Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes

Problems and Solutions

 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes

Problems and Solutions
by Dipl.-Ing. Roland Verreet

Content

1. The steel wire rope – a multiple-redundant machine element..............................4

2. Problem: Local concentrations of wire breaks........................................................6

3. Problem: Internal wire breaks..................................................................................7

4. Problem: Internal wire breaks in conventional rotation-resistant ropes.............10

5. Electro-magnetic wire rope testing........................................................................15

6. Problem: Corrosion of steel wire ropes..................................................................16

7. Problem: Unsatisfactory wire rope fatigue life......................................................17

8. Problem: Loose strands and birdcages..................................................................24

9. Problem: Drum crushing.........................................................................................29

10. Problem: Good wire ropes are expensive..............................................................31

© 2002, 2004, 2012, 2018 Ingenieurbüro für Drahtseiltechnik Wire Rope Technology Aachen GmbH
Cartoons: Rolf Bunse
Layout and typesetting: Benedikt Dolzer, Aachen
Reproduction, in whole or in part, only with written permission of the author.

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

1. The steel wire rope – a multiple-redundant machine element

Imagine the following situation: An inspector has examined the hoist rope of an off-
shore crane and he has found 10,000 wire breaks. He insists that the rope is still in
good working condition. Could this be true?
Before wire ropes were invented in 1834, chains were the most common lifting me-
ans. They have, however, one essential disadvantage: Chains are linear arrangements
of load bearing elements. If only one chain link fails, the whole system will fail (Fig. 1).
Steel wire ropes, on the other hand, are parallel arrangements of load bearing ele-
ments. If one rope element fails, the breaking strength of the wire rope is reduced only
locally, and usually by less than 1% (Fig. 2).
Wire ropes are multiple redundant systems of load bearing elements. In a redun-
dant system every element which is necessary for the proper functioning of the system
exists at least twice. For example, some of the parts of our human body are redundant:
If we lose the eyesight on one eye, we can still see. And if we lose the hearing on one
ear, we can still hear. If in a wire rope one wire fails, there are still about 250 other wires
to carry the load.
But what will happen if during the service life of the rope more and more of these
wires fail? If we have lost the eyesight on both eyes, we can no longer see. And if we
have lost the hearing on both ears, we can no longer hear. Therefore, should not also
the wire rope fail if every single one of its 250 wires is broken?

Fig. 1:  The chain. The break of one element Fig. 2:  The steel wire rope. The break of one
leads to the failure of the system. element has hardly any effect.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

No. It sounds incredible, but a wire rope can still be in good condition even if every
single one of its wires is broken 200 times!
Fig. 3 shows a schematic arrangement of the 250 wires making up a wire rope (for
space reasons, only 30 wires are dis­played). Along the rope length, every single one
of the 250 wires is broken once. Each wire break, however, merely represents a local
reduction of the rope’s breaking strength. A few millimeters away from the location of
the break the broken wire will again bear its full share of the load.
If we have a very uniform distribution of the wire breaks along the rope length
so that in every short piece of rope only one wire break can be found, the breaking
strength of every single one of these sections is weakened by less than one percent
only. In a pull test this wire rope might achieve its full catalogue breaking strength
even though every single one of its elements is broken!
Still, there must be rules about how many broken wires per rope length unit can be
tolerated. The discard number of wire breaks is defined in the applicable national or
international standards and in the rules of the classification societies as a permissible
num­ber of wire breaks per multiple of the wire rope diameter, e. g. per 6 x rope diame-
ter (one rope lay length) or per 30 x rope diameter (5 rope lay lengths).

100
Bruchkraft [%]

99

Fig. 3:  Each wire break only leads to a local reduction of the rope’s breaking strength.

5
Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Our inspector has found 10,000 wire breaks, but the dis­­­­card number was not reached
in any single rope section of a length of 6 x d or 30 x d. So he was perfectly right in his
decision to keep the rope in service.
This example shows that under normal conditions a wire rope is a very safe and
reliable machine element.

2. Problem: Local concentrations of wire breaks

A few days later our inspector comes back from examining the hoist rope of a sister
crane. He has found only 15 wire breaks, but he insists on discarding the wire rope.
After allowing 10,000 wire breaks on the first crane, this sounds a bit strange. Could
the inspector be wrong this time?
If the wire breaks are concentrated in a very short section of the rope (Fig. 4), e. g. as
a consequence of a misuse or because of a local mechanical damage, the reductions
in breaking strength will add up to a critical value, and the rope must be discarded.
Although 500m of the rope are as good as new, it must be discarded because 5cm are
in a bad state.

Fig. 4:  A local concentration of wire breaks

Wire ropes with a local concentration of wire breaks are unsafe. Our inspector‘s decis-
ion to discard the rope is correct.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

3. Problem: Internal wire breaks

The hoist rope of a third crane of the same design does not show a single wire break.
After examining the rope, our inspector insists that it must be discarded. Why?

Fig. 5:  Only about 20% of the metallic cross-section of the wire rope can be inspected visually.

During a visual rope examination, only the condition of the visible parts of outer wires
can be evaluated. The metallic cross-section of the outer wires, however, only repre-
sents about 40% of the metallic cross-section of a rope, and only about half of the
length of these outer wires is visible (Fig. 5). This means that during a visual rope in­
spection we can only examine the con­dition of 20% of the metallic cross-section of
the rope and we can only hope that the other 80% are in as good a condition.

Visual Rope Inspection =

20% Evidence – 80% Hope

Quite often, however, the visible 20% of the cross-section look good, while a great
num­ber of wire breaks are concealed in the invisible part of the rope. Wire ropes with
internal wire breaks and no external sign of damage are extremely dangerous.

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

3.1. Problem: Internal wire breaks in a 6 - strand rope with steel core
During the examination of a wire rope 6x36 Warrington-Seale with an IWRC (Fig. 6) no
outer wire breaks could be found. After bending the rope by hand, however, it was ob-
vious that every single outer wire was broken inside the rope (Fig. 7).
The contact conditions between the IWRC and the outer strands are charac-terized
by very high local contact stresses (Fig. 9). Therefore the outer wires of the rope can
break at their points of contact with the steel core. The free length of the broken wires
in Fig. 6 clearly shows that this is the case here.

Fig. 6:  Numerous wire breaks at the points of contact between the steel core and the outer strands

3.2. Solution: 8-strand ropes with an internal plastic layer

Fig. 8 shows the cross-section of an 8-strand rope with a plastic layer between the
steel core and the outer strands. The plastic layer does not only seal in the rope lub-
ricant and protect the core against the corrosive environment, it also prevents metal-
to-metal contact between the IWRC and so reduces the contact pressures between the
steel core and the outer strands (Fig. 10). The plastic layer therefore successfully helps
prevent internal wire breaks.

8
 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 7:  Wire rope with steel core (6x36 Fig. 8:  8-strand rope with a plastic layer
Warrington-Seale IWRC) between the steel core and the outer strands

Fig. 9:  Very high local contact stresses Fig. 10:  The plastic layer acts like a cushion.
between the steel core and the outer strands It reduces the contact stresses between the
(6x36 Warrington-Seale IWRC) steel core and the outer strands and helps
prevent internal wire breaks

9
Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

4. Problem: Internal wire breaks in conventional rotation-resistant ropes

In rotation-resistant ropes, the core is closed in the opposite direction to the outer
strands. Therefore rotation-resistant ropes are even more prone to internal wire breaks
than 6- and 8-strand ropes.

Fig. 11:  Wire rope 36x7 after a few months of service. Externally, the wire rope does not show a
single wire break.

Fig. 12:  After removing the layer of outer strands, many wire breaks are visible on the rope core
at the cross-over points between the two strand layers.

Fig. 13:  The innermost layer also shows a high concentration of wire breaks.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 14:  Rotation-resistant hoist rope (36x7) Fig. 15:  Semi- rotation-resistant hoist rope
(18x7)

Fig. 14 shows the cross-section of a rotation-resistant hoist rope 36x7. Fig. 11 shows
the external surface of such a rope after a few months of service. Externally, the wire
rope does not show a single wire break.
After removing the layer of outer strands, many wire breaks appear on the rope
core at the cross-over points between the two strand layers (Fig. 12). After removing
the second strand layer, the innermost layer also shows a high concentration of wire
breaks (Fig. 13).

4.1. Intermezzo: Rotation resistant wire ropes

If you use 18x7 ropes (Fig. 15), 18x19 ropes or one of their compacted variations as
hoist ropes on your cranes, don’t tell your insurance company!
Ropes of these designs have a built-in defect, as is shown by the following example:
Two teams are trying to push a turnstile in opposite directions. The competition is not
exactly fair because the one team pushes the turnstile at the end of its bars and thus
benefits from the considerably longer lever arm, whilst their opponents are pushing it
near the centre (Fig. 16).
If those pushing the turnstile near the centre do not stand a chance when the num-
ber of their competitors is equal, how much harder must it be for them when they are
outnumbered by twice as many pushers at the outer end of the bars (Fig. 17)?

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Outside Inside

Fig. 16:  Due to their longer lever arms the outer strands have an advantage.

Outside Inside

Fig. 17:  In an 18x7 rope the metallic cross-section of the outer strands is twice that of the rope
core.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

This is exactly what happens in 18x7 or 18x19 ropes and their numerous variations.
These constructions contain six inner strands which must compete with twelve outer
strands of the same diameter, and with lever arms twice as long. Ropes of that design
can only be reasonably rotation-resistant if the inner strands are hopelessly overloa-
ded!
In other words: In these rope constructions, the core will always be overloaded. It
will, therefore, deteriorate at a much faster rate than the outer strands. The internal
wire breaks are built-in by design.
Fig. 18 shows how stability should be achieved: The athletes on the inside with the
short lever arm should outnumber those on the outside with the long lever arm!

Outside Inside

Fig. 18:  An equilibrium is achieved because the athletes on the inside with the short lever arm
outnumber those on the outside with the long lever arm.

And this is exactly how good rotation-resistant ropes achieve stability without over-
loading the rope core: The metallic cross-section of their core is considerably greater
than the metallic cross-section of the outer strands.
Rotation-resistant ropes must have more metal in the core than in the outer strands!

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

4.2. Solution: Rotation-resistant special wire ropes with compacted rope core
and compacted outer strands
Fig. 19 shows the cross-section of a 40-strand rotation-resistant hoist rope with a com-
pacted wire rope core and compacted outer strands. Compacting the core as a whole
leads to higher breaking strength and to higher rotation resistance of the rope. In ad-
dition, the enlarged bearing surface of the smoothened core leads to a considerable
reduction of contact pressures between the steel core and the compacted and smoo-
thened outer strands (Fig. 20) and thus reduces the danger of internal wire breaks.
Rotation-resistant wire ropes should preferably be operated with an open swivel.

Fig. 19:  40-strand rotation-resistant hoist rope with compacted outer strands and a compacted
wire rope core

Fig. 20:  The enlarged bearing surfaces of the smoothened steel core lead to a considerable
reduction of contact pressures between the steel core and the compacted and smoothened
outer strands and so reduce the danger of internal wire breaks.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

5. Electro-magnetic wire rope testing

It should also be noted here that internal wire breaks can be detected by electro-ma-
gnetic wire rope testing instruments. The tests can either be carried out by qualified
personnel of the company operating the crane (Fig. 21) or by independent companies
providing this service.

Fig. 21:  Electro-magnetic rope testing under load

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

6. Problem: Corrosion of steel wire ropes

The total surface of all the wires making up a wire rope is about 16 times as big as the
surface of a single steel bar of a comparable metallic cross-section (Fig. 22). This me-
ans that if no precautions are taken, in a corrosive environment a steel wire rope will
corrode about 16 times as fast as a steel bar.

Rope 100 wires

Rope 150 wires

Rope 200 wires

Rope 250 wires

Rope 300 wires

Steel bar

1,00 10,00 12,25 14,14 15,81 17,32

Fig. 22:  The total surface of all wires making up a wire rope is about 16 times as big as the
surface of a single steel bar with a comparable metallic cross-section.

6.1. Solution 1: Galvanized wires and plastic-coated rope cores

Steel wire ropes for use in corrosive environment should be made of galvanized wires.
Even if the zinc coating is locally abraded, the uncovered wire zones will be protected
by the zinc on the neighbouring wires (cathodic protection).
The rope core should, in addition, be plastic-coated. The plastic coating will hold
the lubricant inside the core and keep out corrosive elements.

6.2. Solution 2: Relubrication at regular intervals

The rope wires will lose more and more of their zinc coating during service. In additi-
on, more and more of the lubricant will be lost. In order to reduce the friction between
the rope elements and to protect the wire surfaces against corrosive environment, the
ropes should be relubricated during service at regular intervals. Fig. 23 shows different
methods of relubricating steel wire ropes.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 23:  Different methods of relubricating steel wire ropes

7. Problem: Unsatisfactory wire rope fatigue life

Running wire ropes on cranes are subjected to bending fatigue and tension-tension
fatigue. Sometimes the service life of the ropes is unsatisfactory.

7.1. Solution 1: Steel wire ropes with higher bending fatigue resistance
Wire ropes of different designs have different levels of fatigue resistance. Because of
their greater number of elements – resulting in lower bending stresses – and their gre-
ater number of contact points in the sheaves – resulting in lower bearing pressures –
8-strand ropes are far more resistant to bending fatigue than 6-strand ropes (Fig. 24).
Wire ropes with compacted outer strands (Fig. 25) have a greater metallic cross-
section than ropes made of conventional strands and therefore work under a lower
specific line pull. They also have much more favourable contact conditions with the
sheave than ropes with conventional outer strands (Fig. 26). Therefore ropes with
compacted outer strands normally have a grea­ter fatigue resistance than wire ropes
with conventional outer strands.
Wire ropes with a plastic layer between the IWRC and the outer strands are not only
far more resistant to bending fatigue than comparable ropes without a plastic layer,
they also show a far better tension-tension fatigue resistance.

17
Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 24:  Because of their greater number of contact points in the sheaves – resulting in lower
bearing pressures – 8-strand ropes (right) are far more resistant to bending fatigue than
6-strand ropes (left).

Under shock-loads, the plastic layer acts like a shock absorber, reducing the peak ten-
sions in the wires.
As the shock-loads are usually introduced into the crane structure via the steel wire
rope, this built-in shock absorber does not only increase the service life of the wire
rope, it also provides more favourable conditions for the other crane components.

7.2. Solution 2: Optimize your rope diameter

Prof. Feyrer from the University of Stuttgart has developed a formula for predicting
wire rope service life:

lg N = b0 + ( b1 + b3 · lg D ) · ( lg S2 - 0.4 · lg R o ) + b 2 · lg D + lg f d + lg f L + lg f E
d d 1770 d

The rope specific parameters b0 to b3 must be de­ter­mined for every single rope de-
sign in a great number of bending fatigue tests. fd takes into account the scale effect, fL
the length of the most stressed rope zone and fE the type of rope core. These parame-
ters have already been determined for a great number of standard wire ropes and for
special wire rope designs.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 25:  Good contact conditions for com­ Fig. 26:  Bad contact conditions for
pacted outer strand conventional outer strands

The author has written a program which calculates the wire rope bending fatigue per-
formance depending on the rope design, the nominal rope diameter, the sheave dia-
meter and the line pull. If the geometry and the working conditions of the crane are
known, the number of lifts until wire rope discard and wire rope break can be predic-
ted.
Even if the absolute number of bending cycles is of no interest, the program can be
used to compare the fatigue life of different designs.
One interesting option of the program is its ability to determine the optimal no-
minal rope diameter. Fig. 27 shows the number of bending cycles until discard (lower
curve) and until break (upper curve) as a function of the nominal rope diameter for a
given rope construction, a line pull of 40,000N and a sheave diameter of 600mm.
A rope of a nominal diameter of 10mm will have to be discarded after only 50,000
bending cycles. The D/d-ratio of 60 is very favourable for the 10mm rope, but obvious-
ly the line pull of 40,000N is much too high for a rope of such a small diameter.
If the nominal rope diameter is doubled to 20mm, the number of bending cycles in-
creases to 340,000, almost 7 times the previous figure. The D/d-ratio has been reduced
to 30, but the metallic cross-section of the rope has increased by a factor of 4 and the
specific line pull has been reduced accordingly. The 20mm rope can cope much better
with the line pull of 40,000N than the 10mm rope.
If the rope diameter is doubled again to 40mm, the number of bending cycles no
longer increases. The 40mm rope achieves 300,000 cycles, which is lower than the re-
sult obtained by the 20mm rope. The 40mm rope has a metallic cross-section 16 times
as large as the 10mm rope. It does not fatigue because of the line pull of 40,000N, but
because of the unfavourable D/d-ratio of 15.

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

1000000
950000
900000
850000
800000
Number of bending cycles [ – ]

750000
700000
650000
600000
550000
500000
450000
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50

Nominal rope diameter [ mm ]

Fig. 27:  Number of bending cycles until discard (lower curve) and until break (upper curve) as a
function of the nominal rope diameter

In the left part of the curves in Fig. 27 the wire ropes have favourable D/d-ratios. They
fail because of high specific line pulls.
In the right part of the curves the ropes have favourable specific line pulls. They fail
because of the high bending stresses resulting from low D/d-ratios.
In between the two zones we find the maximum of the fatigue life curve, where
the sum of the negative influences of the line pull and the bending stresses are mini-
mal. The rope diameter for which the number of cycles achieves a maximum is called
the “optimal nominal rope diameter”. In Fig. 27 the optimal nominal rope diameter
is 27mm. For this rope diameter, an average number of cycles of 410,000 is achieved.
A crane designer should not choose a nominal rope diameter greater than the
optimal nominal rope diameter. He would only spend more money and get a shor-
ter service life in return. On the contrary, he should choose a nominal rope diameter
slightly smaller than the optimal nominal rope diameter: In our example (Fig. 27), for
a nominal rope diameter of 24mm almost the same service life is achieved as for a no-
minal rope diameter of 27mm. The nominal rope diameter of 24mm, however, is 10%
smaller than the optimal nominal rope diameter. This means that for almost the same
number of bending cycles a much cheaper wire rope can be used. In addition, when
using the smaller rope diameter the width of the drum can be reduced tremendously,
reducing the overall costs even further.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

The most economic nominal rope diameter is always slightly smaller than the optimal
nominal rope diameter, e.g. 90% of the optimal nominal rope diameter.
With steel structures, bigger always means longer-lasting. With wire ropes, often
the opposite is true.

7.3. Solution 3: Optimize your sheave diameter

The service life of a wire rope can always be extended by increasing the sheave diame-
ters. The aforementioned program calculates by how much a sheave diameter must
be increased in order to obtain the desired result.
Fig. 28 shows the number of cycles until discard (lower curve) and until break (up-
per curve) as a function of the sheave diameter. For a sheave diameter of 600mm, the
num­ber of cycles until discard is 400,000. Increasing the sheave diameter, for example,
by 150mm (+25%) will increase the number of cycles to 900,000 (+125%).
Biegewechselzahl bis Ablegereife und bis Bruch [ – ]

4.0 Mio

3.5 Mio

3.0 Mio

2.5 Mio

2.0 Mio

1.5 Mio

1.0 Mio

0.5 Mio

0
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 800 850 900

Seilscheibendurchmesser [ mm ]

Fig. 28:  Number of cycles until discard (lower curve) and until break (upper curve) as a function
of the sheave diameter

7.4. Solution 4: Avoid unnecessary bending fatigue

Quite often, wire ropes are subjected to unnecessary bending fatigue. As an example,
the fatigue life of two wire ropes which are operated under the same conditions, but
with different crane blocks, is compared.

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 29 shows a crane block with two small sheaves. During every lifting operation the
rope travelling through the block is subjected to two bending cycles.
Fig. 30 shows a crane block with only one large sheave. During every lifting ope-
ration, the rope travelling through the block is subjected to only one bending cycle.
This fact alone would already double the wire rope service life. The sheave diameter,
however, is 2.5 times as big as in the first block, and the number of cycles which can
be achieved on this large diameter is 9 times as high as on the small sheave. Therefo-
re the service life will again be increased by a factor of 9, resulting in a service life 18
times as long as in the first case!
Depending on the conditions, a reverse bend will fatigue a wire rope 2 to 7 times as
much as a simple bend. The wire of the hoist shown in Fig. 31 will therefore last 1.5 to
4 times as long as the rope of the hoist shown in Fig. 32.

Fig. 29:  Crane block with two small sheaves Fig. 30:  Crane block with only one large sheave

Fig. 31:  Hoist with simple bends Fig. 32:  Hoist with reverse bend

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

7.5. Solution 5: Optimize wire rope tension-tension fatigue by reducing the rope
diameter
In tension-tension fatigue tests with a given load amplitude, the life of a test specimen
normally decreases with increasing mean load. Recent tension-tension fatigue tests
carried out at the University of Stuttgart, however, indicate that up to a total load of
about 50% of their breaking loads, wire ropes behave just the opposite way: With in-
creasing mean loads, wire ropes achieve higher tension-tension fatigue lives (Fig. 33).
7
10
Number of tension-tension cycles until break [ – ]

Smax =
0,5 MBL

6
10 Smax =
14 0,7 MBL
0N
/m
190 m2
N/m
m 2

5 250
10 N/m
m2

320 N/mm 2

4
10
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

2 2
Minimum tension Smin/d [N/mm ]

Fig. 33:  With increasing mean loads, up to a total load of about 50% of their breaking loads,
wire ropes achieve higher tension-tension fatigue lives.

One explanation for this phenomenon could be the fact that in contrast to the typical
solid-body test specimen, wire ropes are composites constructed of many elements
which move relative to each other during load changes. As can be seen in a typical wire
rope load-elongation curve (Fig. 34), for the same load amplitude the dis­placements
are much smaller for higher mean loads.
This means that the service life of crane suspension ropes could be increased by
reducing the rope diameter and by working with a smaller design factor!

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

10

6
Load [ t ]

5 Load amplitude ± 1t
Great elongation amplitude
4

3
Load amplitude ± 1t
2 Small elongation amplitude

0
0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0

Elongation [ % ]

Fig. 34:  Typical wire rope load-elongation curve. Displace­ments are much smaller for higher
mean loads than for small mean loads and the same load amplitude.

8. Problem: Loose strands and birdcages

Sometimes rope deformations, such as loose (“high”) strands or birdcages, can be
found on cranes. They are often attributed to shock-loads, but in most cases this is not
correct.

Fig. 35:  Twisting a wire rope by force ...

Fig. 36:  ... causes lay shortening on the one side (left) and lay lengthening on the other (right).

24
 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

In most cases, loose strands and birdcages are generated by twisting a wire rope
around its own axis. As an example, let us take a look at a rope which is fixed at both
rope ends. If we grab this rope in the middle and twist it once (Fig. 35), we will lengthen
it on one side and shorten it on the other (Fig. 36). As a result, the outer strands will be
too long on the one side (Fig. 37), and the inner strands will be too long on the other
(Fig. 38).

Fig. 37:  Surplus length of the outer strands caused by un­laying the rope

But what could possibly twist a rope on a crane around its own axis? Every sheave and
every drum could.
If a rope enters a sheave under a fleet angle, it will first touch the flange and then
roll down into the bottom of the groove (Fig. 39). The wire rope will be twisted by this
procedure.

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 38:  Surplus length of the inner strands caused by closing the same rope

Fig. 39:  The wire rope rolls into the bottom of the groove. It will be twisted by this procedure.

26
 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

With increasing fleet angle the amount of twist will increase. Fig. 40 and Fig. 41 show a
sequence of rope cross sections entering a sheave at a groove angle of 35° (according
to US standards).

20 10 20 10
30 30
40 40
50 50
60 20 10 70
60 20 10
70 30 30
40 40
80 50 80 50
9060 20 10
90 60 20 10
30 70 30
40 40
80 50 80 50
60 0
9060 20 10 90 20 10
30 70 4030
40 50
80 50 80
60 20 10 60
90 20 10 0
90 70 4030
70 4030
50
80
80 50
60
90 5
9060 5
70
70
80 80 4
4
90 3
90 3
2 2
1 1

Fig. 40:  Groove angle 35°. Slight twist of a rope Fig. 41:  Groove angle 35°. Great twist of a rope
when the fleet angle is 1° when the fleet angle is 5°

If the rope enters the sheave at a fleet angle of 1°, it will touch the flange in a very deep
position and will only be twisted by 5°.
If the rope enters the same sheave at a fleet angle of 5°, it will touch the flange in a
very high position and will be twisted by 50°!
Of course, a wire will not always roll down at the flanges like a cog-wheel. The
downward motion will be a mixture of rolling and sliding. The amount of twist indu-
ced into the rope, therefore, also depends a lot on the amount of friction between the
wire rope and the sheave.

8.1. Solution 1: Wire rope lubrication

The easiest way of reducing the coefficient of friction between the wire rope and the
sheave is to lubricate the rope. A well-lubricated wire rope will be twisted much less
than a dry rope or a corroded one.

8.2. Solution 2: Steel sheaves instead of plastic sheaves

The coefficient of friction between steel and plastic is higher than between steel and
steel. Under the same geometrical conditions, a wire rope will therefore be twisted
much less by a steel sheave than by a plastic sheave. Plastic sheaves should only be
used in positions where the fleet angles are small.

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

8.3. Solution 3: Sheaves with wider grooves

If the groove of a sheave is wide, the wire rope will enter much deeper into the groove
before touching the flange. Therefore sheaves should have a groove angle of 45° (as e.
g. in DIN 15061) as an absolute minimum. A fleet angle of 52° (as in British Standard)
is even better.
Fig. 42 shows a sequence of rope cross-sections entering a sheave with a groove
angle of 60° at a fleet angle of 5°. The wire rope touches the flange in a much lower
position than in Fig. 39 and is twisted by only 25°. By increasing the groove angle from
35° to 60° the amount of rope twist is reduced by 50%.

20 10
30
40
50
70
60 20 10
30
40
80 50
9060 20 10
70 30
40
80 50
9060 30 20 10
70 40
80 50 20 10
603020 10 0
904030
5070
40
5080
60
70
60 90
70
80
80
90
90
5
4
3
2
1

Fig. 42:  Groove angle 60°. Reduced twist of a rope when the fleet angle is 5°

8.4. Solution 4: Use steel wire ropes with an internal plastic layer
Wire ropes with an internal plastic layer are much more resistant to birdcaging than
any other rope design.

8.5. Solution 5: Avoid tight sheaves

Loose strands and birdcages can also be the result of tight sheaves. If the groove radi-
us is too small (Fig. 43), the rope will be compressed when travelling over the sheave.
As a result, the outer strands will be too long for the reduced rope diameter, and the
superfluous strand length will be accumulated at one point (usually at the end of the
sheave motion) where it will stand up as a loose strand or a birdcage.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 43:  Tight sheave

The groove radius should measure 0,53 to 0,54 times the nominal rope diameter. If it
measures less, the sheave should either be machined or replaced. If this is not possib-
le, a rope with the same strength, but a smaller nominal rope diameter should be used
which will then comply with the required conditions.

9. Problem: Drum crushing

Wire ropes often suffer mechanical damage on the drum. Under the influence of a fleet
angle, the wire rope might, for example, be pulled against a neighbouring wrap (Fig.
44), and the outer wires might be damaged at the point of contact.

9.1. Solution 1: Grooved drums and Lebus spooling

Grooved drums should be preferred to ungrooved drums. For multiple-layer spooling,
Lebus spooling systems should be used.

9.2. Solution 2: Wire ropes in Langs lay execution with compacted outer strands
The outer wires of two neighbouring wraps of a regular lay rope can form indentations
(Fig. 45) because they are all aligned in the direction of the rope’s axis. If the one wrap
enters the drum in a downward motion or leaves the drum in an upward motion, the
indented outer wires will damage one another.

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Fig. 44:  Under the influence of a fleet angle, the wire rope is pulled against a neighbouring
wrap. The outer wires will be damaged at the point of contact.

Fig. 45:  The outer wires of two neighbouring wraps of a regular lay rope can form indentations.

If Langs lay ropes are used, the outer wires of two neighbouring wraps cannot form in-
dentations because, at the point of contact, the wires are inclined upwards on the one
side and downwards on the other. Therefore, these wires will damage one another
considerably less when one wrap is spooling onto or off the drum.

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 Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

Compacted outer strands offer additional advantages (Fig. 46): the crowns and valleys
of the outer wires are smoothened, and the metallic cross-sectional area is increased
to withstand abrasion and mechanical damage.
For multiple-layer spooling, only wire ropes in Langs lay execution with compacted
outer strands should be used.

Fig. 46:  The crowns and valleys of the outer wires of compacted outer strands are smoothened.
The metallic cross-sectional area is increased to withstand abrasion and mechanical damage.

20003

10. Problem: Good wire ropes are expensive.

Sophisticated high-tech wire ropes cost more than conventional bread-and-butter ropes.

10.1. Solution: Think about the overall costs!

Bad ropes are cheaper than good ones. But after a certain time, you will have bought
three bad ropes when you could have done with one good rope.
In addition, transporting a bad rope to the crane costs as much as transporting a
good rope. And installing a bad rope costs as much as installing a good rope, but you
might have to do it three times with the bad rope and only once with the good one.
So, buying a more expensive rope in the first place will save you a lot of money in
the end.
You always get what you pay for. With crane ropes, this is more true than with any
other machine element.

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Verreet: Steel Wire Ropes for Cranes: Problems and Solutions

There is a solution to every rope problem. Ask us!

The author: Dipl.-Ing. Roland Verreet

Wire Rope Technology Aachen
Grünenthaler Str. 40a • 52 072 Aachen • Germany
Phone: +49 241- 173147 • Fax +49 241- 12982
Mail: [Link]@[Link]

32
Wire Rope Technology Aachen
Dipl.-Ing. Roland Verreet
Grünenthaler Str. 40a • 52072 Aachen • Germany
Phone: +49 241- 173147 • Fax: +49 241- 12982
Mail: [Link]@[Link]
[Link]