on the acquisition
and development of writing skills for many pupils with Down’s syndrome.
Particular areas of difficulty:

• Sequencing words into grammatically correct sentences.

• Sequencing events/information into the correct order.
• Taking notes and dictation.
• Organising thoughts and relevant information on to paper.
• Lengthy written tasks.
• Copying text from blackboard.
• Creative writing.

Differentiation strategies:

• Allow pupils in first stages of emergent writing to trace over words and then
copy underneath until ready to form letters independently.
• Provide additional resources to aid writing as a physical process: chunky
pens and pencils, slanted writing board, pencil grips.
• Provide squared paper to encourage consistency in size of letters: reduce the
size of the squares over time.
• Some pupils may need to write on lined paper for longer than their peers
and/or will need lines spaced further apart.
• To encourage more independence in early stages of emergent writing,
provide child with an emergent writing folder.
• Provide additional visual cues and support to lessen cognitive demands on
pupil: e.g. flash cards, key words, picture cues and sequences, sentence cues.
• To increase learning experiences and keep pupil motivated, use a wide range
of multisensory activities and materials as alternatives to paper and pencil
when practising letter formation and print: sand, finger paint, play dough,
chalk.
• Ensure that pupils are only asked to write about topics that build upon their
experience and understanding.
• If copying from board, select and highlight a shorter version for the pupil to
copy, focusing on what is essential for that pupil, or use cloze method on pre­
viously made worksheet.
• Pace any dictation appropriately, include repetition and ensure vocabulary
is chosen to suit the ability of the pupil.

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Cognitive disabilities

• Encourage the use of cursive script to aid fluency.

• Teach upper and lower case letters simultaneously to help with generalisa­
tion.
• Use conversation diary to reinforce link between reading and writing.
• Enable pupils who have difficulties in copying from the board to copy from
text placed next to them instead.
• Provide alternative methods of recording: e.g.: scribe;
worksheets where pupil underlines or rings correct answer;
worksheets using cloze procedure;
pupil sequences sentence cards or picture cards;
pupil pastes pictures, symbols or flashcards onto page;
provide lists of key words, word banks or flashcards, word and picture dic­
tionaries;
use of computer with specialist software, e.g. whole word computer pro­
grammes, such as Clicker;
writing frames, which provide a supported and structured framework.

CASE HISTORY 4
Sally attended her local mainstream primary school in a Year 3 class. The class
had been concentrating on fairy stories during the National Literacy Hour and
had been asked to write their own. Sally had been making good progress with
her speech and language and was beginning to speak in sentences. However,
much of her speech was limited at this time to vocabulary which was thoroughly
familiar to her and she therefore had more difficulties in writing from imagination
rather than from familiar experiences. At the time, Sally was a keen fan of the
Spice Girls and loved nothing more than to talk about them and their likes, dis­
likes and lives. It was therefore suggested that Sally would write about the Spice
Girls. She brought in from home her magazines and pictures of the group and
using these as visual aids and prompts and with key words supplied by her
assistant, Sally wrote about them for the week, producing her own personal
Spice Girls booklet.

Spelling
Spelling is a particular issue that may need to be addressed. The use of phonics
as an aid to developing reading and spelling can be problematic, as it requires
problem-solving skills, accurate hearing and discrimination of sounds, which
are all areas of difficulty for many pupils with Down’s syndrome. Many such
pupils learn to spell words purely from relying upon their visual memory,
though some do acquire a basic knowledge of phonics and are able to apply the
rules they have learnt. However, development may be slower than that of their
peers, and a variety of techniques to aid spelling should be used.
Differentiation strategies:

• Teach words that are within their understanding.

• Teach words aimed to promote their speech and language development.

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 Gifted children with Down’s Syndrome

• Teach words required for specific subjects within the context of those sub­
jects.
• Provide small quantities of spellings to learn at one time.
• Teach simple word families.
• Teach letter sounds early on, graduating to CVC words and simple blends.
• Teach spellings as visually as possible, e.g. look-say-cover-write-check, flash
cards.
• Colour code similar letter groups/patterns within words.
• In addition to visual reinforcement, use multisensory methods, e.g. finger
tracing.

The above make use of the strong visual skills rather than the weaker audi­
tory skills required in phonic methods.

CASE HISTORY 5
Georgia was a Year 9 pupil at her local secondary school. She had quite severe
fine motor difficulties causing her writing to be slow and arduous and had partic­
ular problems with spellings. She therefore found it very difficult to record her
work appropriately and often asked her teaching assistant to scribe for her.
However, as with many pupils with Down’s syndrome, Georgia was a fairly com­
petent reader and so giving her access to a laptop computer with Clicker enabled
her to record her work far more quickly, accurately and easily. This involved her
assistant having to make grids for particular subjects, with spellings of key words
in the grids. As a result, Georgia was able to type in connecting words indepen­
dently and created far more work than if she had had to write her work out man­
ually. In addition, she took pride in the presentation of her work; something she
had not been able to do beforehand.

Reading
Children with Down’s syndrome are strong visual learners and many learn to
read though a whole word approach at an early age and develop their reading
skills to a useful and practical level. The written word, which makes language
visual, overcomes the difficulties that many children with Down’s syndrome
have with learning through listening and there are strong links between learn­
ing to read, improving working memory, and developing speech and language
skills in children with Down’s syndrome.
Reading also improves articulation by providing more language practice,
while seeing sentences in print helps the children learn about correct sentence
structure for use in spontaneous speech. Furthermore, reading is an area of the
curriculum where many of the children can excel and is an excellent differenti­
ation tool through which children with Down’s syndrome can access the cur­
riculum. The written word, therefore, should be used to reinforce all verbal
input and compensate for poor auditory processing skills. This means that all
instructions, new vocabulary and key words should be written down and rein­
forced visually with diagrams to enforce meaning. (Also see section below on

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short-term auditory memory.) Reading is therefore an important tool to help

children with Down’s syndrome:

• Improve speech and language skills.

• Develop understanding.
• Access the curriculum.
• Increase self-esteem.

The key method for teaching a child with Down’s syndrome to read is
through building up a whole word sight vocabulary: from the age of three or
four, many children are able to build up a sight vocabulary of familiar and
meaningful words in this way. Using phonics to decode words can be more dif­
ficult for young children with Down’s syndrome because it involves accurate
hearing and good auditory discrimination of sounds as well as problem-
solving skills – all common areas of difficulty in children with Down’s syn­
drome. However, many children with Down’s syndrome can gain a basic
knowledge of phonics, which should be gradually introduced once the child
has a sight vocabulary of approximately 50 words. Generally speaking, once
they have attained a reading age of over seven, children can start to apply this
knowledge to aid their reading.
Assessing comprehension is complicated by short-term auditory memory
problems. Break text into smaller parts and, where possible, assess using visual
techniques. Comprehension worksheets should include written questions,
multiple choice, and cloze procedure.

Short-term auditory memory

Short-term auditory memory (also called working or verbal memory) helps us
to make sense of language. We use this memory to hold, process, understand
and assimilate spoken language long enough to respond to it. It relates directly
to the speed with which children can articulate words, and influences the speed
at which they learn new words and learn to read. Many children with Down’s
syndrome have difficulties with short-term memory. In addition, their memory
spans may not increase at the same rate as their typically developing peers. This
means there is an increasing difference between mental age and memory per­
formance in children with Down’s syndrome. In addition, research (Broadley et
al. 1994) shows that children with Down’s syndrome do not appear to develop
normal strategies, such as rehearsal and organisation or chunking skills, to help
them remember information. Long-term memory is not usually impaired;
neither is the visual memory, which is often far stronger.
Difficulty with working memory means that they may have more difficulties
with:

• Processing and retaining words and information.

• Understanding and responding to spoken language.
• Following verbal instructions, especially longer ones.
• Learning and remembering new, abstract or unfamiliar vocabulary.

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• Learning routines.
• Developing organisational skills.
• Remembering sequences or lists.
• Coping with instructions directed to whole class.
• Learning to read and write.

Critically, words disappear too quickly from memory. A child struggling to

process and remember what was said can quickly become overloaded if given
unfamiliar vocabulary or long, complicated sentences. The child will either
switch off completely or retain only parts, often from either the beginning or
end of a sentence. This poses real problems for children in school situations
with a high auditory content, such as:

• Listening to a new story.

• Whole class discussions.
• Hearing unfamiliar subject-specific vocabulary.
• Circle time or ‘carpet time’.
• Assembly.
• Being given instructions.
• Mental maths.

Any deficit in short-term auditory memory will, therefore, greatly affect

pupils’ ability to respond to the spoken word or learn from any situation
heavily reliant on auditory skills. In addition, it is important not to confuse the
effects of poor short-term auditory memory with behavioural problems. When
differentiating work for pupils with Down’s syndrome, it is important, there­
fore, to adopt appropriate teaching strategies, which do not rely on this
memory alone. A variety of approaches and media are needed in order to tap
into other memories and store information in different ways. Teaching primar­
ily through the auditory route fails to maximise learning, particularly when
teaching physical or practical skills.
Children with Down’s syndrome are strong visual but poor auditory learn­
ers. Wherever possible, they need visual support and concrete and practical
materials to reinforce auditory input.
Differentiation strategies:

• Help the children to be aware when they have to listen, e.g. pointing to your
ears.
• Limit amount of verbal instruction at any one time – chunk into smaller,
simple phrases.
• Repeat individually to pupil any information/instructions given to class as
a whole.
• Pause, Repeat, Check – ask child to repeat back or clarify.
• Provide regular repetition and rehearsal.
• Allow time for child to process and respond to verbal input.
• Ensure all auditory/oral instructions are reinforced visually to serve as a per­
manent reminder to stay on task. Use dry-wipe board for on-the-spot draw­
ings, diagrams and writing down of key words.

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Cognitive disabilities

• Plan for visual translation and reinforcement during whole class instruc-
tion/discussion, e.g. quick sketches, diagrams, writing of key words on dry-
wipe board by LSA to help pupil keep pace and stay focused.
• Accompany key words and subject-specific words with pictures, icons and
symbols; develop your own if necessary.
• Use key words, icons and diagrams rather than full text.
• Underline and highlight key words.
• Make use of word trees, maps or webs.
• Association – help child link information with a more familiar word, picture,
idea or image.
• Provide regular over-learning opportunities to recall information, even after
you think the child has learned it.
• Make use of the procedural memory by role-play, drama, and physical move­
ment.
• Provide plenty of practice when teaching routines, key procedures and
sequences.
• Make use of routines to help learning and organisational skills.
• Rehearsal – help child achieve silent rehearsal by whispering information to
themselves more and more softly until they can do it silently.
• Encourage child to take daily messages.
• Assess comprehension on short pieces of text (e.g. page by page) and
through visual means, e.g. written worksheets with cloze procedure for
answers.
• Make use of songs, rhymes and rhythm to aid learning sequences, e.g. the
alphabet, times tables, days of the week, as well as for teaching phonological
awareness/skills and sound patterns. The tune alone can trigger the speech
sequence for the child.
• Play games to develop memory, e.g. memory games like Kim’s game or
Pairs/Pelmanism; listening games like Sound Lotto, Simon Says, Guess
Who, Twenty Questions.

Number skills
Many children with Down’s syndrome have more difficulty in this area, since
it involves abstract concepts and problem solving skills. In addition, they are
less likely to develop concepts from exploratory play and loosely structured
sessions. However, development seems to follow the same stages as with their
peers, but teachers must ensure that pupils have learnt the pre-skills necessary
as building blocks. Many pupils have not consolidated these key skills and are
moved on too quickly. Where the pre-skills are sound, pupils do learn number
skills and progress.
Differentiation strategies:

• Use concrete and practical materials.

• Reinforce all number work visually.
• Offer repetition, reinforcement and variety in small steps.
• Explain specific maths vocabulary, use it consistently and teach rules.

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 Gifted children with Down’s Syndrome

• Encourage generalising skills to new situations.

• Teach maths for life skills.

Shorter concentration span

Many children with Down’s syndrome have shorter concentration and atten­
tion spans than their typically developing peers. They tend to be more easily
distracted and have more difficulty focusing on multiple tasks. Some pupils
with Down’s syndrome may find it difficult coping with longer sessions or
double lessons and situations where there is a high distractibility element. In
addition, the intensity of supported learning, especially in a one-to-one situa­
tion, is much higher and the child tires much more easily than an unsupported
child.
Differentiation strategies:

• Shorter work sessions: two short sessions are more valuable than one long
one. Intersperse with different activities for younger children.
• Recognise that children need breaks in their learning to process and internal-
ise. In an ordinary classroom environment, this often occurs naturally, but
special care must be taken when a pupil receives additional support.
• Focus on one aim at a time.
• Build a range of short, focused and clearly defined tasks into the lesson.
• Vary level of demand from task to task.
• Vary type of support.
• Use peers to keep pupil on task.
• At carpet times, place the child at the front near the class teacher.
• Provide a carpet square to encourage the child to sit in one place.
• In secondary double lessons, it may be more suitable for pupils to attend the
first lesson only, using the second for individual reinforcement or work on
basic skills.

CASE HISTORY 6
Jenny attended her mainstream secondary school as a Year 7 pupil. I first heard
that there was trouble at school when they reported that Jenny was developing
a habit of disappearing just before the start of afternoon school. She was always
found – either in the toilets or in the playground – but she refused to say why she
was doing this. It soon became apparent that, in fact, this was happening every
other Thursday afternoon before double Humanities. Jenny admitted that she
didn’t like double Humanities and this was why she had refused to come into
class. Although Jenny had no behaviour problems, was generally cooperative
and willing to work, she found the amount of new and strange vocabulary and
pace of this lesson quite daunting and tiring. In addition, the teaching assistant
found that a double lesson was too long for Jenny to stay focused and motivated
and that the amount of content was too great for Jenny to absorb in one go.
Jenny’s behaviour would often deteriorate throughout the lesson and would
result more often than not in Jenny being taken out of the class. It was therefore

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Cognitive disabilities

decided that Jenny would participate with the class for the first lesson. She would
then walk leisurely to the library with her teaching assistant, who after allowing
Jenny a short break would then reinforce and consolidate the work they had
covered in the first session. On discussion with Jenny, she was happy with this
idea or compromise and there were no further problems.

CASE HISTORY 7
Simon was in Year 7 at his local mainstream secondary school. He was generally
well behaved in lessons but had particular difficulties with his concentration and
ability to stay focused. He would tend to try chatting to his teaching assistant or
fiddling with his books and pens. Class teachers would often become irritated
with the background noise caused by Simon talking to his assistants or by his
assistants constantly reminding him to look, listen and be quiet. However, one of
his assistants made three laminated cards, each with a different symbol drawn
on it. One symbol was of an ear, another of an eye and the third card had a mouth
with a cross drawn over it. Whenever Simon lost concentration in lessons, the
assistant showed Simon the appropriate card and laid it on his desk. These cards
helped Simon to a remarkable extent and greatly reduced the amount of distract­
ing behaviour originating from him in lessons. Moreover, Simon was very proud
of these cards and received praise from his teachers for the improvement in his
behaviour within the lessons.

Consolidation, retention and learning style

Pupils with Down’s syndrome generally take longer to learn and to consolidate
new skills and the ability to learn and retain can fluctuate from day to day. In
addition, many pupils are passive learners and the consolidation of new skills
on more difficult tasks may be compromised by poor self motivation, resulting
in avoidance strategies or inconsistency with completing the task. Wishart’s
research (1996, 1993) on aspects of early cognitive development also highlights
sensitivity to failure, which can lead to an unwillingness to tackle new tasks.
Even if the task was only slightly above their level of development and with a
little more persistence they could actually have achieved it, children were still
reluctant to try. In addition, it was found that avoidance was not only a result
of experiencing failure or thinking failure would be a possibility; children
would also avoid a task even if they had previously been successful at it. They
simply ‘chose’ to opt out. Skills they had achieved were therefore not consoli­
dated and thus children were not giving themselves vital opportunities for rein­
forcement and consolidation. Moreover, Buckley and Bird (1993) found that it
seemed to be more difficult for children with Down’s syndrome to correct
wrong responses once they were made.
Weaknesses such as these in the learning style of children with Down’s syn­
drome need to be taken into account by teaching staff in order to help them
learn and achieve. It is important to realise that many children are not achiev­
ing their full cognitive potential and have higher levels of ability than teachers

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 Gifted children with Down’s Syndrome

may assume at first hand. It is vital, therefore, that as teachers we get to know
children with DS to establish and build upon the way they achieve and respond
positively and to support them in these ways.
Errorless Learning strategies can be used to some extent to help encourage
children with Down’s syndrome to achieve success, by preventing the child
having to unlearn any wrong responses and by building up feelings of success
and self-confidence. Teach pupils to complete a new task by guiding them
through each step correctly, not allowing them to fail. As the pupil becomes
more capable, the prompt can be reduced until it is not needed. However, these
strategies must be used sensitively in order to create a balance – children also
learn from failure.
Differentiation strategies:

• Provide extra time and opportunities for additional repetition and reinforce­
ment.
• Move forward but continually check back to ensure that previously learned
skills have not been overwhelmed by the new input.
• Present new concepts and skills in a variety of ways, using concrete, practi­
cal and visual materials.
• Offer extra explanation and help, to compensate for any difficulties in their
ability to transfer knowledge, generalise and make choices.
• Provide shorter tasks that are within their capabilities so that they can
achieve success.
• Promote errorless learning. (Do not overuse this: as with all pupils, it is also
important that pupils with Down’s syndrome learn from their mistakes.)
• Give encouragement, praise and positive messages often.
• Use peers as models and to motivate learning.

Conclusion

All this progress stems from an inclusive approach and a recognition of the
increased possibilities that come from tailoring the curriculum to the learning
profile typical of Down’s syndrome. But the progress so far clearly shows that
the journey towards fulfilment of the potential for children with Down’s syn­
drome has only just begun.

References and Bibliography

Alton, S. (2000) Including Pupils with Down’s Syndrome. London: Down’s Syndrome
Association.
Bird, G., Alton, S. and Mackinnon, C. (2000) ‘Accessing the curriculum – strategies for
differentiation for pupils with Down Syndrome’. Down Syndrome Issues and
Information. London: The Down’s Syndrome Educational Trust.
Broadley, I., MacDonald, J. and Buckley, S. (1994) ‘Are children with Down syndrome

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Cognitive disabilities

able to maintain skills learned from a short-term memory training programme?’

Down Syndrome Research and Practice 2(3), pp. 116–22.
Buckley, S. (2000) ‘Living with Down Syndrome’. Down Syndrome Issues and
Information. The Down’s Syndrome Educational Trust.
Buckley, S. and Bird, G. (1993) ‘Teaching children with Down’s Syndrome to read’.
Down Syndrome Research and Practice 1(1), pp. 34–9.
Buckley, S. and Bird, G. (1994) Meeting Special Educational Needs of Children with Down’s
Syndrome: A Handbook for Teachers. Portsmouth: University of Portsmouth.
Carpenter, B., Ashdown, R. and Bovair, K. (1996) Enabling Access. London: David
Fulton.
Cunningham, C., Glenn, S., Lorenz, S., Cuckle, P. and Shepperdson, B. (1998) ‘Trends
and outcomes in educational placements for children with Down syndrome’.
European Journal of Special Needs Education 13(3).
Gross, J. (1995) Special Educational Needs in the Primary School – A Practical Guide. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Laws, G., MacDonald, J., Buckley, S. and Broadley, I. (1995) ‘Long term maintenance of
memory skills taught to children with Down’s syndrome’. Down Syndrome Research
and Practice 3(3), pp. 103–9.
Lewis, A. (1995) Primary Special Needs and the National Curriculum. (2nd edn) London:
Routledge.
Lorenz, S. (1998) Children with Down’s Syndrome. A Guide for Teachers and Learning
Support Assistants in Mainstream Primary and Secondary Schools. London: David
Fulton.
McNamara, S. and Moreton, G. (1997) Understanding Differentiation. London: David
Fulton.
Petley, K. (1994) ‘An investigation into the experiences of parents and head teachers
involved in the integration of primary aged children with Down’s syndrome into
mainstream schools’. Down Syndrome: Research and Practice 2(3), pp. 91–7.
Slivovitz, M. (1997) Down Syndrome The Facts. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Stratford, B. and Gunn, P. (1996) New Approaches to Down Syndrome. London: Cassell.
Tilstone, C., Florian, L. and Rose, R. (1998) Promoting Inclusive Practice. London:
Routledge.
Visser, J. (1993) Differentiation: Making It Work. Tamworth: NASEN.
Wishart, J. (1993) ‘Learning the hard way: Avoidance strategies in young children with
Down syndrome’. Down Syndrome: Research and Practice 1(2), pp. 47–55.
Wishart, J. (1996) ‘Avoidant learning styles and cognitive development in young chil­
dren with Down Syndrome’, in B. Stratford and P. Gunn (eds), New Approaches to
Down Syndrome. London: Cassell.

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 Index

ABD 67–8 Bluestone 12–14, 15, 24

Aboriginal 172 Blythe et al. 66–7
ACID profile 7, 26 Braggett 94, 95
ADD 11, 19, 65, 85–7 brain plasticity 12
creativity 85–6 Brody et al. 116, 117, 118
ADHD 9, 11, 15, 19–21, 23, 65, 66, BSL 111, 112, 118, 119, 122, 127
80, 81–6
Affect, negative 27 career planning 175–8
Affect, positive 30 casein 156
Allcock 76 catapult effect 57
Alm 7 CAT scores 8
Alphabetic code 51, 54 CBG 85
Alston 76 cerebral palsy 69
alternative solutions 141 Chance, Second 172–3
Anastasi 96 checklists 73, 77, 97, 120, 137, 138
angular gyrus 53 concern 133–4

APD 19–20 emotional disturbance 138

APSL 56–8 motor co-ord diffs 73, 77

articulatory awareness 55, 56 suicide 138 140

ASD 155, 156, 159, 165 Chinn et al. 32

Asperger 129, 130, 155–6, 160, 164–5 chronic fatigue syndrome 12
at-risk 30, 170–1, 177, 178–81 classroom practice 122–3
auditory sensitivity 14 Clements 66
Audiblox 80 Clonidine 80
autism 155, 157 clumsiness 70
screening 73
Baldwin 94 coach 33
Barber 163 cognitive challenge 1, 8
Beck 137 disabilities 187–205
BEd programme 44–9, 179–80 interventions 31
Bees 25, 33, 35, 39 process strategies 34, 45–6, 57,
behaviour characteristics 105 59–61

management programme 85 for spelling (CPSS) 45–6

Bishop 156 override 21

207
Index

cognitive challenge (cont.)

educational provision 190–1
strengths 28–9
learning needs 192–3

weaknesses 26
Draw-a-Person Test 68

Connor Rating Scale 20

Duane 66

coping strategies 139–40

dysfunction 14

Cooper et al. 82
dysgraphia 73–9

Corn 94, 96, 108

dyslexia 16, 42, 49–58, 67, 80, 83,

counselling 34
116, 129

counsellors 144
early identification 49–54

group 140–1
effective programmes 57

Cowdery et al. 53, 59, 77

incidence 59, 62

CPS (creative problem solving) 168,

indicators 43–4

170, 171–2
origin 54–6

model 173, 174, 180

dyslexics, bright 44–58
training 172–3, 178
famous 43

creativity 85
dyspraxia 69–72, 116

and ADD 85–6

dyssynchronicity 129, 132–3

Dabrowski Theory 133–4, 145–8

Davis and Rimm 96

EBD 56, 82, 129, 131–54, 168–82

DCD 70
ecological model 83

Deaf 111, 112, 119, 120, 125, 126

Education Otherwise 1

community 114, 119

Elton Report 82

culture 112, 126

emotion 123

deafness 113–4
entrepreneurs 177

depression 140
Excellence in Cities 2, 3

DES 43
exceptionality 110

DfES 110, 116

dual (2E) 5, 94–5, 110, 114,

diagnosis of LD 14
133–5

difficulty 5
treble (3E) 117

DILP 57

disability 5, 94–6

Social Emotional and Behavioural feedback 134

129–55
Feldhusen et al. 120

discrepancy 7
First Nations 172

disorder, behaviour 131–55

Fischman 84

Doman-Delacato 11, 15
Frith 54

dopamine 84
Freeman 118, 119

double exceptionality (2E) 110, 114,

133–4
G & T coordinator 9

concerns 134–5
Gagne 4

needs 94–5
Gallagher 25, 40, 160, 161, 168

obstacles to identification 96
Gardner 4, 103, 119

provision for 121

general learning difficulties 7

Down Syndrome 187–205 Geschwind 55

characteristics 189–95 Gestalt 142

differentiation 195–6, 197–8, gifted 1–5, 111

201–7, 202–3, 205

handicapped 121

208
 Index

learning disabled (GLD) 25–38, intensities 133

116 of concern 133–4
Gifted & Talented Advisory Group intervention in behav disorder
2 141–51
gluten 156 Inuit 172
goofy gifted 161 IQ 129, 132
Goulandris 58 180, 1–2
government strategies 117 above 130, 4, 7, 43, 94
policy 126 tests 4, 35, 71
Gray 162–3 ITT learning in 46–9
Gross 2
Gubbay 70, 73 job placement 176–7
Johnson et al. 89
HANDLE 9, 12, 14–5, 17, 18, 23, journaling 144
81
handwriting 49–52 Kaderavek et al. 123
cursive, reasons for 78 Kanner 155
difficulties 73–9 Kaplan 67, 68
signs of 77 Karnes et al. 95
intervention 77–9 Kay 1
speed 74 Kokot 11–24, 54
hardiness 136–40
Hardman et al. 102, 103 labelling 115, 117
hearing impairment 110 laptop 95
Helen Arkell 42 Laszlo 73
hemispheric 14 learning disabilities 7–9, 10, 89, 116
Henderson et al. 70, 73 diagnosing 114
Hickey 57, 77 Lloyd 126
highly able 3, 4, 111 logographic 54
identification 118 Loevinger-Wessler Scale 149
HMI 3 Lost Prizes programme 174–8
Hoffman 83 Lupart 27, 95
HOH 111
holistic 14 mainstreaming 189
Hollingworth 1, 2, 132 MAKATON 111, 158, 190
hopelessness 140 Maker 94, 95, 98, 99, 102, 103
Hornsby 57 MARS programme 179–81
House of Commons 2 mathematics 29, 32
MBD 66, 81
ill-fitting environments 129, 134 McCluskey et al. 168–85
imaginational 133 mentoring 33, 177, 178–81
impulsivity 27 programme 55, 59, 80
inclusion 3, 30, 126 metacognitive 26, 33
infant prodigy 4 interventions 33
inmates 172 weaknesses 26
intelligence 4 metis 172
theory of 4 misspellings 59, 60–1

209
Index

MIT 136
Phoenicians 54

Montgomery 2, 5, 26, 41–64

phonological 55

moral dilemmas 148–50

physical impairment 69

more able 7
Pickard 1, 2

Morris, Estelle 117

Piers-Harris scale 97, 101–2

motor coordination difficulties

predictors of crime 170

76–7, 86
prodigies 4

motion sickness 18
protocol 14

Multiple intelligences (MI) 97,

PSST 142

103–4, 119
psychomotor 133

multisensory phonics 54

mouth training 56, 59

quirks 5

myths strategy 150–1

Raven’s matrices 119

Nathanson 162
recidivism 174

National Centre for gifted 3

Reflex Developmental Patterning 67

National Curriculum (NC) 1, 4, 72

Reicheldt 156

National Deaf Children’s Society

remedial programmes 56

113, 122
Renzulli 123

Nebraska Starry Night 119

and Hartman 97, 105, 123

neurodevelopmental approach
Ridehalgh 57–8

11–24
Ritalin 82, 84, 85

neurological 65
Rittenhouse et al. 122, 123, 126

screening 67–8
Roaf 73

Nicholson and Fawcett 80

Rourke 65

Neihart 11, 131, 132, 151

nonverbal learning diffs (NLD)

savants 156–7

65–89
Schultz 126

Norrie 42
Second Chance programme 172–4

self awareness 142

OBD 66–7
concept of the deaf 114

OCD 80
scale 101–2

OEs 146–8
esteem 8

offenders 169
Selfe 157

onset and rime 56

semantic pragmatic disorder 155

optometrists 11
SEN 8

orthographic 54
SENCO 9

Oxford University 136

sensory disabilities 91–128

integration 11

sensual 133

Padden 112
shadowing 9

parent nomination 104–5

Shaywitz 25, 56

theme 150–1
sign 112, 125

pedagogy 46–9
Sisk 131–54

perceptuomotor 11
Silverman 5, 26, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,

perfectionism 134, 137

33, 132

persistence 133
socialisation 28

210
 Index

social skills 96, 102–3

touch sensitivity 14, 21

SOS 46
tough love 137

Spearman 4
Torrance 4, 178

specific learning difficulties (SpLD)

Tourette (TS) 66, 79–80

7, 34, 83
treble exceptionality (3E) 80–1

spelling 29, 30, 44–59

TRTS 55, 59

difficulties 58–9

intervention 59–61
underachievers 7–8, 11, 120–1, 168

Starr 93–109
unemployment 169

Sternberg 131
universities and stress 136–7

Stewart 25–41, 82

stress 136
van Tassel-Baska 26, 30, 31, 32, 41,

study guides 49
117

Strydom et al. 80
vestibular system 12–3, 17, 80

Stryker’s model 143

Vellutino 26, 41, 64

suck reflex 17, 18

Vernon et al. 114, 115, 118

suicide 135–8
Vialle et al. 95, 111, 112, 114, 125

indicators 138
visualisation 29, 32, 144–5

prevention 137
visual impairment 93–4, 97–109

perceptual 11

talent identification 176

visuo-motor 14

Tannenbaum 3
impairment (VMI) 67, 159

teaching method 30–1, 122–3

vulnerability 135

programme 34–6

Teasdale 164

traumas 135
Wallace 5

Temple Grandin 158–9

Whitmore 5, 98, 168

Terrasier 132
WISC 25, 28, 94, 96, 97, 100, 105,

Terman 132
106, 107, 118

therapy plan 12
Williams, Donna 159

thinking 29
Wing 155, 160

teaching 30–4
Work smart 35–7

Thomas 73–4

Thomson 5, 26
Yewchuk 95

tics 79–80

211